# kb

id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-1.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
== Maritime exploration in the Age of Enlightenment == By the 18th century maritime exploration had become safer and more efficient with technical innovations that vastly improved navigation and cartography: improvements were made to the theodolite, octant, precision clocks, as well as the compass, telescope, and general shipbuilding techniques. From the mid-18th century through the 19th century scientific missions mapped the newly discovered regions, brought back to Europe the newly discovered fauna and flora, made hydrological, astronomical and meteorological observations and improved the methods of navigation. This stimulated great advances in the scientific disciplines of natural history, botany, zoology, ichthyology, conchology, taxonomy, medicine, geography, geology, mineralogy, hydrology, oceanography, physics, meteorology etc. – all contributing to the sense of "improvement" and "progress" that characterized the Enlightenment. Often these missions brought together diverse researchers of different ethnic and regional background, thus creating a "transnational culture of expertise". Artists were used to record landscapes and indigenous peoples, while natural history illustrators captured the appearance of organisms before they deteriorated after collection. Some of the world's finest natural history illustrations were produced at this time and the illustrators changed from informed amateurs to fully trained professionals acutely aware of the need for scientific accuracy.


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-2.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Captain: Thomas Adams (?–1770) Also aboard: Joseph Banks (1743–1820) and Constantine Phipps. ==== 1766–69: La Boudeuse and L'Étoile ==== Ordered by Louis XV, it was the first trip around the world initiated by the French. The discovery and description of Tahiti by Louis Antoine de Bougainville in his trip influenced several Enlightenment philosophers including Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78). The expedition was organised by Louis Antoine de Bougainville and received the support of such prominent figures of the time as Charles de Brosses (1709–77), Comte de Buffon (1707–88), Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698–1759) and Jérôme Lalande (1732–1807). The expedition aimed to discover new territories available for settlement, to open a new route to reach China, to found new outlets for the French East India Company and, finally, discover acclimatable spices for the Isle de France (now Mauritius). Captains: Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729–1811) Chief of expedition, Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot (Captain of La Boudeuse), François Chenard de la Giraudais (1727–1775) (Captain of L'Étoile) Naturalists: Philibert Commerçon (1727–73), Jeanne Baré (1740–1807) Astronomer: Pierre-Antoine Véron (1736–70) Cartographer: Charles Routier de Romainville (1742–92?) Publication: Louis Antoine de Bougainville, Journey Around the World by the Commander of the La Boudeuse and L'Étoile, in 1766, 1767, 1768


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-3.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Captain: Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse (1741–1788) (on the Boussole) and Paul Antoine Fleuriot de Langle (1744–1787) (on the Astrolabe) Chief Engineer: Paul Mérault Monneron (1748–1788) Geologist: Robert de Lamanon (1752–1787) Artists: the uncle and nephew Prevost, Duché De Vancy Naturalists: Jean-André Mongez (1751 – c. 1788) Interpreter of Russian: Barthélemy de Lesseps (1766–1834) landed at Petropavlovsk, and in charge of bringing to France the log, maps and drawings of the trip. ==== 1785–88: King George ==== Global circumnavigation. Captain: Nathaniel Portlock ==== 1785–94: Slava Rossii ==== A Russian expedition commanded by the British Captain Joseph Billings, astronomer on Cook's third voyage. This expedition lasted more than ten years attempting, unsuccessfully, to find the Northwest Passage that had remained undiscovered after Cook's explorations. Captain: Joseph Billings (c. 1758 – 1806) Naturalists: Carl Heinrich Merck and Carl Krebs Surgeons-naturalists: Michael Robeck and Peter Allegretti Cartographer: Gavriil Sarytchev Publications: J. Billings, An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical expedition to the Northern parts of Russia. (1802), translated into French the same year under the title of Voyage made by order of Empress Catherine II Russia, in the North of the Asian Russian the icy sea, in the sea on the coasts


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-4.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
This expedition was organised to establish a permanent colonial presence in the South Seas before the British, concentrating on the mapping of the coast of the Australia and New Guinea. Nicolas Baudin died in Mauritius in 1803, another naturalist on the island of Timor, two other naturalists chose to stay on the island and two astronomers died of dysentery. Péron, assisted by his friend Lesueur, managed to gather a vast zoological collection. Naturaliste returned to France in 1803 with a part of the collections. Captain Baudin bought a schooner, the Casuarina, at the British settlement of Port Jackson in Australia. Baudin was replaced by Pierre Bernard Milius (1773–1829). Commanders: Nicolas Baudin (1754–1803) (Le Géographe) and Jacques Hamelin (1768–1839) (Le Naturaliste). Physician, surgeon (first doctor in the Navy) and biologist: Pierre François Keraudren (1769–1858) (Le Géographe). Naturalists: Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour (1773–1826), René Maugé Cely, Stanislas Levillain (1774–1801), François Péron (1775–1810), Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (1778–1846) (left the expedition to Mauritius), Désiré Dumont, André Michaux (1746–1803) Artist: Charles-Alexandre Lesueur (1778–1846) assisted by Nicolas-Martin Petit (1777–1804) Astronomers: Pierre-François Bernier (1779–1803) and Frédéric de Bissy (1768–1803) Cartographer: Charles-Pierre Boullanger Geographer: Pierre Faure (1777–1855) Mineralogist: Louis Depuch, Joseph Charles Bailly Publications: F.


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-5.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Commander: lieutenant Louis Isidore Duperrey (1786–1865) Second: lieutenant Jules Dumont d'Urville, botanist (1790–1842) Physician-naturalist: the surgeon, pharmacist and zoologist René Primevère Lesson (1794–1849) and surgeon-major Prosper Garnot (1794–1838) Astronomer: Charles Hector Jacquinot (1796–1879) Illustrators: Jules Louis Lejeune (1804–1851), Jacques Arago (1790–1855) Hydrographer: Victor Charles Lottin (1795–1858) Publications: Lesson and Garnot, Voyage autour du monde exécuté par ordre du roi sur la corvette La Coquille (1828–32)/Journey around the world on the corvette La Coquille (Paris, six volumes, 1826–1830). ==== 1823–26: Predpriyatiye ==== An expedition of two ships of war, the main object of which was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a staff of scientists on board the Russian sailing sloop Predpriyatiye (Russian: "Enterprise"), who collected much valuable information and material on geography, ethnography and natural history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. Many positions along the coast were mapped more accurately, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expedition returned by the Marianas, Philippines, New Caledonia and the Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on 10 July 1826. Captain: Otto von Kotzebue (1787–1846) Physician-naturalist: Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz (1793–1831) and Dr. Lenz Publication: O. von Kotzebue,


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-6.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
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parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1826–29: Senyavin and Moller ==== A Russian circumnavigation on the ship Senyavin, sailing from Kronstadt and rounding Cape Horn, accompanied by Captain Mikhail Nikolaievich Staniukovich in command of the sloop Moller. During the voyage Litke and his team described the western coastline of the Bering Sea, the Bonin Islands off Japan, and the Carolines, and discovered 12 new islands. The expedition strengthened the Russian presence near Alaska. A large collection of natural history specimens was made including 1,000 new species of insects, fish, birds and other animals, and 2,500 plant specimens including algae and minerals. Captain: Fyodor Litke (1797–1882) Botanist-naturalist: Karl Heinrich Mertens (1796–1830) Naturalist: Heinrich von Kittlitz (1799–1874) Mineralogist: Alexander Philipov Postels (1801–1871) Published by: F. Litke, Trip around the world (1835–1836). ==== 1827–28: La Chevrette ==== The first French expedition to map the coast of India. Captain: Theodore Fabré (1795–1830) Surgeon-naturalist: Auguste Adolphe Marc Reynaud (1804–?) ==== 1828: Ms. Korvet Triton ==== Dutch exploration of New Guinea. The corvette Triton The brig Iris Expedition leader: Dr. H.C. Macklot Captain of Triton: J.J. Steenboom ==== 1829: La Cybèle ==== Scientific exploration was placed under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (1778–1846). Captain: Marie Antoine Chevalier de Robillard


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-7.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The second voyage of L'Astrolabe, this time accompanied by La Zélée, sailed on 7 September 1837 and at the end of November, the ships reached the Strait of Magellan. Dumont thought there was sufficient time to explore the strait for three weeks, taking into account the precise maps drawn by Phillip Parker King between 1826 and 1830, before heading south again but two weeks after seeing their first iceberg, the ships were encased in pack ice for a while. After reaching the South Orkney Islands, the expedition headed directly to the South Shetland Islands and the Bransfield Strait. Then located some land which was named Terre de Louis-Philippe (now called Graham Land), the Joinville Island group and Rosamel Island (now called Andersson Island). In poor shape the two ships headed for Talcahuano in Chile. Turning south they led for the first time some experiments to determine the approximate position of the South Magnetic Pole, discovered the Terre Adélie on 20 January 1840, and landed two days later on an islet of the Géologie Archipelago (66°36′19″S 140°4′0″E) 4 km from the mainland to take mineral and animal samples. Captains: Jules Dumont d'Urville (1790–1842) (L'Astrolabe), Charles Hector Jacquinot (1796–1879) (La Zélée) Physician-naturalist:


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-8.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Captains: Sir James Clark Ross (1800–1862) (Erebus) and Francis Crozier (1796–1848) (Terror) Physician-naturalist: Robert McCormick (1800–1890), Joseph Hooker (1817–1911), John Robertson, David Lyall (1817–1895) Publications: J.C. Ross, A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions. (1847), J.E. Gray and John Richardson, The zoology of the Voyage of HM Ships Erebus and Terror (1844–1875). J.D. Hooker, The botany of the Antarctic voyage of HM discovery ships Erebus and Terror in the years 1839–1843 under the command of Captain Sir James Clark Ross. Three volumes: I. Flora Antarctica (1844), II. Flora Novae Zelandiae (1853–1855), III. Flora Tasmaniae (1860). ==== 1841–44: La Favorite ==== A French scientific exploration in the China Sea and Indian Ocean. Captain: Théogène François Page (1807–1867) Surgeon-naturalist: Charles René Augustin Léclancher (1804–1857) ==== 1842–46: HMS Fly ==== During the early to mid-1840s, Fly charted numerous trade and other routes between many locations, primarily off Australia's north-east coast and nearby islands. Such islands included Whitsunday Island and the Capricorn Islands. After being discovered during the survey of the Gulf of Papua, New Guinea, the Fly River was named after HMS Fly. For the most of its seaworthy existence, Fly was captained by Francis Price Blackwood. Captain:


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-9.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
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parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1860: HMS Bulldog ==== An oceanographic survey in HMS Bulldog for the laying of a submarine telegraph cable in the North Atlantic. Captain: Francis Leopold McClintock (1819–1907) Naturalist: George Charles Wallich (1815–1899) Publication: The North Atlantic Sea – Bed; comprising a diary of the voyage on board H. M. S. Bulldog, in 1860, and observations on the presence of animal life, and the formation and nature of organic deposits, at great depths in the ocean. (1862). ==== 1862: Arctic expedition of Krusenstern ==== Arctic expedition of two ships, MV Iermak and MV Embrio in order to discover the Yenissei river delta, resulted in shipwreck in the Kara Sea. Captain: Paul Theodor von Krusenstern Publication: Naufrage du lieutenant Krusenstern dans les glaces de la mer de Kara (1863, in Le Tour du monde Volume 8 pp. 203–208) ==== 1865–68: Magenta ==== An Italian circumnavigation of the globe that made important scientific observations in South America. The purpose of the trip was also to establish diplomatic relations with China and Japan, but without success. De Filippi set out in 1866 on a government-sponsored scientific voyage to circumnavigate the globe. The ship, the Italian warship Magenta, sailed under the command of Vittorio


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-10.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Albatross belonged to the Committee on Fisheries of the United States and it carried out numerous scientific expeditions under the direction of Alexander Emanuel Agassiz (1835–1910). The primary goal was an inventory of the Pacific fishery reserves but many other observations are carried out by Townsend and other scientists. Captain: Zera Tanner (1835–1906) Naturalist: Charles Haskins Townsend (1859–1944) ==== 1897–98: Lila and Mattie ==== Zoologist Walter Rothschild commissioned the Webster-Harris Expedition to the Galápagos Islands from June 1897 to February 1898. This expedition on the schooner Lila & Mattie is well-described in the 1983 book titled Dear Lord Rothschild by Miriam Rothschild. In the 1936 book Oceanic Birds of South America by Robert Cushman Murphy, Rollo Beck describes the seminal telegram from C.M Harris that started his long and important association with the Galápagos Islands. The original of this telegram is in the Rollo Beck Collection in the California Academy of Sciences Archives. There is also a photo from Beck's Sierra Nevada collecting trip in the archives of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology on the University of California, Berkeley campus. The story of buried treasure on Tower Island connected with this trip was apparently known to Captain Lindbridge during this


id: history-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: History of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:32.151920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The history of experimental research is long and varied. Indeed, the definition of an experiment itself has changed in responses to changing norms and practices within particular fields of study. This article documents the history and development of experimental research from its origins in Galileo's study of gravity into the diversely applied method in use today. == Ibn al-Haytham == The Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) used experimentation to obtain the results in his Book of Optics (1021). He combined observations, experiments and rational arguments to support his intromission theory of vision, in which rays of light are emitted from objects rather than from the eyes. He used similar arguments to show that the ancient emission theory of vision supported by Ptolemy and Euclid (in which the eyes emit the rays of light used for seeing), and the ancient intromission theory supported by Aristotle (where objects emit physical particles to the eyes), were both wrong. Experimental evidence supported most of the propositions in his Book of Optics and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics. His legacy was elaborated through the 'reforming' of his Optics by Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d.


id: history-of-experiments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments-1.md
category: reference
title: History of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:32.151920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The experiments of Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), a French chemist regarded as the founder of modern chemistry, were among the first to be truly quantitative. Lavoisier showed that although matter changes its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical reaction. In one experiment, he burned phosphorus and sulfur in air to see whether the results further supported his previous conclusion (Law of Conservation of Mass). In this experiment, however, he determined that the products weighed more than the original phosphorus and sulfur. He decided to do the experiment again. This time he measured the mass of the air surrounding the experiment as well. He discovered that the mass gained in the product was lost from the air. These experiments provided further support for his Law of Conservation of Mass. One of Lavoisier's experiments connected the worlds of respiration and combustion. Lavoisier's hypothesis was that combustion and respiration were one and the same, and combustion occurs with every instance of respiration. Working with Pierre-Simon Laplace, Lavoisier designed an ice calorimeter apparatus for measuring the amount of heat given off during combustion or respiration. This machine consisted of


id: history-of-experiments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments-2.md
category: reference
title: History of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:32.151920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The French biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), regarded as the "Father of microbiological sciences and immunology", worked during the 19th century. He postulated - and supported with experimental results - the idea that disease-causing agents do not spontaneously appear but are alive and need the right environment to prosper and multiply. Stemming from this discovery, he used experimentation to develop vaccines for chicken cholera, anthrax and rabies, and developed methods for reducing bacteria in some food products by heating them (pasteurization). Pasteur's work also led him to advocate (along with the English physician Dr. Joseph Lister) antiseptic surgical techniques. Most scientists of that day believed that microscopic life sprang into existence from spontaneous generation in non-living matter. Pasteur's observations of tiny organisms under the microscope caused him to doubt spontaneous generation. He designed an experiment to test his hypothesis that life could not arise from where there is no life. He took care to control possible confounding factors. For example, he needed to make sure there was no life, even microscopic, in the flasks of broth he used as a test medium. He decided to kill any microscopic organisms already present by boiling the broth until he was confident that any


id: fermentation-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Fermentation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:34.713022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fermentation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In biochemistry, fermentation theory refers to the historical study of models of natural fermentation processes, especially alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation. Notable contributors to the theory include Justus Von Liebig and Louis Pasteur, the latter of whom developed a purely microbial basis for the fermentation process based on his experiments. Pasteur's work on fermentation later led to his development of the germ theory of disease, which put the concept of spontaneous generation to rest. Although the fermentation process had been used extensively throughout history prior to the origin of Pasteur's prevailing theories, the underlying biological and chemical processes were not fully understood. In the contemporary, fermentation is used in the production of various alcoholic beverages, foodstuffs, and medications. == Overview of fermentation == Fermentation is the anaerobic metabolic process that converts sugar into acids, gases, or alcohols in oxygen starved environments. Yeast and many other microbes commonly use fermentation to carry out anaerobic respiration necessary for survival. Even the human body carries out fermentation processes from time to time, such as during long-distance running; lactic acid will build up in muscles over the course of long-term exertion. Within the human body, lactic acid is the by-product of ATP-producing fermentation, which


id: fermentation-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Fermentation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:34.713022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fermentation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Pasteur also experimented with the mechanisms of brewer's yeast in the absence of organic nitrogen. By adding pure brewer's yeast to a solution of cane sugar, ammonium salt, and yeast ash, Pasteur was able to observe the alcoholic fermentation process with all of its usual byproducts: glycerin, succinic acid, and small amounts of cellulose and fatty matters. However, if any of the ingredients were removed from the solution, no fermentation would occur. To Pasteur, this was proof that yeast required the nitrogen, minerals, and carbon from the medium for its metabolic processes, releasing carbonic acid and ethyl alcohol as byproducts. This also disproved Liebig's theory, since there was no albuminous matter present in the medium; the decomposition of the yeast was not the driving force for the observed fermentation. == Pasteur on spontaneous generation == Before the 1860s and 1870s—when Pasteur published his work on this theory—it was believed that microorganisms and even some small animals such as frogs would spontaneously generate. Spontaneous generation was historically explained in a variety of ways. Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, theorized that creatures appeared out of certain concoctions of earthly elements, such as clay or mud mixing with water and sunlight. Later on,


id: golden-age-of-cosmology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology-0.md
category: reference
title: Golden age of cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:35.846319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: golden-age-of-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
The golden age of cosmology is a term often used to describe the period from 1992 to the present in which important advances in observational cosmology have been made. Prior to the golden age of cosmology, the understanding of the universe was limited to what scientists could observe through telescopes and other instruments. Theories and models were developed based on limited data and observations, and there was much speculation and debate regarding the true nature of the universe. The golden age of cosmology has also seen the development of new observational techniques and technologies. For example, the use of telescopes in space has revolutionized our ability to observe the universe. Space-based observatories such as the Hubble Space Telescope (launched in 1990) and the James Webb Space Telescope (launched in 2021) have provided stunning images and data that have expanded our understanding of the universe. In addition, ground-based telescopes have also undergone significant improvements in recent years. For example, the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile is a revolutionary new telescope that is able to observe the universe in unprecedented detail. It has already made significant contributions to our understanding of star formation and the early universe. == Lambda-CDM model


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-0.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
summary:
Oktōēchos or Octoechos (Greek: ὁ Ὀκτώηχος pronounced in koine: okˈtóixos; from ὀκτώ 'eight' and ἦχος 'sound, mode' called echos; Slavonic: Осмогласие, Osmoglasie from о́смь 'eight' and гласъ 'voice, sound') is the name of the eight mode system used for the composition of religious chant in most Christian churches during the Middle Ages. In a modified form, the octoechos is still regarded as the foundation of the tradition of monodic Orthodox chant today (Neobyzantine Octoechos). The octoechos as a liturgical concept which established an organization of the calendar into eight-week cycles, was the invention of monastic hymnographers at Mar Saba in Palestine, at the Patriarchates of Antiochia and of Constantinople. It was officially announced as the modal system of hymnography at the Quinisext Council in 692. A similar eight-mode system was established in Western Europe during the Carolingian reform, and particularly at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 AD which decanonised the former iconoclastic council in 754 and confirmed earlier ones. Quite possibly this was an attempt to follow the example of the Eastern Church by an octoechos reform, even if it was rather a transfer of knowledge with an introduction of a new book called "tonary" which introduced into


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-1.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
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==== 8 diatonic echoi of the Hagiopolitan Octoechos ==== Despite the late copies of the Greek Hagiopolites treatise, the earliest Latin description of the Greek system of eight echoi is an eleventh-century treatise compilation called Alia musica. Echos was translated as sonus by the anonymous compilator who commented with a comparison of the Byzantine octoechos: This Latin description about the octoechos used by Greek singers (psaltes) is very precise, when it says that each kyrios and plagios pair used the same octave, divided into a fifth (pentachord) and a fourth (tetrachord): D—a—d in protos, E—b—e in devteros, F—c—f in tritos, and C—G—c in tetartos. While the kyrioi had the finalis (final, and usually also base note) on the top, the plagioi had the finalis on the bottom of the pentachord. The intonation formulas, called enechema (gr. ἐνήχημα), for the authentic modes or kyrioi echoi, usually descend within the pentachord and turn back to the finalis at the end, while the plagal modes or plagioi echoi just move to the upper third. The later dialogue treatises (Gr. ἐρωταποκρίσεις, erotapokriseis) refer to the Hagiopolitan diatonic eight modes, when they use the kyrioi intonations to find those of the plagioi: Περὶ πλαγίων Ἀπο


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-2.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
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In the edition of the treatise by Otto Gombosi, the four "elements" (α', β', γ', δ') were associated with certain colours—πρῶτος with black (all colours together), δεύτερος with white (no colour at all), τρίτος with yellow (an elementary colour), and τέταρτος with purple (a combination of elementary colours). These passages could be easily compiled with Zosimos of Panopolis' treatise about the process of bleaching. The system favoured 3 four tetrachord sets (either modes by themselves or simply degree of the modes with different functions), called κέντροι, ἷσοι, and πλάγιοι. Kέντρος would be probably an early name for μέσος, if it lay between the ἶσος and πλάγιος, it could be as well used as an early name for κύριος ἦχος, because it is mentioned here first, while ἶσος could mean "equivalent", or just basis notes. The exact point of reference concerning this 24 mode system was not clarified in the treatise, but it is evident, that there was a canonised wisdom which was connected with an ethical doctrine excluding certain passions (πάθη, pathe) as corruptions. Inside this wisdom, there was a Neoplatonic concept of an ideal and divine existence, which can be found and classified according to a modal scheme based


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-3.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
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According to the Latin synthesis the plagal and authentic tones of protus, deuterus, tritus, and tetrardus did not use the same ambitus as in the Hagiopolitan octoechos, but authentic and plagal tones used both the finalis of the plagios, so that the finalis of the kyrios, the fifth degree of the mode, was no longer used as finalis, but as repercussa: the recitation tone of the authentic tone used in a simple form of psalmody which was another genuine invention by the Carolingian reformers. The ambitus of the authentic tones was made up the same way as used in the Greek octoechos, while the plagal tones used a lower ambitus: not the tetrachord above the pentachord, but below it. Hence, the hypodorian octave referred the tonus secundus and was constructed A—D—a, and the dorian as "tonus primus" D—a—d, both tones of the protus used D as finalis, the hypophrygian octave species was B—E—b and was the ambitus of the tonus quartus, and the phrygian octave species E—b—e was related to the tonus tertius and its finalis E belonged to the deuterus, the hypolydian octave species C—F—c was connected with the tonus sixtus, the lydian octave F—c—f with the tonus quintus


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-4.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
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The earliest chant theory connected with the Carolingian octoechos was related to the book tonary. It played a key role in memorising chant and the earliest tonaries referred to the Greek names as elements of a tetrachord: πρῶτος, δεύτερος, τρίτος, and τέταρτος. They were translated into Latin as "protus", "deuterus", "tritus", and "tetrardus", but only the tetrachord D—E—F—G was supposed to contain the finales ("final notes") for the eight tones used in the Latin octoechos. Since the 10th century the eight tones were applied to eight simplified models of psalmody, which soon adopted in their terminations the melodic beginnings of the antiphons, which were sung as refrains during psalm recitation. This practice made the transitions smoother, and in the list of the antiphons which can be found since the earliest tonaries, it was enough to refer to the melodic beginnings or incipits of the text. In the earliest tonaries no models of psalmody had been given and incipits from all chant genres were listed, probably just for a modal classification (see the section for the Autentus protus of the Saint Riquier tonary). According to Michel Huglo, there was a prototype tonary which initiated the Carolingian reform. But in a later


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-5.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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== Question of intervals and their transposition == The exact proportions which divided a tetrachord, had never been a subject of Greek medieval treatises concerned about Byzantine chant. The separation between the mathematical science harmonikai ("harmonics") and chant theory gave space to various speculations, even to the assumption that the same division was used as described in Latin music theory, operating with two diatonic intervals like tonus (9:8) and semitonium (256:243). Nevertheless, some treatises referred the tetrachord division into three intervals called the "major tone" (ὁ μείζων τόνος) which often corresponded to the prominent position of the whole tone (9:8), the "middle tone" (ὁ ἐλάσσων τόνος) between α and β, and the "small tone" (ὁ ἐλάχιστος τόνος) between β and γ which was usually a much larger interval than the half tone, and this division was common among most divisions by different ancient Greek theorists that were mentioned by Ptolemy in his Harmonics. Before Chrysanthos' Theoretika (the Eisagoge was simply an extract, while the Theoretikon mega was published by his student Panagiotes Pelopides), exact proportions were never mentioned in Greek chant theory. His system of 68 commata which is based on a corrupt use of arithmetics, can be traced back


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-6.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
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=== Pitches and their tonal system === Although Chrysanthos did not mention his name, the first who mentioned precisely these proportions starting from the open string of the third or middle chord of the oud, was the Arab theorist Al-Farabi in his Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir which was written during the first half of the 10th century. His explicit references to Persian and Ancient Greek music theory were possible, because they had been recently translated into Arabic and Persian dialects in the library of Baghdad. Thanks to them Al-Farabi had also an excellent knowledge of Ancient Greek music theory. The method of demonstrating the intervals by the frets of the oud keyboard was probably taken from Al-Kindi. Here the intervals are not referred to the Byzantine phthongoi, but to the name of the frets. And the fret corresponding to β was called "ring finger fret of Zalzal" (wuṣtā Zalzal), named after the famous Baghdadi oud player Zalzal. It seems that the proportion of the Zalzal fret was a refined one in Bagdad using a large middle tone that came very close to the interval of the small tone, while the Mawsili school used 13:12 instead of 12:11. There is no indication


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-7.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
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=== Medieval use of transposition (μεταβολὴ κατὰ τόνον) === Latin cantors knew about the theoretical concept of the practice of transposition since Boethius' translation of Ptolemy. Very few can be said, if they ever understood the practical use of it. Nevertheless, there was a rudimentary knowledge which can be found in the Carolingian treatises Musica and Scolica enchiriadis. The Musica enchiriadis was also the only Latin treatise which documented a second tone system beside the systẽma teleion, but it does not explain at all, how these both systems worked together in practice. The Hagiopolites did neither explain it nor did it mention any tone system nor the metabolē kata tonon, but this was probably because the hymn reform of Jerusalem was mainly concerned with simple models exemplified by heirmoi or troparia. Greek protopsaltai used the transposition only in very few compositions of the stichẽrarion, for instance the compositions passing through all the modes of the octoechos, or certain melismatic elaborations of troparia in the psaltic style, the soloistic style of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite. This might explain that Charles Atkinson discussed Carolingian theory in comparison with the later Papadikai, in which all possible transpositions were represented by the Koukouzelian wheel


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-8.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
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=== Latin treatises and tonaries (6th–12th century) === Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. "Einsiedeln, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. 358, pp. 144-270". «Institutionis musicae id est armonicae» with glossae maior copied at the scriptorium of Einsiedeln (10th century). Edition: Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1844–1904). "De institutione musica, liber IV". In Migne, Jacques-Paul (ed.). Patrologia cursus completus, series latina. Vol. 63. Paris: Garnier. pp. [col.1245–1286]. "Valenciennes, Bibliothèque municipale (F-VAL) Ms. 337 (olim 325, 359), fol. 42v-79v". Musica and Scolica enchiriadis in the treatise collection of the Abbey Saint-Amand (10th century). Retrieved 14 April 2012. Edition: Gerbert, Martin, ed. (1784). "Musica enchiriadis & Scholia enchiriadis de arte musica". Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra Potissimum. Vol. 1 (Hildesheim 1963 reprint ed.). St Blaise. pp. 152–212. Hucbald. "Prague, Národní knihovna (dríve Universitní knihovna), Ms. 273 olim XIX.C.26, fol. 19-28". Tonary "De harmonica institutione" with Lorrain neumes and Greek terminology in a treatise collection (ca. 1100). Retrieved 3 June 2019. Edition: Gerbert, Martin, ed. (1784). "Ubaldi seu Hucbaldi Monachi Elnonensis opuscula de musica". Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra Potissimum. Vol. 1 (Hildesheim 1963 reprint ed.). St Blaise. pp. 103–125. Aurelian of Réôme. "Valenciennes, Bibliothèque municipale, Ms. 148, fol. 57-89". "Musica disciplina" with intonations in later added Paleofrankish neumes, Abbey


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-9.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
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== Studies == Alexandru, Maria (2000). Studie über die 'großen Zeichen' der byzantinischen musikalischen Notation unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Periode vom Ende des 12. bis Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts. University Copenhagen. Amargianakis, George (1977). "An Analysis of Stichera in the Deuteros Modes: The Stichera idiomela for the Month of September in the Modes Deuteros, Plagal Deuteros, and Nenano; transcribed from the Manuscript Sinai 1230 <A.D. 1365>" (PDF). Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge Grec et Latin. 22–23: 1–269. Atkinson, Charles M. (2001). "Tonus in the Carolingian Era: A Terminal Spannungsfeld.". In Bernhard, Michael (ed.). Quellen und Studien zur Musiktheorie des Mittelalters (PDF). Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 19–46. ISBN 978-3-76-966008-1. Atkinson, Charles M. (2008). The critical nexus: Tone-System, Mode, and Notation in Early Medieval Music. Oxford, New York [etc.]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514888-6. Busse Berger, Anna Maria (2005), Medieval Music and the Art of Memory, Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-19-514888-6. Chrysanthos of Madytos (1832), Θεωρητικὸν μεγὰ τῆς Μουσικῆς, Triest: Michele Weis, retrieved 11 April 2012. Floros, Constantin; Neil K. Moran (2009). The Origins of Russian Music - Introduction to the Kondakarian Notation. Frankfurt/Main etc.: Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-59553-4. Frøyshov, Stig Simeon R. (2007). "The


