# kb

id: constructive-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Constructive heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:26.519422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructive-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
A constructive heuristic is a type of heuristic method which starts with an empty solution and repeatedly extends the current solution until a complete solution is obtained. It differs from local search heuristics which start with a complete solution and then try to improve the current solution further via local moves. Examples of some famous problems that are solved using constructive heuristics are the flow shop scheduling, the vehicle routing problem and the open shop problem. == See also == Evolutionary algorithms Genetic algorithms Local search (optimization) Metaheuristics == References ==


id: contagion-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Contagion heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:27.704654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contagion-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The contagion heuristic is a psychological heuristic which follows the law of contagion and the law of similarity, leading people to avoid contact with people or objects viewed as "contaminated" by previous contact with someone or something viewed as bad—or, less often, to seek contact with objects that have been in contact with people or things considered good. For example, people tend to view food that has touched the ground as contaminated by the ground, and therefore unfit to eat, or view a person who has touched a diseased person as likely to carry the disease (regardless of the actual contagiousness of the disease). The contagion heuristic can include "magical thinking", in which well-educated adults will think that touching an object transfers their qualities ("essence") to it: for example, a sweater worn by Adolf Hitler is thought to bear his negative essence and to be capable of transmitting it to another wearer. The perception of essence-transfer extends to rituals to purify items viewed as spiritually contaminated, such as having Mother Teresa wear Hitler's sweater to counteract his essence. == Types == The contagion heuristic can be separated into three categories: === 1. Positive or negative === Contagion can be negative


id: contagion-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Contagion heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:27.704654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contagion-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
A rejection of potentially offensive food: People are unlikely to touch foods that elicit disgust in attempts to protect our health (e.g. disgust towards uncooked chicken as it is seen as contaminated with potential harmful microorganisms like salmonella). Illness transfer between humans: Avoid touching a 'contaminated' ill person due to fear of getting ill. Support Relationships: Positive contagion encourages highly intimate acts with people perceived as positively contaminated such as family and lovers. (sexual intimacy which would otherwise elicit disgust without love and lust) Hence, the contagion heuristic seems to be a pre-adaptation, that is it evolved to be beneficial to health and relationships, supporting the survival of our species, but now no longer serves a person in the current environment. == Critiques == Positive contagion is relatively weak and might just be an over-extension of the negative contagion principle. This is most likely due to the negative bias: that is, when given two cases, one of negative and one of positive of equal force, the negative case will have a greater impact. As an old Russian phrase states, "A spoonful of tar can spoil a barrel of honey, but a spoonful of honey does nothing for a barrel of


id: content-sniffing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_sniffing-0.md
category: reference
title: Content sniffing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_sniffing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:28.890773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: content-sniffing-20260505-0
summary:
Content sniffing, also known as media type sniffing or MIME sniffing, is the practice of inspecting the content of a byte stream to attempt to deduce the file format of the data within it. Content sniffing is generally used to compensate for a lack of accurate metadata that would otherwise be required to enable the file to be interpreted correctly. Content sniffing techniques tend to use a mixture of techniques that rely on the redundancy found in most file formats: looking for file signatures and magic numbers, and heuristics including searching for well-known representative substrings, the use of byte frequency and n-gram tables, and Bayesian inference. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) sniffing was, and still is, used by some web browsers, including notably Microsoft's Internet Explorer, in an attempt to help web sites which do not correctly signal the MIME type of web content display. However, doing this opens up a serious security vulnerability, in which, by confusing the MIME sniffing algorithm, the browser can be manipulated into interpreting data in a way that allows an attacker to carry out operations that are not expected by either the site operator or user, such as cross-site scripting. Moreover, by making sites


id: cross-entropy-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-entropy_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Cross-entropy method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-entropy_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:30.044973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cross-entropy-method-20260505-0
summary:
The cross-entropy (CE) method is a Monte Carlo method for importance sampling and optimization. It is applicable to both combinatorial and continuous problems, with either a static or noisy objective. The method approximates the optimal importance sampling estimator by repeating two phases: Draw a sample from a probability distribution. Minimize the cross-entropy between this distribution and a target distribution to produce a better sample in the next iteration. Reuven Rubinstein developed the method in the context of rare-event simulation, where tiny probabilities must be estimated, for example in network reliability analysis, queueing models, or performance analysis of telecommunication systems. The method has also been applied to the traveling salesman, quadratic assignment, DNA sequence alignment, max-cut and buffer allocation problems. == Estimation via importance sampling == Consider the general problem of estimating the quantity ℓ = E u [ H ( X ) ] = ∫ H ( x ) f ( x ; u ) d x {\displaystyle \ell =\mathbb {E} _{\mathbf {u} }[H(\mathbf {X} )]=\int H(\mathbf {x} )\,f(\mathbf {x} ;\mathbf {u} )\,{\textrm {d}}\mathbf {x} } , where H {\displaystyle H} is some performance function and f ( x ; u ) {\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} ;\mathbf {u} )} is a


id: debiasing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-0.md
category: reference
title: Debiasing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:31.215378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: debiasing-20260505-0
summary:
Debiasing is the reduction of bias, particularly with respect to judgment and decision making. Biased judgment and decision making is that which systematically deviates from the prescriptions of objective standards such as facts, logic, and rational behavior or prescriptive norms. Biased judgment and decision making exists in consequential domains such as medicine, law, policy, and business, as well as in everyday life. Investors, for example, tend to exhibit the disposition effect by holding onto falling stocks too long and selling rising stocks too quickly. Employers exhibit considerable discrimination in hiring and employment practices, and some parents continue to believe that vaccinations cause autism despite knowing that this link is based on falsified evidence. At an individual level, people who exhibit less decision bias have more intact social environments, reduced risk of alcohol and drug use, lower childhood delinquency rates, and superior planning and problem solving abilities. Debiasing can occur within the decision maker. For example, a person may learn or adopt better strategies by which to make judgments and decisions. Debiasing can also occur as a result of changes in external factors, such as changing the incentives relevant to a decision or the manner in which the decision is made.


id: debiasing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-1.md
category: reference
title: Debiasing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:31.215378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: debiasing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Incentives === Paying people for optimal behavior through bonuses or by providing discounts (e.g., to exercise, to take their medication, to trade in fuel inefficient vehicles such as the "cash for clunkers" program). Taxing people for suboptimal behavior (e.g., drinking soda, smoking tobacco, and weed). === Nudges === Using default effect to nudge people towards decisions optimal for the decision maker or society. Commitment devices that makes it more costly to make suboptimal decisions (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2014). Reframing choice options in ways that make important attributes salient. Labeling hamburger meat 25% fat, for example, makes people more sensitive to fat content than labeling it 75% lean. Presenting information in formats that make critical information easier to evaluate, such as displaying nutritional value using a "traffic light" system. === Training === Providing people with personalized feedback regarding the direction and degree to which they exhibit bias. Teaching a "consider-the-alternative" strategy, such as considering a plausible alternative reason for an event than cause one suspects. Teaching people statistical reasoning and normative rules of which they are unaware. Encouraging people to take the perspective of a person who will experience the consequences of their decision can reduce bias. Participants who


id: distributional-relational-database-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributional–relational_database-0.md
category: reference
title: Distributional–relational database
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributional–relational_database
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:32.392660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distributional-relational-database-20260505-0
summary:
A distributional–relational database, or word-vector database, is a database management system (DBMS) that uses distributional word-vector representations to enrich the semantics of structured data. As distributional word-vectors can be built automatically from large-scale corpora, this enrichment supports the construction of databases which can embed large-scale commonsense background knowledge into their operations. Distributional-Relational models can be applied to the construction of schema-agnostic databases (databases in which users can query the data without being aware of its schema), semantic search, schema-integration and inductive and abductive reasoning as well as different applications in which a semantically flexible knowledge representation model is needed. The main advantage of distributional–relational models over purely logical or semantic web models is the fact that the core semantic associations can be automatically captured from corpora, in contrast to the definition of manually curated ontologies and rule knowledge bases. == Distributional–relational models == Distributional–relational models were first formalized as a mechanism to cope with the vocabulary/semantic gap between users and the schema behind the data. In this scenario, distributional semantic relatedness measures, combined with semantic pivoting heuristics can support the approximation between user queries (expressed in their own vocabulary), and data (expressed in the vocabulary of the designer). In this


id: duck-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Duck test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:33.627172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: duck-test-20260505-0
summary:
The duck test is a frequently cited colloquial example of abductive reasoning. Its usual expression is: If it looks like a duck, swims like a duck, and quacks like a duck, then it probably is a duck. The test implies that a person can identify an unknown subject by observing that subject's habitual characteristics. It is sometimes used to counter abstract arguments that something might not be what it appears to be. == Notable uses == Indiana poet James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916) may have coined the phrase when he wrote: When I see a bird that walks like a duck and swims like a duck and quacks like a duck, I call that bird a duck. A common variation of the wording of the phrase may have originated much later with Emil Mazey, secretary-treasurer of the United Auto Workers, at a labor meeting in 1946 accusing a person of being a communist: I can't prove you are a Communist. But when I see a bird that quacks like a duck, walks like a duck, has feathers and webbed feet and associates with ducks—I'm certainly going to assume that he is a duck. The term was later popularized in the United


id: effort-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Effort heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:34.737352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: effort-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The effort heuristic is a mental rule of thumb in which the quality or worth of an object is determined from the perceived amount of effort that went into producing that object. In brief, the effort heuristic follows a tendency to judge objects that took a longer time to produce to be of higher value. The more effort invested in an object, the better it is deemed to be. This is especially true in situations where value is difficult to assess or the evaluator lacks expertise in the appraisement of an item. People use whatever information is available to them and effort is thought to generally be a reliable indicator of quality. An example of this would be the comparison of $100 earned, and $100 found. If someone finds $100 they are more inclined to go spend it on a whim, but if that $100 is part of a hard-earned paycheck, they are less likely to squander it away. Another way that effort heuristic can be considered is the amount of effort a person will put into an action depending on the goal. If the goal is of little importance, the amount of effort a person is willing to put


id: effort-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Effort heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:34.737352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: effort-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
== Explanations == Human behavior, like that of most other animals, is often driven by rewards and directed by the energetic cost of an action. It takes effort to attain rewards, and people accordingly weigh the value of rewards against the amount of effort that is required to attain them. At an early age, children learn that good performance due to high effort is valued by adults and that teachers are most likely to reward those who work hard. With experience, they internalize effort as a valuable commodity. == Alternative theories == Research directly examining and testing the effort heuristic is scarce, however there are other research areas that incorporated this construct and, in some way, manipulated its effects. However, a key distinction between the study done by Kruger et al. and other research on the role of effort on judgment is that the former focused on other-generated effort rather than self-generated effort. === Cognitive dissonance === ==== Effort justification ==== Over half a century ago, social psychologist Leon Festinger developed the theory of cognitive dissonance. It asserts that inconsistencies among a person's beliefs, attitudes, or opinions produce psychological discomfort, leading people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes.


id: eurisko-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurisko-0.md
category: reference
title: Eurisko
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurisko
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:35.937717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eurisko-20260505-0
summary:
Eurisko (Gr., I discover) is a discovery system written by Douglas Lenat in RLL-1, a representation language itself written in the Lisp programming language. A sequel to Automated Mathematician, it consists of heuristics, i.e. rules of thumb, including heuristics describing how to use and change its own heuristics. Lenat was frustrated by Automated Mathematician's constraint to a single domain and so developed Eurisko; his frustration with the effort of encoding domain knowledge for Eurisko led to Lenat's subsequent development of Cyc. Lenat envisioned ultimately coupling the Cyc knowledge base with the Eurisko discovery engine. == History == Development commenced at Carnegie Mellon in 1976 and continued at Stanford University in 1978 when Lenat returned to teach. "For the first five years, nothing good came out of it", Lenat said. But when the implementation was changed to a frame language based representation he called RLL (Representation Language Language), heuristic creation and modification became much simpler. Eurisko was then applied to a number of domains with surprising success, including VLSI chip design. Previously, Lenat had worked at the automatic-programming research group at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and was coauthor of a report in 1974 on "Program-Understanding Systems". Inspired by work on


id: evaluation-function-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-0.md
category: reference
title: Evaluation function
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:37.091312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evaluation-function-20260505-0
summary:
An evaluation function, also known as a heuristic evaluation function or static evaluation function, is a function used by game-playing computer programs to estimate the value or goodness of a position (usually at a leaf or terminal node) in a game tree. Most of the time, the value is either a real number or a quantized integer, often in nths of the value of a playing piece such as a stone in go or a pawn in chess, where n may be tenths, hundredths or other convenient fraction, but sometimes, the value is an array of three values in the unit interval, representing the win, draw, and loss percentages of the position. There do not exist analytical or theoretical models for evaluation functions for unsolved games, nor are such functions entirely ad-hoc. The composition of evaluation functions is determined empirically by inserting a candidate function into an automaton and evaluating its subsequent performance. A significant body of evidence now exists for several games like chess, shogi and go as to the general composition of evaluation functions for them. Games in which game playing computer programs employ evaluation functions include chess, go, shogi (Japanese chess), othello, hex, backgammon, and checkers. In


id: evaluation-function-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-1.md
category: reference
title: Evaluation function
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:37.091312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evaluation-function-20260505-0
summary:
c1 * material + c2 * mobility + c3 * king safety + c4 * center control + c5 * pawn structure + c6 * king tropism + ... Each of the terms is a weight multiplied by a difference factor: the value of white's material or positional terms minus black's. The material term is obtained by assigning a value in pawn-units to each of the pieces. Mobility is the number of legal moves available to a player, or alternately the sum of the number of spaces attacked or defended by each piece, including spaces occupied by friendly or opposing pieces. Effective mobility, or the number of "safe" spaces a piece may move to, may also be taken into account. King safety is a set of bonuses and penalties assessed for the location of the king and the configuration of pawns and pieces adjacent to or in front of the king, and opposing pieces bearing on spaces around the king. Center control is derived from how many pawns and pieces occupy or bear on the four center spaces and sometimes the 12 spaces of the extended center. Pawn structure is a set of penalties and bonuses for various strengths and


id: extremal-optimization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_optimization-0.md
category: reference
title: Extremal optimization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_optimization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:38.266316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extremal-optimization-20260505-0
summary:
Extremal optimization (EO) is an optimization heuristic inspired by the Bak–Sneppen model of self-organized criticality from the field of statistical physics. This heuristic was designed initially to address combinatorial optimization problems such as the travelling salesman problem and spin glasses, although the technique has been demonstrated to function in optimization domains. == Relation to self-organized criticality == Self-organized criticality (SOC) is a statistical physics concept to describe a class of dynamical systems that have a critical point as an attractor. Specifically, these are non-equilibrium systems that evolve through avalanches of change and dissipations that reach up to the highest scales of the system. SOC is said to govern the dynamics behind some natural systems that have these burst-like phenomena including landscape formation, earthquakes, evolution, and the granular dynamics of rice and sand piles. Of special interest here is the Bak–Sneppen model of SOC, which is able to describe evolution via punctuated equilibrium (extinction events) – thus modelling evolution as a self-organised critical process. == Relation to computational complexity == Another piece in the puzzle is work on computational complexity, specifically that critical points have been shown to exist in NP-complete problems, where near-optimum solutions are widely dispersed and separated by


id: extremal-optimization-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_optimization-1.md
category: reference
title: Extremal optimization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_optimization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:38.266316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extremal-optimization-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Bak, Per; Tang, Chao; Wiesenfeld, Kurt (1987-07-27). "Self-organized criticality: An explanation of the 1/fnoise". Physical Review Letters. 59 (4). American Physical Society (APS): 381–384. Bibcode:1987PhRvL..59..381B. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.59.381. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 10035754. S2CID 7674321. Bak, Per; Sneppen, Kim (1993-12-13). "Punctuated equilibrium and criticality in a simple model of evolution". Physical Review Letters. 71 (24). American Physical Society (APS): 4083–4086. Bibcode:1993PhRvL..71.4083B. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.71.4083. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 10055149. P Cheeseman, B Kanefsky, WM Taylor, "Where the really hard problems are", Proceedings of the 12th IJCAI, (1991) G Istrate, "Computational complexity and phase transitions", Proceedings. 15th Annual IEEE Conference on Computational Complexity, 104–115 (2000) Stefan Boettcher, Allon G. Percus, "Extremal Optimization: Methods derived from Co-Evolution", Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (1999) Boettcher, Stefan (1999-01-01). "Extremal optimization of graph partitioning at the percolation threshold". Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General. 32 (28). IOP Publishing: 5201–5211. arXiv:cond-mat/9901353. Bibcode:1999JPhA...32.5201B. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/32/28/302. ISSN 0305-4470. S2CID 7925735. Boettcher, Stefan; Percus, Allon (2000), "Nature's way of optimizing", Artificial Intelligence, 119 (1–2): 275–286, arXiv:cond-mat/9901351, doi:10.1016/S0004-3702(00)00007-2, S2CID 7128022 Boettcher, S. (2000). "Extremal optimization: heuristics via coevolutionary avalanches". Computing in Science & Engineering. 2 (6). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 75–82. arXiv:cond-mat/0006374. Bibcode:2000CSE.....2f..75B. doi:10.1109/5992.881710. ISSN 1521-9615. S2CID


id: familiarity-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familiarity_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Familiarity heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familiarity_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:39.450812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: familiarity-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology, a heuristic is an easy-to-compute procedure or rule of thumb that people use when forming beliefs, judgments or decisions. The familiarity heuristic was developed based on the discovery of the availability heuristic by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman; it happens when the familiar is favored over novel places, people, or things. The familiarity heuristic can be applied to various situations that individuals experience in day-to-day life. When these situations appear similar to previous situations, especially if the individuals are experiencing a high cognitive load, they may regress to the state of mind in which they have felt or behaved before. This heuristic is useful in most situations and can be applied to many fields of knowledge; however, there are both positives and negatives to this heuristic as well. == Origin == === Availability heuristic === The familiarity heuristic stems from the availability heuristic, which was studied by Tversky and Kahneman. The availability heuristic suggests that the likelihood of events is estimated based on how many examples of such events come to mind. Thus the familiarity heuristic shows how "bias of availability is related to the ease of recall." Tversky and Kahneman created an experiment in order to


id: fast-and-frugal-trees-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-and-frugal_trees-0.md
category: reference
title: Fast-and-frugal trees
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-and-frugal_trees
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:40.653304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fast-and-frugal-trees-20260505-0
summary:
Fast-and-frugal tree or matching heuristic (in the study of decision-making) is a simple graphical structure that categorizes objects by asking one question at a time. These decision trees are used in a range of fields: psychology, artificial intelligence, and management science. Unlike other decision or classification trees, such as Leo Breiman's CART, fast-and-frugal trees are intentionally simple, both in their construction as well as their execution, and operate speedily with little information. For this reason, fast-and-frugal-trees are potentially attractive when designing resource-constrained tasks. Laura Martignon, Vitouch, Takezawa and Forster first introduced both the concept and the term in 2003; similar heuristics for other tasks had been used before, building on the formal models created by Gerd Gigerenzer and Herbert A. Simon. In categorization tasks with two options and m cues—also known as features or attributes—available for making such a decision, an FFT is defined as follows: A fast-and-frugal tree is a classification or a decision tree that has m+1 exits, with one exit for each of the first m −1 cues and two exits for the last cue. Mathematically, fast-and-frugal trees can be viewed as lexicographic heuristics or as linear classification models with non-compensatory weights and a threshold.[MKW] Their formal


id: fast-and-frugal-trees-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-and-frugal_trees-1.md
category: reference
title: Fast-and-frugal trees
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-and-frugal_trees
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:40.653304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fast-and-frugal-trees-20260505-0
summary:
=== Signal detection analysis === Fast-and-frugal trees are used to perform binary classifications or decisions. In psychology, medicine, and other fields, signal detection theory (or detection theory) has been the classic theory under which such tasks are analyzed. The theory assumes that there are two categories of events or people (e.g., people with and without heart problems), of which the category more relevant to us is referred as "signal" while the other is referred to as "noise". The two differ in their distribution on an observation scale that we may call "evidence", with the signal distribution having a higher mean. One can make two possible classifications, namely "signal" or "noise", upon gathering the evidence. This leads to four possible outcomes: hit (classify as "signal" when it is indeed a signal), correct rejection (classify as "noise" when it is indeed a noise), miss (classify as "noise" when it is actually a signal), and false alarm (classify as "signal" when it is actually a noise). To maximize overall accuracy or the expected value of a classification, the theory posits that we need to carefully select the classification criterion on the evidence scale, above which we make a "signal" decision and below which


id: fly-algorithm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-0.md
category: reference
title: Fly algorithm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:41.802183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fly-algorithm-20260505-0
summary:
The Fly Algorithm is an approach in 3D reconstruction that utilizes clusters of points ("flies") corresponding to different nearby objects via genetic algorithms and stereovision principles. The resulting reconstruction is partial, but can be used to recognize obstacles in robot navigation and other applications. This technique has a high computational load due to numerous inputs and parameters, making performance optimization difficult. == History == The Fly Algorithm is a type of cooperative coevolution based on the Parisian approach. The Fly Algorithm has first been developed in 1999 in the scope of the application of Evolutionary algorithms to computer stereo vision. Unlike the classical image-based approach to stereovision, which extracts image primitives then matches them in order to obtain 3-D information, the Fly Algorithm is based on the direct exploration of the 3-D space of the scene. A fly is defined as a 3-D point described by its coordinates (x, y, z). Once a random population of flies has been created in a search space corresponding to the field of view of the cameras, its evolution (based on the Evolutionary Strategy paradigm) used a fitness function that evaluates how likely the fly is lying on the visible surface of an object,


id: fly-algorithm-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-1.md
category: reference
title: Fly algorithm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:41.802183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fly-algorithm-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parisian approach vs cooperative coevolution === Cooperative coevolution is a broad class of evolutionary algorithms where a complex problem is solved by decomposing it into subcomponents that are solved independently. The Parisian approach shares many similarities with the cooperative coevolutionary algorithm. The Parisian approach makes use of a single-population whereas multi-species may be used in cooperative coevolutionary algorithm. Similar internal evolutionary engines are considered in classical evolutionary algorithm, cooperative coevolutionary algorithm and Parisian evolution. The difference between cooperative coevolutionary algorithm and Parisian evolution resides in the population's semantics. Cooperative coevolutionary algorithm divides a big problem into sub-problems (groups of individuals) and solves them separately toward the big problem. There is no interaction/breeding between individuals of the different sub-populations, only with individuals of the same sub-population. However, Parisian evolutionary algorithms solve a whole problem as a big component. All population's individuals cooperate together to drive the whole population toward attractive areas of the search space. === Fly Algorithm vs particle swarm optimisation === Cooperative coevolution and particle swarm optimisation (PSO) share many similarities. PSO is inspired by the social behaviour of bird flocking or fish schooling. It was initially introduced as a tool for realistic animation in computer graphics. It


id: fly-algorithm-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm-2.md
category: reference
title: Fly algorithm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_algorithm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:41.802183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fly-algorithm-20260505-0
summary:
algorithm fly-algorithm is input: number of flies (N), input projection data (preference) output: the fly population (F), the projections estimated from F (pestimated) the 3-D volume corresponding to the voxelisation of F (VF) postcondition: the difference between pestimated and preference is minimal. START 1. // Initialisation 2. // Set the position of the N flies, i.e. create initial guess 3. for each fly i in fly population F do 4. F(i)x ← random(0, 1) 5. F(i)y ← random(0, 1) 6. F(i)z ← random(0, 1) 7. Add F(i)'s projection in pestimated 8. 9. // Compute the population's performance (i.e. the global fitness) 10. Gfitness(F) ← Errormetrics(preference, pestimated) 11. 12. fkill ← Select a random fly of F 13. 14. Remove fkill's contribution from pestimated 15. 16. // Compute the population's performance without fkill 17. Gfitness(F-{fkill}) ← Errormetrics(preference, pestimated) 18. 19. // Compare the performances, i.e. compute the fly's local fitness 20. Lfitness(fkill) ← Gfitness(F-{fkill}) - Gfitness(F) 21. 22. If the local fitness is greater than 0, // Thresholded-selection of a bad fly that can be killed 23. then go to Step 26. // fkill is a good fly (the population's performance is better when fkill is included): we should not kill


id: forensic-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
Forensic science, often known as with criminalistics, is the application of science principles and methods to support decision-making related to rules or law, generally criminal and civil law. During criminal investigation in particular, it is governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal procedure. It is a broad field utilizing numerous practices such as the analysis of DNA, fingerprints, bloodstain patterns, firearms, ballistics, toxicology, microscopy, and fire debris analysis. Modern forensic analysis is also conducted on cybersecurity related incidents where major breach has occurred leading to substantial financial loss. Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze evidence during the course of an investigation. While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to collect the evidence themselves, others occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis on objects brought to them by other individuals. Others are involved in analysis of financial, banking, or other numerical data for use in financial crime investigation, and can be employed as consultants from private firms, academia, or as government employees. In addition to their laboratory role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically


id: forensic-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Education and training == Initial glance, forensic intelligence may appear as a nascent facet of forensic science facilitated by advancements in information technologies such as computers, databases, and data-flow management software. However, a more profound examination reveals that forensic intelligence represents a genuine and emerging inclination among forensic practitioners to actively participate in investigative and policing strategies. In doing so, it elucidates existing practices within scientific literature, advocating for a paradigm shift from the prevailing conception of forensic science as a conglomerate of disciplines merely aiding the criminal justice system. Instead, it urges a perspective that views forensic science as a discipline studying the informative potential of traces—remnants of criminal activity. Embracing this transformative shift poses a significant challenge for education, necessitating a shift in learners' mindset to accept concepts and methodologies in forensic intelligence. Recent calls advocating for the integration of forensic scientists into the criminal justice system, as well as policing and intelligence missions, underscore the necessity for the establishment of educational and training initiatives in the field of forensic intelligence. This article contends that a discernible gap exists between the perceived and actual comprehension of forensic intelligence among law enforcement and forensic science managers, positing that


id: forensic-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
James Marsh was the first to apply this new science to the art of forensics. He was called by the prosecution in a murder trial to give evidence as a chemist in 1832. The defendant, John Bodle, was accused of poisoning his grandfather with arsenic-laced coffee. Marsh performed the standard test by mixing a suspected sample with hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid. While he was able to detect arsenic as yellow arsenic trisulfide, when it was shown to the jury it had deteriorated, allowing the suspect to be acquitted due to reasonable doubt. Annoyed by that, Marsh developed a much better test. He combined a sample containing arsenic with sulfuric acid and arsenic-free zinc, resulting in arsine gas. The gas was ignited, and it decomposed to pure metallic arsenic, which, when passed to a cold surface, would appear as a silvery-black deposit. So sensitive was the test, known formally as the Marsh test, that it could detect as little as one-fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic. He first described this test in The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1836. === Ballistics and firearms === Ballistics is "the science of the motion of projectiles in flight". In forensic science, analysts examine the


id: forensic-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Uhlenhuth test === The Uhlenhuth test, or the antigen–antibody precipitin test for species, was invented by Paul Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood, based on the discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins. The test represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic science. The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in the year 1960s. === DNA === Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys, who realized that variation in the genetic sequence could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another. The first application of DNA profiles was used by Jeffreys in a double murder mystery in the small English town of Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1985. A 15-year-old school girl by the name of Lynda Mann was raped and murdered in Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital. The police did not find a suspect but were able to obtain a semen sample. In 1986, Dawn Ashworth, 15 years old, was also raped and strangled in the nearby village of Enderby. Forensic evidence showed that both


id: forensic-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
Handbook for Coroners, police officials, military policemen was written by the Austrian criminal jurist Hans Gross in 1893, and is generally acknowledged as the birth of the field of criminalistics. The work combined in one system fields of knowledge that had not been previously integrated, such as psychology and physical science, and which could be successfully used against crime. Gross adapted some fields to the needs of criminal investigation, such as crime scene photography. He went on to found the Institute of Criminalistics in 1912, as part of the University of Graz' Law School. This Institute was followed by many similar institutes all over the world. In 1909, Archibald Reiss founded the Institut de police scientifique of the University of Lausanne (UNIL), the first school of forensic science in the world. Dr. Edmond Locard, became known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France". He formulated the basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a trace", which became known as Locard's exchange principle. In 1910, he founded what may have been the first criminal laboratory in the world, after persuading the Police Department of Lyon (France) to give him two attic rooms and two assistants. Symbolic of the newfound prestige of