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-10.md
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title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
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== External links == Jeffery, Peter (4 December 2010). "At the Origins of the Byzantine Musical Tradition: The Eight Modes". White Plains: Axion Estin Foundation. Retrieved 29 January 2013. "Hesperinos psalm with the sticheron anastasimon «Νίκην ἔχον Χριστὲ» in echos plagios devteros". Music School «Ὁ ἅγιος Ἀχίλλιος» of Larissa. 2 October 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2024. Father Nektarios of the Skete Hagia Anna on Mount Athos. "Sticheron idiomelon «Σὲ τὸν ἐπὶ ὑδάτων» (Holy Saturday) in echos plagios devteros". YouTube. Retrieved 17 May 2024. Petros Peloponnesios (February 2018). "Katavasies (heirmologion argon) «Σταυρὸν χαράξας Μωσῆς» (odes 1, 7 and 9 of the canon) for the feast of the elevation of the cross (14 September) in echos plagios tetartos". Archon Protopsaltes Demosthenis Païkopoulos. Retrieved 17 May 2024. Meyer, Christian; et al. "Sources of Medieval Music Theory". Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften online. Retrieved 16 January 2012. "Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum". Index for the 9th-11th century. Jacobs School of Music, Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405. Retrieved 19 December 2025. Ibn al-Munadjdjim (French)


id: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht-0.md
category: reference
title: Jennifer Michael Hecht
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:38.296364+00:00
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parent: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-0
summary:
Jennifer Michael Hecht (born November 23, 1965) is a teacher, author, poet, historian, and philosopher. She was an associate professor of history at Nassau Community College (1994–2007) and most recently taught at The New School in New York City. Hecht has seven published books, her scholarly articles have been published in many journals and magazines, and her poetry has appeared in The New Yorker, The New Republic, Ms. Magazine, and Poetry Magazine, among others. She has also written essays and book reviews for The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Philadelphia Inquirer, The American Scholar, The Boston Globe and other publications. She has written several columns for The New York Times online "Times Select." In 2010 Hecht was one of the five nonfiction judges for the National Book Award. Hecht is a longtime blogger for The Best American Poetry series web site and maintains a personal blog on her website. She resides in Brooklyn, New York. == Background == Born in Glen Cove, New York on Long Island, Hecht attended Adelphi University, where she earned a BA in history, for a time studying at the Université de Caen, and the Université d'Angers. She earned her PhD in the history


id: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht-1.md
category: reference
title: Jennifer Michael Hecht
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:38.296364+00:00
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parent: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-0
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Hecht believes that, "the basic modern assumptions about how to be happy are nonsense." In a review of her book, The Happiness Myth for The New York Times, Alison McCulloch summed it up, "What you think you should do to be happy, like getting fitter and thinner, is part of a 'cultural code' — 'an unscientific web of symbolic cultural fantasies' — and once you realize this, you will perhaps feel a little more free to be a lot more happy." Similarly, in an interview on the Point of Inquiry podcast in 2007, she said "I'm not trying really to get somebody out of depression, but I sure am trying to get people to not be so worried, so anxious over things that really don't matter." She has written against agnosticism, calling "philosophically silly" the argument that because you can't prove a negative we have to allow for the possibility of God. "Either you doubt everything to the point where you can't speak, or you make reasoned decisions." Hecht is an anti-suicide advocate, writing an entire book (Stay: A History of Suicide and the Philosophies Against It) arguing against it. She believes not only that "Suicide is delayed homicide", but


id: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht-2.md
category: reference
title: Jennifer Michael Hecht
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht
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parent: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-0
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== Published works == Her debut poetry collection, The Next Ancient World, artfully mixes contemporary and ancient world views, histories, and myths. In 2002 it received the Tupelo Press Judge's Prize in Poetry, the Norma Farber First Book Award from the Poetry Society of America, as well as ForeWord Magazine's award for Poetry Book of the Year. Her second collection, Funny, explores the implications of the human love of humor and jokes. It won the 2005 Felix Pollak Prize from the University of Wisconsin Press. Her most recent collection, Who Said (Copper Canyon Press, 2013), playfully asks the title question of some of the most iconic English language poems. In 2003 Hecht published two books of history and philosophy with two different publishers. The first, Doubt: A History, is an epic, worldwide study of religious doubt throughout history. The other, The End of the Soul, is a profile of an unusual group of nineteenth-century French anthropologists who formed the Society of Mutual Autopsy to discover links between personality, ability and brain morphology. It received the prestigious Ralph Waldo Emerson Award for 2004 from Phi Beta Kappa society "for scholarly studies that contribute significantly to interpretations of the intellectual and cultural


id: history-of-geology-and-mining-information-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)-0.md
category: reference
title: History of Geology and Mining (Information System)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:40.633559+00:00
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parent: history-of-geology-and-mining-information-system-20260505-0
summary:
Information System "History of Geology and Mining" (Russian: Информационная система «История геологии и горного дела») is a scientific information system (knowledge base, bibliographic database and non-commercial website) containing biographical, bibliographical data and documents about scientists, scientific organizations, and publications related to geological and mining sciences. It is a joint project of the Geological Institute and the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It represents the first attempt to systematize and provide access to a large array of data in the field of the history of geology and mining. It was created to support and facilitate scientific research in the history of science. == History == The information system is a continuation of the printed publications in the series “Materials on the History of Geology in the USSR”. Versions of the "History of Geology and Mining" information system: Test version on the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences website (2011—2015 — scirus.benran.ru/higeo. At the Geological Institute RAS: 2015–2025 at higeo.ginras.ru. New test version at https://higeo.ru == Description and structure == The system was created based on the customizable network software complex "SciRus" developed at the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy


id: history-of-geology-and-mining-information-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)-1.md
category: reference
title: History of Geology and Mining (Information System)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:40.633559+00:00
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parent: history-of-geology-and-mining-information-system-20260505-0
summary:
1961—1992 — Materials of the Commission for the Geological Study of the USSR. 1965—1973 — Biographies and bibliographies of scientists in the form of bibliographic dictionaries, edited for the first 7 issues by V. V. Tikhomirov. In 1991, the Department for the history of geology moved to the newly established Vernadsky State Geological Museum. Data collection began using Microsoft Access; by 2007, brief information on 1,700 scientists whose works were significant for the development of Earth sciences had been entered. The system was then planned to be integrated into the standard software complex "Scientific Institute of the RAS", in cooperation with the Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre of the RAS. In 2008, the history of geology group began work under the Program of the RAS Presidium — the Electronic Library "Scientific Heritage of Russia", which united information resources of scientific institutes, archives, and libraries of the RAS. The library hosted publications of naturalists and geologists (up to 1945), their biographical essays, and portraits. A section "Natural History Collections" was created with descriptions of museum items from historical and monographic collections related to scientists. Therefore, the modern information system is integrated (links to scientific works, information about authors, etc.) with the "Scientific Heritage


id: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-0.md
category: reference
title: History of beliefs about the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:44.087591+00:00
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parent: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
The human body has been subject of much debate. How people are defined, and what defined them – be it their anatomy or their energy or both – depends on culture and time. Culture not only defines how sex is perceived but also how gender is defined. Today gender, sex, and identity continue to be of much debate and change based on what place and people are being examined. The early modern idea of the body was a cultural ideal, an understanding and approach to how the body works and what place that body has in the world. All cultural ideals of the body in the early modern period deal with deficiencies and disorders within a body, commonly told through a male ideal. Ideas of the body in the early modern period form the history of how bodies should be and how to correct the body when something has gone wrong. Therefore, early modern conceptions of the body were not biological as there was not a restrictive biological view of the human body as established by modern science. Conceptions of the body are primarily either eastern, based in China and involving practices such as Traditional chinese medicine, or western, which


id: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-1.md
category: reference
title: History of beliefs about the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:44.087591+00:00
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parent: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
Greek philosophers separated the body and the energy of the body into separate but equal and interacting categories. Aristotle defined the energy which gives the body its movement as the soul. The soul and the body are therefore linked but can remain separate entities. This is in refutation of Dualists who view the body and mind as separate states and should be treated and examined differently and Materialists who view all parts of the body, even the soul as having a physical manifestation in the body. Aristotle finds the middle ground and accepts both of these views, that the soul has aspects that cannot be felt by normal methods, and physical manifestations that can be felt. "For even if one and being are spoken of in several ways, what is properly so spoken of is the actuality" — Aristotle in De Anima Aristotle forms the idea of Hylomorphism, that the soul and the body are not capable of being split apart without destroying both in the process. Despite this idea of the body and the soul Aristotle viewed disorder in what could be seen and felt. He was a proponent of the humoral theory that classified disorder as imbalances of


id: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-2.md
category: reference
title: History of beliefs about the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:44.087591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
=== Yellow Emperors body === The Yellow Emperor's Body is a term derived from the references to the Yellow Emperor within the Ancient Chinese book, the "book of change". The Term describes the references to both the physical body that can be touched, felt, and interact with the physical world, but also the sense of person and self that the body. The dualism of the body as both the physical self and the subjective consciousness is how Chinese defined the body. The Yellow Emperor's body is a metaphor to describe a body that focuses on the individual and not the general, focusing on disorder as not just a physical malady. The yellow emperor is revered in China and was the founder of acupuncture. The yellow emperor is said to of derived his medical practices from a conversation with a community physician. The manuscript is recorded in the Yellow Emperors Inner Cannon, and it being recorded in this way represents the attention to the individuals perspective in creating therapies like acupuncture to treat body ailments. The Inner Cannon was revised by natural Philosophers of the time and the approved version of the Han Court and became a foundational text for the


id: ice-age-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-0.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
An ice age is a period of time when the lower temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere results in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. The term is applied in several different senses to very long and comparatively short periods of cooling. Colder periods are called glacials or ice ages, and warmer periods are called interglacials. Earth's climate alternates between icehouse and greenhouse periods based on whether there are glaciers on the planet, and for most of Earth's history it has been in a greenhouse period with little or no permanent ice. Over the very long term, Earth is currently in an icehouse period called the Late Cenozoic Ice Age, which started 34 million years ago. There have been colder and warmer periods within this ice age, and the term is also applied to the Quaternary glaciation, which started 2.58 million years ago. Within this period, the Last Interglacial ended 115,000 years ago, and was followed by the Last Glacial Period (LGP), which gave way to the current warm Holocene, which started 11,700 years ago. The most severe cold period of the LGP was the Last Glacial Maximum, which reached its maximum between


id: ice-age-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-1.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
Only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark (1762–1839) argued for a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations. He attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earth's orbit. Esmark discovered the similarity between moraines near Haukalivatnet lake near sea level in Rogaland and moraines at branches of Jostedalsbreen. Esmark's discovery were later attributed to or appropriated by Theodor Kjerulf and Louis Agassiz. During the following years, Esmark's ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish and German scientists. At the University of Edinburgh Robert Jameson (1774–1854) seemed to be relatively open to Esmark's ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology Bjørn G. Andersen (1992). Jameson's remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark. In Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi (1797–1849), a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker (since incorporated in the southern Thuringian city of Meiningen), adopted Esmark's theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about the polar ice caps once reaching as far as the temperate zones of the globe. In Val de Bagnes, a valley


id: ice-age-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-2.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
== Evidence == There are three main types of evidence for ice ages: geological, chemical, and paleontological. Geological evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching, glacial moraines, drumlins, valley cutting, and the deposition of till or tillites and glacial erratics. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence for earlier glaciations, making it difficult to interpret. Furthermore, this evidence was difficult to date exactly; early theories assumed that the glacials were short compared to the long interglacials. The advent of sediment and ice cores revealed the true situation: glacials are long, interglacials short. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out. The chemical evidence mainly consists of variations in the ratios of isotopes in fossils present in sediments and sedimentary rocks and ocean sediment cores. For the most recent glacial periods, ice cores provide climate proxies, both from the ice itself and from atmospheric samples provided by included bubbles of air. Because water containing lighter isotopes has a lower heat of evaporation, its proportion decreases with warmer conditions. This allows a temperature record to be constructed. This evidence can be confounded, however, by other factors recorded by isotope


id: ice-age-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-3.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
The evolution of land plants at the onset of the Devonian period caused a long term increase in planetary oxygen levels and reduction of CO2 levels, which resulted in the late Paleozoic icehouse. Its former name, the Karoo glaciation, was named after the glacial tills found in the Karoo region of South Africa. There were extensive polar ice caps at intervals from 360 to 260 million years ago in South Africa during the Carboniferous and early Permian periods. Correlatives are known from Argentina, also in the center of the ancient supercontinent Gondwanaland. Although the Mesozoic Era retained a greenhouse climate over its timespan and was previously assumed to have been entirely glaciation-free, more recent studies suggest that brief periods of glaciation occurred in both hemispheres during the Early Cretaceous. Geologic and palaeoclimatological records suggest the existence of glacial periods during the Valanginian, Hauterivian, and Aptian stages of the Early Cretaceous. Ice-rafted glacial dropstones indicate that in the Northern Hemisphere, ice sheets may have extended as far south as the Iberian Peninsula during the Hauterivian and Aptian. Although ice sheets largely disappeared from Earth for the rest of the period (potential reports from the Turonian, otherwise the warmest period of the


id: ice-age-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-4.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
=== Positive === An important form of feedback is provided by Earth's albedo, which is how much of the sun's energy is reflected rather than absorbed by Earth. Ice and snow increase Earth's albedo, while forests reduce its albedo. When the air temperature decreases, ice and snow fields grow, and they reduce forest cover. This continues until competition with a negative feedback mechanism forces the system to an equilibrium. One theory is that when glaciers form, two things happen: the ice grinds rocks into dust, and the land becomes dry and arid. This allows winds to transport iron rich dust into the open ocean, where it acts as a fertilizer that causes massive algal blooms that pulls large amounts of CO2 out of the atmosphere. This in turn makes it even colder and causes the glaciers to grow more. In 1956, Ewing and Donn hypothesized that an ice-free Arctic Ocean leads to increased snowfall at high latitudes. When low-temperature ice covers the Arctic Ocean there is little evaporation or sublimation and the polar regions are quite dry in terms of precipitation, comparable to the amount found in mid-latitude deserts. This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer.


id: ice-age-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-5.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
=== Position of the continents === The geological record appears to show that ice ages start when the continents are in positions which block or reduce the flow of warm water from the equator to the poles and thus allow ice sheets to form. The ice sheets increase Earth's reflectivity and thus reduce the absorption of solar radiation. With less radiation absorbed the atmosphere cools; the cooling allows the ice sheets to grow, which further increases reflectivity in a positive feedback loop. The ice age continues until the reduction in weathering causes an increase in the greenhouse effect. There are three main contributors from the layout of the continents that obstruct the movement of warm water to the poles: A continent sits on top of a pole, as Antarctica does today. A polar sea is almost land-locked, as the Arctic Ocean is today. A supercontinent covers most of the equator, as Rodinia did during the Cryogenian period. Since today's Earth has a continent over the South Pole and an almost land-locked ocean over the North Pole, geologists believe that Earth will continue to experience glacial periods in the geologically near future. Some scientists believe that the Himalayas are a major


id: ice-age-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-6.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each cycle has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other. There is strong evidence that the Milankovitch cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age. The present ice age is the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by ice cores that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milanković orbital forcing periods is so close that orbital forcing is generally accepted. The combined effects of the changing distance to the Sun, the precession of Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of Earth's axis redistribute the sunlight received by Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of Earth's axis, which affect the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north latitude varies by as much as 22% (from 450 W/m2 to 550 W/m2). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when


id: ice-age-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-7.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
The major glacial stages of the current ice age in North America are the Illinoian, Eemian, and Wisconsin glaciation. The use of the Nebraskan, Afton, Kansan, and Yarmouthian stages to subdivide the ice age in North America has been discontinued by Quaternary geologists and geomorphologists. These stages have all been merged into the Pre-Illinoian in the 1980s. During the most recent North American glaciation, during the latter part of the Last Glacial Maximum (26,000 to 13,300 years ago), ice sheets extended to about 45th parallel north. These sheets were 3 to 4 kilometres (1.9 to 2.5 mi) thick. This Wisconsin glaciation left widespread impacts on the North American landscape. The Great Lakes and the Finger Lakes were carved by ice deepening old valleys. Most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers and later filled with glacial meltwaters. The old Teays River drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the Ohio River drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as Niagara Falls, which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall, at the present Clark Reservation State Park near Syracuse, New


id: ice-age-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-8.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
Based on past estimates for interglacial durations of about 10,000 years, there was some concern in the 1970s that the next glacial period would be imminent. Human impact is now seen as possibly extending what would already be an unusually long warm period. Ice ages go through cycles of about 100,000 years, but the next one may well be avoided due to human carbon dioxide emissions. According to Stephen Barker of Cardiff University, without human interference, the next glaciation of the Earth would "occur within the next 11,000 years, and it would end in 66,000 years' time." A 2015 report by the Past Global Changes Project says simulations show that a new glaciation is unlikely to happen within the next approximately 50,000 years, before the next strong drop in Northern Hemisphere summer insolation occurs "if either atmospheric CO2 concentration remains above 300 ppm or cumulative carbon emissions exceed 1000 Pg C" (i.e. 1,000 gigatonnes carbon). "Only for an atmospheric CO2 content below the preindustrial level may a glaciation occur within the next 10 ka. ... Given the continued anthropogenic CO2 emissions, glacial inception is very unlikely to occur in the next 50 ka, because the timescale for CO2 and temperature


id: ideonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Ideonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:46.484431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ideonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Ideonomy is a combinatorial "science of ideas" developed by American independent scholar Patrick M. Gunkel (1947–2017). Specifically, Ideonomy is concerned with the systematic organization of ideas and the discovery of the rules behind how ideas combine, diverge, and transform. Gunkel defined ideonomy as "the science of the laws of ideas and of the application of such laws to the generation of all possible ideas in connection with any subject, idea, or thing." In his 1992 book A History of Knowledge, Charles Van Doren compared ideonomy to a "mining operation" that excavates meanings and thought to discover treasures hidden deep within language. Sources from the 1980s and 1990s demonstrate that ideonomy was useful to academic researchers in fields including biology, toxicology, and nursing/patient care. Beginning in the 2010s, academics in a wide range of fields including machine learning, marketing, computational modeling, and cybersecurity have relied on materials generated for ideonomy to provide methodological support for their research. == Etymology and definition == The word "ideonomy" combines the Greek roots ideo- (from idea, meaning pattern or form) and -nomy (from nomos, meaning law or custom). The suffix -nomy suggests the laws concerning or the totality of knowledge about a given subject, as


id: ideonomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Ideonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:46.484431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ideonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Edward Fredkin, former director of MIT's computer science laboratory, who praised Gunkel's "provocative ideas on artificial intelligence." Marvin Minsky, AI scientist and MIT professor, who described ideonomy as "perhaps the most extensive study of ways to generate ideas." Frederick Seitz, president emeritus of Rockefeller University, who noted Gunkel's "encyclopedic scope" Robert C. Clark, Harvard law professor, who called Gunkel "the most intelligent person I ever met" However, skeptics questioned whether ideonomy constituted a genuine science. Fredkin himself noted that Gunkel "pours out about 60 ideas a minute, and 59 of them are bad," though he added that "even with one good idea out of 60, it's still an amazing accomplishment." Douglas Lenat observed that brainstorming with Gunkel was "a bit like being hit over the head by the muse with a sledgehammer" and that "he puts people off." Gunkel himself acknowledged that ideonomy was in its infancy and might seem "absurdly utopian." His planned magnum opus on ideonomy remained incomplete, and was posted on an MIT website thanks to faculty advisor Whitman Richards. Gunkel wrote: "Pioneering in a completely new field, yes in a new science, is almost unreal. It is heartbreaking, it is pitiable, it is almost inhuman. Honestly,


id: indigenous-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Indigenous science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:47.623950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indigenous-science-20260505-0
summary:
Indigenous science is the application and intersection of Indigenous knowledge and science. This field is based on careful observation of the environment, and through experimentation. It is a holistic field, informed by physical, social, mental and cultural knowledge. When applied to ecology and the environment, it can be sometimes termed traditional ecological knowledge. Indigenous science involves the knowledge systems and practices of Indigenous peoples, which are rooted in their cultural traditions and relationships to their indigenous context. There are some similar methods of Western science including (but not limited to): observation, prediction, interpretation, and questioning. There are also some areas in which Western science and Indigenous science differ. Indigenous knowledge is place and case-specific and does not attempt to label or generalize natural processes. Western science strives to find commonalities and theories that can be applied to all areas, such as Newton's Laws of Physics. This is because most Indigenous knowledge stems from the relationship humans have with their environment, which is passed down through stories or is discovered through observation. Western knowledge takes a different approach by isolating targets to study, splitting them from their surroundings and making sets of assumptions and theories. Community is a larger aspect of


id: indigenous-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Indigenous science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:47.623950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indigenous-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Place based sciences == Indigenous science may offer a different perspective from what is traditionally thought of as "science". In particular, Indigenous science is tied to territory, cultural practices, and experiences/teachings in explicit ways that are often absent in normal scientific discourse. Place based Indigenous science also is common outside of the academic sphere. Climatology scientists in Alaska and the Artic commonly work with traditional knowledge (Qaujimajatuqangit) among the Inuit when studying long-term changes in sea ice, along with studying other aspects of biology. In the Canadian Arctic, large data organizations like the Inuvialuit Settlement Region Online Platform, Marxan, and Nunaliit Atlas Framework inform marine and coastal management practices by using Inuit knowledge. Many times, this information is passed down in Inuit communities by generation using oral tradition and informs the communities on harvesting, hunting, traveling, and living on the land. This information may apply to decisions on conservation of harvesting sties and mating sites of various animals in the Artic. Inuit knowledge of these areas includes seasonal variations, ecological dynamics, wind direction, and ice dynamics. This knowledge has been gained through historical memories, family and community relations, place names, and open water or sea ice routes. Place names


id: indigenous-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Indigenous science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:47.623950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indigenous-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Engineering === Many different Indigenous tribes in America have built homes from natural resources. One example can be found at Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde, or Anasazi, in Northwestern New Mexico and Southwestern Colorado. Ancestral Puebloans built houses on the ground near the cliffs of the Colorado Plateau, and carved others into the face of the cliff, ultimately spanning almost 10,000 square miles across Utah, Colorado and New Mexico. Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon both have more than 600 rooms each, many of which were made from sandstone that was carved into rectangular blocks, and glued together with a mix of mud and water. In addition to physically building these homes, the Ancestral Puebloans used mathematical knowledge like the golden ratio - which has been used to make the Egyptian pyramids, Ancient Greek architecture and the Notre Dame - to construct a Sun Temple. Water management was critical as well in this area, and ancestral Pueblo people had early knowledge of hydrological theory, water transport and storage. This allowed them to create four main reservoirs that helped sustain the population. The Hohokam tribe in Arizona also managed their water resources up until 1450, and created irrigation networks that were


id: institute-for-the-history-of-natural-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_the_History_of_Natural_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute for the History of Natural Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_the_History_of_Natural_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:48.778111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-the-history-of-natural-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute for the History of Natural Sciences (IHNS CAS; Chinese: 中国科学院自然科学史研究所; pinyin: Zhōngguó Kēxuéyuàn Zìrán Kēxuéshǐ Yánjiūsuǒ) is a leading research institution in China dedicated to the study of the history of science, technology, and medicine. It is affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). == History == The Institute for the History of Natural Sciences was founded in 1957 with the active involvement of the renowned British biochemist and historian of science Joseph Needham (Chinese: 李约瑟, Lǐ Yuēsè) and a group of Chinese scholars. Its establishment was initiated to systematically research China's rich scientific and technological heritage and its place in world history. Initially, the institute was located in the Gulou district of Beijing. == Research Focus == The institute's primary mission is to conduct fundamental and applied research on the history of science and technology in China and the world, and to promote the development of this discipline. Key research areas include: History of Science and Technology in China: Studying traditional Chinese science, technology, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and their interaction with society and culture. History of World Science: Comparative studies, history of scientific exchanges, study of the Scientific Revolution and the development of modern science. Theoretical


id: international-conference-on-cold-fusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Cold_Fusion-0.md
category: reference
title: International Conference on Cold Fusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Cold_Fusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:49.991403+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-conference-on-cold-fusion-20260505-0
summary:
The International Conference on Cold Fusion (ICCF) (also referred to as Annual Conference on Cold Fusion in 1990-1991 and mostly as International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science since 2007) is an annual or biennial conference on the topic of cold fusion. An international conference on cold fusion was held in Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA in 1989. However, the first ICCF conference (ICCF1) took place in 1990 in Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, under the title "First Annual Conference on Cold Fusion". Its location has since rotated between Russia, the USA, Europe, and Asia. It was held in India for the first time in 2011. The conferences have been criticized as events which attract "crackpots" and "pseudo-scientists". == Reception == The First Annual Conference on Cold Fusion was held in March 1990 in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. Robert L. Park of the American Physical Society derisively referred to it as a "seance of true believers." The conference was attended by more than 200 researchers from the United States, Italy, Japan, India and Taiwan and dozens of reporters from all over the U.S. and abroad. The Third International Conference on Cold Fusion was held in 1992 in Nagoya,


id: isis-journal-1816-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)-0.md
category: reference
title: Isis (journal, 1816)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:52.379567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isis-journal-1816-20260505-0
summary:
Isis was an encyclopedic journal that focused on articles on natural science, medicine, technology, economics as well as art and history. It also published important articles on science policy and the organization of science. Edited by Lorenz Oken and published by Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus, Isis was the first interdisciplinary journal in the German-speaking world. The 41 volumes of the journal named after the Egyptian goddess Isis were nominally published from 1817 to 1848. However, the first issue appeared on August 1, 1816, while the printing of the last issue was delayed until February 1850. Until 1832, Isis bore the title Encyclopädische Zeitung. After the focus of the articles published in it had changed, Oken changed the title to Encyclopädische Zeitschrift, vorzüglich für Naturgeschichte, vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie in 1833. Initially printed in Jena, the journal was banned in the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and from the summer of 1819 was produced in nearby Rudolstadt in the court printing works of the Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. The magazine's original print run of 1,500 copies fell rapidly in the first few years of its existence and amounted to around 200 copies in the last few years. Originally conceived as a non-political journal, Oken


id: isis-journal-1816-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)-1.md
category: reference
title: Isis (journal, 1816)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:52.379567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isis-journal-1816-20260505-0
summary:
Even before Isis was published, the classical philologist Abraham Eichstädt from Jena learned of the planned new journal. Eichstädt, who published the Jenaische allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung, had held an exclusive right to publish reviews in Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach since 1803. As he feared for the financial security of his paper, Eichstädt turned to the President of the State Ministry in Weimar, Christian Gottlob Voigt, and obtained a renewal of this privilege on July 17, 1816. Oken saw this as a violation of the freedom of the press guaranteed in the Weimar Constitution of May 15, 1816 and sneered in the second issue of Isis: "Whether we really have freedom of the press, or whether it is to be mocked as a grimace through literary privileges and arbitrary interpretation and extension of the same, will be taught by the progress of Isis." Eichstädt filed a lawsuit against Oken and Isis on August 1, 1816. In a judgment dated August 23, Oken was ordered to refrain from publishing reviews and political articles. In the event of non-compliance, he was threatened with a fine of 50 thalers and a ban on Isis. Oken, who became aware of the verdict eight days later, protested against it to


id: isis-journal-1816-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)-2.md
category: reference
title: Isis (journal, 1816)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:52.379567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isis-journal-1816-20260505-0
summary:
Before the end of 1816, Isis was banned in Austria. Meanwhile, Oken continued to campaign for freedom of the press and, for example, published a report on the meeting of the Dutch estates under the title "Against the Restriction of Freedom of the Press". In June 1817, the Prussian Minister of Police, Wilhelm Ludwig Georg Fürst zu Wittgenstein, complained to Carl August about a derogatory criticism of a Prussian decree of 1811 that had appeared in the Oppositions-Blatt and a small note in Isis, in which Oken complained about Prussia's presumption in wanting to interfere even in insignificant matters such as those of the Vienna Agricultural Society. Six days later, a serious warning was issued to the editor of the opposition journal Friedrich Justin Bertuch and Oken, stating "that in the event of further disregard of the sovereign's or authorities' orders, the suppression of this journal will be pursued". During the Wartburg Festival, which Oken and other professors from Jena attended, an auto-da-fé took place on the evening of October 18, 1817, during which parts of a Prussian Uhlan uniform, a Hessian soldier's braid and an Austrian corporal's baton, as well as several books by authors considered reactionary, including Karl


id: isis-journal-1816-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)-3.md
category: reference
title: Isis (journal, 1816)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:52.379567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isis-journal-1816-20260505-0
summary:
=== Oken's dismissal === The attacks against Oken's Isis from the states of the Holy Alliance continued relentlessly. On January 29, 1819, Karl August von Hardenberg submitted a complaint to Grand Duke Karl August because of a derisive remark about the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III, which was printed in the twelfth issue of 1818, but this time without consequences for Oken and Isis. At the Aachen Congress in the fall of 1818, the Russian Tsar Alexander I distributed an anonymously written memorandum by Alexander Scarlatovich Sturdsa (1791–1854) entitled Memoire sur l'état actuel de l'Allemagne, in which Sturdsa commented on the dangerous activities at German universities. Oken's replies again caused a sensation. Under pressure from the Russian envoy to the Saxon court, Vasily Vasilyevich Chanykov (1759–1829), the Weimar state treasurer Carl August Constantin Schnauss (1782–1832) was forced to file charges against Oken on April 20, 1819. On May 11, Grand Duke Carl August of Weimar and Duke August of Gotha instructed the Senate of the University of Jena to give Oken the choice of either discontinuing Isis or resigning his professorship. The Senate tried to give in, but had to present Oken with this choice eleven days later. After three


id: isis-journal-1816-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)-4.md
category: reference
title: Isis (journal, 1816)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_(journal,_1816)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:52.379567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isis-journal-1816-20260505-0
summary:
== Circulation == In the initial period from August 1816 to February 1817, the circulation of Isis, which cost eight thalers a year, was 1500 copies. On March 4, 1817, Brockhaus reduced the print run to 1100 copies due to a lack of sales and reduced it by a further 100 copies a week later. When the actual sales figures were known in June 1817, there was a further drastic reduction of 650 copies. In 1825/1826, only 400 copies were printed. This was followed by a slight increase to up to 500 copies for the next few years until 1830. After that, the circulation fell continuously and was around 200 copies in the last ten years of Isis' existence. This relatively low circulation was nothing unusual. For example, the circulation of the Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche Kritik, one of the most important journals for scientific reviews, was around 500 copies in the years from 1827 to 1846 and that of the Medizinische Annalen, edited by Johann Friedrich Pierer, was 500 to 700 copies. == Research == In 2001, the German historian of science Dietrich von Engelhardt characterized Isis as "a first-rate scientific and cultural-historical document from that transitional epoch from idealism


id: islamic-scientific-manuscripts-initiative-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Scientific_Manuscripts_Initiative-0.md
category: reference
title: Islamic Scientific Manuscripts Initiative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Scientific_Manuscripts_Initiative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:53.599938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: islamic-scientific-manuscripts-initiative-20260505-0
summary:
The Islamic Scientific Manuscripts Initiative (ISMI) (Arabic: مبادرة المخطوطات العلمية الإسلامية) is an online database that supports research on mathematics history in the Islamic world to 1350 CE. The initiative aims to provide accessible information on all Islamic manuscripts in the exact sciences, including astronomy, mathematics, theories, mathematical geography, music, mechanics, and related subjects. It is an initiative of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (MPIWG), which is dedicated to advancing scientific knowledge and research. == References ==


id: languages-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Languages of science are vehicular languages used by one or several scientific communities for international communication. According to the science historian Michael Gordin, scientific languages are "either specific forms of a given language that are used in conducting science, or they are the set of distinct languages in which science is done." These two meanings are different, since the first describes a distinct prose in a given language (i.e., scientific writing), while the second describes which languages are used in mainstream science. Until the 19th century, classical languages—such as Latin, Classical Arabic, Sanskrit, Classical Malay and Classical Chinese—were commonly used across Afro-Eurasia for international scientific communication. A combination of structural factors, the emergence of nation-states in Europe, the Industrial Revolution, and the expansion of colonization entailed the global use of three European national languages: French, German, and English. Yet new languages of science, such as Russian and Italian, had started to emerge by the end of the 19th century—to the point that international scientific organizations began promoting the use of constructed languages such as Esperanto as a non-national global standard. After the First World War, English gradually outpaced French and German; it became the leading language of science, but not