id: forensic-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== 21st century === In the past decade, documenting forensics scenes has become more efficient. Forensic scientists have started using laser scanners, drones and photogrammetry to obtain 3D point clouds of accidents or crime scenes. Reconstruction of an accident scene on a highway using drones involves data acquisition time of only 10–20 minutes and can be performed without shutting down traffic. The results are not just accurate, in centimeters, for measurement to be presented in court but also easy to digitally preserve in the long term. Now, in the 21st century, much of forensic science's future is up for discussion. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has several forensic science-related programs: CSAFE, a NIST Center of Excellence in Forensic Science, the National Commission on Forensic Science (now concluded), and administration of the Organization of Scientific Area Committees for Forensic Science (OSAC). One of the more recent additions by NIST is a document called NISTIR-7941, titled "Forensic Science Laboratories: Handbook for Facility Planning, Design, Construction, and Relocation". The handbook provides a clear blueprint for approaching forensic science. The details even include what type of staff should be hired for certain positions. == Subdivisions == Art forensics concerns the art


id: forensic-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Questionable techniques == Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, have turned out later to have much less scientific merit or none. Some such techniques include: Comparative bullet-lead analysis was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. The theory was that each batch of ammunition possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to a particular batch or even a specific box. Internal studies and an outside study by the National Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable due to improper interpretation, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005. Forensic dentistry has come under fire: in at least three cases bite-mark evidence has been used to convict people of murder who were later freed by DNA evidence. A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology found a 63 percent rate of false identifications and is commonly referenced within online news stories and conspiracy websites. The study was based on an informal workshop during an ABFO meeting, which many members did not consider a valid scientific setting. The theory is


id: forensic-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversies == Questions about certain areas of forensic science, such as fingerprint evidence and the assumptions behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some publications including the New York Post. The article stated that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone's fingerprint is unique." The article also stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned—and with it may come a radical change in how forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors." Law professor Jessica Gabel said on NOVA that forensic science "lacks the rigors, the standards, the quality controls and procedures that we find, usually, in science". The National Institute of Standards and Technology has reviewed the scientific foundations of bite-mark analysis used in forensic science. Bite mark analysis is a forensic science technique that analyzes the marks on the victim's skin compared to the suspects teeth. NIST reviewed the findings of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2009 study. The National Academics of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine conducted research to address the issues of reliability, accuracy, and reliability of bitemark analysis, where they concluded that there is a lack of sufficient scientific foundation to support the data. Yet the


id: forensic-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:43.032936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners – International non-profit organization Canadian Identification Society Computer forensics – Branch of digital forensic science Crime science – Study of ways to prevent or reduce crime Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents (forensic paleography) Epigenetics in forensic science – Overview article Evidence packaging – Specialized packaging for physical evidence Forensic biology – Forensic application of the study of biology Forensic economics Forensic identification – Legal identification of specific objects and materials Forensic materials engineering – Branch of forensic engineering Forensic photography – Art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene Forensic polymer engineering – Study of failure in polymeric products Forensic profiling – Study of trace evidence in criminal investigations Glove prints – Mark left on a surface by a worn glove History of forensic photography International Association for Identification Medical jurisprudence – Branch of science and medicine Marine forensics Outline of forensic science – Overview of and topical guide to forensic science Profiling (information science) – Creation and use of user profiles via data analysis Retrospective diagnosis – Practice of identifying an illness after the death of the patient Rapid Stain Identification Series (RSID) Scenes of crime


id: frecency-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frecency-0.md
category: reference
title: Frecency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frecency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:44.201081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frecency-20260505-0
summary:
In computing, frecency is any heuristic that combines the frequency and recency into a single measure. == Heuristic == In its simplest form, the frequency and recency rating can be added to form a frecency rating. The ratings can be found by sorting items by most recent and most frequent respectively. A decayed calculation using logarithms can also be used. == Examples == Some web browsers use frecency to predict the likelihood of revisiting a given web page or reusing a given HTTP cache entry "Frecency is a score given to each unique URI in Places, encompassing bookmarks, history and tags. This score is determined by the amount of revisitation, the type of those visits, how recent they were, and whether the URI was bookmarked or tagged." Frecency can be computed from a list of use dates, either as pro-actively while a user browses the web or as needed. Some frecency measures can also be computed in a rolling manner without storing such a list. The ZFS filesystem uses this concept in its adaptive replacement cache (ARC) cache with a most recently used (MRU) and most frequently used (MFU) list. == References == == External links == Frecency implementation in


id: fudge-factor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudge_factor-0.md
category: reference
title: Fudge factor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudge_factor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:45.370479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fudge-factor-20260505-0
summary:
A fudge factor is an ad hoc quantity or element introduced into a calculation, formula or model in order to make it fit observations or expectations. Also known as a correction coefficient, which is defined by κ c = experimental value theoretical value . {\displaystyle \kappa _{\text{c}}={\frac {\text{experimental value}}{\text{theoretical value}}}.} Examples include Einstein's cosmological constant, dark energy, the initial proposals of dark matter and inflation. == Examples in science == Some quantities in scientific theory are set arbitrarily according to measured results rather than by calculation (for example, the Planck constant). However, in the case of these fundamental constants, their arbitrariness is usually explicit. To suggest that other calculations may include a "fudge factor" may suggest that the calculation has been somehow tampered with to make results give a misleadingly good match to experimental data. === Cosmological constant === In theoretical physics, when Albert Einstein originally tried to produce a general theory of relativity, he found that the theory seemed to predict the gravitational collapse of the universe: it seemed that the universe should be collapsing, and to produce a model in which the universe was static and stable (which seemed to Einstein at the time to be the "proper"


id: gaze-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Gaze heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:46.563786+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gaze-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The gaze heuristic falls under the category of tracking heuristics, and it is used in directing correct motion to achieve a goal using one main variable. McLeod & Dienes' (1996) example of the gaze heuristic is catching a ball. Gerd Gigerenzer categorizes the gaze heuristic under tracking heuristics, where human animals and non-human animals are able to process large amounts of information quickly and react, regardless of whether the information is consciously processed. The gaze heuristic is a critical element in animal behavior, being used in predation heavily. At the most basic level, the gaze heuristic ignores all casual relevant variables to make quick gut reactions. == Example == A catcher using the gaze heuristic observes the initial angle of the ball and runs towards it in such a way as to keep this angle constant. The gaze heuristic does not require knowledge of any of the variables required by the optimizing approach, nor does it require the catcher to integrate information, yet it allows the catcher to catch the ball. The gaze heuristic may therefore be described at ecologically rational at least in the simple case of catching a ball in the air. == See also == Constant bearing,


id: graduated-optimization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduated_optimization-0.md
category: reference
title: Graduated optimization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduated_optimization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:47.716297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graduated-optimization-20260505-0
summary:
Graduated optimization is a global optimization technique that attempts to solve a difficult optimization problem by initially solving a greatly simplified problem, and progressively transforming that problem (while optimizing) until it is equivalent to the difficult optimization problem. == Technique description == Graduated optimization is an improvement to hill climbing that enables a hill climber to avoid settling into local optima. It breaks a difficult optimization problem into a sequence of optimization problems, such that the first problem in the sequence is convex (or nearly convex), the solution to each problem gives a good starting point to the next problem in the sequence, and the last problem in the sequence is the difficult optimization problem that it ultimately seeks to solve. Often, graduated optimization gives better results than simple hill climbing. Further, when certain conditions exist, it can be shown to find an optimal solution to the final problem in the sequence. These conditions are: The first optimization problem in the sequence can be solved given the initial starting point. The locally convex region around the global optimum of each problem in the sequence includes the point that corresponds to the global optimum of the previous problem in the sequence.


id: guided-local-search-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search-0.md
category: reference
title: Guided local search
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:48.899341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: guided-local-search-20260505-0
summary:
Guided local search is a metaheuristic search method. A meta-heuristic method is a method that sits on top of a local search algorithm to change its behavior. Guided local search builds up penalties during a search. It uses penalties to help local search algorithms escape from local minima and plateaus. When the given local search algorithm settles in a local optimum, GLS modifies the objective function using a specific scheme (explained below). Then the local search will operate using an augmented objective function, which is designed to bring the search out of the local optimum. The key is in the way that the objective function is modified. The method in its current form was developed by Dr Christos Voudouris and detailed in his PhD Thesis. GLS was inspired by and extended GENET, a neural network architecture for solving Constraint Satisfaction Problems, which was developed by Chang Wang, Edward Tsang and Andrew Davenport. Both GLS's and GENET's mechanism for escaping from local minima resembles reinforcement learning. == Overview == === Solution features === To apply GLS, solution features must be defined for the given problem. Solution features are defined to distinguish between solutions with different characteristics, so that regions of similarity


id: guided-local-search-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search-1.md
category: reference
title: Guided local search
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_local_search
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:48.899341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: guided-local-search-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Alsheddy, A., Empowerment scheduling: a multi-objective optimization approach using Guided Local Search, PhD Thesis, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, 2011 Choi, K.M.F., Lee, J.H.M. & Stuckey, P.J., A Lagrangian Resconstruction of GENET, Artificial Intelligence, 2000, 123(1-2), 1-39 Davenport A., Tsang E.P.K., Kangmin Zhu & C J Wang, GENET: A connectionist architecture for solving constraint satisfaction problems by iterative improvement, Proc., AAAI, 1994, p. 325-330 Lau, T.L. & Tsang, E.P.K., Solving the processor configuration problem with a mutation-based genetic algorithm, International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools (IJAIT), World Scientific, Vol.6, No.4, December 1997, 567-585 Lau, T.L. & Tsang, E.P.K., Guided genetic algorithm and its application to radio link frequency assignment problems, Constraints, Vol.6, No.4, 2001, 373-398 Lau, T.L. & Tsang, E.P.K., The guided genetic algorithm and its application to the general assignment problems, IEEE 10th International Conference on Tools with Artificial Intelligence (ICTAI'98), Taiwan, November 1998 Mills, P. & Tsang, E.P.K., Guided local search for solving SAT and weighted MAX-SAT problems, Journal of Automated Reasoning, Special Issue on Satisfiability Problems, Kluwer, Vol.24, 2000, 205-223 Mills, P. & Tsang, E.P.K. & Ford, J., Applying an Extended Guided Local Search on the Quadratic Assignment Problem,


id: heroic-theory-of-invention-and-scientific-development-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development-0.md
category: reference
title: Heroic theory of invention and scientific development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:50.131628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heroic-theory-of-invention-and-scientific-development-20260505-0
summary:
The heroic theory of invention and scientific development is the view that the principal authors of inventions and scientific discoveries are unique heroic individuals—i.e., "great scientists" or "geniuses". == Competing hypothesis == A competing hypothesis (that of multiple discovery) is that most inventions and scientific discoveries are made independently and simultaneously by multiple inventors and scientists. The multiple-discovery hypothesis may be most patently exemplified in the evolution of mathematics, since mathematical knowledge is highly unified and any advances need, as a general rule, to be built from previously established results through a process of deduction. Thus, the development of infinitesimal calculus into a systematic discipline did not occur until the development of analytic geometry, the former being credited to both Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz, and the latter to both René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat. == See also == Genius Great man theory Grand narrative Hive mind List of multiple discoveries Multiple discovery People known as the father or mother of something Scientific priority Scientific theory Discovery and invention controversies == References == == Further reading == Epstein, Ralph C. 1926. "Industrial Invention: Heroic, or Systematic?" The Quarterly Journal of Economics 40(2):232–72. JSTOR 1884619. doi:10.2307/1884619. Johansson, Frans. 2004.


id: heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:51.251656+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
A heuristic or heuristic technique (problem solving, mental shortcut, rule of thumb) is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not fully optimized, perfected, or rationalized, but is nevertheless "good enough" as an approximation or attribute substitution. Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision. Heuristic reasoning is often based on induction, or on analogy ... Induction is the process of discovering general laws ... Induction tries to find regularity and coherence ... Its most conspicuous instruments are generalization, specialization, analogy. [...] Heuristic discusses human behavior in the face of problems [... that have been] preserved in the wisdom of proverbs. == Context == Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier (2011) state that sub-sets of strategy include heuristics, regression analysis, and Bayesian inference. A heuristic is a strategy that ignores part of the information, with the goal of making decisions more quickly, frugally, and/or accurately than more complex methods... Heuristics are strategies based on rules to generate optimal decisions, like the anchoring effect and utility maximization problem. These


id: heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:51.251656+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Adaptive toolbox === The adaptive toolbox contains strategies for fabricating heuristic devices. The core mental capacities are recall (memory), frequency, object permanence, and imitation. Gerd Gigerenzer and his research group argued that models of heuristics need to be formal to allow for predictions of behavior that can be tested. They study the fast and frugal heuristics in the "adaptive toolbox" of individuals or institutions, and the ecological rationality of these heuristics; that is, the conditions under which a given heuristic is likely to be successful. The descriptive study of the "adaptive toolbox" is done by observation and experiment, while the prescriptive study of ecological rationality requires mathematical analysis and computer simulation. Heuristics – such as the recognition heuristic, the take-the-best heuristic and fast-and-frugal trees – have been shown to be effective in predictions, particularly in situations of uncertainty. It is often said that heuristics trade accuracy for effort but this is only the case in situations of risk. Risk refers to situations where all possible actions, their outcomes and probabilities are known. In the absence of this information, that is under uncertainty, heuristics can achieve higher accuracy with lower effort. This finding, known as a less-is-more effect, would not


id: heuristic-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-2.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:51.251656+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Law === In legal theory, especially in the theory of law and economics, heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case analysis would be impractical, insofar as "practicality" is defined by the interests of a governing body. The present securities regulation regime largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. In truth, actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases, heuristics, and framing effects. For instance, in all states in the United States the legal drinking age for unsupervised persons is 21 years, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. However, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary delineation is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual is sufficiently mature for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some proposed changes, however, have included the completion of an alcohol education course rather than the attainment of 21 years of age as the criterion for legal alcohol possession. This would put youth alcohol policy more on a case-by-case


id: heuristic-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-3.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:51.251656+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
ACT-R – SoftwarePages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Algorithm – Sequence of operations for a task Applied epistemology – Application of epistemology in specific fields Branch and bound – Optimization by removing non-optimal solutions to subproblems Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy) – Thought experiment, to justify Bayesian probabilityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Decision theory – Branch of applied probability theory Embodied cognition – Interdisciplinary theory Failure mode and effects analysis – Analysis of potential system failures Game theory – Mathematical models of strategic interactions Heuristic-systematic model of information processing – Dual-process theory of persuasion Heuristics in judgment and decision-making – Simple strategies or mental processes involved in making quick decisionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Ideal type – Typological term List of biases in judgment and decision making Metalepsis – Figure of speech Methodic school – School of medicine in ancient Greece and Rome Necessity and sufficiency – Terms to describe a conditional relationship between two statements Neuroheuristics Nudge theory – Concept in behavioral economics, political theory and behavioral sciences Predictive coding – Theory of brain function Principle of good enough – Principle of social research Priority heuristic – Decision strategy Prospect theory – Theory of behavioral


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Heuristics (from Ancient Greek εὑρίσκω (heurískō) 'to find, discover') is the process by which humans use mental shortcuts to arrive at decisions. Heuristics are simple strategies that humans, animals, organizations, and even machines use to quickly form judgments, make decisions, and find solutions to complex problems. Often this involves focusing on the most relevant aspects of a problem or situation to formulate a solution. While heuristic processes are used to find the answers and solutions that are most likely to work or be correct, they are not always right or the most accurate. Judgments and decisions based on heuristics are simply good enough to satisfy a pressing need in situations of uncertainty, where information is incomplete. In that sense they can differ from answers given by logic and probability. The economist and cognitive psychologist Herbert A. Simon introduced the concept of heuristics in the 1950s, suggesting there were limitations to rational decision making. In the 1970s, psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman added to the field with their research on cognitive bias. It was their work that introduced specific heuristic models, a field which has only expanded since. While some argue that pure laziness is behind the heuristics process, this


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Step 1: Select one attribute related to decision making Step 2: Eliminate all alternatives that exclude this specific attribute Step 3: Use another attribute in order to further eliminate alternatives Step 4: Repeat step 3 until only one option is left, a decision has then been made Elimination by aspects does not speculate that choosing alternatives could help consumers to maximize utility, on the contrary, it holds that selection is the result of a probabilistic process that gradually eliminates alternatives. A simple example is given by Amos Tversky: when someone wants to purchase a new car, the first aspect they will take into account might be the automatic transmission, this will eliminate all alternatives that do not contain such an aspect. Then, when all the alternatives that do not have this feature are eliminated, another aspect will be given such as a $3000 price limit. The process of elimination continues to occur until all alternatives are eliminated. Elimination by aspects is well used in the early stage of business angels' decision-making process since it facilitates a fast-decision-making tool - alternatives will be eliminated when investors find a critical defect of the potential opportunities. Another research also demonstrated that elimination by


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
In the HIV tree, an ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) test is conducted first. If the outcome is negative, then the testing procedure stops and the client is informed of the good news, that is, "no HIV." If, however, the result is positive, a second ELISA test is performed, preferably from a different manufacturer. If the second ELISA is negative, then the procedure stops and the client is informed of having "no HIV." However, if the result is positive, a final test, the Western blot, is conducted. In general, for n binary cues, a fast-and-frugal tree has exactly n + 1 exits – one for each cue and two for the final cue. A full decision tree, in contrast, requires 2n exits. The order of cues (tests) in a fast-and-frugal tree is determined by the sensitivity and specificity of the cues, or by other considerations such as the costs of the tests. In the case of the HIV tree, the ELISA is ranked first because it produces fewer misses than the Western blot test, and also is less expensive. The Western blot test, in contrast, produces fewer false alarms. In a full tree, in contrast, order does not matter for the


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-3.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Affect heuristic: A mental shortcut which uses emotion to influence the decision. Emotion is the effect that plays the lead role that makes the decision or solves the problem quickly or efficiently. It is used while judging the risks and benefits of something, depending on the positive or negative feelings that people associate with a stimulus. It can also be considered the gut decision since if the gut feeling is right, then the benefits are high and the risks are low. Anchoring and adjustment: Describes the common human tendency to rely more heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions. For example, in a study done with children, the children were told to estimate the number of jellybeans in a jar. Groups of children were given either a high or low "base" number (anchor). Children estimated the number of jellybeans to be closer to the anchor number that they were given. Availability heuristic: A mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgements about the probability of events by the ease with which examples come to mind. For example, in a 1973 Tversky & Kahneman experiment, the majority of participants reported that there were more words


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-4.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
People regret the events that are easier to imagine over the ones that would be harder to. It is also thought that people will use this heuristic to predict the likelihood of another's behavior happening. This shows that people are constantly simulating everything around them in order to be able to predict the likelihood of events around them. It is believed that people do this by mentally undoing events that they have experienced and then running mental simulations of the events with the corresponding input values of the altered model. Social proof: Also known as the informational social influence which was named by Robert Cialdini in his 1984 book Influence. It is where people copy the actions of others. It is more prominent when people are uncertain how to behave, especially in ambiguous social situations. Working backward heuristic: When an individual assumes they have already solved a problem they work backwards in order to find how to achieve the solution they originally figured out.


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-5.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Availability === In psychology, availability is the ease with which a particular idea can be brought to mind. When people estimate how likely or how frequent an event is on the basis of its availability, they are using the availability heuristic. When an infrequent event can be brought easily and vividly to mind, this heuristic overestimates its likelihood. For example, people overestimate their likelihood of dying in a dramatic event such as a tornado or terrorism. Dramatic, violent deaths are usually more highly publicised and therefore have a higher availability. On the other hand, common but mundane events are hard to bring to mind, so their likelihoods tend to be underestimated. These include deaths from suicides, strokes, and diabetes. This heuristic is one of the reasons why people are more easily swayed by a single, vivid story than by a large body of statistical evidence. It may also play a role in the appeal of lotteries: to someone buying a ticket, the well-publicised, jubilant winners are more available than the millions of people who have won nothing. When people judge whether more English words begin with T or with K , the availability heuristic gives a quick way to


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-6.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
A 1973 experiment used a psychological profile of Tom W., a fictional graduate student. One group of subjects had to rate Tom's similarity to a typical student in each of nine academic areas (including Law, Engineering and Library Science). Another group had to rate how likely it is that Tom specialised in each area. If these ratings of likelihood are governed by probability, then they should resemble the base rates, i.e. the proportion of students in each of the nine areas (which had been separately estimated by a third group). If people based their judgments on probability, they would say that Tom is more likely to study Humanities than Library Science, because there are many more Humanities students, and the additional information in the profile is vague and unreliable. Instead, the ratings of likelihood matched the ratings of similarity almost perfectly, both in this study and a similar one where subjects judged the likelihood of a fictional woman taking different careers. This suggests that rather than estimating probability using base rates, subjects had substituted the more accessible attribute of similarity. ==== Conjunction fallacy ==== When people rely on representativeness, they can fall into an error which breaks a fundamental law


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-7.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Misperception of randomness ==== Representativeness explains systematic errors that people make when judging the probability of random events. For example, in a sequence of coin tosses, each of which comes up heads (H) or tails (T), people reliably tend to judge a clearly patterned sequence such as HHHTTT as less likely than a less patterned sequence such as HTHTTH. These sequences have exactly the same probability, but people tend to see the more clearly patterned sequences as less representative of randomness, and so less likely to result from a random process. Tversky and Kahneman argued that this effect underlies the gambler's fallacy; a tendency to expect outcomes to even out over the short run, like expecting a roulette wheel to come up black because the last several throws came up red. They emphasised that even experts in statistics were susceptible to this illusion: in a 1971 survey of professional psychologists, they found that respondents expected samples to be overly representative of the population they were drawn from. As a result, the psychologists systematically overestimated the statistical power of their tests, and underestimated the sample size needed for a meaningful test of their hypotheses. === Anchoring and adjustment === Anchoring


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-8.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Examples ==== People's valuation of goods, and the quantities they buy, respond to anchoring effects. In one experiment, people wrote down the last two digits of their social security numbers. They were then asked to consider whether they would pay this number of dollars for items whose value they did not know, such as wine, chocolate, and computer equipment. They then entered an auction to bid for these items. Those with the highest two-digit numbers submitted bids that were many times higher than those with the lowest numbers. When a stack of soup cans in a supermarket was labelled, "Limit 12 per customer", the label influenced customers to buy more cans. In another experiment, real estate agents appraised the value of houses on the basis of a tour and extensive documentation. Different agents were shown different listing prices, and these affected their valuations. For one house, the appraised value ranged from US$114,204 to $128,754. Anchoring and adjustment has also been shown to affect grades given to students. In one experiment, 48 teachers were given bundles of student essays, each of which had to be graded and returned. They were also given a fictional list of the students' previous grades.


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-9.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
An effort-reduction framework proposed by Anuj K. Shah and Daniel M. Oppenheimer states that people use a variety of techniques to reduce the effort of making decisions. === Attribute substitution === In 2002 Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed a process called attribute substitution which happens without conscious awareness. According to this theory, when somebody makes a judgment (of a target attribute) which is computationally complex, a rather more easily calculated heuristic attribute is substituted. In effect, a difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without the person being aware this is happening. This explains why individuals can be unaware of their own biases, and why biases persist even when the subject is made aware of them. It also explains why human judgments often fail to show regression toward the mean. This substitution is thought of as taking place in the automatic intuitive judgment system, rather than the more self-aware reflective system. Hence, when someone tries to answer a difficult question, they may actually answer a related but different question, without realizing that a substitution has taken place. In 1975, psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens proposed that the strength of a stimulus (e.g. the brightness of a


id: heuristic-psychology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)-10.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:52.503423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Persuasion === An example of how persuasion plays a role in heuristic processing can be explained through the heuristic-systematic model. This explains how there are often two ways we are able to process information from persuasive messages, one being heuristically and the other systematically. A heuristic is when we make a quick short judgement into our decision making. On the other hand, systematic processing involves more analytical and inquisitive cognitive thinking. Individuals looks further than their own prior knowledge for the answers. An example of this model could be used when watching an advertisement about a specific medication. One without prior knowledge would see the person in the proper pharmaceutical attire and assume that they know what they are talking about. Therefore, that person automatically has more credibility and is more likely to trust the content of the messages than they deliver. While another who is also in that field of work or already has prior knowledge of the medication will not be persuaded by the ad because of their systematic way of thinking. This was also formally demonstrated in an experiment conducted by Chaiken and Maheswaran (1994). In addition to these examples, the fluency heuristic ties in perfectly


id: heuristic-argument-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_argument-0.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic argument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_argument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:53.744118+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-argument-20260505-0
summary:
A heuristic argument is an argument that reasons from the value of a method or principle that has been shown experimentally (especially through trial-and-error) to be useful or convincing in learning, discovery and problem-solving, but whose line of reasoning involves key oversimplifications that make it not entirely rigorous. A widely used and important example of a heuristic argument is Occam's razor. It is a speculative, non-rigorous argument that relies on analogy or intuition, and that allows one to achieve a result or an approximation that is to be checked later with more rigor. Otherwise, the results are generally to be doubted. It is used as a hypothesis or a conjecture in an investigation, though it can also be used as a mnemonic as well. == See also == Empirical relationship Heuristic Probabilistic method Rule of thumb == References ==


id: heuristic-systematic-model-of-information-processing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-systematic_model_of_information_processing-0.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic-systematic model of information processing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-systematic_model_of_information_processing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:54.948181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-systematic-model-of-information-processing-20260505-0
summary:
The heuristic-systematic model of information processing (HSM) is a widely recognized model by Shelly Chaiken that attempts to explain how people receive and process persuasive messages. The model states that individuals can process messages in one of two ways: heuristically or systematically. Systematic processing entails careful and deliberative processing of a message, while heuristic processing entails the use of simplifying decision rules or 'heuristics' to quickly assess the message content. The guiding belief with this model is that individuals are more apt to minimize their use of cognitive resources (i.e., to rely on heuristics), thus affecting the intake and processing of messages. HSM predicts that processing type will influence the extent to which a person is persuaded or exhibits lasting attitude change. HSM is quite similar to the elaboration likelihood model, or ELM. Both models were predominantly developed in the early- to mid-1980s and share many of the same concepts and ideas. == History == Early research investigating how people process persuasive messaging focused mainly on cognitive theories and the way the mind processed each element of a message. One of the early guiding principles of underlying motivations of persuasive communications came from Leon Festinger's (1950) statement that incorrect or


id: heuristic-systematic-model-of-information-processing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-systematic_model_of_information_processing-1.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic-systematic model of information processing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-systematic_model_of_information_processing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:54.948181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-systematic-model-of-information-processing-20260505-0
summary:
== Choosing systematic or heuristic processing == Both heuristic and systematic processes may occur independently. It is also possible for both to occur simultaneously in an additive fashion or in a way that the judgmental implications of one process lend a bias nature to the other. The heuristic-systematic model includes the hypothesis that attitudes developed or changed by utilizing heuristic processing alone will likely be less stable, less resistant to counterarguments, and will be less predictive of subsequent behavior than attitudes developed or changed utilizing systematic processing. Message recipients using heuristic processing may sometimes choose to accept message conclusions they would otherwise have rejected, or vice versa, had they invested more time and effort to scrutinize the message. Source credibility affects persuasion under conditions of low, but not high, issue-involvement and response-involvement. When economic concerns are predominant, the recipient will likely use heuristic processing to form a judgement about the persuasive argument. Conversely, when reliability concerns are predominant (i.e., recipients perceive significant importance in accurately judging an argument), they will likely use a systematic processing strategy. Reliability concerns are influenced by the level of the recipient's issue-involvement or response-involvement. When the recipient views their judgment as being less consequential, they


id: heuristic-systematic-model-of-information-processing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-systematic_model_of_information_processing-2.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic-systematic model of information processing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic-systematic_model_of_information_processing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:54.948181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-systematic-model-of-information-processing-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticisms == A major criticism of HSM is that the model closely relates to ELM, which is also a dual-processing model discussing two main paths to persuasion. The ELM discusses the two routes as "central" route processing and "peripheral" route processing. ELM's central processing has been likened to systematic processing in HSM, while peripheral processing is similar to HSM's heuristic processing. These two routes of processing define related theories behind attitude change. In ELM, the central route is reflective and requires a willingness to process and think about the message. The peripheral route occurs when attitudes are formed without extensive thought, but more from mental shortcuts, credibility, and appearance cues. The route of persuasion processing depends on the level of involvement in the topic or issue. High involvement or elaboration increases central route processing especially when motivation and ability in the message exists. Therefore, low involvement increases peripheral route processing when motivation and ability conditions of persuasion do not exist. However, if the topic or idea is irrelevant to the individual, then the message takes the peripheral route. HSM specifically examines validity seeking persuasion settings concerning people's motivations within the social environment. The limitation of HSM exists in the


id: hitchens-s-razor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchens's_razor-0.md
category: reference
title: Hitchens's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchens's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:56.122921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hitchens-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
Hitchens's razor is a general rule for rejecting certain claims of knowledge. It states: What can be asserted without evidence can also be dismissed without evidence. The razor is credited to author and journalist Christopher Hitchens, although its provenance can be traced to the Latin Quod gratis asseritur, gratis negatur ("What is asserted gratuitously is denied gratuitously"). It implies that the burden of proof regarding the truthfulness of a claim lies with the one who makes the claim; if this burden is not met, then the claim is unfounded, and its opponents need not argue further in order to dismiss it. Hitchens used this phrase specifically in the context of refuting religious belief. == Analysis == The epistemological dictum appears in Hitchens's 2007 book God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything. The term "Hitchens's razor" itself first appeared (as "Hitchens' razor") in an online forum in October 2007, and was used by atheist blogger Rixaeton in December 2010, and popularised by, among others, evolutionary biologist and atheist activist Jerry Coyne after Hitchens died in December 2011. Some pages earlier in God Is Not Great, Hitchens also invoked Occam's razor. William Ockham devised a principle of economy, popularly known as


id: how-to-solve-it-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_It-0.md
category: reference
title: How to Solve It
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_It
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:57.303829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: how-to-solve-it-20260505-0
summary:
How to Solve It (1945) is a small volume by mathematician George Pólya, describing methods of problem solving. This book has remained in print continually since 1945. == Four principles == How to Solve It suggests the following steps when solving a mathematical problem: First, you have to understand the problem. After understanding, make a plan. Carry out the plan. Look back on your work. How could it be better? If this technique fails, Pólya advises: "If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve first some related problem. Could you imagine a more accessible related problem?" === First principle: Understand the problem === "Understand the problem" is often neglected as being obvious and is not even mentioned in many mathematics classes. Yet students are often stymied in their efforts to solve it, simply because they don't understand it fully, or even in part. In order to remedy this oversight, Pólya taught teachers how to prompt each student with appropriate questions, depending on the situation, such as: What are you asked to find or show? Can you restate the problem in your own words? Can you think of a picture or a diagram that might help you understand the


id: how-to-solve-it-by-computer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_it_by_Computer-0.md
category: reference
title: How to Solve it by Computer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Solve_it_by_Computer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:58.541393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: how-to-solve-it-by-computer-20260505-0
summary:
How to Solve it by Computer is a computer science book by R. G. Dromey, first published by Prentice-Hall in 1982. It is occasionally used as a textbook, especially in India. It is an introduction to the whys of algorithms and data structures. Features of the book: The design factors associated with problems, The creative process behind coming up with innovative solutions for algorithms and data structures, The line of reasoning behind the constraints, factors and the design choices made. The very fundamental algorithms portrayed by this book are mostly presented in pseudocode and/or Pascal notation. == See also == How to Solve It, by George Pólya, the author's mentor and inspiration for writing the book. == References ==


id: hyper-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyper-heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:59.680477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyper-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
A hyper-heuristic is a heuristic search method that seeks to automate, often by the incorporation of machine learning techniques, the process of selecting, combining, generating or adapting several simpler heuristics (or components of such heuristics) to efficiently solve computational search problems. One of the motivations for studying hyper-heuristics is to build systems which can handle classes of problems rather than solving just one problem. There might be multiple heuristics from which one can choose for solving a problem, and each heuristic has its own strength and weakness. The idea is to automatically devise algorithms by combining the strength and compensating for the weakness of known heuristics. In a typical hyper-heuristic framework there is a high-level methodology and a set of low-level heuristics (either constructive or perturbative heuristics). Given a problem instance, the high-level method selects which low-level heuristic should be applied at any given time, depending upon the current problem state (or search stage) determined by features. == Hyper-heuristics versus metaheuristics == The fundamental difference between metaheuristics and hyper-heuristics is that most implementations of metaheuristics search within a search space of problem solutions, whereas hyper-heuristics always search within a search space of heuristics. Thus, when using hyper-heuristics, we are attempting


id: hyper-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Hyper-heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:59.680477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyper-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Methodologies to choose heuristics === Discover good combinations of fixed, human-designed, well-known low-level heuristics. Based on constructive heuristics Based on perturbative heuristics === Methodologies to generate heuristics === Generate new heuristic methods using basic components of previously existing heuristic methods. Based on basic components of constructive heuristics Based on basic components of perturbative heuristics === On-line learning hyper-heuristics === The learning takes place while the algorithm is solving an instance of a problem, therefore, task-dependent local properties can be used by the high-level strategy to determine the appropriate low-level heuristic to apply. Examples of on-line learning approaches within hyper-heuristics are: the use of reinforcement learning for heuristic selection, and generally the use of metaheuristics as high-level search strategies over a search space of heuristics. === Off-line learning hyper-heuristics === The idea is to gather knowledge in form of rules or programs, from a set of training instances, which would hopefully generalise to the process of solving unseen instances. Examples of off-line learning approaches within hyper-heuristics are: learning classifier systems, case-base reasoning and genetic programming. An extended classification of selection hyper-heuristics was provided in 2020, to provide a more comprehensive categorisation of contemporary selection hyper-heuristic methods. == Applications == Hyper-heuristics


id: killer-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Killer heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:00.836666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: killer-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
In competitive two-player games, the killer heuristic is a move-ordering method based on the observation that a strong move or small set of such moves in a particular position may be equally strong in similar positions at the same move (ply) in the game tree. Retaining such moves obviates the effort of rediscovering them in sibling nodes. This technique improves the efficiency of alpha–beta pruning, which in turn improves the efficiency of the minimax algorithm. Alpha–beta pruning works best when the best moves are considered first. This is because the best moves are the ones most likely to produce a cutoff, a condition where the game-playing program knows that the position it is considering could not possibly have resulted from best play by both sides and so need not be considered further. I.e. the game-playing program will always make its best available move for each position. It only needs to consider the other player's possible responses to that best move, and can skip evaluation of responses to (worse) moves it will not make. The killer heuristic attempts to produce a cutoff by assuming that a move that produced a cutoff in another branch of the game tree at the same


id: knowledge-inertia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_inertia-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge inertia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_inertia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:02.012633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-inertia-20260505-0
summary:
Knowledge inertia (KI) is a concept in knowledge management. The term initially proposed by Shu-hsien Liao comprises a two dimensional model which incorporates experience inertia and learning inertia. Later, another dimension—the dimension of thinking inertia—has been added based on the theoretical exploration of the existing concepts of experience inertia and learning inertia. One of the central problems in knowledge management related to organizational learning is to deal with "inertia". Besides, individuals may also exhibit a natural tendency of inertia when facing problems during utilization of knowledge. Inertia in technical jargon means inactivity or torpor. Inertia in organizational learning context may be referred to as a slowdown in organizational learning-related activities. In fact, there are many other kinds of organizational inertia: e.g., innovation inertia, workforce inertia, productivity inertia, decision inertia, emotional inertia besides others that have different meanings in their own individual contexts. Some organization theorists have adopted the definition proposed by Liao (2002) to extend its further use in organizational learning studies. == Definition == Knowledge inertia (KI) may be defined as a problem solving strategy using old, redundant, stagnant knowledge and past experience without recourse to new knowledge and experience. Inertia is a concept in physics that is used


id: lectio-difficilior-potior-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectio_difficilior_potior-0.md
category: reference
title: Lectio difficilior potior
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectio_difficilior_potior
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:03.182623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lectio-difficilior-potior-20260505-0
summary:
Lectio difficilior potior (Latin: "the difficult reading is stronger") is an important, internal criterion in textual criticism. When different manuscripts of a text conflict, this principle requires that the harder, unusual, more obtuse reading is to be preferred. It is based on the assumption that scribes are more likely to replace odd words in difficult places with more familiar vocabulary in more expected positions. It was one principle among many that became established in early 18th-century textual criticism, being part of an attempt by scholars of the Age of Enlightenment to provide a neutral basis for discovering an urtext that was independent of the weight of traditional authority. == History == Rabbeinu Tam (1100 – 1171) expressed the idea in his midrash The Book of Jasher (Heb. ספר הישר, Sefer haYashar), it was written by the author of the Talmud, since students who correct the text do not correct it in order to make the text difficult. Erasmus expressed the idea in his Annotations to the New Testament in the early 1500s, And whenever the Fathers report that there is a variant reading, that one always appears to me to be more esteemed (by them is the one) which at


id: littlewood-s-three-principles-of-real-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlewood's_three_principles_of_real_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Littlewood's three principles of real analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlewood's_three_principles_of_real_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:04.321104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: littlewood-s-three-principles-of-real-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Littlewood's three principles of real analysis are heuristics of J. E. Littlewood to help teach the essentials of measure theory in mathematical analysis. == The Principles == Littlewood stated the principles in his 1944 Lectures on the Theory of Functions as: There are three principles, roughly expressible in the following terms: Every (measurable) set is nearly a finite sum of intervals; every function (of class Lp) is nearly continuous; every convergent sequence of functions is nearly uniformly convergent. The first principle is based on the fact that the inner measure and outer measure are equal for measurable sets, the second is based on Lusin's theorem, and the third is based on Egorov's theorem. == Example == Littlewood's three principles are quoted in several real analysis texts, for example Royden, Bressoud, and Stein & Shakarchi. Royden gives the bounded convergence theorem as an application of the third principle. The theorem states that if a uniformly bounded sequence of functions converges pointwise, then their integrals on a set of finite measure converge to the integral of the limit function. If the convergence were uniform this would be a trivial result, and Littlewood's third principle tells us that the convergence is almost uniform,


id: m-ratio-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-ratio-0.md
category: reference
title: M-ratio
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-ratio
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:05.470846+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: m-ratio-20260505-0
summary:
In no-limit or pot-limit poker, a player's M-ratio (also called "M number", "M factor" or just "M") is a measure of the health of a player's chip stack as a function of the cost to play each round. In simple terms, a player can sit passively in the game, making only compulsory bets, for M laps of the dealer button before running out of chips. A high M means the player can afford to wait a high number of rounds before making a move. The concept applies primarily in tournament poker; in a cash game, a player can in principle manipulate their M at will, simply by purchasing more chips. A player with a low M must act soon or be weakened by the inability to force other players to fold with aggressive raises. The term was named after Paul Magriel. == Calculation == The M-ratio is calculated by the formula: M = stack small blind + big blind + total antes {\displaystyle M={\frac {\mbox{stack}}{{\mbox{small blind}}+{\mbox{big blind}}+{\mbox{total antes}}}}} For example, a player in an eight-player game with blinds of $50/$100, an ante of $10, and a stack of $2,300 has an M-ratio of 10: M = 2300 50 + 100


id: maximization-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximization_(psychology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Maximization (psychology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximization_(psychology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:06.650578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maximization-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Maximization is a style of decision-making characterized by seeking the best option through an exhaustive search through alternatives. It is contrasted with satisficing, in which individuals evaluate options until they find one that is "good enough". == Definition == The distinction between "maximizing" and "satisficing" was first made by Herbert A. Simon in 1956. Simon noted that although fields like economics posited maximization or "optimizing" as the rational method of making decisions, humans often lack the cognitive resources or the environmental affordances to maximize. Simon instead formulated an approach known as bounded rationality, which he also referred to as satisficing. This approach was taken to be adaptive and, indeed, necessary, given our cognitive limitations. Thus, satisficing was taken to be a universal of human cognition. Although Simon's work on bounded rationality was influential and can be seen as the origin of behavioral economics, the distinction between maximizing and satisficing gained new life 40 years later in psychology. Schwartz, Ward, Monterosso, Lyubomirsky, White, and Lehman (2002) defined maximization as an individual difference, arguing that some people were more likely than others to engage in a comprehensive search for the best option. Thus, instead of conceptualizing satisficing as a universal principle of


id: meta-optimization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-optimization-0.md
category: reference
title: Meta-optimization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-optimization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:07.818383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-optimization-20260505-0
summary:
Meta-optimization from numerical optimization is the use of one optimization method to tune another optimization method. Meta-optimization is reported to have been used as early as in the late 1970s by Mercer and Sampson for finding optimal parameter settings of a genetic algorithm. Meta-optimization and related concepts are also known in the literature as meta-evolution, super-optimization, automated parameter calibration, hyper-heuristics, etc. == Motivation == Optimization methods such as genetic algorithm and differential evolution have several parameters that govern their behaviour and efficiency in optimizing a given problem and these parameters must be chosen by the practitioner to achieve satisfactory results. Selecting the behavioural parameters by hand is a laborious task that is susceptible to human misconceptions of what makes the optimizer perform well. The behavioural parameters of an optimizer can be varied and the optimization performance plotted as a landscape. This is computationally feasible for optimizers with few behavioural parameters and optimization problems that are fast to compute, but when the number of behavioural parameters increases the time usage for computing such a performance landscape increases exponentially. This is the curse of dimensionality for the search-space consisting of an optimizer's behavioural parameters. An efficient method is therefore needed to search


id: missing-sock-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock-0.md
category: reference
title: Missing sock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:09.020749+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: missing-sock-20260505-0
summary:
A missing sock, lost sock, or odd sock (primarily British English) is a single sock in a pair of socks known or perceived to be permanently or temporarily missing. Socks are usually perceived to be lost immediately before, during, or immediately after doing laundry. According to popular media articles regarding missing socks, people almost always report losing one sock in a pair, and hardly ever the entire pair of two socks. Various explanations or theories—some scientific or pseudo-scientific and others humorous or facetious—have been proposed to show how or why single socks go missing or are perceived to have gone missing. The terms odd sock and mismatched sock may instead refer to the remaining "orphaned" sock in a pair where the other matching sock is missing or lost. == Plausible explanations == Two common plausible explanations for missing socks are that they are lost in transit to or from the laundry, or that they are trapped inside, between, or behind components of ("eaten by") washing machines or clothes dryers. Due to the high rotational speeds of modern front-loading washing machines and dryers, it may be possible for small clothes items such as socks to slip through any holes or tears


id: missing-sock-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock-1.md
category: reference
title: Missing sock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_sock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:09.020749+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: missing-sock-20260505-0
summary:
== Humorous explanations == Some explanations for the phenomenon jokingly suggest that socks have some innate propensity for going missing, and that this may be a physical property of the universe. For example, in the 1996 book The Nature of Space and Time by the physicists Stephen Hawking and Nobel laureate Roger Penrose, they posit that spontaneous black holes are responsible for lost socks. In his 2008 examination of the phenomenon, George B. Johnson also rejected two humorous hypotheses for why socks go missing: that an "intrinsic property" of the socks themselves predisposes or causes them to go missing; and that the socks transform into something else, such as clothes hangers. == In popular culture == The Bobs' 1988 song "Where Does the Wayward Footwear Go?", asks where lost socks disappear to, asking "To the bottom of the ocean? Or to China? Or to Cuba? Or Aruba?". A 1993 album by the American indie rock band Grifters is titled One Sock Missing. In the 2001 American children's film Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge, lost objects including socks are magically transported to the home of a character named Gort, who is a compulsive hoarder. American illustrator and voice actor Harry S. Robins


id: money-illusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_illusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Money illusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_illusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:10.202439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: money-illusion-20260505-0
summary:
In economics, money illusion, or price illusion, is a cognitive bias where money is thought of in nominal, rather than real terms. In other words, the face value (nominal value) of money is mistaken for its purchasing power (real value) at a previous point in time. Viewing purchasing power as measured by the nominal value is false, as modern fiat currencies have no intrinsic value and their real value depends purely on the price level. The term was coined by Irving Fisher in Stabilizing the Dollar. It was popularized by John Maynard Keynes in the early twentieth century, and Irving Fisher wrote an important book on the subject, The Money Illusion, in 1928. The existence of money illusion is disputed by monetary economists who contend that people act rationally (i.e. think in real prices) with regard to their wealth. Eldar Shafir, Peter A. Diamond, and Amos Tversky (1997) have provided empirical evidence for the existence of the effect and it has been shown to affect behaviour in a variety of experimental and real-world situations. Shafir et al. also state that money illusion influences economic behaviour in three main ways: Price stickiness. Money illusion has been proposed as one reason why


id: multiple-discovery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple discovery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:11.447609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-discovery-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of multiple discovery (also known as simultaneous invention) is the hypothesis that most scientific discoveries and inventions are made independently and more or less simultaneously by multiple scientists and inventors. The concept of multiple discovery opposes a traditional view—the "heroic theory" of invention and discovery. Multiple discovery is analogous to convergent evolution in biological evolution. == Multiples == When Nobel laureates are announced annually—especially in physics, chemistry, physiology, medicine, and economics—increasingly, in the given field, rather than just a single laureate, there are two, or the maximally permissible three, who often have independently made the same discovery. Historians and sociologists have remarked the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together. As Merton said, "Sometimes the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before." Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by


id: multiple-discovery-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery-1.md
category: reference
title: Multiple discovery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_discovery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:11.447609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-discovery-20260505-0
summary:
== Civility == After Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz had exchanged information on their respective systems of calculus in the 1670s, Newton in the first edition of his Principia (1687), in a scholium, apparently accepted Leibniz's independent discovery of calculus. In 1699, however, a Swiss mathematician suggested to Britain's Royal Society that Leibniz had borrowed his calculus from Newton. In 1705 Leibniz, in an anonymous review of Newton's Opticks, implied that Newton's fluxions (Newton's term for differential calculus) were an adaptation of Leibniz's calculus. In 1712 the Royal Society appointed a committee to examine the documents in question; the same year, the Society published a report, written by Newton himself, asserting his priority. Soon after Leibniz died in 1716, Newton denied that his own 1687 Principia scholium "allowed [Leibniz] the invention of the calculus differentialis independently of my own"; and the third edition of Newton's Principia (1726) omitted the tell-tale scholium. It is now accepted that Newton and Leibniz discovered calculus independently of each other. In another classic case of multiple discovery, the two discoverers showed more civility. By June 1858 Charles Darwin had completed over two-thirds of his On the Origin of Species when he received a startling


id: neuroheuristics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroheuristics-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroheuristics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroheuristics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:12.597579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroheuristics-20260505-0
summary:
Neuroheuristics (or neuristics) studies the dynamic relations within neuroscientific knowledge, using a transdisciplinary studies approach. It was proposed by Alessandro Villa in 2000. == Etymology == The word comes from the Greek νεύρον (neuron, which refers to the nerve cell) and εύρισκω ("euriskein", heuristic, which refers to problem-solving procedures characterized by informal, intuitive and speculative features). == Paradigm == Neuroheuristics defines a scientific paradigm aimed to develop strategies that can be enabled to understand brain and mind following subsequent problems emerging from transdisciplinary studies including philosophy, psychology, neuroscience, pharmacology, physics, artificial intelligence, engineering, computer science, economics and mathematics. The research framework introduced by the neuroheuristic paradigm appears as an essential step for the investigation of the information processing effected by the brain because it is the outcome of nature and nurture, at the crossing of top-down and bottom-up design. Neurobiologists apply a bottom-up research strategy in their studies. This strategy has been able to describe a simple organism's nervous system, such as Caenorhabditis elegans. However, it would be impossible to simultaneously examine all neurons and all variables. This limits the value experimentation using this method could provide. The top-down strategy with the assistance of black box theory appears easier to


id: nicolausian-discounting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolausian_discounting-0.md
category: reference
title: Nicolausian discounting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolausian_discounting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:13.887222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nicolausian-discounting-20260505-0
summary:
Nicolausian discounting is a heuristic technique meant to simplify decision-making involving very small probabilities by ignoring them. The term was coined by philosopher Bradley Monton in a 2019 paper. He defined it this way: "For decision-making, small probabilities should be discounted down to zero before maximizing expected utility." Monton named the concept after Nicolaus I Bernoulli, who suggested it as a solution to his St. Petersburg paradox. Monton translates Bernoulli as writing in 1714 that "cases that have a very small probability must be neglected and assumed to be zero." The term has gained some currency and been mentioned in other writings in philosophy. == Notes == == References ==


id: null-move-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null-move_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Null-move heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null-move_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:15.058839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: null-move-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
In computer chess programs, the null-move heuristic is a heuristic technique used to enhance the speed of the alpha–beta pruning algorithm. == Rationale == Alpha–beta pruning speeds the minimax algorithm by identifying cutoffs, points in the game tree where the current position is so good for the side to move that best play by the other side would have avoided it. Since such positions could not have resulted from best play, they and all branches of the game tree stemming from them can be ignored. The faster the program produces cutoffs, the faster the search runs. The null-move heuristic is designed to guess cutoffs with less effort than would otherwise be required, whilst retaining a reasonable level of accuracy. The null-move heuristic is based on the fact that most reasonable chess moves improve the position for the side that played them. So, if the player whose turn it is to move can forfeit the right to move (or make a null move – an illegal action in chess) and still have a position strong enough to produce a cutoff, then the current position would almost certainly produce a cutoff if the current player actually moved. == Implementation == In employing


id: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-0.md
category: reference
title: Occam's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy, Occam's razor (also spelled Ockham's razor or Ocham's razor; Latin: novacula Occami) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements. It is also known as the principle of parsimony or the law of parsimony (Latin: lex parsimoniae). Attributed to William of Ockham, a 14th-century English philosopher and theologian, it is frequently cited as Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem, which translates as "Entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity", although Occam never used those exact words. Popularly, the principle is sometimes paraphrased as "of two competing theories, the simpler explanation of an entity is to be preferred". This philosophical razor advocates that when presented with competing hypotheses about the same prediction and both hypotheses have equal explanatory power, one should prefer the hypothesis that requires the fewest assumptions, and that this is not meant to be a way of choosing between hypotheses that make different predictions. Similarly, in science, Occam's razor is used as an abductive heuristic in the development of theoretical models rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models. == History == The phrase Occam's razor did not appear until a few centuries after William of


id: occam-s-razor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-1.md
category: reference
title: Occam's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Later formulations === To quote Isaac Newton, "We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. Therefore, to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes." In the sentence hypotheses non fingo ("I contrive no hypotheses"), Newton affirms the success of this approach. Bertrand Russell offers a particular version of Occam's razor: "Whenever possible, substitute constructions out of known entities for inferences to unknown entities." Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of universal inductive inference, the theory of prediction based on observations – for example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. The only assumption is that the environment follows some unknown but computable probability distribution. This theory is a mathematical formalization of Occam's razor. Another technical approach to Occam's razor is ontological parsimony. Parsimony means spareness and is also referred to as the Rule of Simplicity. This is considered a strong version of Occam's razor. A variation used in medicine is called the "Zebra": a physician should reject an exotic medical diagnosis when a more commonplace explanation is more likely, derived from Theodore Woodward's


id: occam-s-razor-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-2.md
category: reference
title: Occam's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
One justification of Occam's razor is a direct result of basic probability theory. By definition, all assumptions introduce possibilities for error; if an assumption does not improve the accuracy of a theory, its only effect is to increase the probability that the overall theory is wrong. There have also been other attempts to derive Occam's razor from probability theory, including notable attempts made by Harold Jeffreys and E. T. Jaynes. The probabilistic (Bayesian) basis for Occam's razor is elaborated by David J. C. MacKay in chapter 28 of his book Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, where he emphasizes that a prior bias in favor of simpler models is not required. William H. Jefferys and James O. Berger (1991) generalize and quantify the original formulation's "assumptions" concept as the degree to which a proposition is unnecessarily accommodating to possible observable data. They state, "A hypothesis with fewer adjustable parameters will automatically have an enhanced posterior probability, due to the fact that the predictions it makes are sharp." The use of "sharp" here is not only a tongue-in-cheek reference to the idea of a razor, but also indicates that such predictions are more accurate than competing predictions. The model they propose


id: occam-s-razor-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-3.md
category: reference
title: Occam's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
In science, Occam's razor is used as a heuristic to guide scientists in developing theoretical models rather than as an arbiter between published models. In physics, parsimony was an important heuristic in the development and application of the principle of least action by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and Leonhard Euler, in Albert Einstein's formulation of special relativity, and in the development of quantum mechanics by Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg and Louis de Broglie. In chemistry, Occam's razor is often an important heuristic when developing a model of a reaction mechanism. Although it is useful as a heuristic in developing models of reaction mechanisms, it has been shown to fail as a criterion for selecting among some selected published models. In this context, Einstein himself expressed caution when he formulated Einstein's Constraint: "It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience." An often-quoted version of this constraint (which cannot be verified as posited by Einstein himself) reduces this to "Everything should be kept as simple as possible, but not simpler." In the


id: occam-s-razor-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-4.md
category: reference
title: Occam's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
Biologists or philosophers of biology use Occam's razor in either of two contexts both in evolutionary biology: the units of selection controversy and systematics. George C. Williams in his book Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966) argues that the best way to explain altruism among animals is based on low-level (i.e., individual) selection as opposed to high-level group selection. Altruism is defined by some evolutionary biologists (e.g., R. Alexander, 1987; W. D. Hamilton, 1964) as behavior that is beneficial to others (or to the group) at a cost to the individual, and many posit individual selection as the mechanism that explains altruism solely in terms of the behaviors of individual organisms acting in their own self-interest (or in the interest of their genes, via kin selection). Williams was arguing against the perspective of others who propose selection at the level of the group as an evolutionary mechanism that selects for altruistic traits (e.g., D. S. Wilson & E. O. Wilson, 2007). The basis for Williams's contention is that of the two, individual selection is the more parsimonious theory. In doing so he is invoking a variant of Occam's razor known as Morgan's Canon: "In no case is an animal activity to


id: occam-s-razor-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-5.md
category: reference
title: Occam's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Religion === In the philosophy of religion, Occam's razor is sometimes applied to the existence of God. William of Ockham himself was a Christian. He believed in God, and in the authority of Christian scripture; he writes that "nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is self-evident (literally, known through itself) or known by experience or proved by the authority of Sacred Scripture." Ockham believed that an explanation has no sufficient basis in reality when it does not harmonize with reason, experience, or the Bible. Unlike many theologians of his time, though, Ockham did not believe God could be logically proven with arguments. To Ockham, science was a matter of discovery; theology was a matter of revelation and faith. He states: "Only faith gives us access to theological truths. The ways of God are not open to reason, for God has freely chosen to create a world and establish a way of salvation within it apart from any necessary laws that human logic or rationality can uncover." Thomas Aquinas, in the Summa Theologica, uses a formulation of Occam's razor to construct an objection to the idea that God exists, which he refutes directly with a


id: occam-s-razor-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-6.md
category: reference
title: Occam's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Penal ethics === In penal theory and the philosophy of punishment, parsimony refers specifically to taking care in the distribution of punishment in order to avoid excessive punishment. In the utilitarian approach to the philosophy of punishment, Jeremy Bentham's "parsimony principle" states that any punishment greater than is required to achieve its end is unjust. The concept is related but not identical to the legal concept of proportionality. Parsimony is a key consideration of the modern restorative justice, and is a component of utilitarian approaches to punishment, as well as the prison abolition movement. Bentham believed that true parsimony would require punishment to be individualised to take account of the sensibility of the individual – an individual more sensitive to punishment should be given a proportionately lesser one, since otherwise needless pain would be inflicted. Later utilitarian writers have tended to abandon this idea, in large part due to the impracticality of determining each alleged criminal's relative sensitivity to specific punishments. === Probability theory and statistics === Marcus Hutter's universal artificial intelligence builds upon Solomonoff's mathematical formalization of the razor to calculate the expected value of an action. There are various papers in scholarly journals deriving formal versions of