id: languages-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== European and auxiliary languages (1800–1920) === The gradual disuse of Latin opened an uneasy transition period, as more and more works were accessible only in local languages. Many national European languages held the potential to become a language of science within a specific research field: some scholars "took measures to learn Swedish so they could follow the work of [the Swedish chemist] Bergman and his compatriots." Language preferences and use across scientific communities were gradually consolidated into a triumvirate or triad of dominant languages of science: French, English, and German. While each language could be expected to be understood for international scientific communication, each also followed "different functional distributions evident in various scientific fields". French had been almost acknowledged as the international standard for European science in the late 18th century, and it remained "essential" throughout the 19th century. German became a major scientific language during the 19th century, since it "covered portions of the physical sciences, particularly physics and chemistry, in addition to mathematics and medicine." English was used largely by researchers and engineers because of the seminal contribution of English technology to the Industrial Revolution. In the years preceding the First World War, the linguistic diversity of


id: languages-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== English, competitors, and machine translation (1920–1965) === The two world wars had a lasting impact on scientific languages. A combination of political, economic, and social factors durably weakened the triumvirate of the three main languages of science in the 19th century; this combination paved the way for the predominance of English in the latter part of the 20th century. There is ongoing debate about whether the world wars accelerated a structural tendency toward English predominance or merely created the conditions for it. Ulrich Ammon wrote that "even without the World Wars the English language community would have gained economic and, consequently, scientific superiority and, thus, preference of its language for international scientific communication." By contrast, Michael Gordin emphasizes that the privileged status of English was far from settled until the 1960s. The First World War had an immediate impact on the global use of German in academic settings. For nearly a decade after this war, international scientific events boycotted German researchers. The German scientific communities had been compromised by nationalistic propaganda in favor of German science during the war, in addition to the exploitation of scientific research for war crimes. German was no longer acknowledged as a global scientific


id: languages-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
It seems wise to assume that in the long run the number of significant contributions to scientific knowledge by different countries will be roughly proportional to their populations, and that except where populations are very small contributions will normally be published in native languages. The expansion of Russian scientific publishing became a source of recurring tension in the United States during the decade of the Cold War. Very few American researchers were able to read Russian, which contrasted with a remaining widespread familiarity with the two oldest languages of science, French and German. "In a 1958 survey, 49% of American scientific and technical personnel claimed they could read at least one foreign language, yet only 1.2% could handle Russian." Science administrators and funders had recurring concerns about their ability to efficiently track the progress of academic research in the USSR. This ongoing anxiety became an overt crisis after the successful launch of the Sputnik 1 satellite in 1958, as the decentralized American research system seemed for a time outpaced by the efficiency of Soviet planning. Although the Sputnik crisis was relatively brief, it had far-reaching consequences for linguistic practices in science—in particular, the development of machine translation. Research in this


id: languages-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
During the 1960s and 1970s, English was no longer a majority language of science, but a scientific lingua franca instead. The transformation had more wide-ranging consequences than the replacement of two or three main languages of science by a single language: it marked "the transition from a triumvirate that valued, at least in a limited way, the expression of identity within science, to an overwhelming emphasis on communication and thus a single vehicular language." Ulrich Ammon characterizes English as an "asymmetrical lingua franca", since it is "the native tongue and the national language of the most influential segment of the global scientific community, but a foreign language for the rest of the world." This paradigm is usually associated with the globalization of American and English-speaking culture in the latter part of the 20th century. No specific event accounts for the full shift, though numerous transformations highlight an accelerated conversion to English science in the later part of the 1960s. On June 11, 1965, US President Lyndon B. Johnson stated that the English language had become a lingua franca that opened "doors to scientific and technical knowledge" and whose promotion should be a "major policy" of the United States. In 1969,


id: languages-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== English standardization === Nearly all the scientific publications indexed on the leading commercial academic search engines are in English. As of 2022, this observation covers 95.86% of the 28,142,849 references indexed on the Web of Science platform, in addition to 84.35% of the 20,600,733 references indexed in the Scopus system. The minimal coverage of non-English languages creates a feedback loop—non-English publications can be considered less valuable because they are not indexed in international rankings and fare poorly in evaluation metrics. As many as 75,000 articles, book titles, and book reviews from Germany were excluded from Biological Abstracts between 1970 and 1996. In 2009, at least 6555 journals were published in Spanish and Portuguese on a global scale, and "only a small fraction are included in the Scopus and Web of Science indices." Criteria for inclusion in commercial databases not only favor English journals but also incentivize non-English journals to discontinue their local journals. They "demand that articles be in English, have abstracts in English, or at least have their references in English". In 2012, the Web of Science was explicitly committed to the anglicization (and Romanization) of published knowledge: English is the universal language of science. For this reason,


id: languages-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Persistence of linguistic diversity === Several languages have retained a secondary status as an international language of science, due to the extent of the local scientific production or to their continued use as a vehicular language in specific contexts. These languages generally include "Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Russian, and Spanish." Local languages have remained prevalent in major scientific countries: "most scientific publications are still published in Chinese in China". Empirical studies of the languages used in scientific publications have long been constrained by structural bias in the most readily accessible sources—commercial databases such as the Web of Science. Atypical access to a large corpus not covered by global indexes showed that multilingualism remains non-negligible, although little studied; as of 2022, there are "few examples of analyses at scale" for multilingualism in science. However, a 2026 study found that the proportion of English publications in Dimensions went down from 93.86% in 1990 to 85.52% in 2023, with Indonesian, Spanish and Portuguese expanding at a faster rate than English. In seven European countries with limited international reach for each local language, one third of researchers in social sciences and the humanities publish in two or more languages; "research is international,


id: languages-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Machine translation === Scientific publication has been the first major use case for machine translation, with early experiments dating back to 1954. Development in this area slowed after 1965, because of the increasing predominance of English, limitations in computing infrastructure, and the shortcomings of the leading approach—rule-based machine translation. By design, rule-based methods favored translation between a few major languages (English, Russian, French, German, ...), since a "transfer module" needed to be developed for "each pair of languages"; this situation led to a combinatorial explosion when more languages were considered. After the 1980s, the field of machine translation was revived as it underwent a "full-scale paradigm shift": explicit rules were replaced by statistical and machine learning methods applied to a large aligned corpus. By that time, most of the demand no longer came from scientific publishing, but instead from commercial documents such as technical and engineering manuals. A second paradigm shift occurred in the 2010s, with the development of deep learning methods, which can be partially trained on a non-aligned corpus (i.e., "zero-shot translation"). Requiring few supervision inputs, deep learning models make it possible to incorporate a wider diversity of languages, but also a wider diversity of linguistic contexts


id: languages-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Open science infrastructure === The development of open science infrastructure or "community-controlled infrastructure" has become a major policy issue in the open science movement. In the 2010s, the expansion of commercial scientific infrastructure led to major acknowledgment of the fragility of open scholarly publishing and open archives. The concept of open science infrastructure emerged in 2015 with the publication of the Principles for Open Scholarly Infrastructures. In November 2021, a UNESCO recommendation acknowledged open science infrastructure as one of the four pillars of open science, along with open science knowledge, open engagement of societal actors, and open dialogue with other knowledge systems. UNESCO called for sustained investment and funding: "open science infrastructures are often the result of community-building efforts, which are crucial for their long-term sustainability and therefore should be not-for-profit and guarantee permanent and unrestricted access to all public to the largest extent possible." Examples of open science infrastructure include indexes, publishing platforms, shared databases, and computer grids. Open infrastructures have supported linguistic diversity in science. The leading free software for scientific publishing, Open Journal Systems, is available in 50 languages; it is widespread among non-commercial open-access journals. A landscape study was conducted by the SPARC alliance in


id: languages-of-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Policies in favor of multilingualism === A new scientific and policy debate over linguistic diversity emerged after 2015: "in recent years, policies for Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) and Open Science call for increasing access to research, interaction between science and society and public understanding of science". The debate initially stemmed from wider discussions about the evaluation of open science and the limitations of commercial metrics. In 2015, the Leiden Manifesto included ten principles to "guide research evaluation", which included a call to "protect excellence in locally relevant research". Building on empirical data showing the persistence of non-English research communities in Europe, Gunnar Sivertsen (in 2018) theorized the need for a balanced multilingualism "to consider all the communication purposes in all different areas of research, and all the languages needed to fulfil these purposes, in a holistic manner without exclusions or priorities." In 2016, Sivertsen contributed to the "Norwegian model" of scientific evaluation: he proposed a flat hierarchy among a few large international journals, along with a wide selection of journals that would not discriminate against local publications, and he encouraged journals in the social sciences and the humanities to favor Norwegian publications. These local initiatives developed into a


id: languages-of-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Articles & chapters === "Rapport de l'Académie des sciences sur la langue française et le rayonnement de la science française" [Report from the Academy of Sciences on the French language and the influence of French science]. Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Sciences [Reports of the sessions of the Academy of Sciences] (in French). 295: 131–146. 8 November 1982. Ammon, Ulrich (2012-10-10). "Linguistic inequality and its effects on participation in scientific discourse and on global knowledge accumulation – With a closer look at the problems of the second-rank language communities". Applied Linguistics Review. 3 (2): 333–355. doi:10.1515/applirev-2012-0016. ISSN 1868-6311. Anglaret, Anne-Sophie; Sofio, Séverine (2021-12-27). "Écrire en langues. Entre traduction automatique et hégémonie globish, le multilinguisme comme horizon réaliste pour les revues de sciences humaines et sociales". Biens Symboliques / Symbolic Goods. Revue de sciences sociales sur les arts, la culture et les idées. 9 (9). doi:10.4000/bssg.832. ISSN 2490-9424. S2CID 245925363. Retrieved 2022-01-17. Aronova, Elena (September 2017). "Russian and the Making of World Languages during the Cold War". Isis. 108 (3): 643–650. doi:10.1086/694163. ISSN 0021-1753. S2CID 148831824. Cameron-Pesant, Sarah (2018). "Usage et diffusion des revues savantes québécoises en sciences sociales et humaines : analyse des téléchargements de la plateforme


id: languages-of-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
9 (1): 168–174. doi:10.1002/nop2.1115. ISSN 2054-1058. PMC 8685880. PMID 34725950. Zhang, Lin; Sivertsen, Gunnar (2020-05-12). "The New Research Assessment Reform in China and Its Implementation". Scholarly Assessment Reports. 2 (1): 3. doi:10.29024/sar.15. hdl:11250/2733873. ISSN 2689-5870. Retrieved 2023-09-10.


id: languages-of-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science-12.md
category: reference
title: Languages of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:54.998896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: languages-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Conferences === Shearer, Kathleen; Chan, Leslie; Kuchma, Iryna; Mounier, Pierre (2020-04-15). Fostering Bibliodiversity in Scholarly Communications: A Call for Action. Retrieved 2020-06-17. Beigel, Fernanda (2022). Research evaluation in the southern road to open science (PDF). OSEC 2022. Paris. === Other articles === Garfield, Eugene (1967). "English – An international language for science?" (PDF). Current Contents. Huttner-Koros, Adam (2015-08-21). "Why Science's Universal Language Is a Problem for Research". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-09-24. van Weijen, Daphne (November 2012). "The Language of (Future) Scientific Communication". Research Trends. No. 31. Archived from the original on 2020-09-20. Retrieved 2020-09-24. Gordin, Michael D. "How did science come to speak only English? – Michael D Gordin | Aeon Essays". Aeon. Retrieved 2020-09-24. Taşkın, Zehra; Dogan, Guleda; Kulczycki, Emanuel; Zuccala, Alesia Ann (2020-06-18). "Science needs to inform the public. That can't be done solely in English". LSE COVID-19. Retrieved 2022-01-21. Pölönen, Janne; Kulczycki, Emanuel; Mustajoki, Henriikka; Røeggen, Vidar (2021-12-07). "Multilingualism is integral to accessibility and should be part of European research assessment reform". Impact of Social Sciences. Retrieved 2022-01-20. === Declaration === Bundy, McGeorge. "Memorandum # 332, U.S. Government Policy on English Language Teaching Abroad, 6/11/1965" (June 11, 1965). National Security Files, Series: National Security Action Memorandums,


id: leith-agcm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leith_AGCM-0.md
category: reference
title: Leith AGCM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leith_AGCM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:56.177130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leith-agcm-20260505-0
summary:
Leith AGCM is a climate model that was developed by Cecil Leith beginning in 1958; it is likely the oldest atmospheric general circulation model. Leith published videos of its model output, inspiring other scientists to do the same. Today it has been superseded by climate models developed from different base codes; as such, it is little known. == History and development == Efforts to calculate the behaviour of the weather system commenced in the 1920s with a seminal paper by Lewis Fry Richardson. By the 1950s and 1960s several groups were involved in making climate models, with major efforts taking place at several US universities that eventually gave rise to the well-known GFDL, UCLA, and NCAR models. Today climate models are an important enterprise with significant impact on public policy, where hundreds of scientists and institutions participate worldwide. The researcher Cecil E. “Chuck” Leith (1923–2016) is well-known for his research on fluid mechanics. After an initial career on the Manhattan Project, which resulted in the invention of nuclear bombs, he joined the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory after 1946 and in 1968 the National Center for Atmospheric Research. Beginning in 1958, he began to work on a climate model that was later


id: logical-positivism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism-0.md
category: reference
title: Logical positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:57.374688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: logical-positivism-20260505-0
summary:
Logical positivism, also known as logical empiricism or neo-positivism, was a philosophical movement, in the empiricist tradition, that sought to formulate a scientific philosophy in which philosophical discourse would be, in the perception of its proponents, as authoritative and meaningful as empirical science. Logical positivism's central thesis was the verification principle, also known as the "verifiability criterion of meaning", according to which a statement is cognitively meaningful only if it can be verified through empirical observation or if it is a tautology (true by virtue of its own meaning or its own logical form). The verifiability criterion thus rejected statements of metaphysics, theology, ethics and aesthetics as cognitively meaningless in terms of truth value or factual content. Despite its ambition to overhaul philosophy by mimicking the structure and process of empirical science, logical positivism became erroneously stereotyped as an agenda to regulate the scientific process and to place strict standards on it. The movement emerged in the late 1920s among philosophers, scientists and mathematicians congregated within the Vienna Circle and Berlin Circle and flourished in several European centres through the 1930s. By the end of World War II, many of its members had settled in the English-speaking world and the


id: logical-positivism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism-1.md
category: reference
title: Logical positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:57.374688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: logical-positivism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Anglosphere === As the movement's first emissary to the New World, Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered in 1936 at the University by a former student, Johann Nelböck, who was reportedly deranged. That year, A. J. Ayer, a British attendee at various Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, published Language, Truth and Logic, which imported logical positivism to the English-speaking world. In 1933, the Nazi Party's rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals, which accelerated upon Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938. The logical positivists, many of whom were Jewish, were targeted and continued flight throughout the pre-war period. Their philosophy thus became dominant in the English-speaking world. By the late 1930s, many in the movement had replaced phenomenalism with Neurath's physicalism, whereby material objects are not reducible to sensory stimuli but exist as publicly observable entities in the real world. Neurath settled in England, where he died in 1945. Carnap, Reichenbach and Hempel settled permanently in America. === Post-war period === Following the Second World War, logical positivism—now referred to by some as logical empiricism—turned to less radical objectives in the philosophy of science. Led by Carl


id: logical-positivism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism-2.md
category: reference
title: Logical positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:57.374688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: logical-positivism-20260505-0
summary:
In theories of justification, a priori statements are those that can be known independently of observation, contrasting with a posteriori statements, which are dependent on observation. Statements may also be categorised into analytic and synthetic: Analytic statements are true by virtue of their own meaning or their own logical form, therefore are tautologies that are true by necessity but uninformative about the world. Synthetic statements, in comparison, are contingent propositions that refer to a state of facts concerning the world. David Hume proposed an unambiguous distinction between analytic and synthetic, categorising knowledge exclusively as either "relations of ideas" (which are a priori, analytic and abstract) or "matters of fact and real existence" (a posteriori, synthetic and concrete), a classification referred to as Hume's fork. Immanuel Kant identified a further category of knowledge: Synthetic a priori statements, which are informative about the world, but known without observation. This principle is encapsulated in Kant's transcendental idealism, which attributes the mind a constructive role in phenomena whereby intuitive truths—including synthetic a priori conceptions of space and time—function as an interpretative filter for an observer's experience of the world. His thesis would serve to rescue Newton's law of universal gravitation from Hume's problem of


id: logical-positivism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism-3.md
category: reference
title: Logical positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:57.374688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: logical-positivism-20260505-0
summary:
Carl Hempel was prominent in the development of the deductive-nomological (DN) model, then the foremost model of scientific explanation defended even among critics of neo-positivism such as Popper. According to the DN model, a scientific explanation is valid only if it takes the form of a deductive inference from a set of explanatory premises (explanans) to the observation or theory to be explained (explanandum). The model stipulates that the premises must refer to at least one law, which it defines as an unrestricted generalization of the conditional form: "If A, then B". Laws therefore differ from mere regularities ("George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet") which do not necessarily support counterfactual claims. Furthermore, laws must be empirically verifiable in compliance with the verification principle. The DN model ignores causal mechanisms beyond the principle of constant conjunction ("first event A and then always event B") in accordance with the Humean empiricist postulate that, though sequences of events are observable, the underpinning causal principles are not. Hempel stated that well-formulated natural laws (empirically confirmed regularities) are satisfactory in approximating causal explanation. Hempel later proposed a probabilistic model of scientific explanation: The inductive-statistical (IS) model. Derivation of statistical laws from other


id: logical-positivism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism-4.md
category: reference
title: Logical positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:57.374688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: logical-positivism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Norwood Hanson === In 1958, Norwood Hanson's Patterns of Discovery characterised the concept of theory-ladenness. Hanson and Thomas Kuhn held that even direct observations are never truly neutral in that they are laden with theory, i.e. influenced by a system of theoretical presuppositions that function as an interpretative framework for the senses. Accordingly, individuals subscribed to different theories might report radically different observations even as they investigate the same phenomena. Hanson's thesis attacked the observation-theory distinction, which draws a dividing line between observational and non-observational (theoretical) language. More broadly, its findings challenged the central-most tenets of empiricism in questioning the infallibility and objectivity of empirical observation. === Thomas Kuhn === Thomas Kuhn's landmark book of 1962, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions—which discussed paradigm shifts in fundamental physics—critically undermined confidence in scientific foundationalism. Kuhn proposed in its place a coherentist model of science, whereby scientific progress revolves around cores of established, coherent ideas which periodically undergo abrupt revolutionary changes. Though foundationalism was often considered a constituent doctrine of logical positivism (and Kuhn's thesis an epistemological criticism of the movement) such views were simplistic: In the 1930s, Neurath had argued for the adoption of coherentism, famously comparing the progress of science


id: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials-0.md
category: reference
title: History of metamaterials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:59.877482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-0
summary:
The history of metamaterials begins with artificial dielectrics in microwave engineering as it developed just after World War II. Yet, there are seminal explorations of artificial materials for manipulating electromagnetic waves at the end of the 19th century. Hence, the history of metamaterials is essentially a history of developing certain types of manufactured materials, which interact at radio frequency, microwave, and later optical frequencies. As the science of materials has advanced, photonic materials have been developed which use the photon of light as the fundamental carrier of information. This has led to photonic crystals, and at the beginning of the new millennium, the proof of principle for functioning metamaterials with a negative index of refraction in the microwave- (at 10.5 Gigahertz) and optical range. This was followed by the first proof of principle for metamaterial cloaking (shielding an object from view), also in the microwave range, about six years later. However, a cloak that can conceal objects across the entire electromagnetic spectrum is still decades away. Many physics and engineering problems need to be solved. Nevertheless, negative refractive materials have led to the development of metamaterial antennas and metamaterial microwave lenses for miniature wireless system antennas which are more efficient


id: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials-1.md
category: reference
title: History of metamaterials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:59.877482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-0
summary:
=== Jagadish Chandra Bose === Jagadish Chandra Bose was a scientist involved in original microwave research during the 1890s. As officiating professor of physics at Presidency College he involved himself with laboratory experiments and studies involving refraction, diffraction and polarization, as well as transmitters, receivers and various microwave components. He connected receivers to a sensitive galvanometer, and developed crystals to be used as a receiver. The crystals operated in the shortwave radio range. Crystals were also developed to detect both white and ultraviolet light. These crystals were patented in 1904 for their capability to detect electromagnetic radiation. Furthermore, it appears that his work also anticipated the existence of p-type and n-type semiconductors by 60 years. For the general public in 1895, Bose was able to remotely ring a bell and explode gunpowder with the use of electromagnetic waves. In 1896, it was reported that Bose had transmitted electromagnetic signals over almost a mile. In 1897, Bose reported on his microwave research (experiments) at the Royal Institution in London. There he demonstrated his apparatus at wavelengths that ranged from 2.5 centimeters to 5 millimeters. == Early chiral media == In 1898, Jagadish Chandra Bose conducted the first microwave experiment on twisted


id: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials-2.md
category: reference
title: History of metamaterials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:59.877482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-0
summary:
Much of the historic research related to metamaterials is weighted from the view of antenna beam shaping within microwave engineering just after World War II. Furthermore, metamaterials appear to be historically linked to the body of research pertaining to artificial dielectrics throughout the late 1940s, the 1950s and the 1960s. The most common use for artificial dielectrics throughout prior decades has been in the microwave regime for antenna beam shaping. The artificial dielectrics had been proposed as a low cost and lightweight "tool". Research on artificial dielectrics, other than metamaterials, is still ongoing for pertinent parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Pioneering works in microwave engineering on artificial dielectrics in microwave were produced by Winston E. Kock, Seymour Cohn, John Brown, and Walter Rotman. Periodic artificial structures were proposed by Kock, Rotman, and Sergei Schelkunoff. There is also an extensive reference list that is focused on the properties of artificial dielectrics in the 1991 book, Field Theory of Guided Waves by Robert E. Collin. Schelkunoff achieved notice for contributions to antenna theory and electromagnetic wave propagation. "Magnetic particles made of capacitively loaded loops were also suggested by Sergei Schelkunoff in 1952 (who was a senior colleague of Winston Kock at Bell


id: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials-3.md
category: reference
title: History of metamaterials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:59.877482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-0
summary:
=== Invention of the metamaterial === Historically, and conventionally, the function or behavior of materials can be altered through their chemistry. This has long been known. For example, adding lead changes the color or hardness of glass. However, at the end of the 20th century this description was expanded by John Pendry, a physicist from Imperial College in London. In the 1990s he was consulting for a British company, Marconi Materials Technology, as a condensed matter physics expert. The company manufactured a stealth technology made of a radiation-absorbing carbon that was for naval vessels. However, the company did not understand the physics of the material. The company asked Pendry if he could understand how the material worked. Pendry discovered that the radiation absorption property did not come from the molecular or chemical structure of the material, i.e. the carbon per se. This property came from the long and thin, physical shape of the carbon fibers. He realized rather than conventionally altering a material through its chemistry, as lead does with glass, the behavior of a material can be altered by changing a material's internal structure on a very fine scale. The very fine scale was less than the wavelength of


id: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials-4.md
category: reference
title: History of metamaterials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metamaterials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:59.877482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-metamaterials-20260505-0
summary:
=== The super lens === The super lens or superlens is a practical structure based on John Pendry's work describing a perfect lens that can go beyond the diffraction limit by focusing all four fourier components. Pendry's paper described a theoretical novel lens that could capture images below the diffraction limit by employing the negative refractive index behavior. The super lens is a practical realization of this theory. It is a working lens that can capture images below the diffraction limit even though limitations occur due to the inefficiencies of conventional materials. This means that although there are losses, enough of an image is returned to show this work was a successful demonstration. === Invisibility cloak === Ulf Leonhardt was born in East Germany, and presently occupies the theoretical physics chair at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, and is considered one the leaders in the science of creating an invisibility cloak. Around 1999, Leonhardt began work on how to build a cloaking device with a few other colleagues. Leonhardt stated that at the time invisibility was not considered fashionable. He then wrote a theoretical study entitled "Optical Conformal Mapping". The first sentence sums up the objective: "An invisibility


id: one-sex-and-two-sex-theories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories-0.md
category: reference
title: One-sex and two-sex theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:07.047384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-sex-and-two-sex-theories-20260505-0
summary:
The one-sex and two-sex theories (also referred to as the one-sex and two-sex models) are historiographical concepts introduced by historian Thomas Laqueur in his 1990 book Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud. Laqueur proposed that Western medical and philosophical thought underwent a fundamental shift in the 18th century: from a "one-sex model," in which female anatomy was understood as an inverted, inferior version of male anatomy, to a "two-sex model" treating men and women as anatomically distinct and opposite. While Making Sex has been highly influential in gender studies, literary criticism, and cultural history, its thesis has attracted substantial criticism from historians of medicine and science. Critics including Helen King, Joan Cadden, Katharine Park, and Michael Stolberg have argued that Laqueur oversimplifies the historical record, misreads primary sources, and imposes an artificial chronological divide where one-sex and two-sex understandings in fact coexisted throughout Western history. The historian Monica H. Green has called on scholars to move beyond the framework entirely. == Laqueur's thesis == === The one-sex model === According to Laqueur, Western medicine from antiquity through the early modern period operated under a "one-sex model" in which women were understood as imperfect or inverted versions


id: one-sex-and-two-sex-theories-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories-1.md
category: reference
title: One-sex and two-sex theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:07.047384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-sex-and-two-sex-theories-20260505-0
summary:
=== Calls to move beyond the framework === Critics have noted that Making Sex achieved widespread influence partly because its binary framework offered a conveniently simple narrative for scholars across disciplines. As historiographical surveys have observed, the neatness of Laqueur's story—one era, one model, replaced by another era, another model—made it highly exportable, even as specialists in the history of medicine increasingly found it inadequate. Monica H. Green's 2018 article in Eugesta titled "Let Go of Laqueur" called for scholars to move beyond the one-sex/two-sex framework entirely and develop more nuanced histories of how bodies have been understood as sexed across different times and cultures. === Laqueur's response === In a 2003 response to Stolberg, Laqueur argued that isolated pieces of evidence for sexual dimorphism in Renaissance anatomy do not undermine his thesis, since individual observations do not discredit prevailing worldviews. He maintained that the fundamental epistemological shift he described—from sex as reflecting metaphysical truths to sex as biological foundation for gender—remained valid regardless of when specific anatomical differences were first noted. == Influence and legacy == Despite the scholarly criticisms described above, Making Sex has remained widely cited, particularly in gender studies, literary criticism, and cultural history. The book


id: oral-history-of-british-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_History_of_British_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Oral History of British Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_History_of_British_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:08.227207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oral-history-of-british-science-20260505-0
summary:
An Oral History of British Science is an oral history project conducted by National Life Stories at the British Library. The project began in 2009 with funding from the Arcadia Fund, the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 and a number of other private donors and focuses on audio interviews with British science and engineering figures. == Project background == The project focused on 200 video interviews lasting 8–15 hours, with four themes: Made in Britain, A Changing Planet, Cosmologies and Biomedicine. The project Advisory Committee included Jon Agar, Alec Broers, Tilly Blyth, Georgina Ferry, Dame Julia Higgins, Maja Kominko, Sir Harry Kroto, John Lynch, Chris Rapley and Simone Turchetti. An Oral History of British Science was conducted by National Life Stories (NLS) at the British Library, and formed part of a wider institutional initiative to better document contemporary history of science and technology through the addition of audio visual sources as well as written sources. == Methodology == The oral history of British science follows the biographical, or life story, oral history approach with each audio interview averaging 8 to 15 hours in length. The interviews cover the individual’s career history, education, background and family. == Access to


id: parable-of-the-sunfish-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-0.md
category: reference
title: Parable of the Sunfish
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:09.385306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parable-of-the-sunfish-20260505-0
summary:
"The Parable of the Sunfish" is an anecdote with which Ezra Pound opens ABC of Reading, a 1934 work of literary criticism. Pound uses this anecdote to emphasize an empirical approach for learning about art, in contrast to relying on commentary rooted in abstraction. While the parable is based on students' recollections of Louis Agassiz's teaching style, Pound's retelling diverges from these sources in several respects. The parable has been used to illustrate the benefits of scientific thinking, but more recent literary criticism has split on whether the parable accurately reflects the scientific process and calls into question Pound's empirical approach to literature. == The Parable == The text of the parable below is excerpted from Pound's ABC of Reading. == Context == === ABC of Reading === Pound opens ABC of Reading with the following pronouncement: The proper METHOD for studying poetry and good letters is the method of contemporary biologists, that is careful first-hand examination of the matter, and continual COMPARISON of one 'slide' or specimen with another. No man is equipped for modern thinking until he has understood the anecdote of Agassiz and the sunfish. In the parable, a graduate student is sent to noted biologist Louis


id: parable-of-the-sunfish-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-1.md
category: reference
title: Parable of the Sunfish
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:09.385306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parable-of-the-sunfish-20260505-0
summary:
At length on the seventh day, came the question "Well?" and my disgorge of learning to him as he sat on the edge of my table puffing his cigar. At the end of the hour's telling, he swung off and away, saying "That is not right." Shaler concluded Agassiz was testing him to see if he was capable of "doing hard, continuous work without the support of a teacher" and redoubled his efforts, starting from scratch and, over the course of seven ten-hour days, managed to describe the specimen to Agassiz's satisfaction. === Scudder's "Look at your fish!" === Samuel Hubbard Scudder recorded a similar experience, first published in 1874 as "Look at Your Fish" in Every Saturday magazine. Agassiz again starts his new student off with a fish preserved in alcohol and instructs the student to "look at it", and promises "by and by I will ask what you have seen". As opposed to Pound's decomposing sunfish, Scudder's account emphasizes the care taken to keep the specimen in good condition: I was to keep the fish before me in a tin tray, and occasionally moisten the surface with alcohol from the jar ... In ten minutes I had seen


id: parable-of-the-sunfish-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-2.md
category: reference
title: Parable of the Sunfish
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:09.385306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parable-of-the-sunfish-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pound === Pound, echoing Cooper, opens ABC of Reading by stating that the correct method for the study of poetry is "the method of contemporary biologists" and that "No man is equipped for modern thinking until he has understood the anecdote of Agassiz and the fish." Commentators have summarized Pound's position with the term empiricism, but have divided over whether the parable endorses or indicts the idea. The simplest interpretations in scientific writing, history of science, and literary criticism take the parable at face value, accepting empiricism and observation as legitimate techniques. For example, when writing about stellar atmospheres, Dimitri Mihalas states that "it is specimens, not facts, that are the ultimate empirical currency that we must use if we wish to purchase a valid theory" before beginning a discussion of Pound's sunfish. Moving from acceptance of empiricism to an understanding of its limitations, Christopher Tilley emphasizes in his comments on "scientific archeology" that Pound's student "was not simply learning about 'reality', the sunfish, but a way of approaching that reality – a discourse bound up in a particular thought tradition (empiricism)". Robert Scholes reaches a similar conclusion, noting that the student "seems to be reporting about a real


id: patterns-in-nature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-0.md
category: reference
title: Patterns in nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:10.553965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patterns-in-nature-20260505-0
summary:
Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled mathematically. Natural patterns include symmetries, trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes. Early Greek philosophers studied pattern, with Plato, Pythagoras and Empedocles attempting to explain order in nature. The modern understanding of visible patterns developed gradually over time. In the 19th century, the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau examined soap films, leading him to formulate the concept of a minimal surface. The German biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted hundreds of marine organisms to emphasise their symmetry. Scottish biologist D'Arcy Thompson pioneered the study of growth patterns in both plants and animals, showing that simple equations could explain spiral growth. In the 20th century, the English mathematician Alan Turing predicted mechanisms of morphogenesis which give rise to patterns of spots and stripes. The Hungarian biologist Aristid Lindenmayer and the French American mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot showed how the mathematics of fractals could create plant growth patterns. Mathematics, physics and chemistry can explain patterns in nature at different levels and scales. Patterns in living things are explained by the biological processes of natural selection and sexual selection.