id: occam-s-razor-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor-7.md
category: reference
title: Occam's razor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam's_razor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:16.211237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occam-s-razor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Software development === In software development, the rule of least power argues the correct programming language to use is the one that is simplest while also solving the targeted software problem. In that form the rule is often credited to Tim Berners-Lee since it appeared in his design guidelines for the original Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Complexity in this context is measured either by placing a language into the Chomsky hierarchy or by listing idiomatic features of the language and comparing according to some agreed to scale of difficulties between idioms. Many languages once thought to be of lower complexity have evolved or later been discovered to be more complex than originally intended; so, in practice this rule is applied to the relative ease of a programmer to obtain the power of the language, rather than the precise theoretical limits of the language. === Artificial intelligence === Scientists have discovered that deep neural networks (DNN) prefer simpler mathematical functions while learning. This simplicity bias enables DNNs to overcome overfitting – a scenario where the model gets overwhelmed with noise due to the presence of too many parameters. == Controversial aspects == Occam's razor is not an embargo against the positing


id: parallel-tempering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_tempering-0.md
category: reference
title: Parallel tempering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_tempering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:17.377976+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parallel-tempering-20260505-0
summary:
Parallel tempering, in physics and statistics, is a computer simulation method typically used to find the lowest energy state of a system of many interacting particles. It addresses the problem that at high temperatures, one may have a stable state different from low temperature, whereas simulations at low temperatures may become "stuck" in a metastable state. It does this by using the fact that the high temperature simulation may visit states typical of both stable and metastable low temperature states. More specifically, parallel tempering (also known as replica exchange MCMC sampling), is a simulation method aimed at improving the dynamic properties of Monte Carlo method simulations of physical systems, and of Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling methods more generally. The replica exchange method was originally devised by Robert Swendsen and J. S. Wang, then extended by Charles J. Geyer, and later developed further by Giorgio Parisi, Koji Hukushima and Koji Nemoto, and others. Y. Sugita and Y. Okamoto also formulated a molecular dynamics version of parallel tempering; this is usually known as replica-exchange molecular dynamics or REMD. Essentially, one runs N copies of the system, randomly initialized, at different temperatures. Then, based on the Metropolis criterion one exchanges configurations


id: peak-end-rule-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule-0.md
category: reference
title: Peak–end rule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:18.581650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peak-end-rule-20260505-0
summary:
The peak–end rule is a psychological heuristic in which people judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak (i.e., its most intense point) and at its end, rather than based on the total sum or average of every moment of the experience. The effect occurs regardless of whether the experience is pleasant or unpleasant. To the heuristic, other information aside from that of the peak and end of the experience is not lost, but it is not used. This includes net pleasantness or unpleasantness and how long the experience lasted. The peak–end rule is thereby a specific form of the more general extension neglect and duration neglect. == Overview == The peak–end rule is an elaboration on the snapshot model of remembered utility proposed by Barbara Fredrickson and Daniel Kahneman. This model dictates that an event is not judged by the entirety of an experience, but by prototypical moments (or snapshots) as a result of the representativeness heuristic. The remembered value of snapshots dominates the actual value of an experience. Fredrickson and Kahneman theorized that these snapshots are actually the average of the most affectively intense moment of an experience and the feeling experienced at the


id: peak-end-rule-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule-1.md
category: reference
title: Peak–end rule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:18.581650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peak-end-rule-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recency bias in memory (i.e., why the end is memorable) === People exhibit serial position effects such that they have better memory for both the beginning and end of sequences, phenomena known as primacy bias and recency bias, respectively. A paper by Garbinsky, Morewedge, and Shiv (2014) found evidence that for extended hedonic experiences, better memory for the end of the experience than the beginning (recency > primacy) can be attributed to memory interference effects. As a person eats potato chips, for example, the formation of a new memory of the most recently eaten chip makes it harder for them to recall how the previously eaten chips tasted. Garbinsky and colleagues found that (1) recency effects better predicted recalled enjoyment of a small meal (e.g., eating 5 or 15 chips) than did primacy effects, (2) that people had a worse memory for the first bite of the meal than the last bite of the meal, but (3) providing people with their ratings of the first bite lead them to use their enjoyment of that first bite as much as their enjoyment of the last bite when rating their overall enjoyment of the meal. == Applications == === Business ===


id: peak-end-rule-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule-2.md
category: reference
title: Peak–end rule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak–end_rule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:18.581650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peak-end-rule-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medical procedures === The peak–end rule is particularly salient in regard to medical procedures, since it suggests that it is preferable to have longer procedures that include a period of decreased discomfort than to have shorter procedures. In particular, the rule "suggests that the memory of a painful medical treatment is likely to be less aversive if relief from the pain is gradual than if relief is abrupt". Furthermore, the quality of a remembered procedure can drastically influence medical futures. If people recall necessary but onerous procedures more positively, then they are more likely to return for repeat procedures later in life. However, factoring the effect of the peak–end rule upon evaluations of medical procedures is problematic, since adding a period of decreasing pain to a procedure is still added pain. Even though this certainly yields a better memory of the process, the patient still endures more pain than is strictly necessary. Doctors and patients are forced to confront the choice between objectively less painful forms of treatment and forms of treatment that will be remembered more favorably. Kahneman claims that "it is safe to assume that few patients will agree to expose themselves to pain for the sole


id: pollen-calendar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_calendar-0.md
category: reference
title: Pollen calendar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_calendar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:19.787742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pollen-calendar-20260505-0
summary:
A pollen calendar is used to show the peak pollen times for different types of plant pollen, which causes allergic reactions in certain people. == In forensics == A pollen calendar can be a very useful tool in forensic science, because it can be used to place the month, or week, or date of death. The use of pollen for criminal investigation purposes is called "forensic palynology". However, the use of a pollen calendar to set the date of death should be used with extreme caution, and only by a carefully trained expert witness. The CSI effect has put pressure on some police officers and district attorneys to provide pollen-based evidence, but such evidence "appear[s] to be of limited use in the forensic context where outcomes are scrutinised in court." == See also == Aeroallergen National Pollen and Aerobiology Research Unit Hay fever == References == == External links == United States pollen calendars (Does not lead to any pollen calendars) Pollen calendar for the UK created by the National Pollen and Aerobiology Research Unit at the University of Worcester New Zealand allergy pages and New Zealand pollen calendar (printable PDF) Australian pollen calendar (printable PDF)


id: principle-of-least-astonishment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_astonishment-0.md
category: reference
title: Principle of least astonishment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_astonishment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:20.938491+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: principle-of-least-astonishment-20260505-0
summary:
In user interface design and software design, the principle of least astonishment (POLA), also known as principle of least surprise (POLS), proposes that a component of a system should behave in a way that most users will expect it to behave, and therefore not astonish or surprise users. The following is a corollary of the principle: "If a necessary feature has a high astonishment factor, it may be necessary to redesign the feature." The principle has been in use in relation to computer interaction since at least the 1970s. Although first formalized in the field of computer technology, the principle can be applied broadly in other fields. For example, in writing, a cross-reference to another part of the work or a hyperlink should be phrased in a way that accurately tells the reader what to expect. == Origin == An early reference to the "Law of Least Astonishment" appeared in the PL/I Bulletin in 1967 (PL/I is a programming language released by IBM in 1966). By the late 1960s, PL/I had become infamous for violating the law, for example because, due to PL/I's precision conversion rules, the expressions 25 + 1/3 and 1/3 + 25 would either produce a fatal


id: priority-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Priority heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:22.097689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: priority-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The priority heuristic is a simple, lexicographic decision strategy that helps decide for a good option. == Psychology == In psychology, priority heuristics correctly predict classic violations of expected utility theory such as the Allais paradox, the four-fold pattern, the certainty effect, the possibility effect, or intransitivities. The heuristic maps onto Rubinstein’s three-step model, according to which people first check dominance and stop if it is present, otherwise they check for dissimilarity. To highlight Rubinstein’s model consider the following choice problem: Dominance is absent, and while chances are similar monetary outcomes are not. Rubinstein’s model predicts that people check for dissimilarity and consequently choose Gamble I. Unfortunately, dissimilarity checks are often not decisive, and Rubinstein suggested that people proceed to a third step that he left unspecified. The priority heuristic elaborates on Rubinstein’s framework by specifying this Step 3. === Priority heuristic === For illustrative purposes consider a choice between two simple gambles of the type “a chance c of winning monetary amount x; a chance (100 - c) of winning amount y.” A choice between two such gambles contain four reasons for choosing: the maximum gain, the minimum gain, and their respective chances; because chances are complementary, three reasons


id: the-purpose-of-a-system-is-what-it-does-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_purpose_of_a_system_is_what_it_does-0.md
category: reference
title: The purpose of a system is what it does
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_purpose_of_a_system_is_what_it_does
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:23.292222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-purpose-of-a-system-is-what-it-does-20260505-0
summary:
The purpose of a system is what it does (POSIWID) is a heuristic in systems thinking coined by the British management consultant Stafford Beer, who stated that there is "no point in claiming that the purpose of a system is to do what it constantly fails to do". It is widely used by systems theorists, and is generally invoked to counter the notion that the purpose of a system can be read from the intentions of those who design, operate or promote it. When a system's side effects or unintended consequences reveal that its behaviour is poorly understood, then the POSIWID perspective can balance political understandings of system behaviour with a more straightforwardly descriptive view. == Origins == Beer used the phrase in his 1979 book The Heart of Enterprise, and subsequently many times in public addresses. Speaking to the University of Valladolid in October 2001, he said: According to the cybernetician, the purpose of a system is what it does. This is a basic dictum. It stands for bald fact, which makes a better starting point in seeking understanding than the familiar attributions of good intention, prejudices about expectations, moral judgement, or sheer ignorance of circumstances. == Uses ==


id: recognition-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Recognition heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:24.478211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: recognition-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The recognition heuristic, originally termed the recognition principle, has been used as a model in the psychology of judgment and decision making and as a heuristic in artificial intelligence. The goal is to make inferences about a criterion that is not directly accessible to the decision maker, based on recognition retrieved from memory. This is possible if recognition of alternatives has relevance to the criterion. For two alternatives, the heuristic is defined as: If one of two objects is recognized and the other is not, then infer that the recognized object has the higher value with respect to the criterion. The recognition heuristic is part of the "adaptive toolbox" of "fast and frugal" heuristics proposed by Gigerenzer and Goldstein. It is one of the most frugal of these, meaning it is simple or economical. In their original experiment, Daniel Goldstein and Gerd Gigerenzer quizzed students in Germany and the United States on the populations of both German and American cities. Participants received pairs of city names and had to indicate which city has more inhabitants. In this and similar experiments, the recognition heuristic typically describes about 80–90% of participants' choices, in cases where they recognize one but not the other


id: recognition-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Recognition heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:24.478211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: recognition-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
== Neuropsychological evidence == The recognition heuristic can also be depicted using neuroimaging techniques. A number of studies have shown that people do not automatically use the recognition heuristic when it can be applied, but evaluate its ecological validity. It is less clear, however, how this evaluation process can be modeled. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study tested whether the two processes, recognition and evaluation, can be separated on a neural basis. Participants were given two tasks; the first involved only a recognition judgment ("Have you ever heard of Modena? Milan?"), while the second involved an inference in which participants could rely on the recognition heuristic ("Which city has the larger population: Milan or Modena?"). For mere recognition judgments, activation in the precuneus, an area that is known from independent studies to respond to recognition confidence, was reported. In the inference task, precuneus activation was also observed, as predicted, and activation was detected in the anterior frontomedian cortex (aFMC), which has been linked in earlier studies to evaluative judgments and self-referential processing. The aFMC activation could represent the neural basis of this evaluation of ecological rationality. Some researchers have used event-related potentials (ERP) to test psychological mechanisms behind the recognition


id: representativeness-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Representativeness heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:25.644416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: representativeness-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The representativeness heuristic is used when making judgments about the probability of an event being representational in character and essence of a known prototypical event. It is one of a group of heuristics (simple rules governing judgment or decision-making) proposed by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in the early 1970s as "the degree to which [an event] (i) is similar in essential characteristics to its parent population, and (ii) reflects the salient features of the process by which it is generated". The representativeness heuristic works by comparing an event to a prototype or stereotype that we already have in mind. For example, if we see a person who is dressed in eccentric clothes and reading a poetry book, we might be more likely to think that they are a poet than an accountant. This is because the person's appearance and behavior are more representative of the stereotype of a poet than an accountant. The representativeness heuristic can be a useful shortcut in some cases, but it can also lead to errors in judgment. For example, if we only see a small sample of people from a particular group, we might overestimate the degree to which they are representative of


id: representativeness-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Representativeness heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:25.644416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: representativeness-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
"Base-rate group", who were given the instructions: "Consider all the first-year graduate students in the U.S. today. Please write down your best guesses about the percentage of students who are now enrolled in the following nine fields of specialization." The nine fields given were business administration, computer science, engineering, humanities and education, law, library science, medicine, physical and life sciences, and social science and social work. "Similarity group", who were given a personality sketch. "Tom W. is of high intelligence, although lacking in true creativity. He has a need for order and clarity, and for neat and tidy systems in which every detail finds its appropriate place. His writing is rather dull and mechanical, occasionally enlivened by somewhat corny puns and by flashes of imagination of the sci-fi type. He has a strong drive for competence. He seems to feel little sympathy for other people and does not enjoy interacting with others. Self-centered, he nonetheless has a deep moral sense." The participants in this group were asked to rank the nine areas listed in part 1 in terms of how similar Tom W. is to the prototypical graduate student of each area. "Prediction group", who were given the personality sketch


id: representativeness-heuristic-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic-2.md
category: reference
title: Representativeness heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:25.644416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: representativeness-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
As can be seen, the base rate P(H) is ignored in this equation, leading to the base rate fallacy. A base rate is a phenomenon's basic rate of incidence. The base rate fallacy describes how people do not take the base rate of an event into account when solving probability problems. This was explicitly tested by Dawes, Mirels, Gold and Donahue (1993) who had people judge both the base rate of people who had a particular personality trait and the probability that a person who had a given personality trait had another one. For example, participants were asked how many people out of 100 answered true to the question "I am a conscientious person" and also, given that a person answered true to this question, how many would answer true to a different personality question. They found that participants equated inverse probabilities (e.g., P ( c o n s c i e n t i o u s | n e u r o t i c ) = P ( n e u r o t i c | c o n s c i e n t i o u s ) {\displaystyle P(conscientious|neurotic)=P(neurotic|conscientious)} ) even when it


id: representativeness-heuristic-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic-3.md
category: reference
title: Representativeness heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representativeness_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:25.644416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: representativeness-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disjunction fallacy === From probability theory the disjunction of two events is at least as likely as either of the events individually. For example, the probability of being either a physics or biology major is at least as likely as being a physics major, if not more likely. However, when a personality description (data) seems to be very representative of a physics major (e.g., having a pocket protector) over a biology major, people judge that it is more likely for this person to be a physics major than a natural sciences major (which is a superset of physics). Evidence that the representativeness heuristic may cause the disjunction fallacy comes from Bar-Hillel and Neter (1993). They found that people judge a person who is highly representative of being a statistics major (e.g., highly intelligent, does math competitions) as being more likely to be a statistics major than a social sciences major (superset of statistics), but they do not think that he is more likely to be a Hebrew language major than a humanities major (superset of Hebrew language). Thus, only when the person seems highly representative of a category is that category judged as more probable than its superordinate category.


id: reversal-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Reversal test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:26.858290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reversal-test-20260505-0
summary:
The reversal test is a heuristic designed to spot and eliminate status quo bias, an emotional bias irrationally favouring the current state of affairs. The test is applicable to the evaluation of any decision involving a potential deviation from the status quo along some continuous dimension. The reversal test was introduced in the context of the bioethics of human enhancement by Nick Bostrom and Toby Ord. == Concept == Bostrom and Ord introduced the reversal test to provide an answer to the question of how one can, given that humans might suffer from irrational status quo bias, distinguish between valid criticisms of a proposed increase in some human trait and criticisms merely motivated by resistance to change. The reversal test attempts to do this by asking whether it would be a good thing if the trait was decreased: An example given is that if someone objects that an increase in intelligence would be a bad thing due to more dangerous weapons being made etc., the objector to that position would then ask "Shouldn't we decrease intelligence then?" "Reversal Test: When a proposal to change a certain parameter is thought to have bad overall consequences, consider a change to the same


id: reverse-logistics-network-modelling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_logistics_network_modelling-0.md
category: reference
title: Reverse logistics network modelling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_logistics_network_modelling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:28.013867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reverse-logistics-network-modelling-20260505-0
summary:
Reverse logistics is for all operations related to the reuse of products and materials. It is "the process of moving goods from their typical final destination for the purpose of capturing value, or proper disposal. Remanufacturing and refurbishing activities also may be included in the definition of reverse logistics." In order to model reverse logistics network from an economics point of view, the following simplified reverse logistics system has to be set. In this model, the products are gathered from the consumers and transferred back to the producers, hence the direction of the flow in the distribution supply chain is reversed, and the model is expanded with the recovery centre. First of all, the used products are collected from the consumers and moved to the recovery centre, where the condition of the products are examined according to their end of life cycle. If there is still recapture value, then the product is disassembled as preparation for further reprocessing, which means physical transformation to new customer. Otherwise, the used product is disposed and transferred to the landfill site. According to the introduced model the main differences between forward and reverse logistics can be identified: Uncertainty on the quantity, quality and timing


id: rippling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rippling-0.md
category: reference
title: Rippling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rippling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:29.200961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rippling-20260505-0
summary:
In computer science, more particularly in automated theorem proving, rippling is a group of meta-level heuristics, developed primarily in the Mathematical Reasoning Group in the School of Informatics at the University of Edinburgh, and most commonly used to guide inductive proofs in automated theorem proving systems. Rippling may be viewed as a restricted form of rewrite system, where special object level annotations are used to ensure fertilization upon the completion of rewriting, with a measure decreasing requirement ensuring termination for any set of rewrite rules and expression. == History == Raymond Aubin was the first person to use the term "rippling out" whilst working on his 1976 PhD thesis at the University of Edinburgh. He recognised a common pattern of movement during the rewriting stage of inductive proofs. Alan Bundy later turned this concept on its head by defining rippling to be this pattern of movement, rather than a side effect. Since then, "rippling sideways", "rippling in" and "rippling past" were coined, so the term was generalised to rippling. Rippling continues to be developed at Edinburgh, and elsewhere, as of 2007. Rippling has been applied to many problems traditionally viewed as being hard in the inductive theorem proving community, including


id: rosy-retrospection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-0.md
category: reference
title: Rosy retrospection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:30.436035+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosy-retrospection-20260505-0
summary:
Rosy retrospection is a proposed psychological phenomenon of recalling the past more positively than it was actually experienced. The highly unreliable nature of human memory is well documented and accepted amongst psychologists. Some research suggests a 'blue retrospective' which also exaggerates negative emotions, creating a bipolar distortion of affective memory that depends on personality, time, and developmental stage. Though it is a cognitive bias which distorts one's view of reality, it is suggested that rosy retrospection serves a useful purpose in increasing self-esteem and sense of well-being. Simplifications and exaggerations of memories that occur in rosy retrospection may make it easier for the brain to store long-term memories, as removing details may reduce the burden of those memories by requiring the generation and maintenance of fewer neural connections. In evolutionary terms, such bias may have persisted because it encourages repeated engagement in adaptive behaviors, such as social bonding, exploration, and caregiving, even when those experiences were mixed or mildly unpleasant at the time. This cognitive efficiency allows the brain to preserve core meaningful experiences without being overwhelmed by trivial or distressing details. Rosy retrospection is closely related to nostalgia, but differs in that it specifically involves perceiving the past as


id: rosy-retrospection-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-1.md
category: reference
title: Rosy retrospection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:30.436035+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosy-retrospection-20260505-0
summary:
=== Exaggeration of both negative and positive emotions === Some studies have found evidence of a bias to exaggerating negative emotions - a.k.a. a 'blue' retrospective - as well as positive ones. These results run counter to the assumption that memory distortion is universally positive and suggest that it is flexible and that memory distortion is a response to individual differences and circumstances. A 2016 study of 179 adults tracked their emotional state at regular intervals over 10 days, upon reflection after one day, and again after 1-2 months. It found that for both positive and negative emotions, stronger peak emotions (the strongest rating of the day) were more likely to result in exaggerated recollections upon reflection. Unlike the study above, it did not find that this effect increased with time. It also found a negative correlation with the average rating and the exaggerated recollections; suggesting those who consistently experienced stronger emotion recall more accurately. Additionally, it found extraverted personalities were more likely to have ‘rosy’ positive bias whereas neurotic personalities were more likely to have negative 'blue' bias on recall. This coincides with wider personality studies suggesting that extraversion facilitates positive emotional processing, and neuroticism increases sensitivity towards negative


id: rosy-retrospection-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection-2.md
category: reference
title: Rosy retrospection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:30.436035+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosy-retrospection-20260505-0
summary:
=== Limitations === Relying on subjective ratings, the above studies could suffer from demand characteristics: participants may guess the study's goals and expected results, unconsciously changing their answers thinking they are 'supposed' to recall their emotions inaccurately. Experiments may lack ecological validity. These studies may be vulnerable to sample biases. They rely on small samples which are more likely to be unrepresentative of the general population by unlucky chance. Many of the samples are homogenous to varying extents, with subjects often being relatively young, in education, and western. A similar sample bias may occur in the way researchers find subjects. Potentially those who come across and are appealed to join and remain in studies will be those with relatively more free-time, better education, higher wealth and income, etc. Though the studies took varying efforts to reduce this by ensuring a balance of ages, ethnicities, sexes, etc. While the studies attempted to balance it on different levels (age, ethnic group, sex, etc.), it is less researched cross-culturally or by socioeconomic stratification. These studies typically asked subjects to recall their emotions only days or weeks after an event. Thus they may predict little for rosy retrospection on the scale of months, years,


id: satisficing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing-0.md
category: reference
title: Satisficing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:31.658331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: satisficing-20260505-0
summary:
Satisficing is a decision-making strategy or cognitive heuristic that entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met, without necessarily maximizing any specific objective. The term satisficing, a portmanteau of satisfy and suffice, was introduced by Herbert A. Simon in 1956, although the concept was first posited in his 1947 book Administrative Behavior. Simon used satisficing to explain the behavior of decision makers under circumstances in which an optimal solution cannot be determined. He maintained that many natural problems are characterized by computational intractability or a lack of information, both of which preclude the use of mathematical optimization procedures. He observed in his Nobel Prize in Economics speech that "decision makers can satisfice either by finding optimum solutions for a simplified world, or by finding satisfactory solutions for a more realistic world. Neither approach, in general, dominates the other, and both have continued to co-exist in the world of management science". Simon formulated the concept within a novel approach to rationality, which posits that rational choice theory is an unrealistic description of human decision processes and calls for psychological realism. He referred to this approach as bounded rationality. Moral satisficing is a branch of bounded rationality that


id: satisficing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing-1.md
category: reference
title: Satisficing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:31.658331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: satisficing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Optimization === One popular method for rationalizing satisficing is optimization when all costs, including the cost of the optimization calculations themselves and the cost of getting information for use in those calculations, are considered. As a result, the eventual choice is usually sub-optimal in regard to the main goal of the optimization, i.e., different from the optimum in the case that the costs of choosing are not taken into account. ==== As a form of optimization ==== Alternatively, satisficing can be considered to be just constraint satisfaction, the process of finding a solution satisfying a set of constraints, without concern for finding an optimum. Any such satisficing problem can be formulated as an (equivalent) optimization problem using the indicator function of the satisficing requirements as an objective function. More formally, if X denotes the set of all options and S ⊆ X denotes the set of "satisficing" options, then selecting a satisficing solution (an element of S) is equivalent to the following optimization problem max s ∈ X I S ( s ) {\displaystyle \max _{s\in X}I_{S}(s)} where Is denotes the Indicator function of S, that is I S ( s ) := { 1 , s ∈ S


id: satisficing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing-2.md
category: reference
title: Satisficing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satisficing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:31.658331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: satisficing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Endogenous aspiration levels === What determines the aspiration level may be derived from past experience (some function of an agent's or firm's previous payoffs), or some organizational or market institutions. For example, if we think of managerial firms, the managers will be expected to earn normal profits by their shareholders. Other institutions may have specific targets imposed externally (for example state-funded universities in the UK have targets for student recruitment). An economic example is the Dixon model of an economy consisting of many firms operating in different industries, where each industry is a duopoly. The endogenous aspiration level is the average profit in the economy. This represents the power of the financial markets: in the long-run firms need to earn normal profits or they die (as Armen Alchian once said, "This is the criterion by which the economic system selects survivors: those who realize positive profits are the survivors; those who suffer losses disappear"). We can then think what happens over time. If firms are earning profits at or above their aspiration level, then they just stay doing what they are doing (unlike the optimizing firm which would always strive to earn the highest profits possible). However, if the


id: scientific-consensus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific consensus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:32.876488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-consensus-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific consensus is the collective judgment, position, and opinion of the vast majority of active, qualified experts on a conclusion in a specific scientific discipline. Scientific consensus results from the self-correcting scientific process of peer review, replication of the event through the scientific method, scholarly debate, meta-analysis, and publication of high-quality review articles, monographs, or guidelines in reputable books and journals to establish facts and durable knowledge about the topic. Reaching consensus requires significant scientific agreement among qualified experts, a process based on scientific substantiation of a claim that meets the burden of proof by proposing a possible cause-and-effect mechanism supported by the totality of evidence, leading to agreement among experts. In many countries, scientific consensus established on significant scientific agreement is the basis for regulatory approval of drugs to specify a health claim for the properties of the approved therapeutic agent. Consensus is achieved through scholarly communication at conferences, the publication process, replication of reproducible results by others, debate, and peer review. A conference meant to create a consensus is called a consensus conference. Such measures within a discipline can establish a consensus, although communicating to the lay public that consensus exists may be difficult because the "normal" debates


id: scientific-consensus-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific consensus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_consensus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:32.876488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-consensus-20260505-0
summary:
There are many philosophical and historical theories as to how scientific consensus changes over time. Because the history of scientific change is extremely complicated, and because there is a tendency to project "winners" and "losers" onto the past in relation to the current scientific consensus, it is very difficult to come up with accurate and rigorous models for scientific change. This is made exceedingly difficult also in part because each of the various branches of science functions in somewhat different ways with different forms of evidence and experimental approaches. Most models of scientific change rely on new data produced by scientific experiment. Karl Popper proposed that since no amount of experiments could ever prove a scientific theory, but a single experiment could disprove one, science should be based on falsification. Whilst this forms a logical theory for science, it is in a sense "timeless" and does not necessarily reflect a view on how science should progress over time. Among the most influential challengers of this approach was Thomas Kuhn, who argued instead that experimental data always provide some data which cannot fit completely into a theory, and that falsification alone did not result in scientific change or an undermining of


id: scientific-enterprise-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_enterprise-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific enterprise
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_enterprise
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:34.090678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-enterprise-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific enterprise is a science-based project developed by, or in cooperation with, a private entrepreneur. For example, in the Age of Exploration, leaders like Henry the Navigator founded schools of navigation, from which stemmed voyages of exploration. == Examples of enterprising scientific organizations == Each organization listed below has the ability to conduct scientific research on an extended basis, involving multiple researchers over an extended time. Generally, the research is funded not only for the science itself, but for some application which shows promise for the enterprise. But the researchers, if left to their own choices, will tend to follow their research interest, which is essential for the long-term health of their chosen field. Note that a successful scientific enterprise is not equivalent to a successful high-tech enterprise or to a successful business enterprise, but that they form an ecology, a food chain. The Max Planck Institute, which supports fundamental research in the natural, life and social sciences, the arts and humanities The RAND Corporation, founded as a research corporation. Did groundbreaking work in the field of artificial intelligence The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, founded by Theodore von Kármán Bell Laboratories, renowned for the quality of its scientific work and