id: patterns-in-nature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-1.md
category: reference
title: Patterns in nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:10.553965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patterns-in-nature-20260505-0
summary:
Living things like orchids, hummingbirds, and the peacock's tail have abstract designs with a beauty of form, pattern and colour that artists struggle to match. The beauty that people perceive in nature has causes at different levels, notably in the mathematics that governs what patterns can physically form, and among living things in the effects of natural selection, that govern how patterns evolve. Mathematics seeks to discover and explain abstract patterns or regularities of all kinds. Visual patterns in nature find explanations in chaos theory, fractals, logarithmic spirals, topology and other mathematical patterns. For example, L-systems form convincing models of different patterns of tree growth. The laws of physics apply the abstractions of mathematics to the real world, often as if it were perfect. For example, a crystal is perfect when it has no structural defects such as dislocations and is fully symmetric. Exact mathematical perfection can only approximate real objects. Visible patterns in nature are governed by physical laws; for example, meanders can be explained using fluid dynamics. In biology, natural selection can cause the development of patterns in living things for several reasons, including camouflage, sexual selection, and different kinds of signalling, including mimicry and cleaning symbiosis. In


id: patterns-in-nature-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-2.md
category: reference
title: Patterns in nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:10.553965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patterns-in-nature-20260505-0
summary:
Spirals are common in plants and in some animals, notably molluscs. For example, in the nautilus, a cephalopod mollusc, each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral. Given a modern understanding of fractals, a growth spiral can be seen as a special case of self-similarity. Plant spirals can be seen in phyllotaxis, the arrangement of leaves on a stem, and in the arrangement (parastichy) of other parts as in composite flower heads and seed heads like the sunflower or fruit structures like the pineapple and snake fruit, as well as in the pattern of scales in pine cones, where multiple spirals run both clockwise and anticlockwise. These arrangements have explanations at different levels – mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology – each individually correct, but all necessary together. Phyllotaxis spirals can be generated from Fibonacci ratios: the Fibonacci sequence runs 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13... (each subsequent number being the sum of the two preceding ones). For example, when leaves alternate up a stem, one rotation of the spiral touches two leaves, so the pattern or ratio is 1/2. In hazel the ratio is


id: patterns-in-nature-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-3.md
category: reference
title: Patterns in nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:10.553965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patterns-in-nature-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bubbles, foam === A soap bubble forms a sphere, a surface with minimal area (minimal surface) — the smallest possible surface area for the volume enclosed. Two bubbles together form a more complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the larger one. A foam is a mass of bubbles; foams of different materials occur in nature. Foams composed of soap films obey Plateau's laws, which require three soap films to meet at each edge at 120° and four soap edges to meet at each vertex at the tetrahedral angle of about 109.5°. Plateau's laws further require films to be smooth and continuous, and to have a constant average curvature at every point. For example, a film may remain nearly flat on average by being curved up in one direction (say, left to right) while being curved downwards in another direction (say, front to back). Structures with minimal surfaces can be used as tents. At the scale of living cells, foam patterns are common; radiolarians, sponge spicules, silicoflagellate exoskeletons and the calcite skeleton of a sea urchin, Cidaris rugosa, all resemble


id: patterns-in-nature-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-4.md
category: reference
title: Patterns in nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:10.553965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patterns-in-nature-20260505-0
summary:
Alan Turing, and later the mathematical biologist James Murray, described a mechanism that spontaneously creates spotted or striped patterns: a reaction–diffusion system. The cells of a young organism have genes that can be switched on by a chemical signal, a morphogen, resulting in the growth of a certain type of structure, say a darkly pigmented patch of skin. If the morphogen is present everywhere, the result is an even pigmentation, as in a black leopard. But if it is unevenly distributed, spots or stripes can result. Turing suggested that there could be feedback control of the production of the morphogen itself. This could cause continuous fluctuations in the amount of morphogen as it diffused around the body. A second mechanism is needed to create standing wave patterns (to result in spots or stripes): an inhibitor chemical that switches off production of the morphogen, and that itself diffuses through the body more quickly than the morphogen, resulting in an activator-inhibitor scheme. The Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction is a non-biological example of this kind of scheme, a chemical oscillator. Later research has managed to create convincing models of patterns as diverse as zebra stripes, giraffe blotches, jaguar spots (medium-dark patches surrounded by dark broken


id: physics-aristotle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics (Aristotle)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:12.881319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-aristotle-20260505-0
summary:
The Physics (Ancient Greek: Φυσικής ἀκρόασις, romanized: Physikḗs akróasis, or: Φυσικής ακροάσεως, Physikḗs akroáseōs; Latin: Physica or Naturales Auscultationes, possibly meaning "Lectures on nature") is a named text, written in ancient Greek, collated from a collection of surviving manuscripts known as the Corpus Aristotelicum, attributed to the 4th-century BC philosopher Aristotle. == The meaning of physics in Aristotle == It is a collection of treatises or lessons that deals with the most general (philosophical) principles of natural or moving things, both living and non-living, rather than physical theories (in the modern sense) or investigations of the particular contents of the universe. The chief purpose of the work is to discover the principles and causes of (and not merely to describe) change, or movement, or motion (κίνησις kinesis), especially that of natural wholes (mostly living things, but also inanimate wholes like the cosmos). In the conventional Andronicean ordering of Aristotle's works, it stands at the head of, as well as being foundational to, the long series of physical, cosmological and biological treatises, whose ancient Greek title, τὰ φυσικά, means "the [writings] on nature" or "natural philosophy". == Description of the content == The Physics is composed of eight books, which are


id: physics-aristotle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-1.md
category: reference
title: Physics (Aristotle)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:12.881319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-aristotle-20260505-0
summary:
The necessary in nature, then, is plainly what we call by the name of matter, and the changes in it. Both causes must be stated by the physicist, but especially the end; for that is the cause of the matter, not vice versa; and the end is 'that for the sake of which', and the beginning starts from the definition or essence… In chapter 3, Aristotle presents his theory of the four causes (material, efficient, formal, and final). Material cause explains what something is made of (for example, the wood of a house), formal cause explains the form which a thing follows to become that thing (the plans of an architect to build a house), efficient cause is the actual source of the change (the physical building of the house), and final cause is the intended purpose of the change (the final product of the house and its purpose as a shelter and home). Of particular importance is the final cause or purpose (telos). It is a common mistake to conceive of the four causes as additive or alternative forces pushing or pulling; in reality, all four are needed to explain (7.198a22-25). What we typically mean by cause in the


id: physics-aristotle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-2.md
category: reference
title: Physics (Aristotle)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:12.881319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-aristotle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book VII (Η; 241a25–250b7) === Book VII briefly deals with the relationship of the moved to his mover, which Aristotle describes in substantial divergence with Plato's theory of the soul as capable of setting itself in motion (Laws book X, Phaedrus, Phaedo). Everything which moves is moved by another. He then tries to correlate the species of motion and their speeds, with the local change (locomotion, phorà) as the most fundamental to which the others can be reduced. Book VII.1-3 also exist in an alternative version, not included in the Bekker edition. === Book VIII (Θ; 250a14–267b26) === Book VIII (which occupies almost a fourth of the entire Physics, and probably constituted originally an independent course of lessons) discusses two main topics, though with a wide deployment of arguments: the time limits of the universe, and the existence of a Prime Mover — eternal, indivisible, without parts and without magnitude. Isn't the universe eternal, has it had a beginning, will it ever end? Aristotle's response, as a Greek, could hardly be affirmative, never having been told of a creatio ex nihilo, but he also has philosophical reasons for denying that motion had not always existed, on the grounds of


id: physics-aristotle-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-3.md
category: reference
title: Physics (Aristotle)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:12.881319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-aristotle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Classical and medieval commentaries on the Physics === A commentary differs from a note in being a distinct work analyzing the language and subsumed concepts of some other work classically notable. A note appears within the annotated work on the same page or in a separate list. Commentaries are typically arranged by lemmas, or quotes from the notable work, followed by an analysis of the author of the commentary. The commentaries on every work of Aristotle are a vast and mainly unpublished topic. They extend continuously from the death of the philosopher, representing the entire history of Graeco-Roman philosophy. There are thousands of commentators and commentaries known wholly or more typically in fragments of manuscripts. The latter especially occupy the vaults of institutions formerly responsible for copying them, such as monasteries. The process of publishing them is slow and ongoing. Below is a brief representative bibliography of published commentaries on Aristotle's Physics available on or through the Internet. Like the topic itself, they are perforce multi-cultural, but English has been favored, as well as the original languages, ancient Greek and Latin. === Some modern commentaries, monographs and articles === == Further reading == Books Die Aristotelische Physik, W. Wieland,


id: pictet-s-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictet's_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Pictet's experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictet's_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:14.045982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pictet-s-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
Pictet's experiment is the demonstration of the reflection of heat and the apparent reflection of cold in a series of experiments performed in 1790 (reported in English in 1791 in An Essay on Fire) by Marc-Auguste Pictet—ten years before the discovery of infrared heating of the Earth by the Sun. The apparatus for most of the experiments used two concave mirrors facing one another at a distance. An object placed at the focus of one mirror would have heat and light reflected by the mirror and focused. An object at the focus of the counterpart mirror would do the same. Placing a hot object at one focus and a thermometer at the other would register an increase in temperature on the thermometer. This was sometimes demonstrated with the explosion of a flammable mix of gasses in a blackened balloon, as described and depicted by John Tyndall in 1863. After "demonstrating that radiant heat, even when it was not accompanied by any light, could be reflected and focused like light", Pictet used the same apparatus to demonstrate the apparent reflection of cold in a similar manner. This demonstration was important to Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford who argued for the existence of


id: list-of-chemical-elements-named-after-places-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_places-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical elements named after places
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_places
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:15.245885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-elements-named-after-places-20260505-0
summary:
Of the 118 chemical elements, 41 are named after, or have names associated with, places around the world or among astronomical objects. 32 of these have names tied to the Earth and the other 10 have names connected to bodies in the Solar System. The first table below lists terrestrial locations (excluding the entire Earth taken as a whole) and the last table lists astronomical objects which the chemical elements are named after. == Terrestrial locations == == Astronomical objects == * - The element mercury was named directly for the deity, with only indirect naming connection to the planet (see etymology of mercury). ** - Phosphorus was the Ancient Greek name for the planet Venus. (see history of phosphorus). == See also == List of chemical elements named after people List of chemical element name etymologies == References ==


id: history-of-science-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: History of science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:16.441278+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
Through history, the systems of economic support for scientists and their work have been important determinants of the character and pace of scientific research. The ancient foundations of the sciences were driven by practical and religious concerns and or the pursuit of philosophy more generally. From the Middle Ages until the Age of Enlightenment, scholars sought various forms of noble and religious patronage or funded their own work through medical practice. In the 18th and 19th centuries, many disciplines began to professionalize, and both government-sponsored "prizes" and the first research professorships at universities drove scientific investigation. In the 20th century, a variety of sources, including government organizations, military funding, patent profits, corporate sponsorship, and private philanthropies, have shaped scientific research. == Ancient science == Most early advances in mathematics, astronomy and engineering were byproducts of more immediate and practical goals. Surveying and accounting needs drove ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Chinese, and Indian mathematics, while calendars created for religious and agricultural purposes drove early astronomy. Modern science owes much of its heritage to ancient Greek philosophers; influential work in astronomy, mechanics, geometry, medicine, and natural history was part of the general pursuit of philosophy. Architectural knowledge, especially in ancient Greece and Rome,


id: history-of-science-policy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy-1.md
category: reference
title: History of science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:16.441278+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Patronage === Most of the important astronomers and natural philosophers (as well as artists) in the 16th and 17th centuries depended on the patronage of powerful religious or political figures to fund their work. Patronage networks extended all the way from Emperors and Popes to regional nobles to artisans to peasants; even university positions were based to some extent on patronage. Scholarly careers in this period were driven by patronage, often starting in undistinguished universities or local schools or courts, and traveling closer or farther from centers of power as their fortunes rose and fell. Patronage, and the desire for more, also shaped the work and publications of scientists. Effusive dedications to current or potential patrons can be found in almost every scholarly publication, while the interests of a patron in a specific topic was a strong incentive to pursue said topic—or reframe one's work in terms of it. Galileo, for example, first presented the telescope as a naval instrument to military- and commerce-focused Republic of Venice; when he sought the more prestigious patronage of the Medici court in Florence, he instead promoted the astronomical potential of the device (by naming the moons of Jupiter after the Medicis). A


id: history-of-science-policy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy-2.md
category: reference
title: History of science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:16.441278+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
== 1900–1945 == In the twentieth century, scientific and technological research became increasingly systematised, as corporations developed, and discovered that continuous investment in research and development could be a key element of success in a competitive strategy. It remained the case, however, that imitation by competitors—circumventing or simply flouting patents, especially those registered abroad—was often just as successful a strategy for companies focused on innovation in matters of organisation and production technique, or even in marketing. A classic example is that of Wilkinson Sword and Gillette in the disposable razor market, where the former has typically had the technological edge, and the latter the commercial one. Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel's will directed that his vast fortune be utilized to establish prizes in the scientific fields of medicine, physics and chemistry as well as literature and peace. The Nobel Prize served to provide financial incentives for scientists, elevated leading scientists to unprecedented visibility, and provided an example for other philanthropists of the industrial era to provide private sources of funding for scientific research and education. Ironically, it was not an era of peace that followed, but rather wars fought on unprecedented international scale that led to expanded state interest in the


id: history-of-science-policy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy-3.md
category: reference
title: History of science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:16.441278+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
=== State funding cuts === Starting with the first Oil shock, an economic crisis hit the western world which made it more difficult for the states to maintain their uncritical funding of research and teaching. In the United Kingdom, the University Grants Committee started to lower their annual block grant for certain universities as soon as 1974. This was compounded by the access to power of the Thatcher government in 1979, who pledged a radical reduction of public spending. Between 1979 and 1981, more cuts in the block grant threatened universities and became opportunities seized by certain actors (heads of departments, vice-chancellors, etc.) for radical reorganisation and reorientation of the university's research. In 1970 in the United States, the Military Authorization Act forbade the DOD to support research unless it had "direct or apparent relationship to a specific military function." This cut the ability of the government to fund basic research. === Selectivity === In order to administer severely depleted resources in a (theoretically) transparent manner, several selectivity mechanisms were developed through the 1980s and 1990s. In the United Kingdom, the funding cuts of 1984–1986 were accompanied by an assessment of the quality of research. This was done by estimating


id: history-of-randomness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_randomness-0.md
category: reference
title: History of randomness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_randomness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:19.988233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-randomness-20260505-0
summary:
In ancient history, the concepts of chance and randomness were intertwined with that of fate. Many ancient peoples threw dice to determine fate, and this later evolved into games of chance. At the same time, most ancient cultures used various methods of divination to attempt to circumvent randomness and fate. Beyond religion and games of chance, randomness has been attested for sortition since at least ancient Athenian democracy in the form of a kleroterion. The formalization of odds and chance was perhaps earliest done by the Chinese 3,000 years ago. The Greek philosophers discussed randomness at length, but only in non-quantitative forms. It was only in the sixteenth century that Italian mathematicians began to formalize the odds associated with various games of chance. The invention of modern calculus had a positive impact on the formal study of randomness. In the 19th century the concept of entropy was introduced in physics. The early part of the twentieth century saw a rapid growth in the formal analysis of randomness, and mathematical foundations for probability were introduced, leading to its axiomatization in 1933. At the same time, the advent of quantum mechanics changed the scientific perspective on determinacy. In the mid to late


id: history-of-randomness-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_randomness-1.md
category: reference
title: History of randomness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_randomness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:19.988233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-randomness-20260505-0
summary:
For several centuries thereafter, the idea of chance continued to be intertwined with fate. Divination was practiced in many cultures, using diverse methods. The Chinese analyzed the cracks in turtle shells, while the Germans, who according to Tacitus had the highest regards for lots and omens, utilized strips of bark. In the Roman Empire, chance was personified by the Goddess Fortuna. The Romans would partake in games of chance to simulate what Fortuna would have decided. In 49 BC, Julius Caesar allegedly decided on his fateful decision to cross the Rubicon after throwing dice. Aristotle's classification of events into the three classes: certain, probable and unknowable was adopted by Roman philosophers, but they had to reconcile it with deterministic Christian teachings in which even events unknowable to man were considered to be predetermined by God. About 960 Bishop Wibold of Cambrai correctly enumerated the 56 different outcomes (without permutations) of playing with three dice. No reference to playing cards has been found in Europe before 1350. The Church preached against card playing, and card games spread much more slowly than games based on dice. The Christian Church specifically forbade divination; and wherever Christianity went, divination lost most of its old-time


id: history-of-randomness-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_randomness-2.md
category: reference
title: History of randomness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_randomness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:19.988233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-randomness-20260505-0
summary:
The words of Goethe proved prophetic, when in the 20th century randomized algorithms were discovered as powerful tools. By the end of the 19th century, Newton's model of a mechanical universe was fading away as the statistical view of the collision of molecules in gases was studied by Maxwell and Boltzmann. Boltzmann's equation S = k loge W (inscribed on his tombstone) first related entropy with logarithms. == 20th century == During the 20th century, the five main interpretations of probability theory (e.g., classical, logical, frequency, propensity and subjective) became better understood, were discussed, compared and contrasted. A significant number of application areas were developed in this century, from finance to physics. In 1900 Louis Bachelier applied Brownian motion to evaluate stock options, effectively launching the fields of financial mathematics and stochastic processes. Émile Borel was one of the first mathematicians to formally address randomness in 1909, and introduced normal numbers. In 1919 Richard von Mises gave the first definition of algorithmic randomness via the impossibility of a gambling system. He advanced the frequency theory of randomness in terms of what he called the collective, i.e. a random sequence. Von Mises regarded the randomness of a collective as an empirical


id: history-of-randomness-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_randomness-3.md
category: reference
title: History of randomness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_randomness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:19.988233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-randomness-20260505-0
summary:
By the early 1940s, the frequency theory approach to probability was well accepted within the Vienna circle, but in the 1950s Karl Popper proposed the propensity theory. Given that the frequency approach cannot deal with "a single toss" of a coin, and can only address large ensembles or collectives, the single-case probabilities were treated as propensities or chances. The concept of propensity was also driven by the desire to handle single-case probability settings in quantum mechanics, e.g. the probability of decay of a specific atom at a specific moment. In more general terms, the frequency approach can not deal with the probability of the death of a specific person given that the death can not be repeated multiple times for that person. Karl Popper echoed the same sentiment as Aristotle in viewing randomness as subordinate to order when he wrote that "the concept of chance is not opposed to the concept of law" in nature, provided one considers the laws of chance. Claude Shannon's development of Information theory in 1948 gave rise to the entropy view of randomness. In this view, randomness is the opposite of determinism in a stochastic process. Hence if a stochastic system has entropy zero it


id: relationship-between-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between mathematics and physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:21.160371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between mathematics and physics has been a subject of study of philosophers, mathematicians and physicists since antiquity, and more recently also by historians and educators. Generally considered a relationship of great intimacy, mathematics has been described as "an essential tool for physics" and physics has been described as "a rich source of inspiration and insight in mathematics". Some of the oldest and most discussed themes are about the main differences between the two subjects, their mutual influence, the role of mathematical rigor in physics, and the problem of explaining the effectiveness of mathematics in physics. In his work Physics, one of the topics treated by Aristotle is about how the study carried out by mathematicians differs from that carried out by physicists. Considerations about mathematics being the language of nature can be found in the ideas of the Pythagoreans: the convictions that "Numbers rule the world" and "All is number", and two millennia later were also expressed by Galileo Galilei: "The book of nature is written in the language of mathematics". == Historical interplay == Before giving a mathematical proof for the formula for the volume of a sphere, Archimedes used physical reasoning to discover the solution (imagining


id: relationship-between-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between mathematics and physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:21.160371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Rigor is indispensable in pure mathematics. But many definitions and arguments found in the physics literature involve concepts and ideas that are not up to the standards of rigor in mathematics. For example, Freeman Dyson characterized quantum field theory as having two "faces". The outward face looked at nature and there the predictions of quantum field theory are exceptionally successful. The inward face looked at mathematical foundations and found inconsistency and mystery. The success of the physical theory comes despite its lack of rigorous mathematical backing. Some mathematicians, such as Arthur Jaffe and Frank Quinn, argue that non-rigorous mathematical work can sometimes bring benefits too. == Philosophical problems == Some of the problems considered in the philosophy of mathematics are the following: Explain the effectiveness of mathematics in the study of the physical world: "At this point an enigma presents itself which in all ages has agitated inquiring minds. How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?" —Albert Einstein, in Geometry and Experience (1921). Clearly delineate mathematics and physics: For some results or discoveries, it is difficult to say to


id: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Renaissance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:23.614331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-0
summary:
Science in the Renaissance was predominantly an extension of medieval traditions of natural philosophy but also produced new ideas and methods in mathematics, anatomy and astronomy and included a revolution in the European understanding of the Earth's geography. The collection of ancient scientific texts began in earnest at the start of the 15th century and continued up to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of printing allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. Some scholars have argued that the era was scientifically backward because Renaissance humanists favored human-centered subjects like politics and history over study of natural philosophy or applied mathematics. More recently, however, scholars have acknowledged the positive impact of the rediscovery of lost or obscure texts and the increased focus on the study of language and the correct reading of texts, while also emphasizing how the invention and rapid spread of the moveable type printing press and the encounter with the Americas served as necessary preconditions for the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. == Context == During and after the Renaissance of the 12th century, Europe experienced an intellectual revitalization, especially with regard to the investigation of the natural world. In the 14th century,


id: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Renaissance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:23.614331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-0
summary:
While differing in some respects, alchemy and chemistry often had similar goals during the Renaissance period, and together they are sometimes referred to as chymistry. Alchemy is the study of the transmutation of materials through obscure processes. Although it is often viewed as a pseudoscientific endeavor, many of its practitioners utilized widely accepted scientific theories of their times to formulate hypotheses about the constituents of matter and the ways matter could be changed. One of the main aims of alchemists was to find a method of creating gold and other precious metals from the transmutation of base materials. A common belief of alchemists was that there is an essential substance from which all other substances formed, and that if you could reduce a substance to this original material, you could then construct it into another substance, like lead to gold. Medieval alchemists worked with two main elements or "principles", sulphur and mercury. Paracelsus was a chymist and physician of the Renaissance period who believed that, in addition to sulphur and mercury, salt served as one of the primary alchemical principles from which everything else was made. Paracelsus was also instrumental in helping to put chemical practices to practical medicinal use


id: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Renaissance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:23.614331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-0
summary:
The accomplishments of Greek mathematicians survived throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages through a long and indirect history. Much of the work of Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius, along with later authors such as Hero and Pappus, were copied and studied in both Byzantine culture and in Islamic centers of learning. Translations of these works began already in the 12th century, with the work of translators in Spain and Sicily, working mostly from Arabic and Greek sources into Latin. Two of the most prolific were Gerard of Cremona and William of Moerbeke. The greatest of all translation efforts, however, took place in the 15th and 16th centuries in Italy, as attested by the numerous manuscripts dating from this period currently found in European libraries. Virtually all leading mathematicians of the era were obsessed with the need for restoring the mathematical works of the ancients. Not only did humanists assist mathematicians with the retrieval of Greek manuscripts, they also took an active role in translating these work into Latin, often commissioned by religious leaders such as Nicholas V and Cardinal Bessarion. Some of the leading figures in this effort include Regiomontanus, who made a copy of the Latin Archimedes and had


id: roman-science-origins-development-and-influence-to-the-later-middle-ages-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Roman Science: Origins, Development, and Influence to the Later Middle Ages
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:27.184632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roman-science-origins-development-and-influence-to-the-later-middle-ages-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Science:_Origins,_Development,_and_Influence_to_the_Later_Middle_Ages-0.md

summary:
Roman Science: Origins, Development, and Influence to the Later Middle Ages is a book by science historian William Harris Stahl, published in 1962 by University of Wisconsin Press. == Synopsis == This book covers the history of science in the Latin-speaking West from its Greek origins to the time of the Graeco-Arabic revival, focusing on the influence of Greek science in the Latin world, and on how this influence shaped both scientific education and scientific culture all the way to the Middle Ages. The volume follows what the author calls "the handbooks movement", the production of encyclopedic material originating with Greek authors, such as Posidonius and Theon of Smyrna, and follows this tradition among the Romans. Stahl devotes specific chapters to Pliny, Solinus, Chalcidius, Macrobius, Capella, Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore, Bede, and other authors till about 1250, and discusses the genesis and subsequent development of the liberal arts in the Quadrivium and Trivium from the age of Plato (428–424 BC) and Isocrates (436–338 BC) till the Middle Ages and Renaissance. == Content == The initial section on "Classical Greek Origins" treats the discoveries of Aristarchus of Samos, Pythagora, the Sophists Hippias of Elis and Isocrates, Plato, the mathematician Eudoxus – credited

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Science:_Origins,_Development,_and_Influence_to_the_Later_Middle_Ages


id: s-i-vavilov-institute-for-the-history-of-science-and-technology-ras-20260505-0
category: reference
title: S.I. Vavilov Institute for the History of Science and Technology RAS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.I._Vavilov_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_and_Technology_RAS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:40.768845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: s-i-vavilov-institute-for-the-history-of-science-and-technology-ras-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.I._Vavilov_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_and_Technology_RAS-0.md

summary:
The Sergey Vavilov Institute for the History of Science and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (or Institute for the History of Science and Technology named after S. I. Vavilov RAS (IHIT or IIET RAS)) is the only research institute in Russia for the study of the history of science and technology. It managed by the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences. == History == In 1921, the Russian Academy of Sciences established the "Commission for the Study of the History, Philosophy and Technology" under the chairmanship of Vladimir Vernadsky (later renamed the Commission on the History of Knowledge). From 1930, the commission was chaired by N. I. Bukharin. === Institute of the History of Science and Technology === On February 28, 1932, the Institute of the History of Science and Technology was established on the basis of the CHK, with Bukharin appointed as its first director. Later, the institution was headed by A. A. Maximov, B. G. Kuznetsov, and V. V. Osinsky-Obolensky (1935–1937). The institute was dissolved on February 5, 1938, after being declared a "center of anti-Soviet conspiracy". === Modern Institute === On November 22, 1944, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR issued a


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-0.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
Africa has the world's oldest record of human technological achievement: the oldest surviving stone tools in the world have been found in eastern Africa, and later evidence for tool production by humans' hominin ancestors has been found across West, Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. The history of science and technology in Africa since then has, however, received relatively little attention compared to other regions of the world, despite notable African developments in mathematics, metallurgy, architecture, and other fields. == Early humans == The Great Rift Valley of Africa provides critical evidence for the evolution of early hominins. The earliest tools in the world can be found there as well: An unidentified hominin, possibly Australopithecus afarensis or Kenyanthropus platyops, created stone tools dating to 3.3 million years ago at Lomekwi in the Turkana Basin, eastern Africa. Homo habilis, residing in eastern Africa, developed another early toolmaking industry, the Oldowan, around 2.3 million years ago. Homo erectus developed the Acheulean stone tool industry, specifically hand-axes, at 1.5 million years ago. This tool industry spread to the Middle East and Europe around 800,000 to 600,000 years ago. Homo erectus also begins using fire. Homo sapiens, or modern humans, created bone tools and backed


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-1.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Eastern Africa === Megalithic "pillar sites", known as "namoratunga", date to as early as 5,000 years ago and can be found surrounding Lake Turkana in Kenya. Although somewhat controversial today, initial interpretations suggested that they were used by Cushitic speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. === Southern Africa === Today, South Africa has cultivated a burgeoning astronomy community. It hosts the Southern African Large Telescope, the largest optical telescope in the southern hemisphere. South Africa is currently building the Karoo Array Telescope as a pathfinder for the $20 billion Square Kilometer Array project. South Africa is a finalist, with Australia, to be the host of the SKA. Due to archeological findings it has been speculated that the kingdoms of Zimbabwe such as Great Zimbabwe and mapungubwe used astronomy. Monolith stones with special engravings thought to be used to track Venus were found. They were compared to Mayan calendars and were found to be more accurate than them == Mathematics == According to Paulus Gerdes, the development of geometrical thinking started early in African history, as early humans learned to "geometricize" in the context of their labor activities. For example,


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-2.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively. Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, ancient Egyptian fractions had to be written as the sum of several fractions. For example, the fraction two-fifths was resolved into the sum of one-third + one-fifteenth; this was facilitated by standard tables of values. Some common fractions, however, were written with a special glyph; the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right. Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio. They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result: Area ≈ [(8⁄9)D]2 = (256⁄81)r2 ≈ 3.16r2, a reasonable approximation of the formula πr2. The golden ratio


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-3.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa and the Nile Valley === Nubia was a major source of gold in the ancient world. Gold was a major source of Kushitic wealth and power. Gold was mined East of the Nile in Wadi Allaqi and Wadi Cabgaba. Around 500 BCE, Nubia, during the Meroitic phase, became a major manufacturer and exporter of iron. This was after being expelled from Egypt by Assyrians, who used iron weapons. === East Africa === The Aksumites produced coins around 270 CE, under the rule of King Endybis. Aksumite coins were issued in gold, silver, and bronze. Since 600 BCE, Bantu peoples in Uganda had been producing high-grade carbon steels using preheated forced draft furnaces, a technique achieved in Europe only with the Siemons process in the mid-19th century. Anthropologist Peter Schmidt discovered through the communication of oral tradition that the Haya in Tanzania have been forging steel for over 2000 years. This discovery was made accidentally while Schmidt was learning about the history of the Haya via their oral tradition. He was led to a tree which was said to rest on the spot of an ancestral furnace used to forge steel. When later tasked with the challenge of


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-4.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa and the Sahel === The knowledge of inoculating oneself against smallpox seems to have been known to West Africans, more specifically the Akan. A slave named Onesimus explained the inoculation procedure to Cotton Mather during the 18th century; he reported to have gotten the knowledge from Africa. Bonesetting is practiced by many groups of West Africa (the Akan, Mano, and Yoruba, to name a few). In Djenné the mosquito was isolated to be the cause of malaria, and the removal of cataracts was a common surgical procedure (as in many other parts of Africa). The dangers of tobacco smoking were known to African Muslim scholars, based on Timbuktu manuscripts. Palm oil was important in health and hygiene. A German visiting in 1603-1604 reported that people washed themselves three times a day, "after which they anoint themselves with tallow or with palm oil, which is an excellent medicine". Palm oil protected the skin and hair, and it had cosmetic value in many cultures. Women (and sometimes men) spread palm oil on their skin to "shine the whole day". Palm oil was also a useful way of applying decorative color and perfumes, like powdered camwood. Many Africans considered palm


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-5.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== East Africa === European travelers in the Great Lakes region of Africa during the 19th century reported cases of surgery in the kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara. Medical historians, such as Jack Davies argued in 1959 that Bunyoro's traditional healers were perhaps the most highly skilled in precolonial sub-Saharan Africa, possessing a remarkable level of medical knowledge. One observer noted a "surgical skill which had reached a high standard". Caesarean sections and other abdominal and thoracic operations were performed on a regular basis with the avoidance of haemorrhage and sepsis using antiseptics, anaesthetics and cautery iron. The expectant mother was normally anesthetized with banana wine, and herbal mixtures were used to encourage healing. From the well-developed nature of the procedures employed, European observers concluded that they had been employed for some time. Bunyoro surgeons treated lung inflammations, Pneumonia and pleurisy by punching holes in the chest until the air passed freely. Trephining was carried out and the bones of depressed fractures were elevated. Horrible war wounds, even penetrating abdominal and chest wounds were treated with success, even when this involved quite heroic surgery. Amputations were done by tying a tight ligature just above the line of amputation and neatly cutting off