id: similarity-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Similarity heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:35.270580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: similarity-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The similarity heuristic is a psychological heuristic pertaining to how people make judgments based on similarity. More specifically, the similarity heuristic is used to account for how people make judgments based on the similarity between current situations and other situations or prototypes of those situations. At its most basic level, the similarity heuristic is an adaptive strategy. The goal of the similarity heuristic is maximizing productivity through favorable experience while not repeating unfavorable experiences. Decisions based on how favorable or unfavorable the present seems are based on how similar the past was to the current situation. For example, a person may use the similarity heuristic when deciding on a book purchase. If a novel has a plot similar to that of novels read and enjoyed or the author has a writing style similar to that of favored authors, the purchasing decision will be positively influenced. A book with similar characteristics to previously pleasurable books is likely to also be enjoyed, causing the person to decide to obtain it. == Background == The similarity heuristic directly emphasizes learning from past experience. For example, the similarity heuristic has been observed indirectly in experiments such as phonological similarity tests. These tests observe how


id: simulation-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Simulation heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:36.449215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simulation-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The simulation heuristic is a psychological heuristic, or simplified mental strategy, according to which people determine the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to picture the event mentally. Partially as a result, people experience more regret over outcomes that are easier to imagine, such as "near misses". The simulation heuristic was first theorized by psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky as a specialized adaptation of the availability heuristic to explain counterfactual thinking and regret. However, it is not the same as the availability heuristic. Specifically the simulation heuristic is defined as "how perceivers tend to substitute normal antecedent events for exceptional ones in psychologically 'undoing' this specific outcome." Kahneman and Tversky also believed that people used this heuristic to understand and predict other's behavior in certain circumstances and to answer questions involving counterfactual propositions. People, they believe, do this by mentally undoing events that have occurred and then running mental simulations of the events with the corresponding input values of the altered model. For example, a study was proposed that provided a group of participants with a situation describing two men who were delayed by half an hour in a traffic jam on the way to


id: simulation-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Simulation heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:36.449215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simulation-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
== Applications == This heuristic has shown to be a salient feature of clinical anxiety and its disorders, which are marked by heighted expectations of future negative events. A study done by David Raune and Andrew Macleod tried to tie the cognitive mechanisms that underlie this type of judgment to the simulation heuristic. Their findings showed that anxious patient's simulation heuristic scores were correlated with the subjective probability. Such that, the more reasons anxious patients could think of why negative events would happen, relative to the number why they would not happen, the higher their subjective probability judgment that the events would happen to them. Further it was found that anxious patients displayed increase access to the simulation compared to control patients. They also found support for the hypothesis that the easier it was for anxious patients to form the visual image, the greater the subjective probability that the event would happen to them. Through this work they purposed that the main clinical implication of the simulation heuristic results is that, in order to lower elevated subjective probability in clinical anxiety, patients should be encouraged to think of more reasons why the negative events will not occur then why they


id: smith-s-laws-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith's_laws-0.md
category: reference
title: Smith's laws
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith's_laws
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:37.582177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: smith-s-laws-20260505-0
summary:
In geology, Smith's laws are two rules, formulated by William Smith (1769–1839), which aid in the determination of geological succession. They are fundamental to the production of geological maps. == The laws == Both laws were first published by Smith in Strata Identified by Fossils, 1816–1819. === Smith's first law === Smith's first law is the Principle of Superposition. This states that newer rock beds will lie on top of older rock beds unless the succession has been overturned. Overturning of the beds causes the succession order to be reversed. This can be caused by folding that is so severe that the beds are moved past the perpendicular. Beds can also be put out of order by an overthrust thrust fault (Jackson, p. 128). === Smith's second law === Smith's second law is the Law of Strata identified by fossils. This states that each stratum in the succession contains a distinctive set of fossils. This law allows beds to be identified as belonging to the same stratum even when the horizon between them is not continuous (Jackson, p. 128). == Geological mapping == Smith used these new techniques, together with knowledge he had accumulated as a canal engineer and mineral


id: social-heuristics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_heuristics-0.md
category: reference
title: Social heuristics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_heuristics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:38.808102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-heuristics-20260505-0
summary:
Social heuristics are simple decision making strategies that guide people's behavior and decisions in the social environment when time, information, or cognitive resources are scarce. Social environments tend to be characterised by complexity and uncertainty, and in order to simplify the decision-making process, people may use heuristics, which are decision making strategies that involve ignoring some information or relying on simple rules of thumb. The class of phenomena described by social heuristics overlap with those typically investigated by social psychology and game theory. At the intersection of these fields, social heuristics have been applied to explain cooperation in economic games used in experimental research. In the view of the field's academics, cooperation is typically advantageous in daily life, and therefore people develop a cooperation heuristic that gets applied even to one-shot anonymous interactions (the "social heuristics hypothesis" of human cooperation). == Overview == === Bounded rationality === In the decision-making process, optimisation is almost always intractable in any implementation, whether machine or neural. Because of this, defined parameters or boundaries must be implemented in the process in order to achieve an acceptable outcome. This method is known as applying bounded rationality, where an individual makes a collective and rational choice


id: social-heuristics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_heuristics-1.md
category: reference
title: Social heuristics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_heuristics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:38.808102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-heuristics-20260505-0
summary:
Imitate-the-majority heuristic, also referred to follow-the-majority heuristic. An agent (or decision maker) using the heuristic would imitate the behavior of the majority of others in his reference group. For instance, in deciding which restaurant to choose, people tend to choose the one with the longer waiting queue. Imitate-the-successful heuristic, also referred to follow-the-best heuristic. An agent using the heuristic would imitate the behavior of the most successful person in her reference group. Equity heuristic, also referred to 1/N heuristic. Using the heuristic means equally distributing resources among the available options. The heuristic was found to be successful in the stock market and also been found to describe parental resource allocation decisions: parents typically allocate their time and effort equally amongst their children. Social-circle heuristic. The heuristic is used to infer which of two alternatives has the higher value. An agent using the heuristic would search through her social circles in order of their proximity to the self (self, family, friends, and acquaintances), stopping the search as soon as the number of instances of one alternative within a circle exceeds that of the other, choosing the alternative with the higher tally. For example, a person might decide which of two sports


id: social-heuristics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_heuristics-2.md
category: reference
title: Social heuristics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_heuristics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:38.808102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-heuristics-20260505-0
summary:
Prisoner's dilemma game: two players each decide whether to cooperate or defect; a player who defects when the other cooperates maximizes his payout, if both cooperate the payout is higher than if both defect. Public goods game : multiple players each choose how much money to put towards a public project; the amount in the public pot is increased by a given factor and distributed equally to the players. Trust game: one player transfers money to another player and the money is increased by a given factor; the other then decides whether and how much to transfer back. Ultimatum game: one player makes an offer for how to split a resource with the other player; the other player can accept the offer (so that both players get the amount proposed by the split) or reject the offer (so that neither player gets anything). These economic games all share the condition that, when played in a single round, an individual's payout is maximized if he acts selfishly and chooses not to cooperate. However, over the course of repeated rounds, cooperation can be payout maximizing and thus be a self-interested strategy. Following a dual-process framework, the social heuristics hypothesis contends that cooperation,


id: sutton-s-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton's_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Sutton's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:39.965896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sutton-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
Sutton's law states that when diagnosing, one should first consider the obvious. It suggests that one should first conduct those tests which could confirm (or rule out) the most likely diagnosis. It is taught in medical schools to suggest to medical students that they might best order tests in that sequence which is most likely to result in a quick diagnosis, hence treatment, while minimizing unnecessary costs. It is also applied in pharmacology, when choosing a drug to treat a specific disease you want the drug to reach the disease. It is applicable to any process of diagnosis, e.g., debugging computer programs. Computer-aided diagnosis provides a statistical and quantitative approach. A more thorough analysis will consider the false positive rate of the test and the possibility that a less likely diagnosis might have more serious consequences. A competing principle is the idea of performing simple tests before more complex and expensive tests, moving from bedside tests to blood results and simple imaging such as ultrasound and then more complex such as MRI then specialty imaging. The law can also be applied in prioritizing tests when resources are limited, so a test for a treatable condition should be performed before an


id: symmetry-in-problem-solving-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_problem_solving-0.md
category: reference
title: Symmetry in problem solving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_problem_solving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:41.134584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symmetry-in-problem-solving-20260505-0
summary:
Symmetry in problem solving is one of the general methods used in mathematics and science to solve problems. Problem solving plays a large part in the teaching of mathematics, science and engineering. The use of symmetry as one of a number of problem solving strategies (heuristics) was first stated in 1945 by George Pólya in his book How to solve it. == Usage == Symmetry can be used in a variety of ways to assist in problem solving. Visualisation: by visualising the problem sometimes symmetry is revealed which simplifies finding a solution. Visualisation can be done by rearranging the problem expression into a more symmetric form, or by drawing a picture of the problem which reveals hidden symmetrical structure. Diagramming can be used to provide insight into the structure of a problem which may be obscured by its written formulation. Arguing "by symmetry": using a symmetry argument often clarifies a problem, leading to a quicker solution. For example, algebraic symmetry allows the permutation of the variables in an equation without changing it. Simplification: algebraic expressions and equations often benefit from simplification using symmetry. An example is the use of substitutions in expressions. Another example is switching from Cartesian coordinates to


id: take-the-best-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Take-the-best heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:42.306420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: take-the-best-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology, the take-the-best heuristic is a heuristic (a simple strategy for decision-making) which decides between two alternatives by choosing based on the first cue that discriminates them, where cues are ordered by cue validity (highest to lowest). In the original formulation, the cues were assumed to have binary values (that is, either yes or no) or have an unknown value. The logic of the heuristic is that it bases its choice on the best cue (reason) only and ignores the rest. Psychologists Gerd Gigerenzer and Daniel Goldstein discovered that the heuristic did surprisingly well at making accurate inferences in real-world environments, such as inferring which of two cities is larger. The heuristic has since been modified and applied to domains from medicine, artificial intelligence, and political forecasting. The heuristic has been used to accurately model how experts, such as airport customs officers and professional burglars, make decisions; the model often makes better predictions of human behavior than more complex models that assume experts integrate all available cues. == One-reason decision-making == Theories of decision making typically assume that all relevant reasons (features or cues) are searched and integrated into a final decision. Yet under uncertainty (as opposed to risk),


id: take-the-best-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Take-the-best heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-the-best_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:42.306420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: take-the-best-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
== Take-the-best for the comparison task == Consider the task to infer which object, A {\textstyle A} or B {\textstyle B} , has a higher value on a numerical criterion. As an example imagine someone having to judge whether the German city of Cologne has a larger population than the other German city of Stuttgart. This judgment or inference has to be based on information provided by binary cues, like "Is the city a state capital?". From a formal point of view, the task is a categorization: A pair ( A , B ) {\textstyle \left(A,B\right)} is to be categorized as X A > X B {\textstyle X_{A}>X_{B}} or X B > X A {\textstyle X_{B}>X_{A}} (where X {\textstyle X} denotes the criterion), based on cue information. Cues are binary; this means they assume two values and can be modeled, for instance, as having the values 0 and 1 (for 'yes' and 'no'). They are ranked according to their cue validity, defined as the proportion of correct comparisons among the pairs A {\textstyle A} and B {\textstyle B} , for which it has different values, i.e., for which it discriminates between A {\textstyle A} and B {\textstyle B} . Take-the-best


id: talking-past-each-other-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_past_each_other-0.md
category: reference
title: Talking past each other
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_past_each_other
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:43.488635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: talking-past-each-other-20260505-0
summary:
"Talking past each other" is an English phrase sometimes used to describe the situation where two or more people talk about different subjects, while believing that they are talking about the same thing. David Horton wrote that when characters in fiction 'talk past each other,' the effect is to expose "an unbridgeable gulf between their respective perceptions and intentions. The result is an exchange, but never an interchange, of words in fragmented and cramped utterances whose subtext often reveals more than their surface meaning." His usage of single quotes around the phrase indicates the colloquial nature of it. The phrase might be used in widely varying contexts. For example, a book written in 1973, referred to certain dawn-to-dusk discussions of physics between Albert Einstein and David Hilbert in 1917, which they continued in writing, and Felix Klein notes that they "talked past each other, as happens not infrequently between simultaneously producing mathematicians." == See also == Essentially contested concept – Problem in philosophy Semantic change – Evolution of a word's meaning Contronym – Word that has two opposing meanings Irrelevant conclusion – Type of informal fallacy == Notes == == References == Anderson, Philip Warren. "Twenty years of talking past


id: teachable-moment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachable_moment-0.md
category: reference
title: Teachable moment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachable_moment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:44.652442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teachable-moment-20260505-0
summary:
A teachable moment, in education, is the time at which learning a particular topic or idea becomes possible or easiest. == In education == The concept was popularized by Robert Havighurst in his 1952 book, Human Development and Education. In the context of education theory, Havighurst explained, "A developmental task is a task which is learned at a specific point and which makes achievement of succeeding tasks possible. When the timing is right, the ability to learn a particular task will be possible. This is referred to as a 'teachable moment.' It is important to keep in mind that unless the time is right, learning will not occur. Hence, it is important to repeat important points whenever possible so that when a student's teachable moment occurs, s/he can benefit from the knowledge." The concept pre-dates Havighurst's book, as does the use of the phrase, but he is credited with popularizing it. The phrase sometimes denotes not a developmental stage, but rather "that moment when a unique, high interest situation arises that lends itself to discussion of a particular topic." It implies "personal engagement" with issues and problems. These moments can (and often do) come when least expected. Teachers and parents


id: thinking-fast-and-slow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow-0.md
category: reference
title: Thinking, Fast and Slow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:45.841527+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thinking-fast-and-slow-20260505-0
summary:
Thinking, Fast and Slow is a 2011 popular science book by the Israeli-American psychologist Daniel Kahneman. Its main thesis is a differentiation between two modes of thought: "System 1" is fast, instinctive and emotional; "System 2" is slower, more deliberative, and more logical. The book delineates rational and non-rational motivations or triggers associated with each type of thinking process, and how they complement each other, starting with Kahneman's own research on loss aversion. From framing choices to people's tendency to replace a difficult question with one that is easy to answer, the book summarizes several decades of research to suggest that people have too much confidence in human judgement. Kahneman performed his own research, often in collaboration with the psychologist Amos Tversky, which enriched his experience to write the book. It covers different phases of his career: his early work concerning cognitive biases, his work on prospect theory and happiness, and with the Israel Defense Forces. Jason Zweig, a columnist at The Wall Street Journal, helped write and research the book over two years. The book was a New York Times bestseller and was the 2012 winner of the American National Academies Communication Award for best creative work that helps


id: thinking-fast-and-slow-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow-1.md
category: reference
title: Thinking, Fast and Slow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:45.841527+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thinking-fast-and-slow-20260505-0
summary:
=== Conjunction fallacy === System 1 is prone to substituting a simpler question for a difficult one. In what Kahneman terms their "best-known and most controversial" experiment, "the Linda problem", subjects were told about an imaginary Linda, young, single, outspoken, and intelligent, who, as a student, was very concerned with discrimination and social justice. They asked whether it was more probable that Linda is a bank teller or that she is a bank teller and an active feminist. The overwhelming response was that "feminist bank teller" was more likely than "bank teller", violating the laws of probability. (All feminist bank tellers are bank tellers, so the former can't be more likely). In this case System 1 substituted the easier question, "Is Linda a feminist?", neglecting the occupation qualifier. An alternative interpretation is that the subjects added an unstated cultural implicature to the effect that the other answer implied an exclusive or, that Linda was not a feminist. === Optimism and loss aversion === Kahneman writes of a "pervasive optimistic bias", which "may well be the most significant of the cognitive biases." This bias generates the illusion of control: the illusion that we have substantial control of our lives. A natural


id: thinking-fast-and-slow-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow-2.md
category: reference
title: Thinking, Fast and Slow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:45.841527+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thinking-fast-and-slow-20260505-0
summary:
"Odd as it may seem," Kahneman writes, "I am my remembering self, and the experiencing self, who does my living, is like a stranger to me." === Experienced well-being === Kahneman first began the study of well-being in the 1990s. At the time most happiness research relied on polls about life satisfaction. Having previously studied unreliable memories, the author was doubtful that life satisfaction was a good indicator of happiness. He designed a question that emphasized instead the well-being of the experiencing self. The author proposed that "Helen was happy in the month of March" if she spent most of her time engaged in activities that she would rather continue than stop, little time in situations that she wished to escape, and not too much time in a neutral state that wouldn't prefer continuing or stopping the activity either way. === Thinking about life === Kahneman suggests that emphasizing a life event such as a marriage or a new car can provide a distorted illusion of its true value. This "focusing illusion" revisits earlier ideas of substituting difficult questions and WYSIATI. == Awards and honors == 2011 Los Angeles Times Book Prize (Current Interest) National Academy of Sciences Best Book


id: trial-and-error-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error-0.md
category: reference
title: Trial and error
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:47.060591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trial-and-error-20260505-0
summary:
Trial and error is a fundamental method of problem-solving characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the practitioner stops trying. According to W.H. Thorpe, the term was devised by C. Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) after trying out similar phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice". However, the phrase 'trial and error' was already in use in 1833, where it can be found in the book title "Practical Methods by Trial and Error for Finding the Latitude and Time at Sea". Under Morgan's Canon, animal behaviour should be explained in the simplest possible way. Where behavior seems to imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by trial-and-error learning. An example is the skillful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behavior. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it. Edward Lee Thorndike was the initiator of the theory of trial and error learning based on the findings he showed how to manage a trial-and-error experiment in the laboratory.


id: trial-and-error-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error-1.md
category: reference
title: Trial and error
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:47.060591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trial-and-error-20260505-0
summary:
solution-oriented: trial and error does not attempt to discover why a solution works, merely that it is a solution. problem-specific: trial and error does not attempt to generalize a solution to other problems. non-optimal: trial and error is generally an attempt to find a solution, not all solutions, and not the best solution. needs little knowledge: trial and error can proceed where there is little or no knowledge of the subject. It is possible to use trial and error to find all solutions or the best solution when a testably finite number of possible solutions exists. To find all solutions, one simply makes a note and continues, rather than ending the process when a solution is found, until all solutions have been tried. To find the best solution, one finds all solutions by the method just described and then comparatively evaluates them based upon some predefined set of criteria, the existence of which is a condition for the possibility of finding a best solution. (Also, when only one solution can exist, as in assembling a jigsaw puzzle, then any solution found is the only solution and so is necessarily the best.) == Examples == Trial and error has traditionally been


id: win-stay-lose-switch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win–stay,_lose–switch-0.md
category: reference
title: Win–stay, lose–switch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Win–stay,_lose–switch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:48.259441+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: win-stay-lose-switch-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology, game theory, statistics, and machine learning, win–stay, lose–switch (also win–stay, lose–shift), or Pavlov, (named after Ivan Pavlov) is a heuristic learning strategy used to model learning in decision situations. It was first invented as an improvement over randomization in bandit problems. It was later applied to the prisoner's dilemma in order to model the evolution of altruism. In most versions, it starts either with a cooperate, then proceeds as always, or starts with a "probe" of cooperate-defect-cooperate to determine the other player's strategy. A mutual cooperation is regarded as a win. The learning rule bases its decision only on the outcome of the previous play. Outcomes are divided into successes (wins) and failures (losses). If the play on the previous round resulted in a success, then the agent plays the same strategy on the next round. Alternatively, if the play resulted in a failure the agent switches to another action. A large-scale empirical study of players of the game rock, paper, scissors shows that a variation of this strategy is adopted by real-world players of the game, instead of the Nash equilibrium strategy of choosing entirely at random between the three options. == References == == See also


id: zero-sum-thinking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_thinking-0.md
category: reference
title: Zero-sum thinking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_thinking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:49.475318+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zero-sum-thinking-20260505-0
summary:
Zero-sum thinking perceives situations as zero-sum games, where one person's gain would be another's loss. The term is derived from game theory. However, unlike the game theory concept, zero-sum thinking refers to a psychological construct—a person's subjective interpretation of a situation. Zero-sum thinking is captured by the saying "your gain is my loss" (or conversely, "your loss is my gain"). Rozycka-Tran et al. (2015) defined zero-sum thinking as: A general belief system about the antagonistic nature of social relations, shared by people in a society or culture and based on the implicit assumption that a finite amount of goods exists in the world, in which one person's winning makes others the losers, and vice versa ... a relatively permanent and general conviction that social relations are like a zero-sum game. People who share this conviction believe that success, especially economic success, is possible only at the expense of other people's failures. Zero-sum bias is a cognitive bias towards zero-sum thinking; it is people's tendency to intuitively judge that a situation is zero-sum, even when this is not the case. This bias promotes zero-sum fallacies — false beliefs that situations are zero-sum. Such fallacies can cause other false judgements and poor


id: zero-sum-thinking-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_thinking-1.md
category: reference
title: Zero-sum thinking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_thinking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:49.475318+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zero-sum-thinking-20260505-0
summary:
==== Resource-scarce environments ==== One of the proximate causes of zero-sum thinking is the experiences that individuals have with scarce resources or zero-sum interactions in their developmental environment. In 1965, George M. Foster argued that members of "peasant" societies have an "Image of Limited Good," which he argued was learned through by experiences in a society that was essentially zero-sum."The model of cognitive orientation that seems to me best to account for peasant behavior is the "Image of Limited Good." By "Image of Limited Good" I mean that broad areas of peasant behavior are patterned in such fashion as to suggest that peasants view their social, economic, and natural universes—their total environment—as one in which all of the desired things in life such as land, wealth, health, friendship and love, manliness and honor, respect and status, power and influence, security and safety, exist in finite quantity and are always in short supply, as far as the peasant is concerned. Not only do these and all other "good things" exist in finite and limited quantities, but in addition there is no way directly within peasant power to increase the available quantities ... When the peasant views his economic world as one


id: hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:51.041584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A hypothesis (pl.: hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. A scientific hypothesis must be based on observations and make a testable and reproducible prediction about reality, in a process beginning with an educated guess. If a hypothesis is repeatedly independently demonstrated by experiment to be true, it becomes a scientific theory. In colloquial usage, the words hypothesis and theory are often used interchangeably, but this is incorrect in the context of science. A working hypothesis is a provisionally-accepted hypothesis used for the purpose of pursuing further progress in research. Working hypotheses are frequently discarded, and often proposed with knowledge (and warning) that they are incomplete and thus false, with the intent of moving research in at least somewhat the right direction, especially when scientists are stuck on an issue and brainstorming ideas. In formal logic, a hypothesis is the antecedent in a proposition. For example, in the proposition "If P, then Q", statement P denotes the hypothesis (or antecedent) of the consequent Q. Hypothesis P is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) "what if" question. The adjective "hypothetical" (having the nature of a hypothesis or being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis), can refer


id: hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:51.041584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further research in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hypothesis ultimately fails. Like all hypotheses, a working hypothesis is constructed as a statement of expectations, which can be linked to the exploratory research purpose in empirical investigation. Working hypotheses are often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research. The provisional nature of working hypotheses makes them useful as an organizing device in applied research. Here they act like a useful guide to address problems that are still in a formative phase. In recent years, philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypotheses, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, Karl Popper's colleague and student, respectively, have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis. == Hypotheses, concepts and measurement == Concepts in Hempel's deductive-nomological model play a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying the expected relationships between propositions. When a set of hypotheses are grouped together,


id: absolute-income-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_income_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Absolute income hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_income_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:52.235761+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: absolute-income-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In economics, the absolute income hypothesis concerns how a consumer divides their disposable income between consumption and saving. It is part of the theory of consumption attributed to John Maynard Keynes. The American economist James Tobin (1918–2002) researched and developed this idea more extensively in the 1960s and 70s. == Background == Keynes' General Theory in 1936 identified the relationship between income and consumption as a key macroeconomic relationship. Keynes asserted that real consumption (i.e. adjusted for inflation) is a function of real disposable income, which is total income net of taxes. As income rises, the theory asserts that consumption will also rise, but not necessarily at the same rate. When applied to a cross section of a population, rich people are expected to consume a lower proportion of their income than poor people. The marginal propensity to consume is present in Keynes' consumption theory and determines by what amount consumption will change in response to a change in income. While this theory has success modeling consumption in the short term, attempts to apply this model over a longer time frame have proven less successful. This has led to the absolute income hypothesis falling out of favor as the consumption


id: ad-hoc-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ad hoc hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:53.374609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ad-hoc-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In science and philosophy, an ad hoc hypothesis is a hypothesis added to a theory in order to save it from being falsified. For example, a person that wants to believe in leprechauns can avoid ever being proven wrong by using ad hoc hypotheses (e.g., by adding "they are invisible", then "their motives are complex", and so on). Often, ad hoc hypothesizing is employed to compensate for anomalies not anticipated by the theory in its unmodified form. == In the scientific community == Scientists are often skeptical of theories that rely on frequent, unsupported adjustments to sustain them. This is because, if a theorist so chooses, there is no limit to the number of ad hoc hypotheses that they could add. Thus the theory becomes more and more complex, but is never falsified. This is often at a cost to the theory's predictive power, however. Ad hoc hypotheses are often characteristic of pseudoscientific subjects. Albert Einstein's addition of the cosmological constant to general relativity in order to allow a static universe was ad hoc. Although he later referred to it as his "greatest blunder", it may correspond to theories of dark energy. == See also == Ad hoc Fringe science


id: adipose-tissue-expandability-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue_expandability_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Adipose tissue expandability hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue_expandability_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:55.612615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adipose-tissue-expandability-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The adipose tissue expandability hypothesis posits that metabolic dysregulation that appears to be caused by excess weight, such as type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, are triggered when an individual's capacity for storing excess calories in the subcutaneous adipose tissue is exceeded. Each individual's capacity to store excess energy varies, so the threshold at which an individual begins to experience metabolic disease is not well captured by methods such as body mass index or body fat percentage. If a person has the ability to store a large amount of body fat without experiencing metabolic disturbance, this is known as metabolically healthy obesity. Although it was hypothesized that having a larger number of smaller adipocytes was correlated with the ability to store more fat, some evidence suggests the opposite—those with smaller adipocytes having a worse metabolic profile. The core factor, the inability to store excess fat in these cells, remains. == References ==


id: alvarez-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Alvarez hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:58.010084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alvarez-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Alvarez hypothesis posits that the mass extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other living things during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was caused by the impact of a large asteroid on the Earth. Prior to 2013, it was commonly cited as having happened about 65 million years ago, but Renne and colleagues (2013) gave an updated value of 66 million years. Evidence indicates that the asteroid fell in the Yucatán Peninsula, at Chicxulub, Mexico. The hypothesis is named after the father-and-son team of scientists Luis and Walter Alvarez, who first suggested it in 1980. Shortly afterwards, and independently, the same was suggested by Dutch paleontologist Jan Smit. In March 2010, an international panel of scientists endorsed the asteroid hypothesis, specifically the Chicxulub impact, as being the cause of the extinction. A team of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and in so doing also ruled out other theories such as massive volcanism. They had determined that a space rock 10–15 km (6–9 mi) in diameter hurtled into earth at Chicxulub. For comparison, the Martian moon Phobos has a diameter of 22 km (14 mi), and Mount Everest is just under 9 km (5.6 mi). The collision would


id: alvarez-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Alvarez hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:58.010084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alvarez-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The location of the impact was unknown when the Alvarez team developed their hypothesis, but later scientists discovered the Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatán Peninsula, now considered the likely impact site. Paul Renne of the Berkeley Geochronology Center has reported that the date of the asteroid event is 66,038,000 years ago, plus or minus 11,000 years, based on Ar-Ar dating. He further posits that the mass extinction of dinosaurs occurred within 33,000 years of this date. In April 2019, a paper was published in PNAS which describes evidence from a fossil site in North Dakota that the authors say provides a "postimpact snapshot" of events after the asteroid collision "including ejecta accretion and faunal mass death". The team found that the tektites that had peppered the area were present in amber found on the site and were also embedded in the gills of about 50 percent of the fossil fish. They were also able to find traces of iridium. The authors – who include Walter Alvarez – postulate that shock of the impact, equivalent to an earthquake of magnitude 10 or 11, may have led to seiches, oscillating movements of water in lakes, bays, or gulfs, that would have reached


id: alvarez-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Alvarez hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:58.010084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alvarez-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
Although a 2010 paper published in Science that declared that the extinction of the dinosaurs was caused by Chicxulub was co-authored by 41 scientists, dozens of other scientists challenged both the paper's methods and its conclusions. A leading critic of the Alvarez hypothesis is Gerta Keller, who has focused on Deccan Traps volcanism as a likely cause of a more gradual extinction. Despite the fact that the Alvarez hypothesis has overwhelming support from the scientific community, Keller has continued to advocate for research into alternate theories. The Deccan Traps theory was first proposed in 1978 by geologist Dewey McLean but quickly lost traction. The Deccan Traps are an area of volcanic flood basalts in Western India spanning ~1.3 million square kilometers that were created by massive volcanic activity during the same time period in which the Chicxulub impact occurred. Prior to Keller's research, the timeframe of the Deccan Traps' eruptions had a significantly large range of error, making it difficult to draw strong conclusions regarding their connection to the K-Pg extinction. In a 2014 report, Keller and her colleagues used uranium-lead zircon geochronology to more accurately identify the eruptions as occurring both within a span of one million years and


id: analysis-of-competing-hypotheses-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_competing_hypotheses-0.md
category: reference
title: Analysis of competing hypotheses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_competing_hypotheses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:59.135316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: analysis-of-competing-hypotheses-20260505-0
summary:
The analysis of competing hypotheses (ACH) is a methodology for evaluating multiple competing hypotheses for observed data. It was developed by Richards (Dick) J. Heuer, Jr., a 45-year veteran of the Central Intelligence Agency, in the 1970s for use by the Agency. ACH is used by analysts in various fields who make judgments that entail a high risk of error in reasoning. ACH aims to help an analyst overcome, or at least minimize, some of the cognitive limitations that make prescient intelligence analysis so difficult to achieve. ACH was a step forward in intelligence analysis methodology, but it was first described in relatively informal terms. Producing the best available information from uncertain data remains the goal of researchers, tool-builders, and analysts in industry, academia and government. Their domains include data mining, cognitive psychology and visualization, probability and statistics, etc. Abductive reasoning is an earlier concept with similarities to ACH. == Process == Heuer outlines the ACH process in considerable depth in his book, Psychology of Intelligence Analysis. It consists of the following steps: Hypothesis – The first step of the process is to identify all potential hypotheses, preferably using a group of analysts with different perspectives to brainstorm the possibilities.


id: analysis-of-competing-hypotheses-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_competing_hypotheses-1.md
category: reference
title: Analysis of competing hypotheses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_competing_hypotheses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:58:59.135316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: analysis-of-competing-hypotheses-20260505-0
summary:
ACH demands that the analyst makes too many discrete judgments, a great many of which contribute little if anything to discerning the best hypothesis ACH misconceives the nature of the relationship between items of evidence and hypotheses by supposing that items of evidence are, on their own, consistent or inconsistent with hypotheses. ACH treats the hypothesis set as "flat", i.e. a mere list, and so is unable to relate evidence to hypotheses at the appropriate levels of abstraction ACH cannot represent subordinate argumentation, i.e. the argumentation bearing up on a piece of evidence. ACH activities at realistic scales leave analysts disoriented or confused. Van Gelder proposed hypothesis mapping (similar to argument mapping) as an alternative to ACH. === Structured analysis of competing hypotheses === The structured analysis of competing hypotheses offers analysts an improvement over the limitations of the original ACH. The SACH maximizes the possible hypotheses by allowing the analyst to split one hypothesis into two complex ones. For example, two tested hypotheses could be that Iraq has WMD or Iraq does not have WMD. If the evidence showed that it is more likely there are WMDs in Iraq then two new hypotheses could be formulated: WMD are in


id: anfinsen-s-dogma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anfinsen's_dogma-0.md
category: reference
title: Anfinsen's dogma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anfinsen's_dogma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:00.330938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anfinsen-s-dogma-20260505-0
summary:
Anfinsen's dogma, also known as the thermodynamic hypothesis, is a postulate in molecular biology. It states that, at least for a small globular protein in its standard physiological environment, the native structure is determined only by the protein's amino acid sequence. The dogma was championed by the Nobel Prize Laureate Christian B. Anfinsen from his research on the folding of ribonuclease A. His research was based on previous studies by biochemist Lisa Steiner, whose superiors at the time did not recognize the significance. The postulate amounts to saying that, at the environmental conditions (temperature, solvent concentration and composition, etc.) at which folding occurs, the native structure is a unique, stable and kinetically accessible minimum of the free energy. In other words, there are three conditions for formation of a unique protein structure: Uniqueness – Requires that the sequence does not have any other configuration with a comparable free energy. Hence the free energy minimum must be unchallenged. Stability – Small changes in the surrounding environment cannot give rise to changes in the minimum configuration. This can be pictured as a free energy surface that looks more like a funnel (with the native state in the bottom of it) rather than


id: aramaic-new-testament-hypotheses-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_New_Testament_hypotheses-0.md
category: reference
title: Aramaic New Testament hypotheses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_New_Testament_hypotheses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:01.547733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aramaic-new-testament-hypotheses-20260505-0
summary:
Aramaic New Testament hypotheses are a number of hypotheses within Biblical scholarship which argue that the Christian New Testament derives in some form from an Aramaic original. A first version was initially advanced in the 17th and 18th centuries, arguing that all Gospels and Acts could derive from one Aramaic proto-Gospel. Subsequent current-day hypotheses trying to better establish this earlier hypothesis, usually argue some parts of the Gospels could derive from an Aramaic sayings-source. In current scholarship they enjoy no notable support compared to the consensus hypothesis that the New Testament was written in Koine Greek. They are related to and often overlap with the Hebrew Gospel hypothesis, which posits a similar idea but with Hebrew instead of Aramaic. == Greek original New Testament hypothesis == The current consensus view held by almost all scholars of the New Testament is that all of its contents were originally written in Koine Greek. An example of how mainstream scholars have dealt with Aramaic influences within an overall view of the Gospels' original Greek-language development may be found in Martin Hengel's synthesis of studies of the linguistic situation in Palestine during the time of Jesus and the Gospels:Since non-literary, simple Greek knowledge or


id: augustinian-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Augustinian hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:02.720328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: augustinian-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Augustinian hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the Augustinian Proposal) is a solution to the synoptic problem, which concerns the origin of the Gospels of the New Testament. The hypothesis holds that Matthew was written first, by Matthew the Evangelist (see the Gospel According to the Hebrews and the Jewish-Christian Gospels). Mark the Evangelist wrote the Gospel of Mark second and used Matthew and the preaching of Peter as sources. Luke the Evangelist wrote the Gospel of Luke and was aware of the two Gospels that preceded him. Unlike some competing hypotheses, this hypothesis does not rely on, nor does it argue for, the existence of any document that is not explicitly mentioned in historical testimony. Instead, the hypothesis draws primarily upon historical testimony, rather than textual criticism, as the central line of evidence. The foundation of evidence for the hypothesis is the writings of the Church Fathers: historical sources dating back to as early as the first half of the 2nd century, which have been held as authoritative by most Christians for nearly two millennia. Adherents to the Augustinian hypothesis view it as a simple, coherent solution to the synoptic problem. The Augustinian hypothesis addresses certain fundamental points of


id: augustinian-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Augustinian hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:02.720328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: augustinian-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Papias === According to Irenaeus, Papias was "a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp, a man of primitive times," who wrote a volume in "five books." The benefit of historical immediacy, as argued by D. H. Fischer is one of the key determinants of historicity, and the church father Papias is a very early source in regard to testimony that the Matthew wrote his gospel first. Papias wrote that: "Matthew compiled the sayings in the Hebrew language, and everyone translated them as well he could." (The 'Hebrew language' referred to by Papias has often been interpreted as Aramaic.) It has been argued, because Papias does not cite an authority for his assertions concerning Matthew but does concerning Mark, that Matthew was already fully accepted at the time of his writings. === Clement === Eusebius also recorded an important tradition from Clement of Alexandria (died c. 213): In the same volumes Clement has found room for a tradition of the primitive authorities of the Church regarding the order of the gospels. It is this. He used to say that the earliest gospels were those containing the genealogies [Matthew, Luke], while Mark's originated as follows: When, at Rome, Peter


id: augustinian-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Augustinian hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:02.720328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: augustinian-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Augustinian position, and the similar Griesbach hypothesis, has drawn recent interest, especially from B. C. Butler, John Wenham, W.R. Farmer, and others as an alternative solution to the synoptic problem, and has been employed as a scholarly refutation of Marcan priority, the Q hypothesis, and the two-source hypothesis. Butler argued that accepting the priority of Matthew rendered it possible to dispense with the hypothetical Q document altogether, a position he supported by arguments concerning the inadmissibility of appealing to Q as a sound explanation of the cases where Matthew appears to be more original than Mark. Likewise it has been pointed out that differences between the Synoptic Gospels are as easily explained by differing purposes of the authors than by forced redactions or omissions due to ignorance. Furthermore, against certain arguments that the “primitiveness” of the ideas within the Gospels is the determining factor in their literary interdependence, it is observed that defining "primitiveness" carries obvious difficulties. Farmer argued that a modification of the Augustinian hypothesis, the so-called Two-gospel hypothesis, ordering Matthew-Luke-Mark, eliminated all reasons for the existence of Q, a position whose credibility was conceded by W.C. Allen and others. Bernard Orchard also developed the Two-gospel hypothesis and


id: augustinian-hypothesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Augustinian hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:02.720328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: augustinian-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A savage persecution of the Church, begun by Herod Agrippa I in AD 42, was the signal for the dispersion of the apostles now possessing in the Gospel of Matthew the necessary tool to support and confirm their preaching, while at the same time preserving their theological unity. The first phase was completed, and the second phase of the Church's expansion was about to begin with the mission of Paul. Central to Orchard's characterization of this new second phase is the distinction between a primarily Hebrew orientation and a primarily Greek orientation, focusing not only on the Jewish converts to Christianity, but to the gentile converts as well. This, he argues, resulted in three key events: the translation of the original Matthew into Greek, the production of the Gospel of Mark within the context of Peter's preaching to Greek speaking converts in Rome, and Luke's authorship of his Gospel under the instruction of Paul. Cited in support of this are the comments of Clement, Irenaeus, and others who state that the Gospel of Mark was written by Mark, a follower of the apostle Peter, based on his speeches. Orchard countered the claim that the Gospel of Mark must have been


id: babble-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babble_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Babble hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babble_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:03.879807+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: babble-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In psycholinguistics and leadership studies, the babble hypothesis (demonstratively labelled the babble effect) is a conjecture that posits a strong correlation between the amount or quantity of speaking time an individual has in group settings and their likelihood of emerging as a leader, as commonly opposed to quality of speech. According to the hypothesis, individuals who contribute more verbal input during group interactions are perceived to have increased speaking time which in turn increases likelihood of them being perceived and recognized as leaders. Those individuals who speak more also receive higher ratings on leader, communication and contribution-related measures. == Past research == Research into the idea that emerging leaders talk a lot has been around for a long time, with Bales making this claim in 1950. One of the earliest studies that directly varied the quality and quantity of verbal interaction was by Regula and Julian (1973). They found that variations in the quantity but not in the quality of task contributions affected whether the power to influence others was attributed to an individual. There have since been many studies investigating the extent to which speaking time can predict the emergence of leaders in previously leaderless groups. However, many have


id: berserker-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berserker_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Berserker hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berserker_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:05.161026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: berserker-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Berserker hypothesis, also known as the deadly probes scenario, is the idea that humans have not yet detected intelligent alien life in the universe because it has been systematically destroyed by a series of lethal Von Neumann probes. The hypothesis is named after the Berserker series of novels (1963–2005) written by Fred Saberhagen. The hypothesis has no single known proposer, and instead is thought to have emerged over time in response to the Hart–Tipler conjecture, the idea that an absence of detectable Von Neumann probes is contrapositive evidence that no intelligent life exists outside of the Solar System. According to the Berserker hypothesis, an absence of such probes is not evidence of life's absence, since interstellar probes could "go berserk" and destroy other civilizations, before self-destructing. In his 1983 paper "The Great Silence", astronomer David Brin summarized the implications of the Berserker hypothesis: it is entirely compatible with all the facts and logic of the Fermi paradox, but would mean that there exists no intelligent life left to be discovered. In the worst case, humanity has already alerted others to its existence, and is next in line to be destroyed. There is no need to struggle to suppress the


id: biophilia-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Biophilia hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:06.376743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biophilia-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The biophilia hypothesis (also called BET) suggests that humans possess an innate tendency to seek connections with nature and other forms of life. Edward O. Wilson introduced and popularized the hypothesis in his book, Biophilia (1984). He defines biophilia as the "innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes". He argued that "to explore and affiliate with life is a deep and complicated process in mental development. To an extent still undervalued in philosophy and religion, our existence depends on this propensity, our spirit is woven from it, hope rises on its currents". Wilson saw modern biology as converging with biophilia: "Modern biology has produced a genuinely new way of looking at the world that is incidentally congenial to the inner direction of biophilia. In other words, instinct is in this rare instance aligned with reason.... to the degree that we come to understand other organisms, we will place a greater value on them, and on ourselves". == Natural affinity for living systems == "Biophilia" is an innate affinity of life or living systems. The term was first used by Erich Fromm to describe a psychological orientation of being attracted to all that is alive and vital. Wilson uses


id: biophilia-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Biophilia hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:06.376743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biophilia-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
Many Indigenous cultures do not draw a sharp distinction between humans and nature. In these traditions, humans may be understood as an integral part of the natural world rather than as separate from it. Human practices and ways of life may be seen to be based in relationships of reciprocity involving all living beings and the environment. At the heart of such belief systems is the concept of kinship, which extends beyond human relationships and includes elements of the natural world. Humans, other animals, plants and soil are seen as dependent on each other for survival and health. For example, the Haudenosaunee people express this idea through a "Thanksgiving Address", a ceremony intended to honor all aspects of nature. Some Indigenous cultures have developed what has been referred to as "traditional ecological knowledge". This may include ostensibly sustainable stewardship practices such as controlled burns of vegetation, as employed in some traditional Native American and Aboriginal Australian societies. In Hawaii, the idea of Aloha_ʻĀina aloha has served as a guide for responsible resource use. Indigenous and animist beliefs typically view nature as sacred. Specific sites, species, or phenomena holding deep significance. Emphasis is put on objectives such as reciprocity and balance.


id: black-sea-deluge-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:07.496507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-sea-deluge-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Black Sea deluge is the best known of three hypothetical flood scenarios for the Late Quaternary history of the Black Sea that have been proposed since 1997. One other flood scenario proposes a rapid, even catastrophic, rise in sea level of the Black Sea. The maximum depth of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits is 110 meters (360 ft) and 103 meters (338 ft), respectively, which would put them above the ocean levels in the Last Glacial Maximum, some 125 meters (410 ft) lower than in present times. The hypothesis is controversial, with other authors arguing for a more gradual inundation of the Black Sea. == History == In 1997, William Ryan, Walter Pitman, Petko Dimitrov, and their colleagues first published the Black Sea deluge hypothesis. They proposed that a catastrophic inflow of Mediterranean seawater into the Black Sea freshwater lake occurred around 7,600 years ago, c. 5600 BCE. As proposed, the Early Holocene Black Sea flood scenario describes events that would have profoundly affected prehistoric settlement in Eastern Europe and adjacent parts of Asia and possibly was the basis of oral history concerning the myth of Noah's flood. Some archaeologists support this theory as an explanation for the lack


id: black-sea-deluge-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:07.496507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-sea-deluge-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Counter-arguments == Criticisms of the deluge hypothesis hinge on two main lines of arguments. The first mainly focuses on the water level of the Black Sea: if the magnitude and pace of the rise of the Black Sea level was moderate enough, or if it even outpaced the rise in the Aegean basin (with water flowing, when they reconnected, from the former to the latter as it does now), or if the straits were already opened (at a lower level than now) and the two basins already connected at the time of the hypothesised flood, the catastrophe hypothesis is voided. The second is the lack of archaeological evidence one would expect of a flood, such as impact on geology, wildlife or humans. Since the end of the last glacial period, the global sea level has risen 120 m (390 ft). The flood hypothesis hinges on the geomorphology of the Bosporus since the end of the glacial age. The Black Sea area has been isolated and reconnected many times during the last 500,000 years. Opponents of the deluge hypothesis point to clues that water was flowing out of the Black Sea basin as late as 15,000 years ago. In this


id: black-sea-deluge-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:07.496507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-sea-deluge-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Aksu, Ali E.; Hiscott, Richard N.; Mudie, Peta J.; Rochon, André; Kaminski, Michael A.; Abrajano, Teofilo; Yaşar, Doğan (2002). "Persistent Holocene Outflow from the Black Sea to the Eastern Mediterranean Contradicts Noah's Flood Hypothesis". GSA Today. 12 (5): 4. Bibcode:2002GSAT...12e...4A. doi:10.1130/1052-5173(2002)012<0004:PHOFTB>2.0.CO;2. Yanko-Hombach, Valentina; Gilbert, Allan S.; Panin, Nicolae; Dolukhanov, Pavel M., eds. (2007). The Black Sea Flood Question: Changes in Coastline, Climate, and Human Settlement. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5302-3. ISBN 978-1-4020-4774-9. Dimitrov, Petko; Dimitrov, Dimitar (2004). The Black Sea, the Flood and the ancient myths. "Slavena", Varna. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.18954.16327. Dimitrov, Dimitar Petkov (2010). Geology and Non-traditional resources of the Black Sea. LAP (Lambert Academic Publishing AG), Saarbrucken, Germany. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.20631.88486. Eris, K.; Ryan, W. B. F.; Cagatay, N.; Sancar, Ü.; Lericolais, G.; Menot, G.; Bard, E. (2008). "The timing and evolution of the post-glacial transgression across the Sea of Marmara shelf south of İstanbul" (PDF). Marine Geology. 243 (1–4): 57–76. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2007.04.010. Gökaşan, E.; Algan, O.; Tur, H.; Meriç, E.; Türker, A.; Şimşek, M. (2005). "Delta formation at the southern entrance of Istanbul Strait (Marmara sea, Turkey): a new interpretation based on high-resolution seismic stratigraphy". Geo-Marine Letters. 25 (6): 370–377. Bibcode:2005GML....25..370G. doi:10.1007/s00367-005-0215-4. S2CID 130792746. Keith, M.L.; Anderson, G.M. (1963). "Radiocarbon Dating: Fictitious


id: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Bold hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:08.744356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
Bold hypothesis (or bold conjecture, the terms are used interchangeably) is a concept originally created by the liberal philosopher Karl Popper when he tried to define the meaning of scientific thinking and scientific progress. It was first explained in his debut The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1935) and subsequently elaborated in writings such as Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (1963), Objective knowledge: an evolutionary approach (1972), and Replies to my critics (1974). In successive texts written in the course of four decades, Popper added some nuances to the definition of the concept. Broadly speaking, the idea of a bold hypothesis refers to a new, testable theoretical proposition (or theoretical claim) made within a subject area which, if it is true, would be able to explain and predict much more about the subject than was previously possible. It would significantly alter existing scientific understandings about the subject, in a positive way. The new idea would be very useful for scientific research about the subject. This contrasts with other types of scientific claims which, if they turn out to be true, make little difference to what scientists already know about the subject. The contrary of a bold hypothesis is


id: bold-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Bold hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:08.744356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
”There is a reality behind the world as it appears to us, possibly a many-layered reality, of which the appearances are the outermost layers. What the great scientist does is boldly to guess, daringly to conjecture, what these inner realities are like. (…) The boldness can be gauged by the distance between the world of appearance and the conjectured reality, the explanatory hypotheses. But there is another, a special kind of boldness – the boldness of predicting aspects of the world of appearance which so far have been overlooked but which it must possess if the conjectured reality is (more or less) right, if the explanatory hypotheses are (approximately) true. It is this more special kind of boldness which I have usually in mind when I speak of bold scientific conjectures. It is the boldness of a conjecture which takes a real risk – the risk of being tested and refuted; the risk of clashing with reality. Thus my proposal was, and is, that it is this second boldness, together with the readiness to look out for tests and refutations, which distinguishes “empirical” science from nonscience, and especially from prescientific myths and metaphysics.” This passage makes it very clear, that


id: bold-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Bold hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:08.744356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
Is boldness always a good thing in scientific hypothesizing? How we assess the degree of boldness may just be a subjective matter (it may depends on how you care to look at it). Some new ideas, although they are rather modest in themselves, can make a very large difference to the advancement of scientific research. At a more concrete level, the degree of "boldness" could refer (i) to the content of the hypothesis (considered relative to other possible hypotheses), or (ii) to the manner or context in which the hypothesis is presented, (iii) to its expected importance for research, or (iv) to the attitude involved. The degree of boldness could be downplayed for the sake of credibility or compatibility with established ideas, or it could be exaggerated to create the image of a "big scientific breakthrough" (to obtain research funding). The timing of the evaluation of a hypothesis is also important: a hypothesis which does not seem "bold" right now, could be judged "very bold" later, when historians know much more about the full impact it turned out to have (and vice versa). Alan F. Chalmers comments that “What rates as a bold conjecture at one stage in the history


id: bold-hypothesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Bold hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:08.744356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A falsified conjecture shows the scientist only "what he does not know" or what cannot be the case. However, in reality scientists are more interested in knowing what is the case, and what they can know. That is, scientists are interested mainly in gaining positive new knowledge, which can be used for practical purposes. Scientists are not primarily interested in “knowing that they don't know things”, or in "knowing what is not the case" (other than to rule out possibilities). Scientists want to know what really is the case. Scientific statements according to this Lakatosian perspective are not falsifiable statements, as Karl Popper claimed, but fallible statements. There is an important difference. Falsifiable ideas are testable ideas which can be definitely proved to be false. Fallible statements are testable statements that could be wrong. Fallible statements include both testable propositions and statements of which it is known that they could be wrong, although currently we do not know how to test them yet for their truth or falsity (or, the possible tests are technically not yet feasible). According to Lakatos, all scientific statements are in reality fallible hypotheses, which scientists at the very least intend or aim to test for


id: broad-spectrum-revolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_spectrum_revolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Broad spectrum revolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_spectrum_revolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:09.941400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: broad-spectrum-revolution-20260505-0
summary:
The broad spectrum revolution (BSR) hypothesis, proposed by Kent Flannery in a 1968 paper presented to a London University symposium, suggested that the emergence of the Neolithic in southwest Asia was prefaced by increases in dietary breadth among foraging societies. The broad spectrum revolution followed the last glacial period around 15,000 BP in the Middle East and 12,000 BP in Europe. During this time, there was a transition from focusing on a few main food sources to gathering/hunting a "broad spectrum" of plants and animals. == Hypothesis details == Flannery's hypothesis was meant to help explain the adoption of agriculture in the Neolithic Revolution. Unpersuaded by "the facile explanation of prehistoric environmental change" Flannery suggested (following Lewis Binford's equilibrium model) that population growth in optimal habitats led to demographic pressure within nearby marginal habitats as daughter groups migrated. The search for more food within these marginal habitats forced foragers to diversify the types of food sources harvested, broadening the subsistence base outward to include more fish, small game, waterfowl, invertebrates (such as snails and shellfish), as well as previously ignored or marginal plant sources. Most importantly, Flannery argues that the need for more food in these marginal environments led to


id: carbohydrate-insulin-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate–insulin_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbohydrate–insulin model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate–insulin_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:11.063944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbohydrate-insulin-model-20260505-0
summary:
The carbohydrate-insulin model (CIM) posits that obesity is caused by excess consumption of carbohydrate, which then disrupts normal insulin metabolism leading to weight gain and weight-related illnesses. It is contrasted with the mainstream energy balance model (EBM), which holds that obesity is caused by an excess in calorie consumption compared to calorie expenditure. According to the carbohydrate–insulin model, low-carbohydrate diets would be the most effective in causing long-term weight loss. Notable proponents of the carbohydrate–insulin model include Gary Taubes and David Ludwig. The CIM has been tested in mice and humans. Although some experts consider that these studies falsified the CIM, proponents disagree. Available evidence does not support the existence of a long-term advantage in weight loss for low-carbohydrate diets. == See also == Adipose tissue Appetite Basal metabolic rate Energy homeostasis Glucagon Glycemic index Glycemic load Hyperinsulinemia Insulin sensitivity Insulin Ketogenic diet Leptin Lipogenesis Low-carbohydrate diet Low-glycemic index diet Metabolic Syndrome Obesity Refined carbohydrates Set point theory Sugar Ultra-processed food == References ==


id: coastal-migration-americas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-0.md
category: reference
title: Coastal migration (Americas)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:13.444822+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coastal-migration-americas-20260505-0
summary:
The coastal migration hypothesis is one of two leading hypotheses about the settlement of the Americas at the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. It proposes one or more migration routes involving watercraft, via the Kurile island chain, along the coast of Beringia and the archipelagos off the Alaskan-British Columbian coast, continuing down the coast to Central and South America. The alternative is the hypothesis solely by interior routes, which assumes migration along an ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum.The coastal migration hypothesis has been bolstered by findings such as the report that the sediments in the Port Eliza caves on Vancouver Island indicate the possibility of a survivable climate as far back 16 ka (16,000 years) in the area, while the continental ice sheets were nearing their maximum extent. Despite such research, the hypothesis is still subject to considerable debate. Carlson, Erlandson, and others have argued for a coastal migration from Alaska to the Pacific Northwest pre-11ka (before ≈13,000 calendar years ago) that predates the hypothesized migration of Clovis people moving south through an ice-free corridor located near the continental divide. The coastal migrants may have been followed by the Clovis


id: coastal-migration-americas-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-1.md
category: reference
title: Coastal migration (Americas)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:13.444822+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coastal-migration-americas-20260505-0
summary:
=== Three-wave model === The Three-wave model is an older model that attempts to explain the peopling of the Americas suggested by Greenberg et al. (1986). Using linguistic and genetic data as well as dental anthropology, Greenberg et al. subdivided Native Americans into three groups: Amerind, Na-Dene, and Aleut-Inuit. They explained the linguistic, anatomical, and genetic differences they found in each group as a result of separate migrations or waves out of Northeast Asia to the Americas. This model has been criticized by anthropologist Emőke J.E. Szathmáry who thought that Greenberg's study overstated biological difference. Szathmáry argued that the differences between each group could be better explained by isolation rather than the three migrations. In 1977, Bonatto and Szathámry (1997) concluded that the presence of glaciers isolated the populations from one another, causing them to settle in Beringia rather than use it as a bridge or corridor for migration to mid-latitude America. Bonatto and Szathmáry suggest that after the LGM, humans actually migrated out of Beringia rather than out of Asia. === Beringian "Standstill" hypothesis === The Beringian "Standstill" Hypothesis proposed by Tamm et al. (2007) builds on Bonatto and Szathmáry's idea of migration out of Beringia after the LGM.