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-6.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Southern Africa === A South African, Max Theiler, developed a vaccine against yellow fever in 1937. Allan McLeod Cormack developed the theoretical underpinnings of CT scanning and co-invented the CT-scanner. The first human-to-human heart transplant was performed by South African cardiac surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in December 1967. See also Hamilton Naki. During the 1960s, South African Aaron Klug developed crystallographic electron microscopy techniques, in which a sequence of two-dimensional images of crystals taken from different angles are combined to produce three-dimensional images of the target. The Zulu king represented the ultimate public health official. As Ndukwana, one of Stuart's respondents, explains, "All people like the land they lived on belonged to the king. If any man got seriously ill, his illness would be notified to the mnumzana[head-man], who would instantly report the fact to the izinduna (chiefs) and they to the king. The king would then most likely give the order to consult diviners so as to discover the nature and cause of his illness. A sick man in Zululand was always an object of great importance.' In theory the Zulu king and his local chiefs took responsibility for the well-being of their people and


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-7.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
== Agriculture == Tropical soils are typically low in organic matter and so present special problems to agriculturalists. Indeed, African soils, (outside alluvial and volcanic areas) are in large part deficient in the characteristics of structure, texture, and chemistry which mainly determine soil fertility. Tropical areas do not have a winter season, so micro-organisms continue to break down organic matter throughout the year. Tropical soils typically have very small percentages of organic matter or humus (sometimes as little as 1%) as a result. Soils in temperate climates may, in contrast, consist of 12 to 14 or (in virgin soils in the Midwestern United States) up to 16% organic materials, because the cold winters slow the processes of decomposition and allow organic material to build up over time. In many tropical regions, farmers practice a semi-sedentary form of agriculture, using fields for two or three years and then abandoning them for a decade or more (up to 25 years after two years of cultivation in the case of savanna woodlands in Africa), until the humus content has been restored by natural processes. Through careful observation, experimentation and selection of desirable traits over the course of 2,000 years, Africans managed to create


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-8.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
Since communications and markets were relatively poorly developed, the farmer had to sow a great variety of crops with a great variety of characteristics, in order to survive no matter what the climatic variations, so that he would not be, in effect, wiped out. By taking a single ecological zone, understanding its complexity with a thoroughness incomprehensible to even a Westerner, developing a rich and subtle language with a profusion of terms for the understanding of local ecology, planting dozens of crops to which the environment was peculiarly suited, the farmer sought to defeat famine, to cheat death. within the African Great Lakes advanced agriculture practices were employed such as "hydraulic practices in the mountains, man-made watering places, river diversions, hollowed-out tree-trunk pipes, irrigation on cultivated slopes, mounding in drained marshes, and irrigation of banana and palm tree gardens" as well as extensive use of terraces and the practice of double and triple cropping. The agrarian success of the Great Lakes civilization accounts for its exceptionally high levels of human density. Many foreign experts were impressed by the sophistication of the areas traditional methods of intensive farming. The agriculture of the great lakes was described below: The "beautiful irrigated fields",


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-9.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Southern Africa === In order to prevent erosion, southern Africans built dry-stone terraces on steep hillsides. Randall MacIver describes the irrigation technology used in Nyanga, Zimbabwe: The country about Inyanga is well watered, but it would seem that the old inhabitants required a more general distribution of the supply than was afforded by the numerous streams running down from the hills. Accordingly, they adopted a practice which has been prevalent under similar conditions in several other countries, Algeria being one instancewhich has come under the waiter's own observation. The stream was tapped at a point near its source, and part of the water deflected by a stone dam. This gave them a high-level conduit, by which the water could be carried along the side of a hill and allowed to descend more gradually than the parent stream. There are very many such conduits in the Inyanga region, and they often run for several miles. The gradients are admirably calculated, with a skill which is not always equalled by modern engineers with their elaborate instruments. The dams are well and strongly built of unworked stones without mortar; the conduits themselves are simple trenches about one metre in depth. The earth


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-10.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa === Egyptians wore linen from the flax plant, and used looms as early as 4000 BCE. Nubians mainly wore cotton, beaded leather, and linen. The Djellaba was made typically of wool and worn in the Maghreb. === West Africa and the Sahel === Valentim Fenandes, writing in the early sixteenth century on the basis of news received in Lisbon from early travellers, praised the high quality of Mandinka cotton cloth that was found all along the west coast of West Africa Such comments were repeated with regard to the cotton cloth of the "Slave Coast" and Benin as well, produced especially in centers in the Yoruba country. John Phillips, an English captain who sailed to the Slave Coast at the end of the seventeenth century, was particularly impressed with local cloth, some of which was purchased by the European traders and fetched high prices in the New World. Some of the oldest surviving African textiles were discovered at the archaeological site of Kissi in northern Burkina Faso. They are made of wool or fine animal hair in a weft-faced plain weave pattern. Fragments of textile have also survived from the thirteenth century Benin City in Nigeria. In


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-11.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Central Africa === Among Kuba people, in present-day Democratic Republic of Congo, raffia clothes were woven. They used the fibers of the leaves on the raffia palm tree. Weaving with palm leaves was a highly developed art in Central Africa, and European travelers and missionaries compared woven palm-leaf cloth to the finest European-made silks. Filippo Pigafetta praised the "marvelous arte" of "making cloaths of sundry sortes, as Velvets shorne and unshorne, Sattens, Taffata, Damaskes, Sarcenettes and such like" in the eastern provinces and areas adjoining Kongo. Sarcenet was a fine silk, but, unlike that made in Europe, the type made in "this countrey and other places thereabouts" was "not of any silken stuffe" but "of the leaves of Palme trees." Indeed, the finest specimens were too "precious" for any but "the king, and such as it pleaseth him". Cavazzi wrote that the beaten leaves of one type of palm resulted in such fine, soft fibers that the weave of the cloth thus produced brought him to "astonishment". To produce such finely woven luxury cloth, the leaves had to be worked to a greater degree than the tying and laying required for thatching. Pigafetta noted that the process started with


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-12.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa and the Nile Valley === Carthage's fleet included large numbers of quadriremes and quinqueremes, warships with four and five ranks of rowers. Its ships dominated the Mediterranean. The Romans however were masters at copying and adapting the technology of other peoples. According to Polybius, the Romans seized a shipwrecked Carthaginian warship, and used it as a blueprint a massive naval build-up, adding their own refinement – the corvus – which allowed an enemy vessel to be "gripped" and boarded for hand-to-hand fighting. This negated initially superior Carthaginian seamanship and ships. Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC (5000 BCE). The oldest ships yet unearthed, a group of 14 discovered in Abydos, were constructed from wooden planks which were "sewn" together. Woven straps were used to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary complex belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally the boats were all thought to have belonged to him. One of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BCE, however, and is now thought to perhaps have


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-13.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa and the Sahel === A Nok sculpture portrays two individuals, along with their goods, in a dugout canoe. Both of the anthropomorphic figures in the watercraft are paddling. The Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe may indicate that Nok people utilized dugout canoes to transport cargo, along tributaries (e.g., Gurara River) of the Niger River, and exchanged them in a regional trade network. The Nok terracotta depiction of a figure with a seashell on its head may indicate that the span of these riverine trade routes may have extended to the Atlantic Coast. In the maritime history of Africa, there is the earlier Dufuna canoe, which was constructed approximately 8000 years ago in the northern region of Nigeria; as the second earliest form of water vessel known in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe was created in the central region of Nigeria during the first millennium BCE. In the 14th century CE King Abubakari II, the brother of King Mansa Musa of the Mali Empire is thought to have had a great number of boats sitting on the coast of West Africa. The boats would communicate with each other by drums. Malian


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-14.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== East Africa === It is known that ancient Axum traded with India, and there is evidence that ships from Northeast Africa may have sailed back and forth between India/Sri Lanka and Nubia trading goods and even to Persia, Himyar and Rome. Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece and Yemen. Elsewhere in Northeast Africa, the 1st century CE Greek travelogue Periplus of the Red Sea reports that Somalis, through their northern ports such as Zeila and Berbera, were trading frankincense and other items with the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula as well as with the then Roman-controlled Egypt. Middle Age Swahili kingdoms are known to have had trade port islands and trade routes with the Islamic world and Asia and were described by Greek historians are "metropolises". Famous African trade ports such as Mombasa, Zanzibar, Mogadishu and Kilwa were known to Chinese sailors such as Zheng He and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager Abu Abdullah ibn Battuta. The dhow was the ship of trade used by the Swahili. They could be massive. It was a dhow that transported a giraffe to Chinese Emperor Yong Le's court, in 1414. Few


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-15.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa and the Nile Valley === Africa's first writing system and the beginning of the alphabet was Egyptian hieroglyphs. Two scripts have been the direct offspring of Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Proto-Sinaitic script and the Meroitic alphabet. Out of Proto-Sinaitic came the South Arabian alphabet and Phoenician alphabet, out of which the Aramaic alphabet, Greek alphabet, the Brāhmī script, Arabic alphabet were directly or indirectly derived. Out of the South Arabian alphabet came the Ge'ez alphabet which is used to write Blin(cushitic), Amharic, Tigre, and Tigrinya in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Out the Phoenician Alphabet came tifinagh, the berber alphabet mainly used by the Tuaregs. The other direct offspring of Egyptian hieroglyphs was the Meroitic alphabet. It began in the Napatan phase of Nubian history, Kush (700–300 BCE). It came into full fruition in the 2nd century, under the successor Nubian kingdom of Meroë. The script can be read but not understood, with the discovery at el-Hassa, Sudan of ram statues bearing meroitic inscriptions might assist in its translation. === The Sahel === With the arrival of Islam came the Arabic alphabet in the Sahel. Arabic writing is widespread in the Sahel. The Arabic script was also used to write


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-16.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
It is especially interesting that the form of writing that developed in Bunyoro was based on a floral code, as the absence of both writing and flowers in African culture have been used by Jack Goody as evidence of African culture's separateness from that of "Eurasia." Goody has written that African peoples generally did not make significant use of flowers in worship, gift-giving or decoration. He does "not know of any indigenous use of odours", nor of plants playing a role in stories or myths. This is thought to be because of Africa's "simple" agriculture, "non-complex" societies and absence of a "culture of luxury". This description of African life does not fit well with what we know of precolonial Bunyoro, a large, relatively ancient, and extremely hierarchical kingdom, and the analysis of the role of flowers was quite inaccurate. The ancient court music composers of Buganda discovered how human auditory perception processes a complex sequence of rapid, irregular sound impulses by splitting the total image into perceptible units at different pitch levels. They had made use of their discovery in composition, creating indirectly polyphonies of interweaving melodic lines that would suggest words to a Luganda speaker, as if some spirit


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-17.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa === Between 3200 BP and 1000 BP, various Central Saharan rock art sites from the Horse Period were created depicting charioteers, mostly upon horse-driven chariots and rarely upon cattle-driven chariots; these painted and engraved depictions were distributed in 81 painted and 120 engraved depictions in Algeria, 18 painted and 44 engraved depictions in Libya, 6 engraved depictions in Mali, 125 engraved depictions in Mauritania, 96 engraved depictions in Morocco, 29 engraved depictions in Niger, and 21 engraved depictions in Western Sahara, and were likely created by the Garamantes, whose ancestors were ancient Berbers and Saharan pastoralists. Rock art engravings of ox-drawn wagons and horse-driven chariots can be found in Algeria, Libya, southern Morocco, Mauritania, and Niger. At Dhar Tichitt, there is Neolithic rock art that depicts a human figure with a link in their hand, connecting him to yoked oxen that are pulling a cart. At Dhar Walata, there is Neolithic rock art that depicts a human figure in relation to an ox cart. At Bled Initi, which is a hamlet near Akreijit, there are two depictions of ox carts that have been estimated to date between 650 BCE and 380 BCE, and are consistent with the


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-18.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa === Fortification was a major part of defense, integral to warfare. Massive earthworks were built around cities and settlements in West Africa, typically defended by soldiers with bow and poison-tipped arrows. The earthworks are some of the largest man made structures in Africa and the world such as the walls of Benin and Sungbo's Eredo. In Central Africa, the Angola region, one find preference for ditches, which were more successful for defense against wars with Europeans. African infantry did not just include men. The state of Dahomey included all-female units, the so-called Dahomey Amazons, who were personal bodyguards of the king. The Queen Mother of Benin had her own personal army, 'The Queen's Own.' Biologicals were extensively used in many parts of Africa, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, but also powder spread on the war front or in the form of the poisoning of horses and water supply of the opponents. In Borgu, there were specific mixtures to kill, for hypnosis, to make the enemy bold, and to act as an antidote against the enemies' poison. A specific class of medicine-men was responsible for the making of the biologicals. In South Sudan,


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-19.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa and the Nile Valley === Carthage imported gold, copper, ivory, and slaves from tropical Africa. Carthage exported salt, cloth, metal goods. Before camels were used in the trans-Saharan trade pack animals, oxen, donkeys, mules, and horses were utilized. Extensive use of camels began in the 1st century CE. Carthage minted gold, silver, bronze, and electrum(mix gold and silver) coins mainly for fighting wars with Greeks and Romans. Most of their fighting force were mercenaries, who had to be paid. Islamic North Africa made use of the Almoravid dinar and Fatimid dinar, gold coins. The Almoravid dinar and the Fatimid dinar were printed on gold from the Sahelian empires. The ducat of Genoa and Venice and the florine of Florence were also printed on gold from the Sahelian empires. Ancient Egypt imported ivory, gold, incense, hardwood, and ostrich feather. Nubia exported gold, cotton/cotton cloth, ostrich feathers, leopard skins, ivory, ebony, and iron/iron weapons. === West Africa and the Sahel === Cowries have been used as currency in West Africa since the 11th century when their use was first recorded near Old Ghana. Its use may have been much older. Sijilmasa in present-day Morocco seems to be a major


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-20.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:42.095772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa === Igbo Olokun, also known as Olokun Grove, may be one of the earliest workshops for producing glass in West Africa. Glass production may have begun during, if not before, the 11th century. The 11th–15th century were the peak of glass production. High lime, high alumina (HLHA) and low lime, high alumina (LLHA) glass are distinct compositions that were developed using locally sourced recipes, raw materials, and pyrotechnology. The presence of HLHA glass beads discovered throughout West Africa (e.g., Igbo-Ukwu in southern Nigeria, Gao and Essouk in Mali, and Kissi in Burkina Faso), after the ninth century CE, reveals the broader importance of this glass industry in the region and shows its participation in regional trade networks (e.g., trans-Saharan trade, trans-Atlantic trade). Glass beads served as "the currency for negotiating political power, economic relations, and cultural/spiritual values" for "Yoruba, West Africans, and the African diaspora." == Science and traditional worldviews == Bandama and Babalola (2023) states: The view of science as "embedded practice", intimately connected with ritual, for example, is considered "ascientific", "pseudo-science", or "magic" in Western perspective. In Africa, there is a strong connection between the physical and the terrestrial worlds. The deities and gods are


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:43.302766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology in Germany has a long and illustrious history, and research and development efforts form an integral part of the country's economy. Germany has been the home of some of the most prominent researchers in various scientific disciplines, notably physics, mathematics, chemistry and engineering. Before World War II, Germany had produced more Nobel laureates in scientific fields than any other nation, and was the preeminent country in the natural sciences. Germany is currently the nation with the 3rd most Nobel Prize winners, 115. The German language, along with English and French, was one of the leading languages of science from the late 19th century until the end of World War II. After the war, because so many scientific researchers' and teachers' careers had been ended either by Nazi Germany which started a brain drain, the denazification process, the American Operation Paperclip and Soviet Operation Osoaviakhim which exacerbated the brain drain in post-war Germany, or simply losing the war, "Germany, German science, and German as the language of science had all lost their leading position in the scientific community." Today, scientific research in the country is supported by industry, the network of German universities and scientific state-institutions such as


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:43.302766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Johannes Kepler discovered the laws according to which planets are moving around the Sun, who were called Kepler's laws after him. With his introduction to calculating with logarithms, Kepler contributed to the spread of this type of calculation. In mathematics, a numerical method for calculating the volume of wine barrels with integrals was named former Kepler's barrel rule. He made optics to a subject of scientific investigation and confirmed the discoveries made with the telescope by his Italian contemporary Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). He worked on the theory of the telescope and invented the refracting astronomical or Keplerian telescope, which involved a considerable improvement over the Galilean telescope. Kepler also made the invention of the valveless gear pump, because a mine owner needed a device to pump water out of his mine. === Physics === Otto von Guericke (1602–1686) was a scientist, inventor, mathematician and physicist from Magdeburg. He is best known for his experiments on air pressure using the Magdeburg hemispheres. With the invention of the vacuum pump he laid the foundation of vacuum technology. Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736) was a physicist and inventor of measuring instruments from Danzig. The temperature unit degrees Fahrenheit (°F) was named after him. Gustav


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:43.302766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such as Johannes Gutenberg, who is credited with the invention of movable type printing press in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first electronic computer. German inventors, engineers and industrialists such as Zeppelin, Siemens, Daimler, Otto, Wankel, Von Braun and Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology including the beginnings of space travel. The engineer Otto Lilienthal laid some of the fundamentals for the science of aviation. The physicist and optician Ernst Abbe (1840–1905) founded in the 19th century together with the entrepreneurs Carl Zeiss (1840–1905) and Otto Schott (1851–1935) the basics of modern Optical engineering and developed many optical instruments like microscopes and telescopes. Since 1899 he was the sole owner of the Carl Zeiss AG and played a decisive role of setting up the enterprise Jenaer Glaswerk Schott & Gen (today Schott AG). These enterprises are very successful worldwide up to present time (21st century). The engineer Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913) was the inventor of an internal combustion engine, the Diesel engine. He first published his idea of an engine with a particularly high level of efficiency


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:43.302766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Besides natural sciences, German researchers have added much to the development of humanities. Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) was a polymath, philosopher, lawyer, natural scientist, theologian, Dominican and Bishop of Regensburg. His great, diverse knowledge earned him the name Magnus ("the Great"), the title of Doctor of the Church and the honorary title of doctor universalis. Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768) was a German art historian and archaeologist, "the prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology". Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890) was a wealthy businessman and a devotee of the historicity of places mentioned in the works of Homer and an archaeological excavator of Hisarlik (since 1871), now presumed to be the site of Troy, along with the Mycenaean sites Mycenae and Tiryns. Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903) is widely counted as one of the greatest classicists of the 19th century; his work regarding Roman history is still of fundamental importance for contemporary research. Max Weber (1864–1920) was together with Karl Marx (1818–1883) among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society and is regarded as one of the founder of the Sociology. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was a philosopher of the Enlightenment and professor of logic and metaphysics in Königsberg. Kant is one


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:43.302766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Benjamin List, Chemistry, 2021 Klaus Hasselmann, Physics, 2021 Reinhard Genzel, Physics, 2020 Joachim Frank, Chemistry, 2017 Thomas C. Südhof, Physiology or Medicine, 2013 Harald zur Hausen, Physiology or Medicine, 2008 Gerhard Ertl, Chemistry, 2007 Peter Grünberg, Physics, 2007 Theodor W. Hänsch, Physics, 2005 Wolfgang Ketterle, Physics, 2001 Herbert Kroemer, Physics, 2000 Günter Blobel, Physiology or Medicine, 1999 Horst L. Störmer, Physics, 1998 Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Physiology or Medicine, 1995 Reinhard Selten, Economics, 1994 Bert Sakmann, Physiology or Medicine, 1991 Erwin Neher, Physiology or Medicine, 1991 Hans G. Dehmelt, Physics, 1989 Wolfgang Paul, Physics, 1989 Johann Deisenhofer, Chemistry, 1988 Robert Huber, Chemistry, 1988 Hartmut Michel, Chemistry, 1988 J. Georg Bednorz, Physics, 1987 Ernst Ruska, Physics, 1986 Gerd Binnig, Physics, 1986 Klaus von Klitzing, Physics, 1985 Georges J.F. Köhler, Physiology or Medicine, 1984 Georg Wittig, Chemistry, 1979 Ernst Otto Fischer, Chemistry, 1973 Karl von Frisch, Physiology or Medicine, 1973 Max Delbrück, Physiology or Medicine, 1969 Manfred Eigen, Chemistry, 1967 Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, Physiology or Medicine, 1964 Karl Ziegler, Chemistry, 1963 Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Physics, 1963 J. Hans D. Jensen, Physics, 1963 Rudolf Mössbauer, Physics, 1961 Werner Forssmann, Physiology or Medicine, 1956 Polykarp Kusch, Physics, 1955 Max Born, Physics, 1954 Walther Bothe, Physics, 1954


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:44.696722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
The history of science during the Enlightenment traces developments in science and technology as Enlightenment ideas and ideals were being disseminated across Europe and North America. Generally, the period spans from the final days of the 16th- and 17th-century Scientific Revolution until roughly the 19th century, after the French Revolution (1789) and the Napoleonic era (1799–1815). The scientific revolution saw the creation of the first scientific societies, the rise of Copernicanism, and the displacement of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Galen's ancient medical doctrine. By the 18th century, scientific authority began to displace religious authority, and the disciplines of alchemy and astrology lost scientific credibility. While the Enlightenment cannot be pigeonholed into a specific doctrine or set of dogmas, science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Jean-Jacques Rousseau criticized the


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:44.696722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
Universities in France tended to serve a downplayed role in the development of science during the Enlightenment; that role was dominated by the scientific academies, such as the French Academy of Sciences. The contributions of universities in Britain were mixed. On the one hand, the University of Cambridge began teaching Newtonianism early in the Enlightenment, but failed to become a central force behind the advancement of science. On the other end of the spectrum were Scottish universities, which had strong medical faculties and became centres of scientific development. Under Frederick II, German universities began to promote the sciences. Christian Wolff's unique blend of Cartesian-Leibnizian physics began to be adopted in universities outside of Halle. The University of Göttingen, founded in 1734, was far more liberal than its counterparts, allowing professors to plan their own courses and select their own textbooks. Göttingen also emphasized research and publication. A further influential development in German universities was the abandonment of Latin in favour of the German vernacular. In the 17th century, the Netherlands had played a significant role in the advancement of the sciences, including Isaac Beeckman's mechanical philosophy and Christiaan Huygens' work on the calculus and in astronomy. Professors at universities in


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:44.696722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
The limitations of such academic journals left considerable space for the rise of independent periodicals. Some eminent examples include Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch's Der Naturforscher (The Natural Investigator) (1725–1778), Journal des sçavans (1665–1792), the Jesuit Mémoires de Trévoux (1701–1779), and Leibniz's Acta Eruditorum (Reports/Acts of the Scholars) (1682–1782). Independent periodicals were published throughout the Enlightenment and excited scientific interest in the general public. While the journals of the academies primarily published scientific papers, independent periodicals were a mix of reviews, abstracts, translations of foreign texts, and sometimes derivative, reprinted materials. Most of these texts were published in the local vernacular, so their continental spread depended on the language of the readers. For example, in 1761 Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov correctly attributed the ring of light around Venus, visible during the planet's transit, as the planet's atmosphere; however, because few scientists understood Russian outside of Russia, his discovery was not widely credited until 1910. Some changes in periodicals occurred during the course of the Enlightenment. First, they increased in number and size. There was also a move away from publishing in Latin in favour of publishing in the vernacular. Experimental descriptions became more detailed and began to be accompanied by reviews.


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-3.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:44.696722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each. The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge". The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive,


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-4.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:44.696722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Popular science in print === Increasing literacy rates in Europe during the course of the Enlightenment enabled science to enter popular culture through print. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular. The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. However, science took an ever greater step towards popular culture before Voltaire's introduction and Châtelet's translation. The publication of Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) marked the first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind. The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-5.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:44.696722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
Despite these limitations, there was support for women in the sciences among some men, and many made valuable contributions to science during the 18th century. Two notable women who managed to participate in formal institutions were Laura Bassi and the Russian Princess Yekaterina Dashkova. Bassi was an Italian physicist who received a PhD from the University of Bologna and began teaching there in 1732. Dashkova became the director of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg in 1783. Her personal relationship with Empress Catherine the Great (r. 1762–1796) allowed her to obtain the position, which marked in history the first appointment of a woman to the directorship of a scientific academy. Eva Ekeblad became the first woman inducted into the Royal Swedish Academy of Science (1748). More commonly, women participated in the sciences through an association with a male relative or spouse. Caroline Herschel began her astronomical career, although somewhat reluctantly at first, by assisting her brother William Herschel. Caroline Herschel is most remembered for her discovery of eight comets and her Index to Flamsteed's Observations of the Fixed Stars (1798). On August 1, 1786, Herschel discovered her first comet, much to the excitement of scientifically minded women.


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-6.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:44.696722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
The chemical revolution was a period in the 18th century marked by significant advancements in the theory and practice of chemistry. Despite the maturity of most of the sciences during the scientific revolution, by the mid-18th century chemistry had yet to outline a systematic framework or theoretical doctrine. Elements of alchemy still permeated the study of chemistry, and the belief that the natural world was composed of the classical elements of earth, water, air and fire remained prevalent. The key achievement of the chemical revolution has traditionally been viewed as the abandonment of phlogiston theory in favour of Antoine Lavoisier's oxygen theory of combustion; however, more recent studies attribute a wider range of factors as contributing forces behind the chemical revolution. Developed under Johann Joachim Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl, phlogiston theory was an attempt to account for products of combustion. According to the theory, a substance called phlogiston was released from flammable materials through burning. The resulting product was termed calx, which was considered a 'dephlogisticated' substance in its 'true' form. The first strong evidence against phlogiston theory came from pneumatic chemists in Britain during the later half of the 18th century. Joseph Black, Joseph Priestley and Henry Cavendish


id: list-of-scientific-priority-disputes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_priority_disputes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific priority disputes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_priority_disputes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:47.162222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-priority-disputes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of priority disputes in history of science and science-related fields (such as mathematics). == Astronomy == 1558 invention of the geoheliocentric system: Tycho Brahe, Nicolaus Raimarus Ursus 1609–1610 Galilean moons: Galileo, Simon Marius 1612 discovery of sunspots: Galileo Galilei, Christoph Scheiner 1846 prediction of Neptune: Urbain Le Verrier, John Couch Adams 2004–2005 controversy over the discovery of Haumea: José Luis Ortiz Moreno, Michael E. Brown. == Biology and medicine == 1652 discovery of the lymphatic system: Olof Rudbeck, Thomas Bartholin c. 1660 teaching a deaf-mute person to speak: John Wallis, William Holder c. 1667 first human blood transfusion: Richard Lower, Henry Oldenburg, Jean-Baptiste Denys c. 1859 development of the theory of evolution: Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, Patrick Matthew 1877–1892 Bone Wars: Edward Drinker Cope, Othniel Charles Marsh. 1882–1889: Koch–Pasteur rivalry: Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch. 1899–1902 discovery of the life cycle of malarial parasite: Giovanni Battista Grassi, Ronald Ross 1953–1962 discovery of the DNA structure: Francis Crick, James D. Watson, Rosalind Franklin, Erwin Chargaff, Oswald Avery 1971–1973 discovery of opiate receptors: Candace Pert, Solomon H. Snyder1971–1975 invention of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Paul Lauterbur, Peter Mansfield, Raymond Vahan Damadian, and others (see 2003 Nobel Prize in


id: second-international-congress-of-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_International_Congress_of_the_History_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Second International Congress of the History of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_International_Congress_of_the_History_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:48.394406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: second-international-congress-of-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Second International Congress of the History of Science was held in London from June 29 to July 4, 1931. The Congress was organised by the International Committee of History of Science, in conjunction with the Comité International des Sciences Historiques. The History of Science Society and the Newcomen Society also supported the event. Charles Singer presided over the congress. Although organised by the International Committee of History of Science, it was during this congress that this organisation was transformed into an individual membership organisation called the International Academy of the History of Science. The inaugural session was held in the Great Hall of the Royal Geographical Society. This was opened by Hastings Lees-Smith, President of the Board of Education. The rest of the congress was conducted in four sessions held in the lecture hall of the Science Museum. == Sessions == === The Sciences as an integral Part of General Historical Study === This session was chaired by Gino Loria (University of Genoa). George Clark (University of Oxford) initiated the session pleading that science has a truer sense of history than any other sphere of human activity. William Cecil Dampier then presented a hierarchical approach to the history of


id: stalin-and-the-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin_and_the_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Stalin and the Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin_and_the_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:50.746452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stalin-and-the-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
Stalin and the Scientists: A History of Triumph and Tragedy 1905–1953 is a 2016 popular science non-fiction book on the history of science in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin by English novelist and science writer, Simon Ings. It is Ings' second non-fiction book, the first being The Eye: A Natural History (2007). He had previously published eight novels. Stalin and the Scientists was longlisted for the 2016 Baillie Gifford Prize for Non-Fiction. == Background == Ings' inspiration for Stalin and the Scientists came from Soviet psychologist, Alexander Luria's book Mind of a Mnemonist, about the life of Russian journalist and mnemonist, Solomon Shereshevsky. Ings said in 2016 interviews that Luria is often referred to as the founder of modern neuroanatomy and "the godfather of the literary genre we call popular science". "Luria's account more or less set the template for modern popular science and ... pretty much set me on the path I'm on now." Ings had considered writing a biography about Luria, but felt that while Luria's achievements were "extraordinary", considering the climate of political repression he worked in, Ings was concerned that Western readers would consider his career too ordinary, and would miss the context in which


id: supersymmetry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-0.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:51.934696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
Supersymmetry is a theoretical framework in physics that suggests the existence of a symmetry between particles with integer spin (bosons) and particles with half-integer spin (fermions). It proposes that for every known particle, there exists a partner particle with different spin properties. There have been multiple experiments on supersymmetry that have failed to provide evidence that it exists in nature. If evidence is found, supersymmetry could help explain certain phenomena, such as the nature of dark matter and the hierarchy problem in particle physics. A supersymmetric theory is a theory in which the equations for force and the equations for matter are identical. In theoretical and mathematical physics, any theory with this property has the principle of supersymmetry (SUSY). Dozens of supersymmetric theories exist. In theory, supersymmetry is a type of spacetime symmetry between two basic classes of particles: bosons, which have an integer-valued spin and follow Bose–Einstein statistics, and fermions, which have a half-integer-valued spin and follow Fermi–Dirac statistics. The names of bosonic partners of fermions are prefixed with s-, because they are scalar particles. For example, if the electron existed in a supersymmetric theory, then there would be a particle called a selectron (superpartner electron), a bosonic partner


id: supersymmetry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-1.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:51.934696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
{ Q α , Q ¯ β ˙ } = 2 ( σ μ ) α β ˙ P μ {\displaystyle \{Q_{\alpha },{\bar {Q}}_{\dot {\beta }}\}=2(\sigma ^{\mu })_{\alpha {\dot {\beta }}}P_{\mu }} and all other anti-commutation relations between the Q {\displaystyle Q} s and commutation relations between the Q {\displaystyle Q} s and P {\displaystyle P} s vanish. In the above expression P μ = − i ∂ μ {\displaystyle P_{\mu }=-i\partial _{\mu }} are the generators of translation and σ μ {\displaystyle \sigma ^{\mu }} are the Pauli matrices. There are representations of a Lie superalgebra that are analogous to representations of a Lie algebra. Each Lie algebra has an associated Lie group and a Lie superalgebra can sometimes be extended into representations of a Lie supergroup. === Supersymmetric quantum mechanics === Supersymmetric quantum mechanics adds the SUSY superalgebra to quantum mechanics as opposed to quantum field theory. Supersymmetric quantum mechanics often becomes relevant when studying the dynamics of supersymmetric solitons, and due to the simplified nature of having fields which are only functions of time (rather than space-time), a great deal of progress has been made in this subject and it is now studied in its own right.