id: coastal-migration-americas-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)-2.md
category: reference
title: Coastal migration (Americas)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_migration_(Americas)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:13.444822+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coastal-migration-americas-20260505-0
summary:
=== Watercraft === Fedje and Christensen (1999:648) also argue that the coast was likely colonized before 13 ka, largely based on watercraft evidence from Japan before 13 ka. Dietary evidence from middens in Indonesia indicates the development of offshore fishing, requiring watercraft, between 35 and 40 ka. Sea-going cultures were mobile in the island-rich environment off the late Pleistocene coast of east Asia, facilitating the spread of marine technology and skills through the Philippines, up the Ryukyu chain, to Japan. Warming of the climate after about 16 ka (although glaciation would remain) could have provided an impetus for seaborne migration up the Kurile island chain towards North America, through some combination of a more hospitable climate and increased ocean productivity. Although no boats have been recovered from early Pacific Coast archaeological sites, this may be due to poor preservation of organic materials and the inundation of coastal areas mentioned above. We can still infer water travel based on the presence of artifacts made by humans found at island sites. Anecdotal evidence comes from the surviving Bella Bella oral tradition, as recorded by Franz Boas in 1898. "In the beginning there was nothing but water and ice and a narrow strip


id: compression-of-morbidity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_of_morbidity-0.md
category: reference
title: Compression of morbidity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_of_morbidity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:14.618203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: compression-of-morbidity-20260505-0
summary:
The compression of morbidity in public health is a hypothesis put forth by James Fries, professor of medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine. The hypothesis was supported by a 1998 study of 1700 University of Pennsylvania alumni over a period of 20 years. Fries' hypothesis is that the burden of lifetime illness may be compressed into a shorter period before the time of death, if the age of onset of the first chronic infirmity can be postponed. This hypothesis contrasts to the view that as the age of countries' populations tends to increase over time, they will become increasingly infirm and consume an ever-larger proportion of the national budget in healthcare costs. Fries posited that if the hypothesis is confirmed, healthcare costs and patient health overall will be improved. In order to confirm this hypothesis, the evidence must show that it is possible to delay the onset of infirmity, and that corresponding increases in longevity will at least be modest. The evidence is at best mixed. Vincent Mor's "The Compression of Morbidity Hypothesis: A Review of Research and Prospects for the Future" argues that "Cross-national evidence for the validity of the compression of morbidity hypothesis originally proposed by Fries


id: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Continuum hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, specifically set theory, the continuum hypothesis (abbreviated CH) is a hypothesis about the possible sizes of infinite sets. It states: There is no set whose cardinality is strictly between that of the integers and the real numbers. The name of the hypothesis comes from the term continuum for the real numbers. In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC), this is equivalent to the following equation in aleph numbers: 2 ℵ 0 = ℵ 1 {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}=\aleph _{1}} , or even shorter with beth numbers: ℶ 1 = ℵ 1 {\displaystyle \beth _{1}=\aleph _{1}} . The continuum hypothesis was advanced by Georg Cantor in 1878. It became one of the most studied problems in set theory, and establishing its truth or falsehood was the first of Hilbert's 23 problems presented in 1900. The answer to this problem is independent of ZFC. This means the axioms of ZFC can neither prove nor disprove the continuum hypothesis, meaning either the continuum hypothesis or its negation can be added as an axiom to ZFC set theory, with the resulting theory being consistent if and only if ZFC is consistent. This independence was proved in 1963 by Paul Cohen,


id: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Continuum hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
Two sets are said to have the same cardinality or cardinal number if there exists a bijection (a one-to-one correspondence) between them. Intuitively, for two sets S {\displaystyle S} and T {\displaystyle T} to have the same cardinality means that it is possible to "pair off" elements of S {\displaystyle S} with elements of T {\displaystyle T} in such a fashion that every element of S {\displaystyle S} is paired off with exactly one element of T {\displaystyle T} and vice versa. Hence, the set { banana , apple , pear } {\displaystyle \{{\text{banana}},{\text{apple}},{\text{pear}}\}} has the same cardinality as { yellow , red , green } {\displaystyle \{{\text{yellow}},{\text{red}},{\text{green}}\}} despite the sets themselves containing different elements. With infinite sets such as the set of integers or rational numbers, the existence of a bijection between two sets becomes more difficult to demonstrate. The rational numbers Q {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} } seemingly form a counterexample to the continuum hypothesis: the integers form a proper subset of the rationals, which themselves form a proper subset of the reals, so intuitively, there are more rational numbers than integers and more real numbers than rational numbers. However, this intuitive analysis is flawed since it does not


id: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Continuum hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Independence from ZFC == The independence of the continuum hypothesis (CH) from Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF) follows from combined work of Kurt Gödel and Paul Cohen. Gödel showed that CH cannot be disproved from ZF, even if the axiom of choice (AC) is adopted, i.e. from ZFC. Gödel's proof shows that both CH and AC hold in the constructible universe L {\displaystyle L} , an inner model of ZF set theory, assuming only the axioms of ZF. The existence of an inner model of ZF in which additional axioms hold shows that the additional axioms are (relatively) consistent with ZF, provided ZF itself is consistent. The latter condition cannot be proved in ZF itself, due to Gödel's incompleteness theorems, but is widely believed to be true and can be proved in stronger set theories. Cohen showed that CH cannot be proven from the ZFC axioms, completing the overall independence proof. To prove his result, Cohen developed the method of forcing, which has become a standard tool in set theory. Essentially, this method begins with a model of ZF in which CH holds and constructs another model which contains more sets than the original in a way that CH does


id: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Continuum hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Arguments for and against the continuum hypothesis == Gödel believed that CH is false, and that his proof that CH is consistent with ZFC only shows that the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms do not adequately characterize the universe of sets. Gödel was a Platonist and therefore had no problems with asserting the truth and falsehood of statements independent of their provability. Cohen, though a formalist, also tended towards rejecting CH. Historically, mathematicians who favored a "rich" and "large" universe of sets were against CH, while those favoring a "neat" and "controllable" universe favored CH. Parallel arguments were made for and against the axiom of constructibility, which implies CH. More recently, Matthew Foreman has pointed out that ontological maximalism can actually be used to argue in favor of CH, because among models that have the same reals, models with "more" sets of reals have a better chance of satisfying CH. Another viewpoint is that the conception of set is not specific enough to determine whether CH is true or false. This viewpoint was advanced as early as 1923 by Skolem, even before Gödel's first incompleteness theorem. Skolem argued on the basis of what is now known as Skolem's paradox, and it was


id: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis-4.md
category: reference
title: Continuum hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:15.765779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continuum-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
(occasionally called Cantor's aleph hypothesis). The beth numbers provide an alternative notation for this condition: ℵ α = ℶ α {\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }=\beth _{\alpha }} for every ordinal α {\displaystyle \alpha } . The continuum hypothesis is the special case for the ordinal α = 1 {\displaystyle \alpha =1} . GCH was first suggested by Philip Jourdain. For the early history of GCH, see Moore. Like CH, GCH is also independent of ZFC, but Sierpiński proved that ZF + GCH implies the axiom of choice (AC) (and therefore the negation of the axiom of determinacy, AD), so choice and GCH are not independent in ZF; there are no models of ZF in which GCH holds and AC fails. To prove this, Sierpiński showed GCH implies that every cardinality n is smaller than some aleph number, and thus can be ordered. This is done by showing that n is smaller than 2 ℵ 0 + n {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}+n}} which is smaller than its own Hartogs number—this uses the equality 2 ℵ 0 + n = 2 ⋅ 2 ℵ 0 + n {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}+n}\,=\,2\cdot \,2^{\aleph _{0}+n}} ; for the full proof, see Gillman. Kurt Gödel showed that GCH


id: cosmic-censorship-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmic censorship hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:16.959067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmic-censorship-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two mathematical conjectures about the structure of gravitational singularities in the context of general relativity. Singularities that arise in the solutions of Einstein's equations are typically hidden within event horizons, and therefore cannot be observed from the rest of spacetime. Singularities that are not so hidden are called naked. The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis was conceived by Roger Penrose in 1969 and posits that no naked singularities is visible from infinity (namely, it is “dressed” by an event horizon) while the strong cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that generically, general relativity must be a deterministic theory and, thus, our universe must be globally hyperbolic. == Basics == Since the physical behavior of singularities is unknown, if singularities can be observed from the rest of spacetime, causality may break down, and physics may lose its predictive power. The issue cannot be avoided, since according to the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems, singularities are inevitable in physically reasonable situations. Still, in the absence of naked singularities, the universe, as described by the general theory of relativity, is deterministic: it is possible to predict the entire evolution of the universe (possibly excluding some finite regions of space


id: cosmic-censorship-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Cosmic censorship hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:16.959067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmic-censorship-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
There are technical difficulties with properly formalizing the notion of a singularity. It is not difficult to construct spacetimes which have naked singularities, but which are not "physically reasonable"; the canonical example of such a spacetime is perhaps the "superextremal" M < | Q | {\displaystyle M<|Q|} Reissner–Nordström solution, which contains a singularity at r = 0 {\displaystyle r=0} that is not surrounded by a horizon. A formal statement needs some set of hypotheses which exclude these situations. Caustics may occur in simple models of gravitational collapse, and can appear to lead to singularities. These have more to do with the simplified models of bulk matter used, and in any case have nothing to do with general relativity, and need to be excluded. Computer models of gravitational collapse have shown that naked singularities can arise, but these models rely on very special circumstances (such as spherical symmetry). These special circumstances need to be excluded by some hypotheses. In 1991, John Preskill and Kip Thorne bet against Stephen Hawking that the hypothesis was false. Hawking conceded the bet in 1997, due to the discovery of the special situations just mentioned, which he characterized as "technicalities". Hawking later reformulated the bet to


id: dark-forest-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_forest_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Dark forest hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_forest_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:18.155821+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dark-forest-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The dark forest hypothesis is the idea that extraterrestrial civilizations may exist in abundance across the universe, but remain silent and hidden out of fear that revealing themselves would lead to destruction by a more technologically advanced and hostile civilization. It is one of several proposed explanations of the Fermi paradox, which contrasts the apparently high probability of extraterrestrial life with the lack of evidence for it. The hypothesis derives its name from Liu Cixin's 2008 novel The Dark Forest although similar concepts predate the work. == Relation to the Fermi paradox == There is currently no known reliable or reproducible evidence that extraterrestrial life forms have visited or attempted to contact Earth. Despite systematic searches, no transmission and no firm evidence of intelligent extraterrestrial life has been detected. This runs counter to the general observations that: The universe is filled with a very large number of planets, some of which might possess conditions hospitable for life; Terrestrial life is observed to expand until it fills all niches suited to it. These contradictory facts form the basis for the Fermi paradox. == Concept == The "dark forest" hypothesis presumes that any space-faring civilization would view any other intelligent life such


id: documentary-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Documentary hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:19.356229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: documentary-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The documentary hypothesis (DH) is one of the models used by biblical scholars to explain the origins and composition of the Torah (or Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). A version of the documentary hypothesis, frequently identified with the German scholar Julius Wellhausen, was almost universally accepted for most of the 20th century. It posited that the Pentateuch is a compilation of four originally independent documents: the Jahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist, and Priestly sources, frequently referred to by their initials. The first of these, J, was dated to the Solomonic period (c. 950 BCE). E was dated somewhat later, in the 9th century BCE, and D was dated just before the reign of King Josiah, in the 7th or 8th century BCE. Finally, P was generally dated to the time of Ezra in the 5th century BCE. The sources would have been joined at various points in time by a series of editors or "redactors". The consensus around the classical documentary hypothesis has now faltered. This was triggered in large part by the influential publications of John Van Seters, Hans Heinrich Schmid, and Rolf Rendtorff in the mid-1970s, who argued that J was


id: documentary-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Documentary hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:19.356229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: documentary-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In 1878, Julius Wellhausen published Geschichte Israels, Bd 1 ('History of Israel, Vol 1'). The second edition was printed as Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels ("Prolegomena to the History of Israel") in 1883, and the work is better known under that name. (The second volume, a synthetic history titled Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte ['Israelite and Jewish History'], did not appear until 1894 and remains untranslated.) Crucially, this historical portrait was based upon two earlier works of his technical analysis: "Die Composition des Hexateuchs" ('The Composition of the Hexateuch') of 1876–77, and sections on the "historical books" (Judges–Kings) in his 1878 edition of Friedrich Bleek's Einleitung in das Alte Testament ('Introduction to the Old Testament'). Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis owed little to Wellhausen himself but was mainly the work of Hupfeld, Eduard Eugène Reuss, Graf, and others, who in turn had built on earlier scholarship. Wellhausen accepted Hupfeld's four sources and, in agreement with Graf, placed the Priestly work last. J was the earliest document, a product of the 10th century BCE and the court of Solomon; E was from the 9th century BCE in the northern Kingdom of Israel, and had been combined by a redactor (editor) with J to form a


id: drift-barrier-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift-barrier_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Drift-barrier hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift-barrier_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:20.493031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: drift-barrier-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The drift-barrier hypothesis is an evolutionary hypothesis formulated by Michael Lynch in 2010. It suggests that the perfection of the performance of a trait, in a specific environment, by natural selection will hit a hypothetical barrier. The closer a trait comes to perfection, the smaller the fitness advantages become. Once this barrier is reached, the effects of further beneficial mutations are unlikely to be large enough to overcome the power of random genetic drift. Selection generally favors lower mutation rates due to the associated load of deleterious mutations that come with a high mutation rate. == Description == Every population contains a certain amount of genetic variation, coding for different functional traits. When the environment in which the population lives changes, some of these traits turn out to be more advantageous for this new situation than others. Through natural selection and random genetic drift, the traits with a negative effect on population fitness disappear from the gene pool. The balance between the influence of natural selection and genetic drift on the population mutation rate is mainly determined by the population size. Large populations are predicted to generally have lower mutation rates than smaller populations. Populations containing individuals with high mutation


id: duhem-quine-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duhem–Quine_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Duhem–Quine thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duhem–Quine_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:21.675514+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: duhem-quine-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy of science, the Duhem–Quine thesis, also called the Duhem–Quine problem, says that unambiguous falsifications of a scientific hypothesis are impossible, because an empirical test of the hypothesis requires one or more background assumptions. Rather than disproving the main hypothesis, the blame can be placed on one of the background beliefs or "auxiliary" hypotheses. It is named after French theoretical physicist Pierre Duhem and American logician Willard Van Orman Quine, who wrote about similar concepts. In recent decades, the set of associated assumptions supporting a thesis sometimes is called a bundle of hypotheses, i.e. a hypothesis and its background assumptions. Although a bundle of hypotheses as a whole can be tested against the empirical world and be falsified if it fails the test, the Duhem–Quine thesis says it is impossible to isolate a single hypothesis in the bundle, a viewpoint called confirmation holism. == Overview == The Duhem–Quine thesis argues that no scientific hypothesis is by itself capable of making predictions. Instead, deriving predictions from the hypothesis typically requires background assumptions that several other hypotheses are correct — that an experiment works as predicted, or that previous scientific theory is accurate. For instance, as evidence against the idea that


id: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-0.md
category: reference
title: Construction of the Egyptian pyramids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-0
summary:
The construction of the Egyptian pyramids can be explained with well-established scientific facts; however, there are some aspects that even today are considered controversial hypotheses. The construction techniques used seem to have developed over time; later pyramids were not constructed in the same way as earlier ones. It is believed that huge stones were carved from quarries with copper tools, and these blocks were then dragged and lifted into position. Disagreements chiefly concern the methods used to move and place the stones. In addition to the many unresolved arguments about the construction techniques, there have been many disagreements as to the kind of workforce used. The Greeks, many years after the event, believed that the pyramids were built by slave labour. Archaeologists now believe that the Great Pyramid of Giza (at least) was built by tens of thousands of skilled workers who camped near the pyramids and worked for a salary or as a form of tax payment (levy) until the construction was completed, pointing to workers' cemeteries discovered in 1990. For the Middle Kingdom pyramid of Amenemhat II, there is evidence from the annal stone of the king that foreigners from Canaan were employed. The pseudoscientific field of pyramidology


id: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-1.md
category: reference
title: Construction of the Egyptian pyramids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mortar === The stones forming the core of the pyramids were roughly cut, especially in the Great Pyramid. To fill the gaps, huge quantities of gypsum and rubble were needed. The filling has almost no binding properties, but it was necessary to stabilize the construction. To make the gypsum mortar, it had to be dehydrated by heating which requires large quantities of wood. According to Egyptologists, the findings of both the 1984 and 1995 David H. Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Projects may suggest that Egypt had to strip its forest and scrap every bit of wood it had to build the pyramids of Giza and other even earlier 4th Dynasty pyramids. Carbon dating samples from core blocks and other materials revealed that dates from the 1984 study averaged 374 years earlier than currently accepted and the 1995 dating averaging 100–200 years. As suggested by team members, "We thought that it was unlikely that the pyramid builders consistently used centuries-old wood as fuel in preparing mortar. The 1984 results left us with too little data to conclude that the historical chronology of the Old Kingdom was wrong by nearly 400 years, but we considered this at least a possibility". Egyptologists propose


id: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-2.md
category: reference
title: Construction of the Egyptian pyramids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-0
summary:
Most Egyptologists acknowledge that ramps are the most tenable of the methods to raise the blocks, yet they acknowledge that it is an incomplete method that must be supplemented by another device. Archaeological evidence for the use of ramps has been found at the Great Pyramid of Giza and other pyramids. The method most accepted for assisting ramps is levering. The archaeological record gives evidence of only small ramps and inclined causeways, not something that could have been used to construct even a majority of the monument. To add to the uncertainty, there is considerable evidence demonstrating that non-standardized or ad hoc construction methods were used in pyramid construction. Therefore, there are many proposed ramps and there is a considerable amount of discrepancy regarding what type of ramp was used to build the pyramids. One of the widely discredited ramping methods is the large straight ramp, and it is routinely discredited on functional grounds for its massive size, lack of archaeological evidence, huge labor cost, and other problems. Other ramps serve to correct these problems of ramp size, yet run into critiques of either functionality or limited archaeological evidence. Zig-zagging ramps, straight ramps using the incomplete part of the superstructure


id: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-3.md
category: reference
title: Construction of the Egyptian pyramids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-0
summary:
=== Waterways === Egyptians used the now-disappeared branch of the Nile to transport the tons of construction materials. A 2012 study led by geographer Hader Sheisha at Aix-Marseille University proposed that the former waterscapes and higher river levels around 4,500 years ago facilitated the construction of the Giza Pyramid Complex. The Nile's present waterways have receded too far from the pyramid sites to be of use. A new study published in May 2024 mapped an extinct branch of the Nile, Ahramat Branch, which once flowed near Egypt's Great Pyramid and other Giza monuments. Using satellite imaging and sediment core analysis, researchers suggested that the 64 kilometres (40 mi) waterway was crucial for transporting materials and labor for pyramid construction. The branch, which was about 0.5 kilometres (0.31 mi) wide with a depth of at least 25 metres (82 ft), likely disappeared due to drought and desertification. It has been suggested that locks were used to elevate barges along waterways leading to pyramid construction sites, but there is a lack of evidence of any on-site use of hydraulic force. == Pyramid building experiments == === Yoshimura === In 1978, Nippon TV funded the pyramid building project conceived by archaeologist Sajuki Yoshimura.


id: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids-4.md
category: reference
title: Construction of the Egyptian pyramids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_of_the_Egyptian_pyramids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:22.840815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: construction-of-the-egyptian-pyramids-20260505-0
summary:
The logistics of construction at the Giza site are staggering when you think that the ancient Egyptians had no pulleys, no wheels, and no iron tools. Yet, the dimensions of the pyramid are extremely accurate and the site was leveled within a fraction of an inch over the entire 13.1-acre base. This is comparable to the accuracy possible with modern construction methods and laser leveling. That's astounding. With their 'rudimentary tools', the pyramid builders of ancient Egypt were about as accurate as we are today with 20th-century technology. The entire Giza Plateau is believed to have been constructed over the reign of five pharaohs in less than a hundred years, which generally includes: the Great Pyramid, Khafre and Menkaure's pyramids, the Great Sphinx, the Sphinx, and Valley Temples, 35 boat pits cut out of solid bedrock, and several causeways, as well as paving nearly the entire plateau with large stones. This does not include Khafre's brother Djedefre's northern pyramid at Abu Rawash, which would have also been built during this time frame of 100 years. In the hundred years prior to Giza—beginning with Djoser, who ruled from 2687 to 2667 BC, and amongst dozens of other temples, smaller pyramids, and


id: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The eigenstate thermalization hypothesis (ETH) is a set of ideas which purports to explain when and why an isolated quantum mechanical system can be accurately described using equilibrium statistical mechanics. In particular, it is devoted to understanding how systems which are initially prepared in far-from-equilibrium states can evolve in time to a state which appears to be in thermal equilibrium. The phrase "eigenstate thermalization" was first coined by Mark Srednicki in 1994, after similar ideas had been introduced by Josh Deutsch in 1991. The principal philosophy underlying the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis is that instead of explaining the ergodicity of a thermodynamic system through the mechanism of dynamical chaos, as is done in classical mechanics, one should instead examine the properties of matrix elements of observable quantities in individual energy eigenstates of the system. == Motivation == In statistical mechanics, the microcanonical ensemble is a particular statistical ensemble which is used to make predictions about the outcomes of experiments performed on isolated systems that are believed to be in equilibrium with an exactly known energy. The microcanonical ensemble is based upon the assumption that, when such an equilibrated system is probed, the probability for it to be found in any of


id: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A α β ≡ ⟨ E α | A ^ | E β ⟩ . {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \beta }\equiv \langle E_{\alpha }|{\hat {A}}|E_{\beta }\rangle .} We now imagine that we prepare our system in an initial state for which the expectation value of A ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}} is far from its value predicted in a microcanonical ensemble appropriate to the energy scale in question (we assume that our initial state is some superposition of energy eigenstates which are all sufficiently "close" in energy). The eigenstate thermalization hypothesis says that for an arbitrary initial state, the expectation value of A ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}} will ultimately evolve in time to its value predicted by a microcanonical ensemble, and thereafter will exhibit only small fluctuations around that value, provided that the following two conditions are met: The diagonal matrix elements A α α {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }} vary smoothly as a function of energy, with the difference between neighboring values, A α + 1 , α + 1 − A α , α {\displaystyle A_{\alpha +1,\alpha +1}-A_{\alpha ,\alpha }} , becoming exponentially small in the system size. The off-diagonal matrix elements A α β {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \beta }} , with α


id: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A ¯ = ∑ α = 1 D | c α | 2 A α α ≈ A ∑ α = 1 D | c α | 2 = A , {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}=\sum _{\alpha =1}^{D}|c_{\alpha }|^{2}A_{\alpha \alpha }\approx A\sum _{\alpha =1}^{D}|c_{\alpha }|^{2}=A,} where we have assumed that the initial state is normalized appropriately. Likewise, the prediction of the microcanonical ensemble becomes ⟨ A ⟩ mc = 1 N ∑ α ′ = 1 N A α ′ α ′ ≈ 1 N ∑ α ′ = 1 N A = A . {\displaystyle \langle A\rangle _{\text{mc}}={\frac {1}{\mathcal {N}}}\sum _{\alpha '=1}^{\mathcal {N}}A_{\alpha '\alpha '}\approx {\frac {1}{\mathcal {N}}}\sum _{\alpha '=1}^{\mathcal {N}}A=A.} The two ensembles are therefore in agreement. This constancy of the values of A α α {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }} over small energy windows is the primary idea underlying the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis. Notice that in particular, it states that the expectation value of A ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}} in a single energy eigenstate is equal to the value predicted by a microcanonical ensemble constructed at that energy scale. This constitutes a foundation for quantum statistical mechanics which is radically different from the one built upon the notions of dynamical


id: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
For initial states of physical interest, the coefficients c α {\displaystyle c_{\alpha }} exhibit large fluctuations from eigenstate to eigenstate, in a fashion which is completely uncorrelated with the fluctuations of A α α {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }} from eigenstate to eigenstate. Because the coefficients and matrix elements are uncorrelated, the summation in the diagonal ensemble is effectively performing an unbiased sampling of the values of A α α {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }} over the appropriate energy window. For a sufficiently large system, this unbiased sampling should result in a value which is close to the true mean of the values of A α α {\displaystyle A_{\alpha \alpha }} over this window, and will effectively reproduce the prediction of the microcanonical ensemble. However, this mechanism may be disfavored for the following heuristic reason. Typically, one is interested in physical situations in which the initial expectation value of A ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}} is far from its equilibrium value. For this to be true, the initial state must contain some sort of specific information about A ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}} , and so it becomes suspect whether or not the initial state truly represents an unbiased sampling of the values of


id: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis-4.md
category: reference
title: Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:23.990681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eigenstate-thermalization-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== General validity == Currently, there is no known analytical derivation of the eigenstate thermalization hypothesis for general interacting systems. However, it has been verified to be true for a wide variety of interacting systems using numerical exact diagonalization techniques, to within the uncertainty of these methods. It has also been proven to be true in certain special cases in the semi-classical limit, where the validity of the ETH rests on the validity of Shnirelman's theorem, which states that in a system which is classically chaotic, the expectation value of an operator A ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {A}}} in an energy eigenstate is equal to its classical, microcanonical average at the appropriate energy. Whether or not it can be shown to be true more generally in interacting quantum systems remains an open question. It is also known to explicitly fail in certain integrable systems, in which the presence of a large number of constants of motion prevent thermalization. It is also important to note that the ETH makes statements about specific observables on a case-by-case basis - it does not make any claims about whether every observable in a system will obey ETH. In fact, this certainly cannot be true. Given


id: endurance-running-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Endurance running hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:25.180693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endurance-running-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The endurance running hypothesis is a series of conjectures which presume humans evolved anatomical and physiological adaptations to run long distances and, more strongly, that "running is the only known behavior that would account for the different body plans in Homo as opposed to apes or australopithecines". The hypothesis posits a significant role of endurance running in facilitating early hominins' ability to obtain meat. Proponents of this hypothesis assert that endurance running served as a means for hominins to effectively engage in persistence hunting and carcass poaching, thus enhancing their competitive edge in acquiring prey. Consequently, these evolutionary pressures have led to the prominence of endurance running as a primary factor shaping many biomechanical characteristics of modern humans. == Evolutionary evidence == No primates other than humans are capable of endurance running, and in fact, Australopithecus did not have structural adaptations for running. Instead, forensic anthropology suggests that anatomical features that directly contributed to endurance running capabilities were heavily selected for within the genus Homo dating back to 1.9Ma. Consequently, selecting anatomical features that made endurance running possible radically transformed the hominid body. The general form of human locomotion is markedly distinct from all other animals observed in nature. The


id: endurance-running-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Endurance running hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:25.180693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endurance-running-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Academic discourse == The derived longer hindlimb was already present in Australopithecus along with evidence for foot bones with a stiff arch. Walking and running in Australopithecus may have been the same as early Homo. Research on the former has shown running to be slower and less efficient than in modern humans. Small changes in joint morphology may indicate neutral evolutionary processes rather than selection. The methodology by which the proposed derived traits were chosen and evaluated does not seem to have been stated, and there were immediate, highly technical arguments "dismissing their validity and terming them either trivial or incorrect." Most of those proposed traits have not been tested for their effect on walking and running efficiency. The new trunk shape counter-rotations, which help control rotations induced by hip-joint motion, seem active during walking. Elastic energy storage does occur in the plantar soft tissue of the foot during walking. Relative lower-limb length has a slightly larger effect on the economy of walking than running. The heel-down foot posture makes walking economical but does not benefit running. Model-based analysis showing that scavengers would reach a carcass within 30 minutes of detection suggests that "endurance running" would not have given


id: entourage-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entourage_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Entourage effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entourage_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:26.462866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: entourage-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The entourage effect is a hypothesis that cannabis compounds, other than the cannabinoids tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), act synergistically with cannabinoids to modulate the overall psychoactive effects of the plant. The effect has also been applied in the case of psilocybin mushrooms, with other compounds besides psilocybin having been hypothesized to also contribute to the effects of the mushrooms. == Compounds == === Terpenes === There are numerous terpenes present in the cannabis plant and variation in their contents between strains. Some terpenes are under preliminary research for their possible effects in vivo. Various terpenes have been found to independently influence behavioral outcomes in mice, with simultaneous administration of CBD and terpene blends having a significantly greater impact than either substance administered independently. == Hypothetical differences between C. indica and C. sativa == Cannabinoid ratios: On average, Cannabis indica has higher levels of THC compared to CBD, whereas Cannabis sativa has lower levels of THC to CBD. However, huge variability exists within either species. A 2015 study shows the average THC content of the most popular herbal cannabis products in the Netherlands has decreased slightly since 2005. Terpene ratios: Sativa ancestry is associated with farnesene and bergamotene, while Indica