id: supersymmetry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-2.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:51.934696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
All stochastic (partial) differential equations, the models for all types of continuous time dynamical systems, possess topological supersymmetry. In the operator representation of stochastic evolution, the topological supersymmetry is the exterior derivative which is commutative with the stochastic evolution operator defined as the stochastically averaged pullback induced on differential forms by SDE-defined diffeomorphisms of the phase space. The topological sector of the so-emerging supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics can be recognized as the Witten-type topological field theory. The meaning of the topological supersymmetry in dynamical systems is the preservation of the phase space continuity—infinitely close points will remain close during continuous time evolution even in the presence of noise. When the topological supersymmetry is broken spontaneously, this property is violated in the limit of the infinitely long temporal evolution and the model can be said to exhibit (the stochastic generalization of) the butterfly effect. From a more general perspective, spontaneous breakdown of the topological supersymmetry is the theoretical essence of the ubiquitous dynamical phenomenon variously known as chaos, turbulence, self-organized criticality etc. The Goldstone theorem explains the associated emergence of the long-range dynamical behavior that manifests itself as ⁠1/f⁠ noise, butterfly effect, and the scale-free statistics of sudden (instantonic) processes,


id: supersymmetry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-3.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:51.934696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
Incorporating supersymmetry into the Standard Model requires doubling the number of particles since there is no way that any of the particles in the Standard Model can be superpartners of each other. With the addition of new particles, there are many possible new interactions. The simplest possible supersymmetric model consistent with the Standard Model is the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) which can include the necessary additional new particles that are able to be superpartners of those in the Standard Model. One of the original motivations for the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model came from the hierarchy problem. Due to the quadratically divergent contributions to the Higgs mass squared in the Standard Model, the quantum mechanical interactions of the Higgs boson causes a large renormalization of the Higgs mass and unless there is an accidental cancellation, the natural size of the Higgs mass is the greatest scale possible. Furthermore, the electroweak scale receives enormous Planck-scale quantum corrections. The observed hierarchy between the electroweak scale and the Planck scale must be achieved with extraordinary fine tuning. This problem is known as the hierarchy problem. Supersymmetry close to the electroweak scale, such as in the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, would solve the hierarchy


id: supersymmetry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-4.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:51.934696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Searches and constraints for supersymmetry === SUSY extensions of the Standard Model are constrained by a variety of experiments, including measurements of low-energy observables – for example, the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon at Fermilab; the WMAP dark matter density measurement and direct detection experiments – for example, XENON-100 and LUX; and by particle collider experiments, including B-physics, Higgs phenomenology and direct searches for superpartners (sparticles), at the Large Electron–Positron Collider, Tevatron and the LHC. In fact, CERN publicly states that if a supersymmetric model of the Standard Model "is correct, supersymmetric particles should appear in collisions at the LHC". Historically, the tightest limits were from direct production at colliders. The first mass limits for squarks and gluinos were made at CERN by the UA1 experiment and the UA2 experiment at the Super Proton Synchrotron. LEP later set very strong limits, which in 2006 were extended by the D0 experiment at the Tevatron. From 2003 to 2015, WMAP's and Planck's dark matter density measurements have strongly constrained supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model, which, if they explain dark matter, have to be tuned to invoke a particular mechanism to sufficiently reduce the neutralino density. Prior to the beginning


id: supersymmetry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-5.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:51.934696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Extended supersymmetry === It is possible to have more than one kind of supersymmetry transformation. Theories with more than one supersymmetry transformation are known as extended supersymmetric theories. The more supersymmetry a theory has, the more constrained are the field content and interactions. Typically the number of copies of a supersymmetry is a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8...). In four dimensions, a spinor has four degrees of freedom and thus the minimal number of supersymmetry generators is four in four dimensions and having eight copies of supersymmetry means that there are 32 supersymmetry generators. The maximal number of supersymmetry generators possible is 32. Theories with more than 32 supersymmetry generators automatically have massless fields with spin greater than 2. It is not known how to make massless fields with spin greater than two interact, so the maximal number of supersymmetry generators considered is 32. This is due to the Weinberg–Witten theorem. This corresponds to an N = 8 supersymmetry theory. Theories with 32 supersymmetries automatically have a graviton. For four dimensions there are the following theories, with the corresponding multiplets (CPT adds a copy, whenever they are not invariant under such symmetry): === Supersymmetry in alternate numbers


id: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar-0.md
category: reference
title: History of synthetic-aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:53.174378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
The history of synthetic-aperture radar begins in 1951, with the invention of the technology by mathematician Carl A. Wiley, and its development in the following decade. Initially developed for military use, the technology has since been applied in the field of planetary science. == Invention == Carl A. Wiley, a mathematician at Goodyear Aircraft Company in Litchfield Park, Arizona, invented synthetic-aperture radar in June 1951 while working on a correlation guidance system for the Atlas ICBM program. In early 1952, Wiley, together with Fred Heisley and Bill Welty, constructed a concept validation system known as DOUSER ("Doppler Unbeamed Search Radar"). During the 1950s and 1960s, Goodyear Aircraft (later Goodyear Aerospace) introduced numerous advancements in SAR technology, many with help from Don Beckerleg. Independently of Wiley's work, experimental trials in early 1952 by Sherwin and others at the University of Illinois' Control Systems Laboratory showed results that they pointed out "could provide the basis for radar systems with greatly improved angular resolution" and might even lead to systems capable of focusing at all ranges simultaneously. In both of those programs, processing of the radar returns was done by electrical-circuit filtering methods. In essence, signal strength in isolated discrete bands of Doppler


id: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar-1.md
category: reference
title: History of synthetic-aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:53.174378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technical and scientific basis === The required data processing amounted to calculating cross-correlations of the received signals with samples of the forms of signals to be expected from unit-amplitude sources at the various ranges. At that time, even large digital computers had capabilities somewhat near the levels of today's four-function handheld calculators, hence were nowhere near able to do such a huge amount of computation. Instead, the device for doing the correlation computations was to be an optical correlator. It was proposed that signals received by the traveling antenna and coherently detected be displayed as a single range-trace line across the diameter of the face of a cathode-ray tube, the line's successive forms being recorded as images projected onto a film traveling perpendicular to the length of that line. The information on the developed film was to be subsequently processed in the laboratory on equipment still to be devised as a principal task of the project. In the initial processor proposal, an arrangement of lenses was expected to multiply the recorded signals point-by-point with the known signal forms by passing light successively through both the signal film and another film containing the known signal pattern. The subsequent summation, or


id: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar-2.md
category: reference
title: History of synthetic-aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:53.174378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
=== Results === Michigan's chosen 5-foot (1.5 m)-wide World War II-surplus antenna was theoretically capable of 5-foot (1.5 m) resolution, but data from only 10% of the beamwidth was used at first, the goal at that time being to demonstrate 50-foot (15 m) resolution. It was understood that finer resolution would require the added development of means for sensing departures of the aircraft from an ideal heading and flight path, and for using that information for making needed corrections to the antenna pointing and to the received signals before processing. After numerous trials in which even small atmospheric turbulence kept the aircraft from flying straight and level enough for good 50-foot (15 m) data, one pre-dawn flight in August 1957 yielded a map-like image of the Willow Run Airport area which did demonstrate 50-foot (15 m) resolution in some parts of the image, whereas the illuminated beam width there was 900 feet (270 m). Although the program had been considered for termination by DoD due to what had seemed to be a lack of results, that first success ensured further funding to continue development leading to solutions to those recognized needs. == Public acknowledgement == The SAR principle was first


id: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar-3.md
category: reference
title: History of synthetic-aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:53.174378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
== Digitisation == After the initial work began, several of the capabilities for creating useful classified systems did not exist for another two decades. That seemingly slow rate of advances was often paced by the progress of other inventions, such as the laser, the digital computer, circuit miniaturization, and compact data storage. Once the laser appeared, optical data processing became a fast process because it provided many parallel analog channels, but devising optical chains suited to matching signal focal lengths to ranges proceeded by many stages and turned out to call for some novel optical components. Since the process depended on diffraction of light waves, it required anti-vibration mountings, clean rooms, and highly trained operators. Even at its best, its use of CRTs and film for data storage placed limits on the range depth of images. At several stages, attaining the frequently over-optimistic expectations for digital computation equipment proved to take far longer than anticipated. For example, the SEASAT system was ready to orbit before its digital processor became available, so a quickly assembled optical recording and processing scheme had to be used to obtain timely confirmation of system operation. In 1978, the first digital SAR processor was developed by


id: table-turning-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table-turning-0.md
category: reference
title: Table-turning
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table-turning
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:54.426619+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-turning-20260505-0
summary:
Table-turning (also known as table-tapping, table-tipping or table-tilting) is a type of séance in which participants sit around a table, place their hands on it, and wait for rotations. The table was purportedly made to serve as a means of communicating with the spirits; the alphabet would be slowly spoken aloud and the table would tilt at the appropriate letter, thus spelling out words and sentences. The process is similar to that of a Ouija board. Scientists and skeptics consider table-turning to be the result of the ideomotor effect, or of conscious trickery. == History == When the movement of spiritualism first reached Europe from America in the winter of 1852–1853, the most popular method of consulting the spirits was for several persons to sit round a table, with their hands resting on it, and wait for the table to move. If the experiment was successful, the table would rotate with considerable rapidity and would occasionally rise in the air, or perform other movements. Whilst most spiritualists ascribed the table movements to the agency of spirits, two investigators, count de Gasparin and professor Thury (father of René Thury) of Geneva, conducted a careful series of experiments. They claimed to have


id: thought-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Thought experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:55.594940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thought-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
A thought experiment is an imaginary scenario that is meant to elucidate or test an argument or theory. It is often an experiment that would be hard, impossible, or unethical to actually perform. It can also be an abstract hypothetical that is meant to test our intuitions about morality or other fundamental philosophical questions. == History == The ancient Greek δείκνυμι, deiknymi, 'thought experiment', "was the most ancient pattern of mathematical proof", and existed before Euclidean mathematics, where the emphasis was on the conceptual, rather than on the experimental part of a thought experiment. Johann Witt-Hansen established that Hans Christian Ørsted was the first to use the equivalent German term Gedankenexperiment c. 1812. Ørsted was also the first to use the equivalent term Gedankenversuch in 1820. By 1883, Ernst Mach used Gedankenexperiment in a different sense, to denote exclusively the imaginary conduct of a real experiment that would be subsequently performed as a real physical experiment by his students. Physical and mental experimentation could then be contrasted: Mach asked his students to provide him with explanations whenever the results from their subsequent, real, physical experiment differed from those of their prior, imaginary experiment. The English term thought experiment was coined


id: thought-experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Thought experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:55.594940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thought-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
challenge the prevailing status quo (which includes activities such as correcting misinformation (or misapprehension), identify flaws in the argument(s) presented, to preserve (for the long-term) objectively established fact, and to refute specific assertions that some particular thing is permissible, forbidden, known, believed, possible, or necessary) extrapolate beyond (or interpolate within) the boundaries of already established fact predict and forecast the (otherwise) indefinite and unknowable future explain the past facilitate the retrodiction, postdiction and hindcasting of the otherwise indefinite and unknowable past facilitate decision making, choice, and strategy selection solve problems, and generate ideas; move current unsolved problems into another more productive problem space (e.g. functional fixedness) attribute causation, preventability, blame, and responsibility for specific outcomes assess culpability and compensatory damages in social and legal contexts ensure the repeat of past success examine the extent to which past events might have occurred differently ensure the future avoidance of past failures == Fields == Thought experiments have been used in a variety of fields, including philosophy, law, physics, and mathematics. In philosophy they have been used at least since classical antiquity, some pre-dating Socrates. In law, they were well known to Roman lawyers quoted in the Digest. In physics and other sciences,


id: thought-experiment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment-2.md
category: reference
title: Thought experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:55.594940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thought-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Possibility === In many thought experiments, the scenario would be nomologically possible, or possible according to the laws of nature. John Searle's Chinese room is nomologically possible. Some thought experiments present scenarios that are not nomologically possible. In his Twin Earth thought experiment, Hilary Putnam asks us to imagine a scenario in which there is a substance with all of the observable properties of water (e.g., taste, color, boiling point), but is chemically different from water. It has been argued that this thought experiment is not nomologically possible, although it may be possible in some other sense, such as metaphysical possibility. It is debatable whether the nomological impossibility of a thought experiment renders intuitions about it moot. In some cases, the hypothetical scenario might be considered metaphysically impossible, or impossible in any sense at all. David Chalmers says that we can imagine that there are zombies, or persons who are physically identical to us in every way but who lack consciousness. This is supposed to show that physicalism is false. However, some argue that zombies are inconceivable: we can no more imagine a zombie than we can imagine that 1+1=3. Others have claimed that the conceivability of a scenario


id: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Traditional knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:56.817300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
Traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous knowledge (IK), folk knowledge, and local knowledge generally refers to knowledge systems embedded in the cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or local communities. Traditional knowledge includes types of knowledge about traditional technologies of areas such as subsistence (e.g. tools and techniques for hunting or agriculture), midwifery, ethnobotany and ecological knowledge, traditional medicine, celestial navigation, craft skills, ethnoastronomy, climate, and others. These systems of knowledge are generally based on accumulations of empirical observation of and interaction with the environment, transmitted orally across generations. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the United Nations (UN) include traditional cultural expressions (TCE) in their respective definitions of indigenous knowledge. Traditional knowledge systems and cultural expressions exist in the forms of culture, stories, legends, folklore, rituals, songs, and laws, languages, songlines, dance, games, mythology, designs, visual art and architecture. == Characteristics and related concepts == A report of the International Council for Science (ICSU) Study Group on Science and Traditional Knowledge characterises traditional knowledge as: a cumulative body of knowledge, know-how, practices and representations maintained and developed by peoples with extended histories of interaction with the natural environment. These sophisticated sets of understandings, interpretations and meanings are part and parcel of


id: traditional-knowledge-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge-1.md
category: reference
title: Traditional knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:56.817300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
International attention has turned to intellectual property laws to preserve, protect, and promote traditional knowledge. In 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) recognized the value of traditional knowledge in protecting species, ecosystems and landscapes, and incorporated language regulating access to it and its use (discussed below). It was soon urged that implementing these provisions would require revision of international intellectual property agreements. This became even more pressing with the adoption of the World Trade Organization Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), which established rules for creating and protecting intellectual property that could be interpreted to conflict with the agreements made under the CBD. In response, the states who had ratified the CBD requested the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) to investigate the relationship between intellectual property rights, biodiversity and traditional knowledge. WIPO began this work with a fact-finding mission in 1999. Considering the issues involved with biodiversity and the broader issues in TRIPs (involving all forms of cultural expressions, not just those associated with biodiversity – including traditional designs, music, songs, stories, etc.), WIPO established the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC-GRTKF). WIPO Lex provides support for collections of


id: traditional-knowledge-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge-2.md
category: reference
title: Traditional knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:56.817300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
=== Public domain === Literary and artistic works based upon, derived from or inspired by traditional culture or folklore may incorporate new elements or expressions. Hence these works may be "new" works with a living and identifiable creator, or creators. Such contemporary works may include a new interpretation, arrangement, adaptation or collection of pre-existing cultural heritage that is in the public domain. Traditional culture or folklore may also be "repackaged" in digital formats, or restoration and colorization. Contemporary and tradition based expressions and works of traditional culture are generally protected under existing copyright law, a form of intellectual property law, as they are sufficiently original to be regarded as "new" upon publication. Copyright protection is normally temporary. When a work has existed for a long enough period (often for the rest of the author's life plus an additional 50 to 70 years), the legal ability of the creator to prevent other people from reprinting, modifying, or using the property lapses, and the work is said to enter the public domain. Copyright protection also does not extend to folk songs and other works that developed over time, with no identifiable creators. Having an idea, story, or other work legally protected only


id: traditional-knowledge-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge-3.md
category: reference
title: Traditional knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:56.817300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The interpretation of these provisions has been elaborated through decisions by the parties (ratifiers of the Convention) (see the Convention on Biological Diversity Handbook, available free in digital format from the Secretariat). Nevertheless, the provisions regarding Access and Benefit Sharing contained in the Convention on Biological Diversity never achieved consensus and soon the authority over these questions fell back to WIPO. At the Convention on Biological Diversity meeting, in Buenos Aires, in 1996, emphasis was put on local knowledge. Key players, such as local communities and indigenous peoples, should be recognized by States, and have their sovereignty recognised over the biodiversity of their territories, so that they can continue protecting it. The parties to the Convention set a 2010 target to negotiate an international legally binding regime on access and benefit sharing (ABS) at the Eighth meeting (COP8), 20–31 March 2006 in Curitiba, Brazil. This target was met in October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, by conclusion of the Nagoya Protocol to the CBD. The agreement is now open for ratification, and will come into force when 50 signatories have ratified it. It entered into force on 12 October 2014. As of August 2020, 128 nations ratified the Nagoya Protocol. The


id: troughton-scale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troughton_scale-0.md
category: reference
title: Troughton scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troughton_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:58.029295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: troughton-scale-20260505-0
summary:
The Troughton scale is a measurement scale that de facto served as the first national standard of length in the United States, from 1832 until 1856. == Physical description == The measurement scale spans 82 inches and is subdivided to tenths of inches. It is marked on a silver inlay in a brass bar; the bar itself is about 86 inches long. == History == The scale was prepared for the Office of Coast Survey by Troughton of London and was brought to the United States in 1815 by F. R. Hassler, who a year later became first Superintendent of the Survey of the Coast and, in 1832, first Superintendent of Weights and Measures. At the time, the United States Government was principally financed by duties on imports and exports (the federal income tax did not become a permanent feature of the US system until 1913). The appropriate import and export taxes on commercial items were determined at customhouses maintained by the federal government at various ports of entry. A reliable and uniform system of weights and measure was necessary for this system to work, as well as for settling commercial disputes. In 1830, the US Senate requested the Secretary


id: universal-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Universal science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:24:59.197805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: universal-science-20260505-0
summary:
Universal science (German: Universalwissenschaft; Latin: scientia generalis, scientia universalis) is a branch of metaphysics, dedicated to the study of the underlying principles of all science. Instead of viewing knowledge as being separated into branches, Universalists view all knowledge as being part of a single category. Universal science is related to, but distinct from, universal language. == Precursors == Logic and rationalism lie at the foundation of the ideas of universal science. In a broad sense, logic is the study of reasoning. Although there were individuals that implicitly utilized logical methods prior to Aristotle, it is generally agreed he was the originator of modern systems of logic. The Organon, Aristotle's books on logic, details this system. In Categories, Aristotle separates everything into 10 "categories": substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, and passion. In De Interpretatione, Aristotle studied propositions, detailing what he determined were the most basic propositions and the relationships between them. The Organon had several other books, which further detailed the process of constructing arguments, deducing logical consequences, and even contained the foundations of the modern scientific method. The most immediate predecessor to universal science is the system of formal logic, which is the study of the


id: welbeck-academy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welbeck_Academy-0.md
category: reference
title: Welbeck Academy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welbeck_Academy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:00.403347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: welbeck-academy-20260505-0
summary:
The Welbeck Academy or Welbeck Circle is a name that has been given to the loose intellectual grouping around William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in the first half of the 17th century. It takes its name from Welbeck Abbey, a country house in Nottinghamshire that was a Cavendish family seat. Another term used is Newcastle Circle. The geographical connection is, however, more notional than real; and these terms have been regarded also as somewhat misleading. Cavendish was Viscount Mansfield in 1620, and moved up the noble ranks to Duke, step by step; "Newcastle" applies by 1628. Newcastle was a royalist exile in continental Europe in the latter part of the First English Civil War and the Interregnum. He then returned to England and lived to 1676. His life shows many instances of cultural and intellectual patronage. == Science and mathematics == A scientific interest was optics. The group involved in these studies included Charles Cavendish (William's brother), Thomas Hobbes, Robert Payne and Walter Warner. This core "academy" group was disrupted when Newcastle took on responsibility for the Prince of Wales, in 1638. At a later point John Pell was in Newcastle's service. Charles Cavendish's circle included Henry Bond, Richard


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Western esotericism and psychology surveys the documented exchanges between Western esotericism—including Westernized hybrids of Asian traditions—and selected areas of psychology, psychotherapy, and popular psychology. From the late eighteenth century onward, conduits such as animal magnetism and early hypnosis (reinterpreted from mesmeric “somnambulism”), Spiritualism/psychical research, and fin de siècle occultism and comparative projects created channels by which esoteric repertoires (e.g., alchemy, astrology, and subtle body schemes) were translated into psychological idioms or embedded in therapeutic and self-development techniques. In the twentieth century, these exchanges were variously articulated in analytical psychology (including Jung’s alchemical hermeneutics), humanistic workshop cultures and the human potential movement, transpersonal psychology, and symbolic counselling that repurposed oracular media (e.g., tarot, astrology, or the I Ching). Rather than a single genealogy, historians emphasise plural processes of transmission, translation, and hybridisation across specific networks and publics—among them Theosophy (with codified chakras and subtle bodies), Anthroposophy (linking esoteric doctrines to pedagogical and para-clinical projects), the Eranos circle (mediating Jungian hermeneutics and history-of-religions), and late-modern markets often labelled “New Age”. Sociological accounts frame the broader diffusion via the late-modern “cultic milieu” and “occulture”, which describe how esoteric symbols and narratives circulate beyond formal religion through publishing, workshops, retreats and wellness/coaching niches, where


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Rejected knowledge by academic psychology === In this line of analysis, Wouter J. Hanegraaff introduced the notion of rejected knowledge to describe bodies of thought and practice that once claimed rational or scientific legitimacy but were later excluded from academic discourse. The concept provides historians with a tool for understanding why movements such as mesmerism, psychical research, or vitalist biophysics—though not self-identified as “esoteric”—nonetheless display structural affinities with the esoteric field through their use of subtle-force cosmologies, analogical reasoning, and transformative techniques. === Psychologization of esotericism (historiographical models) === Scholarship has used “psychologization” to describe how esoteric repertoires were reframed in psychological idioms or channelled through therapeutic formats. Wouter J. Hanegraaff proposed a bidirectional traffic—“psychologization of religion” and “sacralization of psychology”—as a lens for modern encounters between esotericism and psychology. Complementarily, long-duration histories of dynamic psychiatry (as theorized by the historiographer of psychiatry Henri Ellenberger) trace continuities from exorcism to mesmerism, hypnosis and the emergence of clinical psychologies, providing a background against which such reframings occurred. Recent work has refined “psychologization” by distinguishing several modes (e.g., complementary, terminological, reductive, idealist) and by analysing the appeal to a distinct “magical plane” (a separate-but-connected psychic locus) that insulates ritual practice from


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-2.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
In the milieu of the Occult Revival of the 19th century in Western societies the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) became a key contact zone between séance cultures and emerging psychological inquiry. Its programmes covered hypnotism, dissociation, mediumship and “thought-transference” (later standardised as telepathy by Frederic W. H. Myers), with figures such as William James engaging controversy around mediums like Eusapia Palladino and critics like Hugo Münsterberg. Historians read these investigations as part of the broader traffic in which esoteric repertoires (trance techniques, oracular devices) and laboratory or literary methods cross-pollinated, even as medical framings recoded practice in secular psychological terms. Around 1900, currents grouped under modern occultism and comparative projects systematised repertoires that would become salient in psychological translation. Theosophy articulated a modern discourse on subtle bodies and diffused codified “chakra” schemes through handbooks and visual plates that circulated well beyond initiatory settings; these maps furnished a flexible idiom for inner states and “energy” later reframed in counselling and self-development. At the same time, Anthroposophy extended esoteric doctrines into education and para-clinical practice, associating imagination and development with disciplined movement and arts-based therapies (e.g., Eurythmy). Organisationally, anthroposophic centres linked doctrine, pedagogy and therapeutic experiments, creating channels by which symbolic


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-3.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Institutional and editorial hubs in this period The Eranos meetings (Ascona) interfaced Jungian circles with history-of-religions scholarship, stabilising psychological readings of premodern symbol-systems (including Asian corpora) in interpretive, non-realist frames. Mid-century workshop venues such as the Esalen Institute (Big Sur) structured experiential formats—encounter, movement, guided imagination—in which symbolic and ritual devices circulated alongside clinical and educational experimentation; associations and journals consolidated Transpersonal psychology as a field. At the boundary of psychology proper, parapsychology laboratories and surveys extended the nineteenth-century psychical-research agenda (e.g., studies of telepathy/clairvoyance) into experimental and questionnaire-based programmes. === Late 20th century to present: hybrids, wellness and coaching === From the late twentieth century, repertoires previously clustered in specialist milieus migrated into wider self-help, wellness and coaching cultures. Modern transpositions of yoga supplied somatic and attentional techniques that could be framed in secular or symbolic terms, sometimes retaining subtle-body vocabularies and sometimes recoded physiologically; posture-based systems and allied practices entered therapeutic and educational niches where they functioned as vehicles for self-regulation without requiring adherence to esoteric cosmologies. In counselling and workshop circuits, oracular media such as tarot, astrology and the I Ching were repurposed as projective tools within interpretive frames, foregrounding narrative construction and reflective dialogue rather than


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-4.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Founded by Roberto Assagioli, psychosynthesis articulated a developmental model integrating will, imagination and symbolic techniques (guided imagery, reflective exercises), framed for psychotherapy and education. While drawing selectively on religious and esoteric vocabularies (e.g., stages, higher/unifying self), psychosynthesis presented these as symbolic devices for integration and meaning-making rather than as doctrinal commitments, and established dedicated training and counselling contexts distinct from Jungian institutions. In workshop and clinical formats, psychosynthesis employed structured sequences (evocation of imagery, reflective processing, value clarification) that align with humanistic and transpersonal milieus in which ritualised settings and symbolic repertoires were redeployed for experiential learning. Reviews at the psychology–religion interface underline the need to separate genealogical description from empirical appraisal and to keep realist–occult claims distinct from interpretive, “as-if real” framings. === Somatic and bioenergetic psychology === Wilhelm Reich’s somatic psychotherapy, developed as vegetotherapy and later orgonomy, sought to integrate emotional release with muscular and respiratory dynamics. Although Reich presented his model as biophysics rather than spirituality, his concept of orgone—a universal life energy said to permeate both psyche and cosmos—echoed older vitalist and mesmerist cosmologies. Scholars such as Christopher Partridge and Egil Asprem interpret Reich’s system as part of the modern afterlife of esoteric vitalism, where notions


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-5.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parapsychology (boundary-field interface) === Nineteenth-century psychical research evolved into twentieth-century parapsychology, which pursued experimental and survey studies of anomalous cognition (e.g., telepathy, clairvoyance) at the boundary of psychology proper. In this article parapsychology is treated as a historical interface with psychology—linked to case-genres on automatism and dissociation and intersecting selectively with transpersonal psychology debates on non-ordinary states—rather than as a psychological school; genealogical description is kept distinct from evidential claims. == Popular psychology and coaching == From the late twentieth century, repertoires associated with Western esotericism circulated widely through self-help and coaching markets. An American strand often labelled New Thought—later echoed in formulations such as the law of attraction—provided vocabularies of mental causation and affirmation that were readily repackaged as techniques for self-knowledge, motivation and optimisation. Historians read these idioms within the broader late-modern dynamics of occulture and the cultic milieu, which situate diffusion through publishing, workshops, retreats and media rather than through academic psychology. Early twentieth-century popular psychology also popularised relaxation-through-attention methods. Writers such as Annie Payson Call taught guided relaxation and posture–breath discipline for “nerves” and self-regulation in non-clinical settings, combining moral reform with bodily awareness (see relaxation techniques, guided imagery). Her work, including Power Through Repose


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-6.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Esoteric-linked mental health hospitals == In Brazil, Kardecist spiritism (a French origins branch of Spiritualism) developed durable interfaces with mental-health provision through Spiritist psychiatric hospitals that combine conventional psychiatric care with complementary Spiritist practices (e.g., “passes”, mediumistic counselling). Historical and clinical overviews document this model as emerging in the early–mid twentieth century and concentrated in Brazil; surveys describe operating structures, staffing and modalities of care across leading centres. In this article such institutions are treated as regional institutionalizations of an esoteric repertoire within modern healthcare systems; genealogical description is kept distinct from evidential claims about clinical outcomes. A different pathway of institutionalization appears in anthroposophic hospitals in Germany to Anthroposophy—where integrative frameworks include psychiatry/psychosomatics alongside arts-based and movement therapies (e.g., Eurythmy). Reviews of anthroposophic medicine situate these hospitals within an integrative multimodal system, while institutional profiles list dedicated departments (e.g., Gemeinschaftskrankenhaus Herdecke). As elsewhere in the article, institutional presence is reported separately from clinical validation, and interpretive/symbolic framings are distinguished from realist–occult claims. == Comparative techniques and devices == This section surveys devices that operate across otherwise distinct schools—symbolic tools, altered-state protocols, ritual/dramatic/artistic expression formats, body–attention practices, and sound-based procedures—and documents how they were translated into psychological frames (interpretive,


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-7.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Sound-focused sessions—e.g., singing bowls and gong baths—are often framed through Pythagorean and (neo)hermetic (The Kybalion) narratives of hidden vibration and cosmic harmony (a Western esoteric lineage) while being presented with Asian aesthetics or branding (“Tibetan bowls”) in late-modern wellness markets. A parallel, secular rationale describes these formats as aids to relaxation, attentional focus and group containment. In either case, practice emphasises patterned sound, pacing and bounded ritual to scaffold meaning-making and regulation, with symbolic/interpretive efficacy foregrounded over realist claims. === Body and attention === Somatic and attentional practices—postures, movement sequences and contemplative exercises—were adopted in modern transpositions of yoga, Buddhist sati, and related repertoires, sometimes retaining Theosophical subtle body vocabularies and sometimes reframed in secular or physiological terms. Historical studies trace how posture-based systems and allied techniques entered wellness and therapeutic niches (e.g. relaxation techniques), where they could function as vehicles for self-regulation without adherence to esoteric or religious cosmologies. Earlier Western harmonial and breath-culture traditions (see Popular psychology and coaching) already framed breathing and relaxation as psychophysical techniques linking mind–body regulation and esoteric ideas of vital influx. === Energy-themed practices (subtle-body framings) === Under “energy” labels (e.g., reiki, “healing touch”, pranic variants), late-modern counselling and coaching milieus sometimes redeploy


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-8.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:01.688437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Faivre, Antoine; Needleman, Jacob, eds. (1992). Modern Esoteric Spirituality. World Spirituality: An Encyclopedic History of the Religious Quest, 21. New York: Crossroad. ISBN 978-0-8245-1145-6. Flournoy, Théodore (1900). From India to the Planet Mars: A Study of a Case of Somnambulism with Glossolalia. New York: Harper & Brothers. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1998). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11035-9. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2012). Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02112-9. Leadbeater, C. W. (1927). The Chakras (PDF). Adyar: Theosophical Publishing House. Partridge, Christopher (2004). The Re-Enchantment of the West, Vol. 1: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture and Occulture. London: T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-08408-8. Campbell, Colin (1972). "The Cult, the Cultic Milieu and Secularization". A Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain. 5: 119–136. Rush, M. J. (2016). "The Contribution of Western Esotericism to Transpersonal Psychology". Transpersonal Psychology Review. 18 (1): 32–43. doi:10.53841/bpstran.2016.18.1.32. Singleton, Mark (2010). Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539535-8. Pittenger, David J. (1993). "Measuring the MBTI and Coming Up Short". Review of Educational Research. 63 (4): 467–488. doi:10.3102/00346543063004467. Moreira-Almeida, Alexander (2005).


id: scientific-instrument-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_instrument-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:06.696571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific instrument is a device or tool used for scientific purposes, including the study of both natural phenomena and theoretical research. == History == Historically, the definition of a scientific instrument has varied, based on usage, laws, and historical time period. Before the mid-nineteenth century such tools were referred to as "natural philosophical" or "philosophical" apparatus and instruments, and older tools from antiquity to the Middle Ages (such as the astrolabe and pendulum clock) defy a more modern definition of "a tool developed to investigate nature qualitatively or quantitatively." Scientific instruments were made by instrument makers living near a center of learning or research, such as a university or research laboratory. Instrument makers designed, constructed, and refined instruments for purposes, but if demand was sufficient, an instrument would go into production as a commercial product. In a description of the use of the eudiometer by Jan Ingenhousz to show photosynthesis, a biographer observed, "The history of the use and evolution of this instrument helps to show that science is not just a theoretical endeavor but equally an activity grounded on an instrumental basis, which is a cocktail of instruments and techniques wrapped in a social setting within a community


id: bailer-hydrogeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailer_(hydrogeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Bailer (hydrogeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailer_(hydrogeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:09.630935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bailer-hydrogeology-20260505-0
summary:
A bailer in hydrogeology is a hollow tube used to retrieve groundwater samples from monitoring wells. The wells are typically built out of PVC casing which is slotted to allow groundwater to flow freely through the well. Bailers are tied to a piece of rope (usually made from nylon or polypropylene) or a piece of wire (composed of Teflon or stainless steel) and lowered into the water column. Once lowered, the bailer uses a simple ball check valve to seal at the bottom in order to pull up a sample of the groundwater table. Bailers can be disposable or reusable, and they are made out of polyethylene, PVC, FEP or stainless steel. There are advantages and disadvantages to using bailers for groundwater sampling. Bailers are simple devices to use and are relatively inexpensive. Disposable bailers are usually cleaned to United States Environmental Protection Agency specifications and individually packaged to protect sample integrity. In addition, bailers can be lowered to any depth while pumps have sharp limitations on the depth of the well. The main drawback of using bailers is aeration of the water as the sample is obtained, which could release volatile organic compounds that need to be tested. Also,


id: bathometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Bathometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:11.717325+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bathometer-20260505-0
summary:
A bathometer (also bathymeter) is an instrument for measuring water depth. It was previously used mainly in oceanographical studies, but is rarely employed nowadays. The term originates from Greek βαθύς (bathys), "deep" and μέτρον (métron), "measure". == History == The earliest idea for a bathometer is due to Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) who sunk a hollow sphere attached to some ballast with a hook. When the ball reached the bottom it detached from the ballast and resurfaced. The depth was determined (rather inaccurately) by the time it took to surface. Jacob Perkins (1766–1849) proposed a bathometer based on the compressibility of water. In this instrument the movement of a piston compressing a body of water enclosed in its cylinder is dependent on the pressure of the water outside the cylinder, and hence its depth. The amount the piston moved can be measured when it is returned to the surface. A bathometer that did not need to be submerged was invented in 1876 by William Siemens, stimulated by the needs of the telegraph industry. Siemens' instrument was the first to come into widespread use and is so different and so much more practical than anything that had gone before that he


id: cary-14-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cary_14_Spectrophotometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Cary 14 Spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cary_14_Spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:13.476689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cary-14-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The Cary Model 14 UV-VIS Spectrophotometer was a double beam recording spectrophotometer designed to operate over the wide spectral range of ultraviolet, visible and near infrared wavelengths (UV/Vis/NIR). This included wavelengths ranging from 185 nanometers to 870 nanometers. (The Cary Model 14B, almost identical in exterior appearance, measured wavelengths from .5 to 6.0 microns.) The Cary 14 spectrophotometer was first produced in 1954 by the Applied Physics Corporation, which later was named the Cary Instruments Corporation after co-founder Howard Cary. The instrument was a successor to the Cary 11, which was the first commercially available recording UV/Vis spectrophotometer. It was produced until 1980, and refurbished models can still be obtained. == Design and use == The double beam design of the Cary 14 provided rapid, simplified analysis by simultaneously measuring the transmittance of both the sample and the reference over the entire spectral range. The optics of the Cary 14 were a key feature. The double monochromator in particular was described and patented. The Cary 14 was one of the first instruments to incorporate high-quality gratings into its monochromators. To take readings in the ultraviolet or visible range, either a deuterium or tungsten lamp was used, with the light focussed


id: celloscope-automated-cell-counter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celloscope_automated_cell_counter-0.md
category: reference
title: Celloscope automated cell counter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celloscope_automated_cell_counter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:15.266682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: celloscope-automated-cell-counter-20260505-0
summary:
Celloscope automated cell counter was developed in the 1950s for enumeration of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes in blood samples. Together with the Coulter counter, the Celloscope analyzer can be considered one of the predecessors of today's automated hematology analyzers, as the principle of the electrical impedance method is still utilized in cell counters installed in clinical laboratories around the world. == History == The Celloscope was developed for the Swedish company AB Lars Ljungberg & Co under the direction of engineer Erik Öhlin at Linson Instrument AB. In an interview published in the Clinical Biochemistry in the Nordics, a membership magazine for the Nordic Association for Clinical Chemistry, Lars Ljungberg explains that he and his coworkers had been considering different solutions for counting blood cells for some time when they came across a method presented by the American Navy on how particles could be counted when allowed to pass a capillary hole through which a weak direct current was passed simultaneously. The Celloscope method exploits the feature of blood cells not being conductive and therefore make interruptions (pulses) to the current, which then can be counted. What Ljungberg and coworkers did not know was that Wallace H. Coulter in Chicago


id: deposit-gauge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_gauge-0.md
category: reference
title: Deposit gauge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_gauge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:19.071859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deposit-gauge-20260505-0
summary:
A deposit gauge is a large, funnel-like scientific instrument used for capturing and measuring atmospheric particulates, notably soot, carried in air pollution and deposited back down to ground. == Design and construction == Deposit gauges are similar to rain gauges. They have a large circular funnel on top, made of a material that will not be corroded by acid rain (such as stone, in early versions, or anodized aluminium, in modern ones). This is mounted on a simple wooden or metal stand, which drains down into a collection bottle beneath. Typically the funnel has a wire-mesh screen around its perimeter to deter perching birds. They are made to a standardized design, which means the pollution collected in different places can be systematically studied and compared. The bottle is removed after a period of time (usually from a week to a month) and the contents taken away for analysis of water (such as rain, fog, and snow), insoluble matter (such as soot), and soluble matter. === Standard designs === The various standardized designs include: The standard deposit gauge, introduced in 1916 and formalized in a British Standard in 1951 The International Standard (ISO/DIS 4222.2) deposit gauge The Norwegian NILU gauge, which


id: dichroscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichroscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Dichroscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichroscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:20.266870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dichroscope-20260505-0
summary:
A dichroscope is a pocket instrument used in the field of gemology, and can be used to test transparent gemstones (crystals). Experienced gemologists, observing the pleochroism of some gems, can successfully detect gemstones from other artificial stones using this instrument. There are two types of dichroscopes available: calcite and polarizing. Of the two, calcite gives better results and is widely used by experienced gemologists. With the polarizing type, only one pleochroic color can be seen at a time. This makes the process time-consuming and difficult, though it is the most economical way to get results. The dichroscope has been used since at least the start of the nineteenth century. == Calcite dichroscope == A calcite dichroscope shows a gem's pleochroic colors in contrast with one another, allowing the viewer to easily determine whether the stone is singly or doubly refractive (uniaxial or biaxial, respectively). Singly refractive stones do not split light that enters them, leaving light as a single beam as it exits the stone. On the contrary, doubly refractive stones may split an entering light beam into two rays (an ordinary ray and an extraordinary ray) depending on the angle, a property known as birefringence. Calcite dichroscopes are effective


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-0.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:22.876127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
A DNA sequencer is a scientific instrument used to automate the DNA sequencing process. Given a sample of DNA, a DNA sequencer is used to determine the order of the four bases: G (guanine), C (cytosine), A (adenine) and T (thymine). This is then reported as a text string, called a read. Some DNA sequencers can be also considered optical instruments as they analyze light signals originating from fluorochromes attached to nucleotides. The first automated DNA sequencer, invented by Lloyd M. Smith, was introduced by Applied Biosystems in 1987. It used the Sanger sequencing method, a technology which formed the basis of the "first generation" of DNA sequencers and enabled the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2001. This first generation of DNA sequencers are essentially automated electrophoresis systems that detect the migration of labelled DNA fragments. Therefore, these sequencers can also be used in the genotyping of genetic markers where only the length of a DNA fragment(s) needs to be determined (e.g. microsatellites, AFLPs). The Human Genome Project spurred the development of cheaper, high throughput and more accurate platforms known as Next Generation Sequencers (NGS) to sequence the human genome. These include the 454, SOLiD and Illumina DNA


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-1.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:22.876127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Roche === The 454 DNA sequencer was the first next-generation sequencer to become commercially successful. It was developed by 454 Life Sciences and purchased by Roche in 2007. 454 utilizes the detection of pyrophosphate released by the DNA polymerase reaction when adding a nucleotide to the template strain. Roche currently manufactures two systems based on their pyrosequencing technology: the GS FLX+ and the GS Junior System. The GS FLX+ System promises read lengths of approximately 1000 base pairs while the GS Junior System promises 400 base pair reads. A predecessor to GS FLX+, the 454 GS FLX Titanium system was released in 2008, achieving an output of 0.7G of data per run, with 99.9% accuracy after quality filter, and a read length of up to 700bp. In 2009, Roche launched the GS Junior, a bench top version of the 454 sequencer with read length up to 400bp, and simplified library preparation and data processing. One of the advantages of 454 systems is their running speed. Manpower can be reduced with automation of library preparation and semi-automation of emulsion PCR. A disadvantage of the 454 system is that it is prone to errors when estimating the number of bases in


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-2.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:22.876127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Beckman Coulter === Beckman Coulter (now Danaher) has previously manufactured chain termination and capillary electrophoresis-based DNA sequencers under the model name CEQ, including the CEQ 8000. The company now produces the GeXP Genetic Analysis System, which uses dye terminator sequencing. This method uses a thermocycler in much the same way as PCR to denature, anneal, and extend DNA fragments, amplifying the sequenced fragments. === Pacific Biosciences === Pacific Biosciences produces the PacBio RS and Sequel sequencing systems using a single molecule real time sequencing, or SMRT, method. This system can produce read lengths of multiple thousands of base pairs. Higher raw read errors are corrected using either circular consensus - where the same strand is read over and over again - or using optimized assembly strategies. Scientists have reported 99.9999% accuracy with these strategies. The Sequel system was launched in 2015 with an increased capacity and a lower price. === Oxford Nanopore === Oxford Nanopore Technologies' MinION sequencer is based on evolving nanopore sequencing technology to nucleic acid analyses. The device is four inches long and gets power from a USB port. MinION decodes DNA directly as the molecule is drawn at the rate of 450 bases/second through a


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-0.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:24.195168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The DU spectrophotometer or Beckman DU, introduced in 1941, was the first commercially viable scientific instrument for measuring the amount of ultraviolet light absorbed by a substance. This model of spectrophotometer enabled scientists to easily examine and identify a given substance based on its absorption spectrum, the pattern of light absorbed at different wavelengths. Arnold O. Beckman's National Technical Laboratories (later Beckman Instruments) developed three in-house prototype models (A, B, C) and one limited distribution model (D) before moving to full commercial production with the DU. Approximately 30,000 DU spectrophotometers were manufactured and sold between 1941 and 1976. Sometimes referred to as a UV–Vis spectrophotometer because it measured both the ultraviolet (UV) and visible spectra, the DU spectrophotometer is credited as being a truly revolutionary technology. It yielded more accurate results than previous methods for determining the chemical composition of a complex substance, and substantially reduced the time needed for an accurate analysis from weeks or hours to minutes. The Beckman DU was essential to several critical secret research projects during World War II, including the development of penicillin and synthetic rubber. == Background == Before the development of the DU spectrophotometer, analysis of a test sample to determine its


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-1.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:24.195168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Model A (prototype) === The first prototype Beckman spectrophotometer, the Model A, was created at National Technologies Laboratories in 1940. It used a tungsten light source with a glass Fery prism as a monochromator. Tungsten was used for incandescent light filaments because it was strong, withstood heat, and emitted a steady light. Types of light sources differed in the range of wavelengths of light that they emitted. Tungsten lamps were useful in the visible light range but gave poor coverage in the ultraviolet range. However, they had the advantage of being readily available because they were used as automobile headlamps. An external amplifier from the Beckman pH meter and a vacuum tube photocell were used to detect wavelengths. === Model B (prototype) === It was quickly realized that a glass dispersive prism was not suitable for use in the ultraviolet spectrum. Glass absorbed electromagnetic radiation below 400 millimicrons rather than dispersing it. In the Model B, a quartz prism was substituted for the earlier glass. A tangent bar mechanism was used to adjust the monochromator. The mechanism was highly sensitive and required a skilled operator. Only two Model B prototypes were made. One was sold: in February 1941, to


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-2.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:24.195168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
When RCA could not meet Beckman's demand for experimental phototubes, National Technical Laboratories again had to design its own components in-house. They developed a pair of phototubes, sensitive to the red and blue areas of the spectrum, capable of amplifying the signals they received. With the incorporation of Beckman's UV-sensitive phototubes, the Model D became the Model DU UV–Vis spectrophotometer. Its designation as a "UV–Vis" spectrophotometer indicates its ability to measure light in both the visible and ultraviolet spectra. The DU was the first commercially viable scientific instrument for measuring the amount of ultraviolet light absorbed by a substance. As he had done with the pH meter, Beckman had replaced an array of complicated equipment with a single, easy-to-use instrument. One of the first fully integrated instruments or "black boxes" used in modern chemical laboratories, it sold for $723 in 1941. It is generally assumed that the "DU" in the name was a combination of "D" for the Model D on which it was based, and "U" for the ultraviolet spectrum. However, it has been suggested that "DU" may also reference Beckman's fraternity at the University of Illinois, Delta Upsilon, whose members were called "DU"s. A publication in the scholarly


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-3.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:24.195168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The Beckman spectrophotometer was the first easy-to-use single instrument containing both the optical and electronic components needed for ultraviolet-absorption spectrophotometry within a single housing. The user could insert a cell tray with standard and sample cells, dial up the desired wavelength of light, confirm that the instrument was properly set by measuring the standard, and then measure the amount of absorption of the sample, reading the frequency from a simple meter. A series of readings at different wavelengths could be taken without disturbing the sample. The DU spectrophotometer's manual scanning method was extremely fast, reducing analysis times from weeks or hours to minutes. It was accurate in both the visible and ultraviolet ranges. Working in both the ultraviolet and the visible regions of the spectrum, the model DU produced accurate absorption spectra which could be obtained with relative ease and accurately replicated. The National Bureau of Standards ran tests to certify that the DU's results were accurate and repeatable and recommended its use. Other advantages included its high resolution and the minimization of stray light in the ultraviolet region. Although it was not cheap, its initial price of $723 made it available to the average laboratory. In comparison, in 1943,


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-4.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:24.195168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Enzyme assays and DNA research === Gerty Cori and her husband Carl Ferdinand Cori won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 in recognition of their work on enzymes. They made several discoveries critical to understanding carbohydrate metabolism, including the isolation and discovery of the Cori ester, glucose 1-phosphate, and the understanding of the Cori cycle. They determined that the enzyme phosphorylase catalyzes formation of glucose 1-phosphate, which is the beginning and ending step in the conversions of glycogen into glucose and blood glucose to glycogen. Gerty Cori was also the first to show that a defect in an enzyme can be the cause of a human genetic disease. The Beckman DU spectrophotometer was used in the Cori laboratory to calculate enzyme concentrations, including phosphorylase. Another researcher who spent six months in 1947 at the Cori laboratory, "the most vibrant place in biochemistry" at that time, was Arthur Kornberg. Kornberg was already familiar with the DU spectrophotometer, which he had used at Severo Ochoa's laboratory at New York University. The "new and scarce" Beckman DU, loaned to Ochoa by the American Philosophical Society, was highly prized and in constant use. Kornberg used it to purify aconitase, an


id: dual-polarization-interferometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry-0.md
category: reference
title: Dual-polarization interferometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:25.501043+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dual-polarization-interferometry-20260505-0
summary:
Dual-polarization interferometry (DPI) is an analytical technique that probes molecular layers adsorbed to the surface of a waveguide using the evanescent wave of a laser beam. It is used to measure the conformational change in proteins, or other biomolecules, as they function (referred to as the conformation activity relationship). == Instrumentation == DPI focuses laser light into two waveguides. One of these functions as the "sensing" waveguide having an exposed surface while the second one functions to maintain a reference beam. A two-dimensional interference pattern is formed in the far field by combining the light passing through the two waveguides. The DPI technique rotates the polarization of the laser, to alternately excite two polarization modes of the waveguides. Measurement of the interferogram for both polarizations allows both the refractive index and the thickness of the adsorbed layer to be calculated. The polarization can be switched rapidly, allowing real-time measurements of chemical reactions taking place on a chip surface in a flow-through system. These measurements can be used to infer conformational information about the molecular interactions taking place, as the molecule size (from the layer thickness) and the fold density (from the RI) change. DPI is typically used to characterize biochemical


id: ecotron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotron-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecotron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:26.665436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecotron-20260505-0
summary:
An Ecotron is an experimental instrument in ecology consisting of a controlled environment which makes it possible to simultaneously condition the environment of natural, simplified, or completely artificial ecosystems and measure the processes generated by living beings present in these ecosystems, in particular the flow of matter and energy. == Design == Its principle is to confine ecosystems in totally or partially waterproof enclosures which are permeable to energy flow and capable of generating a range of physical and chemical conditions applied to terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems, continental or marine. Environmental control and real-time measurements are precise enough to test hypotheses or operating models. For this purpose, the enclosures are fitted with significant equipment allowing continuous measurement of fluxes, states or biological characteristics. Other specific measurements, in situ and ex situ, on samples taken complete these online measurements. A sufficient number of independent confinement chambers is necessary to study several interacting factors in a framework of statistical inference. Depending on the case, we speak of a macrocosm when the space is large enough to study several m3 of reconstituted ecosystem over a period of time, generally measured in years (3-5 years or more for example), of microcosm for volumes measuring


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-0.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:29.224914+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. An FTIR spectrometer collects high-resolution spectral data over a wide spectral range. This confers a significant advantage over a dispersive spectrometer, which measures intensity over a narrow range of wavelengths at a time. The term Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy originates from the fact that a Fourier transform (a mathematical process) is required to convert the raw data into the actual spectrum. == Conceptual introduction == Absorption spectroscopy techniques (FTIR, ultraviolet-visible ("UV-vis") spectroscopy, etc.) measure how much light a sample absorbs at each wavelength. The most straightforward way to do this, the "dispersive spectroscopy" technique, is to shine a monochromatic light beam at a sample, measure how much of the light is absorbed, and repeat for each different wavelength (this is also how some UV–vis spectrometers take measurements). Fourier transform spectroscopy is a less intuitive way to obtain the same information. Rather than shining a monochromatic beam of light (a beam composed of only a single wavelength) at the sample, this technique shines a beam containing many frequencies of light at once and measures how much of


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-1.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:29.224914+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
In a Michelson interferometer adapted for FTIR, light from the polychromatic infrared source, approximately a black-body radiator, is collimated and directed to a beam splitter. Ideally 50% of the light is refracted towards the fixed mirror and 50% is transmitted towards the moving mirror. Light is reflected from the two mirrors back to the beam splitter and some fraction of the original light passes into the sample compartment. There, the light is focused on the sample. On leaving the sample compartment the light is refocused on to the detector. The difference in optical path length between the two arms to the interferometer is known as the retardation or optical path difference (OPD). An interferogram is obtained by varying the OPD and recording the signal from the detector for various values of the OPD. The form of the interferogram when no sample is present depends on factors such as the variation of source intensity and splitter efficiency with wavelength. This results in a maximum at zero OPD, when there is constructive interference at all wavelengths, followed by series of "wiggles". The position of zero OPD is determined accurately by finding the point of maximum intensity in the interferogram. When a sample


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-2.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:29.224914+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
The separation is the inverse of the maximum OPD. For example, a maximum OPD of 2 cm results in a separation of 0.5 cm−1. This is the spectral resolution in the sense that the value at one point is independent of the values at adjacent points. Most instruments can be operated at different resolutions by choosing different OPD's. Instruments for routine analyses typically have a best resolution of around 0.5 cm−1, while spectrometers have been built with resolutions as high as 0.001 cm−1, corresponding to a maximum OPD of 10 m. The point in the interferogram corresponding to zero path difference has to be identified, commonly by assuming it is where the maximum signal occurs. This so-called centerburst is not always symmetrical in real world spectrometers so a phase correction may have to be calculated. The interferogram signal decays as the path difference increases, the rate of decay being inversely related to the width of features in the spectrum. If the OPD is not large enough to allow the interferogram signal to decay to a negligible level there will be unwanted oscillations or sidelobes associated with the features in the resulting spectrum. To reduce these sidelobes the interferogram is usually


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-3.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:29.224914+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
=== IR sources === FTIR spectrometers are mostly used for measurements in the mid and near IR regions. For the mid-IR region, 2−25 μm (5,000–400 cm−1), the most common source is a silicon carbide (SiC) element heated to about 1,200 K (930 °C; 1,700 °F) (Globar). The output is similar to a blackbody. Shorter wavelengths of the near-IR, 1−2.5 μm (10,000–4,000 cm−1), require a higher temperature source, typically a tungsten-halogen lamp. The long wavelength output of these is limited to about 5 μm (2,000 cm−1) by the absorption of the quartz envelope. For the far-IR, especially at wavelengths beyond 50 μm (200 cm−1) a mercury discharge lamp gives higher output than a thermal source. === Detectors === Far-IR spectrometers commonly use pyroelectric detectors that respond to changes in temperature as the intensity of IR radiation falling on them varies. The sensitive elements in these detectors are either deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) or lithium tantalate (LiTaO3). These detectors operate at ambient temperatures and provide adequate sensitivity for most routine applications. To achieve the best sensitivity the time for a scan is typically a few seconds. Cooled photoelectric detectors are employed for situations requiring higher sensitivity or faster response. Liquid nitrogen cooled


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-4.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:29.224914+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microscopy and imaging === An infrared microscope allows samples to be observed and spectra measured from regions as small as 5 microns across. Images can be generated by combining a microscope with linear or 2-D array detectors. The spatial resolution can approach 5 microns with tens of thousands of pixels. The images contain a spectrum for each pixel and can be viewed as maps showing the intensity at any wavelength or combination of wavelengths. This allows the distribution of different chemical species within the sample to be seen. This technique has been applied in various biological applications including the analysis of tissue sections as an alternative to conventional histopathology, examining the homogeneity of pharmaceutical tablets, and for differentiating morphologically-similar pollen grains. === Nanoscale and spectroscopy below the diffraction limit === The spatial resolution of FTIR can be further improved below the micrometer scale by integrating it into scanning near-field optical microscopy platform. The corresponding technique is called nano-FTIR and allows for performing broadband spectroscopy on materials in ultra-small quantities (single viruses and protein complexes) and with 10 to 20 nm spatial resolution. === FTIR as detector in chromatography === The speed of FTIR allows spectra to be obtained from


id: harvard-collection-of-historical-scientific-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:31.647282+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-collection-of-historical-scientific-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
Harvard University's Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments (CHSI), established 1948, is "one of the three largest university collections of its kind in the world". Waywiser, the online catalog of the collection, lists over 60% of the collection's 20,000 objects as of 2014. The collection was originally curated by Mr. David P Wheatland in his office to prevent obsolete equipment from being cannibalized for its component parts and materials. == Physical facilities == A selection of instruments and artifacts from the collection comprise the exhibition Time, Life, & Matter: Science in Cambridge. This permanent display can be found in the Putnam Gallery on the first floor of the Harvard Science Center, which is free and open to the public during regularly scheduled hours, Sunday through Friday. In addition, rotating collaborative exhibitions drawn in part from the collection are shown in the Special Exhibitions Gallery on the second floor, as well as the more modest Foyer Gallery on the third floor. The physical facilities in the Science Center were expanded in 2004, by replacing a one-story wing of the building with a four-story "townhouse"-style structure with offices, classrooms, and a fully-glazed internal stairway. The new wing houses the Department of the History


id: holotomography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotomography-0.md
category: reference
title: Holotomography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotomography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:34.310342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holotomography-20260505-0
summary:
Holotomography (HT) is a laser technique to measure the three-dimensional refractive index (RI) tomogram of a microscopic sample such as biological cells and tissues. Because the RI can serve as an intrinsic imaging contrast for transparent or phase objects, measurements of RI tomograms can provide label-free quantitative imaging of microscopic phase objects. In order to measure 3-D RI tomogram of samples, HT employs the principle of holographic imaging and inverse scattering. Typically, multiple 2D holographic images of a sample are measured at various illumination angles, employing the principle of interferometric imaging. Then, a 3D RI tomogram of the sample is reconstructed from these multiple 2D holographic images by inversely solving light scattering in the sample. == History == The first theoretical proposal was presented by Emil Wolf, and the first experimental demonstration was shown by Fercher et al. From 2000s, HT techniques had been extensively studied and applied to the field of biology and medicine, by several research groups including the MIT spectroscopy laboratory. Both the technical developments and applications of HT have been significantly advanced. In 2012 the first commercial HT company Nanolive was founded, later followed by Tomocube in 2014. == Principles == The principle of HT is


id: liulin-type-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liulin_type_instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: Liulin type instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liulin_type_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:36.930910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: liulin-type-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
Liulin-type is a class of spectrometry-dosimetry instruments. The instruments are specific types of semiconductor-based ionizing radiation sensors that are capable of measuring the deposited energy of the particle in silicon PIN diode and also the flux of particles. The measured data output is then a time series of spectral intensity. The data about mixed field radiation (usually the secondary cosmic rays) is then used to calculate radiation dose relevant to the specific mission e.g. for a crew or aerospace equipment. The main advantages of this type of ionizing radiation detector compared to classical setups with scintillators are a significant reduction in weight, and size together with extremely low power consumption. == History == The first Liulin device was developed in 1986–1988 time period for the scientific program of the second Bulgarian cosmonaut for the flight on MIR space station. After the MIR station deorbit similar experiments with revised versions of detectors continue on ISS. Since the beginning of 2015, open-source hardware detectors based on the same technology called SPACEDOS have been developed. Then the SPACEDOS instruments in different variants are used on board ISS parallel to Liulin dosimeters. == Principle of function == All Liulin type dosimetric instruments use one


id: mems-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: MEMS testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:39.465061+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mems-testing-20260505-0
summary:
MEMS testing is one of the processes in the development of a MEMS device. It is a collection of testing methods such as electrical, mechanical and environment tests. == Motivation == When looking at the electronic market it becomes obvious, as there is a need for production output, high system performance, product reliability and long lifecycle, for MEMS to create trust in the eyes of customers. If those conditions would not be met customers would not invest into technologies using MEMS, which justifies the need for testing as a part of a high quality standard. Testing is also fairly important from an economical point of view. As it is said that the failure cost increase by a factor of ten for each stage before it gets discovered. Most MEMS producers check their products at two distinct stages(at the wafer level, and the packaging), as well as random sampling on every stage. If one includes this into cost calculation for a MEMS device the costs for testing amounts to 20-50% of the overall unit costs. Even when looking at producers that manufacture MEMS, and CMOS devices it is not really possible to reduce the costs by including the economy of scopes


id: microscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:40.706029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
A microscope (from Ancient Greek μικρός (mikrós) 'small' and σκοπέω (skopéō) 'to look (at); examine, inspect') is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to describe the method an instrument uses to interact with a sample and produce images, either by sending a beam of light or electrons through a sample in its optical path, by detecting photon emissions from a sample, or by scanning across and a short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the optical microscope, which uses lenses to refract visible light that passed through a thinly sectioned sample to produce an observable image. Other major types of microscopes are the fluorescence microscope, electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope) and various types of scanning probe microscopes. == History == Although objects resembling lenses


id: microscope-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-1.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:40.706029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
In the early 20th century a significant alternative to the light microscope was developed, an instrument that uses a beam of electrons rather than light to generate an image. The German physicist, Ernst Ruska, working with electrical engineer Max Knoll, developed the first prototype electron microscope in 1931, a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The transmission electron microscope works on similar principles to an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light and electromagnets in the place of glass lenses. Use of electrons, instead of light, allows for much higher resolution. Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the scanning electron microscope by Max Knoll. Although TEMs were being used for research before WWII, and became popular afterwards, the SEM was not commercially available until 1965. Transmission electron microscopes became popular following the Second World War. Ernst Ruska, working at Siemens, developed the first commercial transmission electron microscope and, in the 1950s, major scientific conferences on electron microscopy started being held. In 1965, the first commercial scanning electron microscope was developed by Professor Sir Charles Oatley and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart, and marketed by the Cambridge Instrument Company as the


id: microscope-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-2.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:40.706029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classified based on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes). Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (optics for light microscopes and electromagnet lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are electromagnetic (in optical microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes). Resolution in these microscopes is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution. Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the signals generated by the beam interacting with the


id: microscope-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-3.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:40.706029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
The different types of scanning probe microscopes arise from the many different types of interactions that occur when a small probe is scanned over and interacts with a specimen. These interactions or modes can be recorded or mapped as function of location on the surface to form a characterization map. The three most common types of scanning probe microscopes are atomic force microscopes (AFM), near-field scanning optical microscopes (NSOM or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy), and scanning tunneling microscopes (STM). An atomic force microscope has a fine probe, usually of silicon or silicon nitride, attached to a cantilever; the probe is scanned over the surface of the sample, and the forces that cause an interaction between the probe and the surface of the sample are measured and mapped. A near-field scanning optical microscope is similar to an AFM but its probe consists of a light source in an optical fiber covered with a tip that has usually an aperture for the light to pass through. The microscope can capture either transmitted or reflected light to measure very localized optical properties of the surface, commonly of a biological specimen. Scanning tunneling microscopes have a metal tip with a single apical atom;


id: multi-component-gas-analyzer-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Multi-component gas analyzer system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:41.985117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multi-component-gas-analyzer-system-20260505-0
summary:
A multi-component gas analyzer system (Multi-GAS) is an instrument package used to take real-time high-resolution measurements of volcanic gases. A Multi-GAS package includes an infrared spectrometer for CO2, two electrochemical sensors for SO2 and H2S, and pressure–temperature–humidity sensors, all in a weatherproof box. The system can be used for individual surveys or set up as permanent stations connected to radio transmitters for transmission of data from remote locations. The instrument package is portable, and its operation and data analysis are simple enough to be conducted by non-specialists. Multi-GAS instruments have been used to measure volcanic gases at Mount Etna, Stromboli, Vulcano Italy, Villarrica (volcano) Chile, Masaya Volcano Nicaragua, Mount Yasur, Miyake-jima and Mount Asama Japan, Soufrière Hills Montserrat, with permanent installations at Etna and Stromboli. The development of this instrument has helped scientists to monitor real-time changes in volcanic gas composition, allowing for more rapid hazard mitigation and an enhanced understanding of volcano processes. == System mechanics == Multi-component gas analyzer systems are used for measuring the major components of volcanic gases. CO2, SO2, H2S, and pressure-temperature-humidity sensors are typically included in a package. Other electrochemical sensors have been successfully incorporated as well, including for H2 and HCl. The instruments


id: multi-parametric-surface-plasmon-resonance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-parametric_surface_plasmon_resonance-0.md
category: reference
title: Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-parametric_surface_plasmon_resonance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:43.131462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multi-parametric-surface-plasmon-resonance-20260505-0
summary:
Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance (MP-SPR) is based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR), an established real-time label-free method for biomolecular interaction analysis, but it uses a different optical setup, a goniometric SPR configuration. While MP-SPR provides same kinetic information as SPR (equilibrium constant, dissociation constant, association constant), it provides also structural information (refractive index, layer thickness). Hence, MP-SPR measures both surface interactions and nanolayer properties. == History == The goniometric SPR method was researched alongside focused beam SPR and Otto configurations at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland since 1980s by Janusz Sadowski. The goniometric SPR optics was commercialized by Biofons Oy for use in point-of-care applications. Introduction of additional measurement laser wavelengths and first thin film analyses were performed in 2011 giving way to MP-SPR method. == Principle == The MP-SPR optical setup measures at multiple wavelengths simultaneously (similarly to spectroscopic SPR), but instead of measuring at a fixed angle, it rather scans across a wide range of θ angles (for instance 40 degrees). This results in measurements of full SPR curves at multiple wavelengths providing additional information about structure and dynamic conformation of the film. == Measured values == The measured full SPR curves (x-axis: angle, y-axis: reflected light


id: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument-0.md
category: reference
title: Ozone monitoring instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:44.396909+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
The ozone monitoring instrument (OMI) is a nadir-viewing visual and ultraviolet spectrometer aboard the NASA Aura spacecraft, which is part of the satellite constellation A-Train. In this group of satellites Aura flies in formation about 15 minutes behind Aqua satellite, both of which orbit the Earth in a polar Sun-synchronous pattern, and which provides nearly global coverage in one day. Aura satellite was launched on July 15, 2004, and OMI has collected data since August 9, 2004. From a technical point of view, OMI instrument use hyperspectral imaging to observe solar-backscatter radiation to the space with an spectral range that covers the visible and ultraviolet. Its spectral capabilities were designed to achieve specific requirements of total ozone amounts retrievals in terms of accuracy and precision. Also its characteristics provide accurate radiometric and wavelength self calibration over the long-term project requirements. == OMI project == The OMI project is a cooperation between the Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes (NIVR), the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) and the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA). The OMI project was carried out under the direction of the NIVR and financed by the Dutch Ministries of Economic Affairs, Transport and Public Works and the Ministry of


id: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument-1.md
category: reference
title: Ozone monitoring instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:44.396909+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific relevance == The OMI project has been monitoring the atmospheric composition and providing measurements widely used in the field of atmospheric chemistry research. The fact that it has been operational for more than a decade makes it also useful for trend monitoring. The reference describing the first 14 years of the OMI details the research data products provided by NASA, KNMI, FMI and SAO, also according to these authors, beyond the initial goals, OMI has been important due the high-resolution NO2 and SO2 measurements (OMI is the first instrument that is able to obtain daily global coverage combined with such spatial resolution), and the fact that top-down studies allowed for source attribution analyses. === Awards === The International Team of the Ozone Monitoring Instrument has received several awards for its contributions to a better understanding of the Earth system: USGS 2018 Pecora Award The Pecora award is annual to recognize individuals or teams using remote sensing in the field of Earth Science. It consider not only the scientific role but also its role informing decision makers and supporting natural or human-induced disaster responses. 2021 AMS Special Award A broad description of this award to OMI International Team is


id: ph-meter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-0.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:46.852129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
A pH meter is a scientific instrument that measures the hydrogen-ion activity in water-based solutions, indicating its acidity or alkalinity expressed as pH. The pH meter measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and so the pH meter is sometimes referred to as a "potentiometric pH meter". The difference in electrical potential relates to the acidity or pH of the solution. Testing of pH via pH meters (pH-metry) is used in many applications ranging from laboratory experimentation to quality control. == Applications == The rate and outcome of chemical reactions taking place in water often depends on the acidity of the water, and it is therefore useful to know the acidity of the water, typically measured by means of a pH meter. Knowledge of pH is useful or critical in many situations, including chemical laboratory analyses. pH meters are used for soil measurements in agriculture, water quality for municipal water supplies, swimming pools, environmental remediation; brewing of wine or beer; manufacturing, healthcare and clinical applications such as blood chemistry; and many other applications. Advances in the instrumentation and in detection have expanded the number of applications in which pH measurements can be conducted.


id: ph-meter-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-1.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:46.852129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
=== pH electrode and reference electrode design === Details of the fabrication and resulting microstructure of the glass membrane of the pH electrode are maintained as trade secrets by the manufacturers. However, certain aspects of design are published. Glass is a solid electrolyte, for which alkali-metal ions can carry current. The pH-sensitive glass membrane is generally spherical to simplify the manufacture of a uniform membrane. These membranes are up to 0.4 millimeters in thickness, thicker than original designs, so as to render the probes durable. The glass has silicate chemical functionality on its surface, which provides binding sites for alkali-metal ions and hydrogen ions from the solutions. This provides an ion-exchange capacity in the range of 10−6 to 10−8 mol/cm2. Selectivity for hydrogen ions (H+) arises from a balance of ionic charge, volume requirements versus other ions, and the coordination number of other ions. Electrode manufacturers have developed compositions that suitably balance these factors, most notably lithium glass. The silver chloride electrode is most commonly used as a reference electrode in pH meters, although some designs use the saturated calomel electrode. The silver chloride electrode is simple to manufacture and provides high reproducibility. The reference electrode usually consists of a


id: ph-meter-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-2.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:46.852129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of pH was defined in 1909 by S. P. L. Sørensen, and electrodes were used for pH measurement in the 1920s. In October 1934, Arnold Orville Beckman registered the first patent for a complete chemical instrument for the measurement of pH, U.S. Patent No. 2,058,761, for his "acidimeter", later renamed the pH meter. Beckman developed the prototype as an assistant professor of chemistry at the California Institute of Technology, when asked to devise a quick and accurate method for measuring the acidity of lemon juice for the California Fruit Growers Exchange (Sunkist). On April 8, 1935, Beckman's renamed National Technical Laboratories focused on the manufacture of scientific instruments, with the Arthur H. Thomas Company as a distributor for its pH meter. In its first full year of sales, 1936, the company sold 444 pH meters for $60,000 in sales. In years to come, the company sold millions of the units. In 2004 the Beckman pH meter was designated an ACS National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of its significance as the first commercially successful electronic pH meter. The Radiometer Corporation of Denmark was founded in 1935, and began marketing a pH meter for medical use around 1936, but


id: polarograph-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarograph-0.md
category: reference
title: Polarograph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarograph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:48.131116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polarograph-20260505-0
summary:
A Polarograph is a chemical analysis instrument used to record automatic voltage-intensity curves. The Polarograph uses an electrolytic cell consisting of an electrode or microelectrode small area, generally of the mercury drop type, which is a very fine capillary tube through which mercury flows slowly, which comes in the form of small droplets, which fall on the same surface of a much broader element, which is the other electrode . When one applies a variable voltage in this cell, the electrode's large area remains unchanged, while the microelectrode undergoes a change of potential, ( i.e. is polarized). It also has a potentiometer coupled to the motor that moves the recording paper so that a certain voltage variation corresponds to a constant length of recording paper, and a galvanometer suitable for measuring the intensity of the electric current, whose response is transmitted to the actuator that moves the needle of the recorder. The technique used is called polarography. The Czech chemist and Nobel Prize winner Jaroslav Heyrovský invented it. == References ==


id: pqube-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PQube-0.md
category: reference
title: PQube
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PQube
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:50.574036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pqube-20260505-0
summary:
PQube is a registered trademark of Power Standards Lab for an electronic measuring instrument that records power quality and electric energy on the electric power grid. == Applications == PQube instruments are widely used to gather data for academic research, and at United States Department of Energy National Laboratories and state energy regulators. U.S. federal government agencies use PQubes to detect power quality issues – for example, the Federal Aviation Administration tracks disturbances at radar control centers. Each PQube instrument is traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology, so often these instruments are used in international academic and research environments. PQubes are a key element in many smart grid projects, recording power disturbance and power flow data to examine efficiency and reliability effects. == Information on the Web == Approximately 50 PQubes, located in approximately 40 countries, have been designated by their owners as free public sources of information at http://map.pqube.com . The site is updated approximately every 2 minutes with worldwide power quality and energy recordings. Data from these PQubes can be used, for example, for developing and testing power quality algorithms. Available data include daily, weekly, and monthly files in GIF and Microsoft Excel CSV format.


id: probe-tip-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-0.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:51.740066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
A probe tip is an instrument used in scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) to scan the surface of a sample and make nano-scale images of surfaces and structures. The probe tip is mounted on the end of a cantilever and can be as sharp as a single atom. In microscopy, probe tip geometry (length, width, shape, aspect ratio, and tip apex radius) and the composition (material properties) of both the tip and the surface being probed directly affect resolution and imaging quality. Tip size and shape are extremely important in monitoring and detecting interactions between surfaces. SPMs can precisely measure electrostatic forces, magnetic forces, chemical bonding, Van der Waals forces, and capillary forces. SPMs can also reveal the morphology and topography of a surface. The use of probe-based tools began with the invention of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), collectively called scanning probe microscopy (SPM) by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at the IBM Zurich research laboratory in 1982. It opened a new era for probing the nano-scale world of individual atoms and molecules as well as studying surface science, due to their unprecedented capability to characterize the mechanical, chemical, magnetic, and optical functionalities of various samples


id: probe-tip-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-1.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:51.740066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
=== Non-conductive probe tip === Non-conductive nanoscale tips are widely used for AFM measurements. For non-conducting tip, surface forces acting on the tip/cantilever are responsible for deflection or attraction of tip. These attractive or repulsive forces are used for surface topology, chemical specifications, magnetic and electronic properties. The distance-dependent forces between substrate surface and tip are responsible for imaging in AFM. These interactions include van der Waals forces, capillary forces, electrostatic forces, Casimir forces, and solvation forces. One unique repulsion force is Pauli Exclusion repulsive force, which is responsible for single-atom imaging as in references and Figures 10 & 11 (contact region in Fig. 1). == Fabrication methods == Tip fabrication techniques fall into two broad classifications, mechanical and physicochemical. In the early stage of the development of probe tips, mechanical procedures were popular because of the ease of fabrication. === Mechanical methods === Reported mechanical methods in fabricating tips include cutting, grinding, and pulling.; an example would be cutting a wire at certain angles with a razor blade, wire cutter, or scissors. Another mechanical method for tip preparation is fragmentation of bulk pieces into small pointy pieces. Grinding a metal wire or rod into a sharp tip was also


id: probe-tip-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-2.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:51.740066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
==== Lamella method ==== In the double lamella method, the lower part of the metal is etched away, and the upper part of the tip is not etched further. Further etching of the upper part of the wire is prevented by covering it with a polymer coating. This method is usually limited to laboratory fabrication. The double lamella method schematic is shown in Fig. 5. === Single atom tip preparation === Transitional metals like Cu, Au and Ag adsorb single molecules linearly on their surface due to weak van der Waals forces. This linear projection of single molecules allows interactions of the terminal atoms of the tip with the atoms of the substrate, resulting in Pauli repulsion for single molecule or atom mapping studies. Gaseous deposition on the tip is carried out in an ultrahigh vacuum (5 × 10−8 mbar) chamber at a low temperature (10K). Depositions of Xe, Kr, NO, CH4 or CO on tip have been successfully prepared and used for imaging studies. However, these tips preparations rely on the attachment of single atoms or molecules on the tip and the resulting atomic structure of the tip is not known exactly. The probability of attachment of simple molecules


id: probe-tip-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-3.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:51.740066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
== Coating == The surface of silicon-based tips cannot be easily controlled because they usually carry the silanol group. The Si surface is hydrophilic and can be contaminated easily by the environment. Another disadvantage of Si tips is the wear and tear of the tip. It is important to coat the Si tip to prevent tip deterioration, and the tip coating may also enhance image quality. To coat a tip, an adhesive layer is pasted (usually chromium layer on 5 nm thick titanium) and then gold is deposited by vapor deposition (40-100 nm or less). Sometimes, the coating layer reduces the tunnelling current detection capability of probe tips. == Characterization == The most important aspect of a probe tip is imaging the surfaces efficiently at nanometre dimensions. Some concerns involving credibility of the imaging or measurement of the sample arise when the shape of the tip is not determined accurately. For example, when an unknown tip is used to measure a linewidth pattern or other high aspect ratio feature of a surface, there may remain some confusion when determining the contribution of the tip and of the sample in the acquired image. Consequently, it is important to fully and accurately


id: probe-tip-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-4.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:51.740066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
Imaging tip using microscopy is used to take image of tip with microscopy, except scanning probe microscopy (SPM) e.g. scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) are reported. Using known tip characterizer is when the shape of tip is deduced by taking an image of a sample of known measurement, which is known as tip characterizer. Blind method is where tip characterizer of either known or unknown measurement is used. == Applications == Probes tips have a wide variety of applications in different fields of science and technology. One of the major areas where probe tips are used is for application in SPM i.e., STM and AFM. For example, carbon nanotube tips in conjunction with AFM provides an excellent tool for surface characterization in the nanometer realm. CNT tips are also used in tapping-mode Scanning Force Microscopy (SFM), which is a technique where a tip taps a surface by a cantilever driven near resonant frequency of the cantilever. The CNT probe tips fabricated using CVD technique can be used for imaging of biological macromolecules, semiconductor and chemical structure. For example, it is possible to obtain an intermittent AFM contact image of IgM macromolecules with excellent resolution using a single


id: rheoscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheoscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Rheoscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheoscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:53.014293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rheoscope-20260505-0
summary:
In fluid mechanics (specifically rheology), a rheoscope is an instrument for detecting or measuring the viscosity of a fluid. In the study of blood flow, a rheoscope is used to observe and measure the deformation of blood cells subject to different levels of fluid shear stress. == References == Stein, Jess, ed. (1980). The Random House college dictionary. Random House. p. 1132. ISBN 0-394-43600-8.


id: scale-of-chords-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_of_chords-0.md
category: reference
title: Scale of chords
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_of_chords
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:54.290747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scale-of-chords-20260505-0
summary:
A scale of chords may be used to set or read an angle in the absence of a protractor. To draw an angle, compasses describe an arc from origin with a radius taken from the 60 mark. The required angle is copied from the scale by the compasses, and an arc of this radius drawn from the sixty mark so it intersects the first arc. The line drawn from this point to the origin will be at the target angle. == Mathematics == A chord is a line drawn between two points on the circumference of a circle. Look at the centre point of this line. For a circle of radius r, each half will be r sin ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle r\sin {\tfrac {\theta }{2}}} so the chord will be 2 r sin ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle 2r\sin {\tfrac {\theta }{2}}} . The line of chords scale represents each of these values linearly on a scale running from 0 to 60. == Availability == It appears on Gunter's scale and the Foster Serle dialing scales. The commercial company Stanley marketed a metal version (Stanley 60R Line of Chords Rule) in 2015. == See also == Ptolemy's table of chords


id: scanning-habitable-environments-with-raman-and-luminescence-for-organics-and-chemicals-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:55.517038+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scanning-habitable-environments-with-raman-and-luminescence-for-organics-and-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_Habitable_Environments_with_Raman_and_Luminescence_for_Organics_and_Chemicals-0.md

summary:
Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) is an ultraviolet Raman spectrometer that uses fine-scale imaging and an ultraviolet (UV) laser to determine fine-scale mineralogy, and detect organic compounds designed for the Perseverance rover as part of the Mars 2020 mission. It was constructed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory with major subsystems being delivered from Malin Space Science Systems and Los Alamos National Laboratory. SHERLOC has a calibration target with possible Mars suit materials, and it will measure how they change over time in the Martian surface environment. == Goals == According to a 2017 Universities Space Research Association (USRA) report: The goals of the SHERLOC investigation are to: Assess the habitability potential of a sample and its aqueous history. Assess the availability of key elements and energy source for life (C, H, N, O, P, S etc.). Determine if there are potential biosignatures preserved in Martian rocks and outcrops. Provide organic and mineral analysis for selective sample caching. To do this SHERLOC does the following: Detects and classifies organics and astrobiologically relevant minerals on the surface and near subsurface of Mars. Bulk organic sensitivity of 10-5 to 10-6 w/w over a 7 x 7

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_Habitable_Environments_with_Raman_and_Luminescence_for_Organics_and_Chemicals


id: scintillating-bolometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillating_bolometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Scintillating bolometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillating_bolometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:56.752639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scintillating-bolometer-20260505-0
summary:
A scintillating bolometer (or luminescent bolometer) is a scientific instrument using particle physics in the search for events with low energy deposition. These events could include dark matter, low energy solar neutrinos, double beta decay or rare radioactive decay. It works by simultaneously measuring both the light pulse and heat pulse generated by a particle interaction within its internal scintillator crystal. The device was originally proposed by L. Gonzalez-Mestres and D. Perret-Gallix (LAPP, IN2P3/CNRS) In their rapporteur contribution to the Proceedings of the XXIV International Conference on High-Energy Physics, Munich, August 1988, Gonzalez-Mestres and Perret-Gallix wrote : Perhaps bolometry should in some cases be combined with other detection techniques (luminescence?) in order to produce a primary fast signal as timing strobe. If light is used as a complementary signature, particle identification can be achieved through the heat-light ratio, where nucleus recoil is expected to be less luminescent than ionizing particles. The success of such a development would open the way to unprecedented achievements in background rejection for rare event experiments. Further explanations, including a description of the detector and possible applications incorporating in particular BGO and tungstates, were given by these authors in other papers such as their contribution to


id: sensitive-high-resolution-ion-microprobe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitive_high-resolution_ion_microprobe-0.md
category: reference
title: Sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitive_high-resolution_ion_microprobe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:57.946330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sensitive-high-resolution-ion-microprobe-20260505-0
summary:
The sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (also sensitive high mass-resolution ion microprobe or SHRIMP) is a large-diameter, double-focusing secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS) sector instrument that was produced by Australian Scientific Instruments in Canberra, Australia and now has been taken over by Chinese company Dunyi Technology Development Co. (DTDC) in Beijing. Similar to the IMS 1270-1280-1300 large-geometry ion microprobes produced by CAMECA, Gennevilliers, France and like other SIMS instruments, the SHRIMP microprobe bombards a sample under vacuum with a beam of primary ions that sputters secondary ions that are focused, filtered, and measured according to their energy and mass. The SHRIMP is primarily used for geological and geochemical applications. It can measure the isotopic and elemental abundances in minerals at a 10 to 30 μm-diameter scale and with a depth resolution of 1–5 μm. Thus, SIMS method is well-suited for the analysis of complex minerals, as often found in metamorphic terrains, some igneous rocks, and for relatively rapid analysis of statistical valid sets of detrital minerals from sedimentary rocks. The most common application of the instrument is in uranium–thorium–lead geochronology, although the SHRIMP can be used to measure some other isotope ratio measurements (e.g., δ7Li or δ11B) and trace element abundances.


id: sira-notified-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sira_(notified_body)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sira (notified body)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sira_(notified_body)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:25:59.283534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sira-notified-body-20260505-0
summary:
Sira is a UK-based notified body, specialising in ATEX, IECEX and North American product approvals. == Foundation == Sira began life as the British Scientific Instrument Research Association (BSIRA). It was founded in 1918 by a Committee of the Privy Council for the promotion of scientific and industrial research and supported by the DSIR. The first members of the association were representatives of the optical industry, but these were joined in the same year by the electrical scientific instrument, electromedical, and X-ray industries. Its first director of research was Sir Herbert Jackson (1863–1936). BSIRA's London headquarters were destroyed in the Second World War and, in 1947, the association moved to a site in South Hill, Chislehurst, a Grade II Listed former private house called 'Sitka' By the 1960s, the association had become better-known as 'Sira'. It evolved into a group of British engineering companies, based in south London, that designed test equipment and provided calibration services. == Fate == In 2006, Sira Test and Certification Ltd, Sira Defence and Security, and Sira Environmental were owned by Volveré plc. In July 2009, Volvere sold Sira Test and Certification Ltd, Sira Certification Service and Sira Environmental Ltd to CSA International. == Similar


id: spectronic-20-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20-0.md
category: reference
title: Spectronic 20
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:00.641959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spectronic-20-20260505-0
summary:
The Spectronic 20 is a brand of single-beam spectrophotometer, designed to operate in the visible spectrum across a wavelength range of 340 nm to 950 nm, with a spectral bandpass of 20 nm. It is designed for quantitative absorption measurement at single wavelengths. Because it measures the transmittance or absorption of visible light through a solution, it is sometimes referred to as a colorimeter. The name of the instrument is a trademark of the manufacturer. Developed by Bausch & Lomb and launched in 1953, the Spectronic 20 was the first low-cost spectrophotometer. It rapidly became an industry standard due to its low cost, durability and ease of use, and has been referred to as an "iconic lab spectrophotometer". Approximately 600,000 units were sold over its nearly 60 year production run. It has been the most widely used spectrophotometer worldwide. Production was discontinued in 2011 when it was replaced by the Spectronic 200, but the Spectronic 20 is still in common use. It is sometimes referred to as the "Spec 20". == Design == The Bausch & Lomb Spectronic 20 colorimeter uses a diffraction grating monochromator combined with a system for the detection, amplification, and measurement of light wavelengths in the


id: spectronic-20-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20-1.md
category: reference
title: Spectronic 20
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:00.641959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spectronic-20-20260505-0
summary:
== Use == Before testing a sample, the Spectronic 20 is calibrated using a blank solution, which is the pure solvent that is used in the experimental sample. It is typically water or an organic solvent. In this calibration, the transmittance is set at 100% using the calibration knob of the instrument (the amplifier control knob in the figure at right). The instrument can also optionally be calibrated with a stock solution of a sample at a concentration known to have an absorbance of 2 or else vendor supplied standards, using the light absorption knob in the diagram shown at right. After calibration, the user places a 1/2 inch test tube or cuvette containing the sample solution to be measured into the sample compartment. Calibration is repeated each time the wavelength is changed. It or a standard reference sample is generally used to periodically check for drift. To measure wavelengths above 650 nm, the bottom of the instrument is opened, and a red filter and a red-sensitive photocell is installed. The original design of the Spectronic 20 utilized an analog dial for readout of transmission from 100%T to 1%T (top scale), 0A - 2A (lower scale). Using the original instrument


id: xylotron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XyloTron-0.md
category: reference
title: XyloTron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XyloTron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:07.903462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: xylotron-20260505-0
summary:
The XyloTron is an open-source, portable macroscopic wood identification system developed to support supply chain verification and the enforcement of laws against illegal logging. The device uses computer vision wood identification models to classify wood specimens based on their macroscopic anatomy and requires minimal operator training. Designed for use in laboratory and field settings, the system provides a non-destructive method to rapidly identify wood. The system's accuracy depends on the quality of the training data, the breadth and anatomical complexity of woods in the model, and the similarity of unknown samples to those included in the model. Use of the XyloTron is intended to help establish probable cause in cases of possible illegal logging, rather than for high-stakes legal enforcement or forensic confirmation. Microscopic analysis of wood specimens by a wood anatomist may still be required. == Overview == The XyloTron system was developed at the United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin. Initial conceptual work began in late 2010. The XyloTron uses a laptop or desktop computer for computation and the XyloScope, which is specialized, custom-designed hardware that captures controlled imaging using a scientific-grade digital camera, lens, and lighting array. Unlike traditional wood


id: z-tube-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-tube-0.md
category: reference
title: Z-tube
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-tube
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:09.094693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: z-tube-20260505-0
summary:
The Z-tube is an experimental apparatus for measuring the tensile strength of a liquid. It consists of a Z-shaped tube with open ends, filled with a liquid, and set on top of a spinning table. If the tube were straight, the liquid would immediately fly out one end or the other of the tube as it began to spin. By bending the ends of the tube back towards the center of rotation, a shift of the liquid away from center will result in the water level in one end of the tube rising and thus increasing the pressure in that end of the tube, and consequently returning the liquid to the center of the tube. By measuring the rotational speed and the distance from the center of rotation to the liquid level in the bent ends of the tube, the pressure reduction inside the tube can be calculated. Negative pressures, (i.e. less than zero absolute pressure, or in other words, tension) have been reported using water processed to remove dissolved gases. Tensile strengths up to 280 atmospheres have been reported for water in glass. == References ==


id: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower-0.md
category: reference
title: Zeeman slower
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:10.320396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
summary:
In atomic physics, a Zeeman slower is a scientific instrument that is commonly used in atomic physics to slow and cool a beam of hot atoms to speeds of several meters per second and temperatures below a kelvin. The gas-phase atoms used in atomic physics are often generated in an oven by heating a solid or liquid atomic sample to temperatures where the vapor pressure is high enough that a substantial number of atoms are in the gas phase. These atoms effuse out of a hole in the oven with average speeds on the order of hundreds of m/s and large velocity distributions (due to their high temperature). The Zeeman slower is attached close to where the hot atoms exit the oven and are used to slow them to less than 10 m/s (slowing) with a very small velocity spread (cooling). A Zeeman slower consists of a cylinder, through which an atomic beam travels, a pump laser that counterpropagates with respect to the beam's direction, and a magnetic field (commonly produced by a solenoid-like coil) that points along the cylinder's axis with a spatially varying magnitude. The pump laser, which is required to be near-resonant with atomic transition, Doppler-slows a


id: zeeman-slower-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower-1.md
category: reference
title: Zeeman slower
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:10.320396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
summary:
B ( z ) = ℏ k μ ′ v + ℏ δ μ ′ = ℏ k v i μ ′ 1 − 2 a v i 2 z + ℏ δ μ ′ , {\displaystyle B(z)={\frac {\hbar k}{\mu '}}v+{\frac {\hbar \delta }{\mu '}}={\frac {\hbar kv_{i}}{\mu '}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {2a}{v_{i}^{2}}}z}}+{\frac {\hbar \delta }{\mu '}},} where v i {\displaystyle v_{i}} is the maximal velocity class that will be slowed; all the atoms in the velocity distribution that have velocities v < v i {\displaystyle v<v_{i}} will be slowed, and those with velocities v > v i {\displaystyle v>v_{i}} will not be slowed at all. The parameter η {\displaystyle \eta } (which determines the required laser intensity) is normally chosen to be around 0.5. If a Zeeman slower were to be operated with η ≈ 1 {\displaystyle \eta \approx 1} , then after absorbing a photon and moving to the excited state, the atom would preferentially re-emit a photon in the direction of the laser beam (due to stimulated emission), which would counteract the slowing process. == Realization == The required form of the spatially inhomogeneous magnetic field as we showed above has the form B ( z ) = B 0


id: c-glenn-begley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Glenn_Begley-0.md
category: reference
title: C. Glenn Begley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Glenn_Begley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:14.501992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: c-glenn-begley-20260505-0
summary:
C. Glenn Begley is a hematologist and oncologist who was the CEO of BioCurate, an Australia-based joint venture between the University of Melbourne and Monash University that was launched in 2016. The "C. Glenn Begley Award", created by Stanford University in 2025, was named in his honor. The award celebrates teams that uphold the highest standards of scientific integrity, fostering innovation that is both impactful and reliable. Previously, he worked at the California-based biotech company Akriveia Therapeutics as their chief scientific officer. His other previous positions include global head of hematology and oncology research at Amgen, senior vice president and chief scientific officer at TetraLogic Pharmaceuticals, and executive director of the Western Australian Institute of Medical Research. He studied medicine at the University of Melbourne. He is known for a study he co-authored in 2012 in which he found that only 6 out of 53 (11%) of landmark preclinical studies of cancer drugs could be reproduced. He was elected to the American Society for Clinical Investigation in 2000. Begley was elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences in 2015. == Education == Begley studied medicine at the University of Melbourne starting in 1972 and finishing in


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-0.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:18.246652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
Conflicts of interest (COIs) often arise in academic publishing. Such conflicts may cause wrongdoing and make it more likely. Ethical standards in academic publishing exist to avoid and deal with conflicts of interest, and the field continues to develop new standards. Standards vary between journals and are unevenly applied. According to the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, "[a]uthors have a responsibility to evaluate the integrity, history, practices and reputation of the journals to which they submit manuscripts". Conflicts of interest increase the likelihood of biases arising; they can harm the quality of research and the public good (even if disclosed). Conflicts of interest can involve research sponsors, authors, journals, journal staff, publishers, and peer reviewers. == Avoidance, disclosure, and tracking == The avoidance of conflicts of interest and the changing of the structure of institutions to make them easier to avoid are frequently advocated for. Some institutional ethics policies ban academics from entering into specific types of COIs, for instance by prohibiting them from accepting gifts from companies connected with their work. Education in ethical COI management is also a tool for avoiding COI problems. Disclosure of COIs has been debated since the 1980s; there is a general consensus


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-1.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:18.246652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
==== Owners and governing bodies ==== The owner of an academic journal has ultimate power over the hiring and firing of editorial staff; editors' interests in pleasing their employers conflict with some of their other editorial interests. Journals are also more likely to accept papers by authors who work for the journals' hosting institutions. Some journals are owned by publishers. When journals print reviews of books published by their own publishers, they rarely (as of 2013) add COI disclosures. The publishers' interest in maximizing profit will often conflict with academic interests or ethical standards. In the case of closed-access publications, publishers' desire for high subscription income may conflict with an editorial desire for broader access and readership. There have been multiple mass resignations of editorial boards over such conflicts, which are often followed by the editorial board founding a new, non-profit journal to compete with their former one. Some journals are owned by academic societies and professional organisations. Leading journals can be very profitable and there is often friction about revenue between the journal and the member society that owns it. Some academic societies and professional organisations are themselves funded by membership fees and/or donations. If the owners benefit financially


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-2.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:26:18.246652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== COIs of journal staff === Personal conflicts of interest faced by journal staff are individual. If a person leaves the journal—unlike the COIs of journals as institutions—their personal COIs will go with them. As of 2015, COIs of journal staff are less commonly reported than those of authors. For instance, one 2009 World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) policy document states, "Some journals list editors' competing interests on their website but this is not a standard practice". The ICMJE, however, requires that the COIs of editors and journal staff be regularly declared and published. One 2017 Open Payments study of influential US medical journals found half of the editors received payments from industry; another study that used a different sample of editors reported two-thirds. As of 2002, systems for reporting wrongdoing by editors often do not exist. Many journals have policies limiting COIs staff can enter into; for instance, accepting gifts of travel, accommodation, or hospitality may be prohibited. As of 2016, such policies are rarely published. Most journals do not offer COI training; as of 2015, many journals report a desire for better guidance on COI policy. === COIs of peer reviewers === The ICJME recommendations require peer