id: eocyte-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Eocyte hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:27.678670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eocyte-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The eocyte hypothesis in evolutionary biology proposes that the eukaryotes originated from a group of prokaryotes called eocytes (later classified as Thermoproteota, a group of archaea). After his team at the University of California, Los Angeles discovered eocytes in 1984, James A. Lake formulated the hypothesis as "eocyte tree" that proposed eukaryotes as part of archaea. Lake hypothesised the tree of life as having only two primary branches: prokaryotes, which include Bacteria and Archaea, and karyotes, that comprise Eukaryotes and eocytes. Parts of this early hypothesis were revived in a newer two-domain system of biological classification which named the primary domains as Archaea and Bacteria. Lake's hypothesis was based on an analysis of the structural components of ribosomes. It was largely ignored, being overshadowed by the three-domain system which relied on more precise genetic analysis. In 1990, Carl Woese and his colleagues proposed that cellular life consists of three domains—Eucarya, Bacteria, and Archaea – based on the ribosomal RNA sequences. The three-domain concept was widely accepted in genetics, and became the presumptive classification system for high-level taxonomy, and was promulgated in many textbooks. Resurgence of archaea research after the 2000s, using advanced genetic techniques, and later discoveries of new groups


id: eocyte-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Eocyte hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:27.678670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eocyte-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Root of the eocyte tree == The eocyte tree root may be located in the RNA world; that is, the root organism may have been a ribocyte (also known as a ribocell). For cellular DNA and DNA handling, an "out of virus" scenario has been proposed: storing genetic information in DNA may have been an innovation performed by viruses and later handed over to ribocytes twice, once transforming them into bacteria and once transforming them into archaea. Although archaeal viruses are not as well-studied as bacterial phages, it is thought that dsDNA viruses led to the incorporation of the viral genome into archaeal genomes. The transduction of genetic material through a viral vector led to an increase in complexity in the pre-eukaryotic cells. All these findings do not change the eocyte tree as given here in principle, but examine a higher resolution of it. == Arguments against == Due to the similarities found between eukaryotes and both archaea and bacteria, it is thought that a major source of the genetic variation is through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer explains why archaeal sequences are found in bacteria and bacterial sequences are found in archaea. This could explain why elongation


id: ergodic-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ergodic hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:28.827738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ergodic-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In physics and thermodynamics, the ergodic hypothesis says that, for long, the time spent by a system in some region of the phase space of microstates with the same energy is proportional to the volume of this region; i.e., that all accessible microstates are equiprobable for long. Liouville's theorem states that, for a Hamiltonian system, the local density of microstates following a particle path through phase space is constant as viewed by an observer moving with the ensemble—i.e., the convective time derivative is zero. Thus, if the microstates are uniformly distributed in phase space initially, they shall remain so at all times. But Liouville's theorem does not imply that the ergodic hypothesis holds for all Hamiltonian systems. The ergodic hypothesis is often assumed in the statistical analysis of computational physics. The analyst would assume that the average of a process parameter over time and the average over the statistical ensemble are the same. This assumption—that it is as good to simulate a system for long as it is to make many independent realizations of the same system—is not always correct. (See, for example, the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou experiment of 1953.) Assumption of the ergodic hypothesis allows proof that certain types of perpetual


id: ex-cubs-factor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor-0.md
category: reference
title: Ex-Cubs Factor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:30.051451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ex-cubs-factor-20260505-0
summary:
The Ex-Cub Factor is a seemingly spurious correlation that was seen as essentially a corollary to the Curse of the Billy Goat. Widely published in the 1990s, the hypothesis asserted that since the appearance by the Chicago Cubs in the 1945 World Series, any baseball team headed into the World Series with three or more former Cubs on its roster has "a critical mass of Cubness" and a strong likelihood of failure. == Ex-Cubs Factor hypothesis == The theory was developed in October 15, 1981 by Ron Berler, a freelance journalist and Cubs fan. Berler posited in an article that "it is utterly impossible for a team with three or more ex-Cubs to win the series." Berler based this on a pattern that he observed in the post-1945 era; 1945 being the last time the Chicago Cubs made it to a World Series until 2016. Berler cited many examples of teams with three or more ex-Cubs on their teams that reached the World Series and lost: including the 1958 Milwaukee Braves, the 1966 Los Angeles Dodgers, and the 1978 Los Angeles Dodgers. The 1978 Dodgers, according to Berler, had lost the 1977 World Series with three ex-Cubs on their roster


id: ex-cubs-factor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor-1.md
category: reference
title: Ex-Cubs Factor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:30.051451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ex-cubs-factor-20260505-0
summary:
Since 1945, of the 25 teams to reach the World Series with three or more Cubs players, only 4 have won the World Series (the 1960 Pirates, the 2001 Diamondbacks, the 2008 Phillies, and the 2012 Giants). Since its articulation in 1981, the Ex-Cubs Factor has been used to predict and explain post-season and World Series defeats for many different baseball teams. During the 1980s, the ex-Cubs factor was used to explain a number of losses by teams. It was used, in a letter to the editor, as a reason for the loss by the 1984 San Diego Padres (who ironically beat the Cubs to get to the Series) in the 1984 World Series (with three ex-Cubs) and by the collapse of the 1985 Toronto Blue Jays who had added ex-Cub Cliff Johnson on August 28 and went on to blow a 3–1 lead over the Royals in the 1985 American League Championship Series. While not falling under the curse in the traditional sense, Bill Buckner's infamous gaffe in Game 6 of the 1986 World Series can be interpreted to fit the Ex-Cubs Factor. Buckner, a former Cub, booted a ground ball hit by New York Mets batter Mookie Wilson,


id: ex-cubs-factor-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor-2.md
category: reference
title: Ex-Cubs Factor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-Cubs_Factor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:30.051451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ex-cubs-factor-20260505-0
summary:
== Cases against the Ex-Cubs Factor hypothesis == Berler's study of the ex-Cub factor since 1945 revealed only one exception since 1945: the 1960 Pittsburgh Pirates, who won the World Series with three ex-Cubs on their roster. Berler contends that one of those ex-Cubs, Don Hoak, spent so little time in Chicago (121 games in one season), that he did not fully develop what Berler called his "Cubness". Berler quoted pitcher Jim Brosnan, a teammate of Hoak's on the 1956 Cubs, as saying that "Hoak is quite possibly the only man who ever conquered his Cubness". The Society for American Baseball Research researched the rosters of each World Series roster from 1946 to 2013 through records and noted each Series that had at least one former Cub while noting the distinct conjectures between Berler's and Royko's theories. Perhaps predictably, the Berler rate was found to be more effective (17/22 as compared to 32/56), although there are a few evident cases against each conjecture. Most notably, the 1973 Oakland A's had three ex-Cubs in Pat Bourque, Ken Holtzman, and Bill North all on the roster during their run to the World Series, although North did not play in the Series due


id: expensive-tissue-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Expensive tissue hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:31.235653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expensive-tissue-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The expensive tissue hypothesis (ETH) relates brain and gut size in evolution (specifically in human evolution). It suggests that in order for an organism to evolve a large brain without a significant increase in basal metabolic rate (as seen in humans), the organism must use less energy on other expensive tissues; the paper introducing the ETH suggests that in humans, this was achieved by eating an easy-to-digest diet and evolving a smaller, less energy-intensive gut. The ETH has inspired many research projects to test its validity in primates and other organisms. The human brain stands out among the mammals because of its relative size compared to the rest of the body. The brain of Homo sapiens is about three times larger than that of its closest living relative, the chimpanzee. For a primate of its body size, the relative size of the brain and that of the digestive tract is rather unexpected; the digestive tract is smaller than expected for a primate of a human body size. In 1995, two scientists proposed an attempt to solve this phenomenon of human evolution using the Expensive Tissue Hypothesis. == Original paper == The original paper introducing the ETH was written by Leslie


id: expensive-tissue-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Expensive tissue hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:31.235653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expensive-tissue-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Further research == Anthropologists have been able to observe a dramatic contrast in relative brain size between humans and our great ape ancestors. Studies have shown that brain size differences underlie major differences in cognitive performance. Brain tissue is energetically expensive, requiring a great amount of energy compared to several other somatic tissues during rest. To understand how the body is able to provide the brain with the right amount of energy to function properly, scientists consider the cost side of the equation and focus on how brain and other expensive tissues such as the gut or the testes may trade off. Another possibility is that there may not be any trading off, rather there are other ways that humans are keeping the brain nourished. The academic debate around the ETH is still active, and has inspired a number of similar tests, all attempting to verify or disprove the hypothesis in another species or group of species by looking at encephalization (a ratio between brain size and body size), gut size, and/or diet quality. Primates, being the closest living relatives to humans, are a natural starting point for testing the hypothesis, and as such are examined by many of


id: farrer-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrer_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Farrer hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrer_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:32.347575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: farrer-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Farrer hypothesis (also called the L/M hypothesis, the Farrer–Goulder hypothesis and the Farrer–Goulder–Goodacre hypothesis) is a possible solution to the synoptic problem. The theory is that the Gospel of Mark was written first, followed by the Gospel of Matthew and then by the Gospel of Luke, with Matthew and Luke using the earlier gospel(s) as sources. It has mainly been advocated by English biblical scholars, and is growing in support within scholarship. It is named for Austin Farrer, who wrote On Dispensing With Q in 1955, but it has been picked up by other scholars including Michael Goulder and Mark Goodacre. == Overview == The Farrer theory has the advantage of simplicity, as there is no need for hypothetical sources. Instead, advocates of the Farrer theory argue the Gospel of Mark was used as source material by the author of Matthew. Lastly, Luke used both of the previous gospels as sources for his Gospel. The hypothesis is enjoying growing popularity in scholarship. Farrer set out his argument in an essay "On dispensing with Q". He says that the two-source hypothesis, as set out by B. H. Streeter thirty years earlier, "wholly depends on the incredibility [i.e., unbelievability] of St


id: farrer-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrer_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Farrer hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrer_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:32.347575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: farrer-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The first is that he would not have omitted some of the Matthean texts that he did because they are so striking. Farrer replies that they were omitted because they do not conform to the 'edifice' that Luke is building. The second is that Luke sometimes preserves a more primitive version of a text that is also in Matthew. Farrer replies that this depends on being able to identify the more primitive text; for example, "Blessed are the poor in spirit" suits Matthew's theology, but it would be natural for Luke to drop the "in spirit" to fit his concern with the poor. The third is that Luke follows Mark's order but does not do the same with Matthew. Farrer asks, in reply, why he should: "Is it surprising that he should lay his plan on Marcan foundations, and quarry St. Matthew for materials to build up his house?" The fourth is that Luke uses the material less well than Matthew. Farrer replies that this may be so, but he would not be the first adapter to have produced a less skilful result, the only issue was whether it would suit Luke's message better to have the material arranged in


id: frequency-format-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Frequency format hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:33.511693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frequency-format-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The frequency format hypothesis is the idea that the brain understands and processes information better when presented in frequency formats rather than a numerical or probability format. Thus according to the hypothesis, presenting information as 1 in 5 people rather than 20% leads to better comprehension. The idea was proposed by German scientist Gerd Gigerenzer, after compilation and comparison of data collected between 1976 and 1997. == Origin == === Automatic encoding === Certain information about one's experience is often stored in the memory using an implicit encoding process. Where did you sit last time in class? Do you say the word hello or charisma more? People are very good at answering such questions without actively thinking about it or not knowing how they got that information in the first place. This was the observation that lead to Hasher and Zacks' 1979 study on frequency. Through their research work, Hasher and Zacks found out that information about frequency is stored without the intention of the person. Also, training and feedback does not increase ability to encode frequency. Frequency information was also found to be continually registered in the memory, regardless of age, ability or motivation. The ability to encode frequency


id: frequency-format-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Frequency format hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:33.511693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frequency-format-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Evolutionary perspective === Gigerenzer argued that from an evolutionary point of view, a frequency method was easier and more communicable compared to conveying information in probability format. He argues that probability and percentages are rather recent forms of representation as opposed to frequency. The first known existence of a representative form of percentages is in the seventeenth century. He also argues that more information is given in the case of frequency representation. For instance, conveying data as 50 out of 100, using the frequency form, as opposed to saying 50%, using the probability format, gives the users more information about the sample size. This can in turn make the data and results more reliable and more appealing. === Elaborate encoding === An explanation given as to why people choose encounter frequency is that in the case of frequencies, the subjects are given vivid descriptions, while with probabilities only a dry number is given to the subject. Therefore, in the case of frequency, subjects are given more recall cues. This could in turn mean that the frequency encounters are remembered by the brain more often than in the case of probability numbers. Thus this might be a reason why people


id: frequency-format-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Frequency format hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_format_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:33.511693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frequency-format-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Nested-sets hypothesis === Frequency-format studies tend to share a confound -- namely that when presenting frequency information, the researchers also make clear the reference class they are referring to. For example, consider these three different ways to formulate the same problem: Probability Format "Consider a test to detect a disease that a given American has a 1/1000 chance of getting. An individual that does not have the disease has a 50/1000 chance of testing positive. An individual that does have the disease will definitely test positive. What is the chance that a person found to have a positive result actually has the disease, assuming that you nothing about the person’s symptoms or signs? _____%" Frequency Format "One out of every 1000 Americans has disease X. A test has been developed to detect when a person has disease X. Every time the test is given to a person who has the disease, the test comes out positive. But sometimes the test also comes out positive when it is given to a person who is completely healthy. Specifically, out of every 1000 people who are perfectly healthy, 50 of them test positive for the disease. Imagine we have assembled a random


id: freud-s-seduction-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Freud's seduction theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:34.697405+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freud-s-seduction-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Freud's seduction theory (German: Verführungstheorie) was a hypothesis posited in the mid-1890s by Sigmund Freud that he believed provided the solution to the problem of the origins of hysteria and obsessional neurosis. According to the theory, a repressed memory of child sexual abuse in early childhood or a molestation experience was the essential precondition for hysterical or obsessional symptoms, with the addition of an active sexual experience up to the age of eight for the latter. In the traditional account of development of seduction theory, Freud initially thought that his patients were relating more or less factual stories of sexual mistreatment, and that only sexual abuse could be responsible for his patients' neuroses and other mental health problems. Within a few years Freud abandoned his theory, concluding that some of his patients' stories of sexual abuse were not literal and were instead fantasies. He never ruled out that sexual abuse could be the cause of illness, simply that it was not the only possible cause. An alternative account that has come to the fore in recent Freudian scholarship emphasizes that the theory, as posited by Freud, was that hysteria and obsessional neurosis result from unconscious memories of sexual abuse in


id: freud-s-seduction-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Freud's seduction theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:34.697405+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freud-s-seduction-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Reported evidence == Freud had a lot of data as evidence for the seduction theory, but rather than presenting the actual data on which he based his conclusions (his clinical cases and what he had learned from them) or the methods he used to acquire the data (his psychoanalytic technique), he instead addressed only the evidence that the data he reportedly acquired were accurate (that he had discovered genuine abuse). He thought that the community could not yet handle the clinical case stories about sexual abuse. He did not want to present these stories before the seduction theory had become more accepted. Freud made several arguments to support the position that the memories he had uncovered were genuine. One of them was, according to Freud, that the patients were not simply remembering the events as they would normally forgotten material; rather they were essentially reliving the events, with all the accompanying painful sensory experiences. On two occasions Freud wrote that he would be presenting the clinical evidence for his claims, but he never did so, which some critics have contended means that they have had to be taken largely on trust. Freud's clinical methodology at the time, involving the


id: freud-s-seduction-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Freud's seduction theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud's_seduction_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:34.697405+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freud-s-seduction-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Cioffi, Frank (1998 [1973]. "Was Freud a Liar?" Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience. Chicago: Open Court, pp. 199–204. Kurt R. Eissler, Freud and the Seduction Theory: A Brief Love Affair, New York: International Universities Press, 2001 Robert Fliess, Symbol, Dream and Psychosis: Volume III Psychoanalytic Series, 1973 Esterson, Allen (1998). Jeffrey Masson and Freud's Seduction Theory: a new fable based on old myths. History of the Human Sciences, 11 (1), pp. 1–21. http://human-nature.com/esterson/ Esterson, Allen (2001). The Mythologizing of Psychoanalytic History: deception and self-deception in Freud's accounts of the seduction theory episode. History of Psychiatry, Vol. 12 (3), pp. 329-352. Esterson, Allen (2002). "The myth of Freud's ostracism by the medical community in 1896-1905: Jeffrey Masson's assault on truth". History of Psychology. 5 (2): 115–134. doi:10.1037/1093-4510.5.2.115. PMID 12096757. Freud, S. (1896a). Heredity and the aetiology of the neuroses. Standard Edition Vol. 3, 143–156. Freud, S. (1896b). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence. Standard Edition Vol. 3, 162–185. Freud, S. (1896c). The aetiology of hysteria. Standard Edition, Vol. 3, 191–221. Israëls, Han and Schatzman, Morton (1993). "The Seduction Theory" History of Psychiatry, iv: 23–59. Lothane, Z. (1987). Love, seduction, and trauma. The Psychoanalytic Review, 74(1):83-105.


id: geschwind-galaburda-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschwind–Galaburda_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschwind–Galaburda_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:35.886367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geschwind-galaburda-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis is a neurological theory proposed by Norman Geschwind and Albert Galaburda in 1987. The hypothesis posits there are sex differences in cognitive abilities by relating them to lateralisation of brain function. The maturation rates of cerebral hemispheres differ and are mediated by circuiting testosterone levels, which are substantially influenced during the foetal and post-puberty development stages. According to the hypothesis, testosterone delays the maturation of the brain, particularly the left hemisphere, resulting in corresponding regions of the right hemisphere and unaffected areas of the left hemisphere developing more rapidly. This leads to reduced verbal skills and an increased risk of developing language disorders, e.g dyslexia, while a rapid development of the right hemisphere and the skills corresponding to it, such as attention and problem-solving. Focusing on foetal testosterone, the rise in levels hinders the development of the individual’s neurology and immunity, potentially explaining how cerebral lateralisation links to learning disorders, giftedness, and immune deficits. In cases of an underdeveloped or functionally impaired left hemisphere, the neuroanatomical asymmetries may lead to compensatory activity in other areas of the brain. The field of “neuropsychology of individual differences” is concerned with the understanding the relationship between brain lateralisation and behaviour


id: gillies-conjecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillies'_conjecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Gillies' conjecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillies'_conjecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:37.037748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gillies-conjecture-20260505-0
summary:
In number theory, Gillies' conjecture is a conjecture about the distribution of prime divisors of Mersenne numbers and was made by Donald B. Gillies in a 1964 paper in which he also announced the discovery of three new Mersenne primes. The conjecture is a specialization of the prime number theorem and is a refinement of conjectures due to I. J. Good and Daniel Shanks. The conjecture remains an open problem: several papers give empirical support, but it disagrees with the widely accepted (but also open) Lenstra–Pomerance–Wagstaff conjecture. == The conjecture == If {\displaystyle {\text{If }}} A < B < M p , as B / A and M p → ∞ , the number of prime divisors of M {\displaystyle A<B<{\sqrt {M_{p}}}{\text{, as }}B/A{\text{ and }}M_{p}\rightarrow \infty {\text{, the number of prime divisors of }}M} in the interval [ A , B ] is Poisson-distributed with {\displaystyle {\text{ in the interval }}[A,B]{\text{ is Poisson-distributed with}}} mean ∼ { log ⁡ ( log ⁡ B / log ⁡ A ) if A ≥ 2 p log ⁡ ( log ⁡ B / log ⁡ 2 p ) if A < 2 p {\displaystyle {\text{mean }}\sim {\begin{cases}\log(\log B/\log A)&{\text{ if }}A\geq 2p\\\log(\log


id: glacial-buzzsaw-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_buzzsaw-0.md
category: reference
title: Glacial buzzsaw
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_buzzsaw
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:38.252917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glacial-buzzsaw-20260505-0
summary:
The glacial buzzsaw is a hypothesis claiming erosion by warm-based glaciers is key to limit the height of mountains above certain threshold altitude. To this the hypothesis adds that great mountain massifs are leveled towards the equilibrium line altitude (ELA), which would act as a “climatic base level”. Starting from the hypothesis it has been predicted that local climate restricts the maximum height that mountain massifs can attain by effect of uplifting tectonic forces. It follows that as local climate is cooler at higher latitudes the highest mountains are lower there compared to the tropics where glaciation is and has been more limited. The mechanism behind the glacial buzzsaw effect would be the erosion of small glaciers that are mostly unable to erode much below the equilibrium line altitude since they do not reach these altitudes because of increased ablation. Instead, large valley glaciers may easily surpass the equilibrium line altitude and do therefore not contribute to a glacial buzzsaw effect. This is said to be the case of the Patagonian ice fields where lack of buzzsaw effect results in rapid tectonic uplift rates. Mountains massifs proposed to be subject to a glacial buzzsaw effect include the mountains of southeast


id: glacial-survival-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_survival_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Glacial survival hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_survival_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:39.470253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glacial-survival-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
According to the northern cryptic glacial refugial hypothesis (or glacial survival hypothesis), during the last ice age cold tolerant plant and animal species (e.g. Norway spruce and Norwegian lemmings) persisted in ice-free microrefugia north of the Alps in Europe. The alternative hypothesis of no persistence and postglacial immigration of plants and animals from southern refugia in Europe (southern refugia paradigm) is sometimes also called the tabula rasa hypothesis. Over the past plants and animals have persisted through long periods of climate change including several glacial and interglacial periods. There is a long-standing debate on what happened to the species that were inhabiting high-latitude regions during the Pleistocene ice age. Two main scenarios are usually considered. The first scenario proposes a total extinction of species within glaciated areas with survival events in peripheral refugia in the south and successive massive postglacial migration into empty areas (tabula rasa hypothesis). The second scenario proposes long-term in situ survival within glaciated regions (glacial survival hypothesis), either in isolated northern ice-free micro-refugia at the edge of the ice sheet, or on exposed mountains not covered with ice within the ice sheet (nunatak hypothesis). For boreal and cold-tolerant species the glacial survival hypothesis is credible, though


id: glasgow-chronology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Chronology-0.md
category: reference
title: Glasgow Chronology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Chronology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:40.601406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glasgow-chronology-20260505-0
summary:
The Glasgow Chronology is a proposed revision of the Egyptian chronology of ancient Egypt. It was first formulated between the years 1978 and 1982 by a working group following the Glasgow Conference of Society for Interdisciplinary Studies (SIS, a non-profit organization advocating serious academic analysis of the pseudoscientific writings of Immanuel Velikovsky and other catastrophists). This chronology placed the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt some five hundred years later than the conventional chronology of Egypt. == Formation == The Glasgow Chronology was initially presented at an SIS conference that was held in 1978 in Glasgow and entitled "Ages in Chaos?" Flaws were pointed out in it almost immediately, and by the 1980s, all of its original proponents had abandoned it in favour of other chronologies. The Glasgow Chronology accepted all the character identifications proposed by Velikovsky in Ages in Chaos (1952). Thus Hatshepsut, who visited the Divine Land, was equated with the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon in Jerusalem, whilst Thutmose III, who followed Hatshepsut, was equated with Shishak, who plundered the Jerusalem temple after the death of Solomon. Velikovsky therefore reduced the age of the Eighteenth Dynasty by five centuries. However, in his subsequently published Ramses II and his


id: grand-tack-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Grand tack hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:41.837070+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grand-tack-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In planetary astronomy, the grand tack hypothesis proposes that Jupiter formed at a distance of 3.5 AU from the Sun, then migrated inward to 1.5 AU, before reversing course due to capturing Saturn in an orbital resonance, eventually halting near its current orbit at 5.2 AU. The reversal of Jupiter's planetary migration is likened to the path of a sailboat changing directions (tacking) as it travels against the wind. The planetesimal disk is truncated at 1.0 AU by Jupiter's migration, limiting the material available to form Mars. Jupiter twice crosses the asteroid belt, scattering asteroids outward then inward. The resulting asteroid belt has a small mass, a wide range of inclinations and eccentricities, and a population originating from both inside and outside Jupiter's original orbit. Debris produced by collisions among planetesimals swept ahead of Jupiter may have driven an early generation of planets into the Sun. == Description == In the grand tack hypothesis, Jupiter underwent a two-phase migration after its formation, migrating inward to 1.5 AU before reversing course and migrating outward. Jupiter's formation took place near the ice line, at roughly 3.5 AU. After clearing a gap in the gas disk Jupiter underwent type II migration, moving slowly


id: grand-tack-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Grand tack hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:41.837070+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grand-tack-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Absent super-Earths === The absence of close orbiting super-Earths in the Solar System may also be the result of Jupiter's inward migration. As Jupiter migrates inward, planetesimals are captured in its mean-motion resonances, causing their orbits to shrink and their eccentricities to grow. A collisional cascade follows as the planetesimals' relative velocities became large enough to produce catastrophic impacts. The resulting debris then spirals inward toward the Sun due to drag from the gas disk. If there were super-Earths in the early Solar System, they would have caught much of this debris in resonances and could have been driven into the Sun as the debris spiraled inward. The current terrestrial planets would then form from planetesimals left behind when Jupiter reversed course. However, the migration of close orbiting super-Earths into the Sun could be avoided if the debris coalesced into larger objects, reducing gas drag; and if the protoplanetary disk had an inner cavity, their inward migration could be halted near its edge. If no planets had yet formed in the inner Solar System, the destruction of the larger bodies during the collisional cascade could have left the remaining debris small enough to be pushed outward by the solar


id: grand-tack-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Grand tack hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:41.837070+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grand-tack-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Potential problems == Most of the accretion of Mars must have taken place outside the narrow annulus of material formed by the grand tack if Mars has a different composition than Earth and Venus. The planets that grow in the annulus created by the grand tack end with similar compositions. If the grand tack occurred early, while the embryo that became Mars was relatively small, a Mars with a differing composition could form if it was instead scattered outward then inward like the asteroids. The chance of this occurring is roughly 2%. Later studies have shown that the convergent orbital migration of Jupiter and Saturn in the fading solar nebula is unlikely to establish a 3:2 mean-motion resonance. Instead of supporting a faster runaway migration, nebula conditions lead to a slower migration of Saturn and its capture in a 2:1 mean-motion resonance. Capture of Jupiter and Saturn in the 2:1 mean-motion resonance does not typically reverse the direction of migration, but particular nebula configurations have been identified that may drive outward migration. These configurations, however, tend to excite Jupiter's and Saturn's orbital eccentricity to values between two and three times as large as their actual values. Also, if the


id: grand-tack-hypothesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Grand tack hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tack_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:41.837070+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grand-tack-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Alternatives == Multiple hypotheses have been offered to explain the small mass of Mars. A small Mars may have been a low probability event as it occurs in a small, but non-zero, fraction of simulations that begin with planetesimals distributed across the entire inner Solar System. A small Mars could be the result of its region having been largely empty due to solid material drifting farther inward before the planetesimals formed. Most of the mass could also have been removed from the Mars region before it formed if the giant planet instability described in the Nice model occurred early. If most of the growth of planetesimals and embryos into terrestrial planets was due to pebble accretion, a small Mars could be the result this process having been less efficient with increasing distances from the Sun. Convergent migration of planetary embryos in the gas disk toward 1 AU would result in the formation of terrestrial planets only near this distance leaving Mars as a stranded embryo. Sweeping secular resonances during the clearing of the gas disk could also excite inclinations and eccentricities, increasing relative velocities so that collisions resulted in fragmentation instead of accretion. A number of these hypotheses could


id: gunslinger-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunslinger_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Gunslinger effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunslinger_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:43.038631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gunslinger-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The gunslinger effect, also sometimes called Bohr's law or the gunfighter's dilemma, is a psychophysical theory which says that an intentional or willed movement is slower than an automatic or reaction movement. The concept is named after physicist Niels Bohr, who first deduced that the person who draws second in a gunfight will actually win the shoot-out. == Bohr's experiment == Danish physicist Niels Henrik David Bohr came up with the hypothesis after watching Western films, which frequently depicted the protagonist drawing after his opponent in a gunfight and winning. He hypothesized that a person reacting might move faster than their opponent, who moved deliberately. Bohr and his students staged mock gunfights using toy guns to test this hypothesis, with apparently uncertain results. Bohr suggested that, to the extent the hypothesis is true, the logical alternative to a gunfight would be a peaceful settlement, since neither gunslinger would want to draw first knowing that they would lose. == Experimental evidence == Later research confirmed the basic hypothesis, showing that intentional movements and reaction movements were controlled by two separate systems, and that it was not confined merely to hand or arm movements. The gunslinger effect applies to the initial reaction,


id: hart-tipler-conjecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart–Tipler_conjecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Hart–Tipler conjecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart–Tipler_conjecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:44.243522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hart-tipler-conjecture-20260505-0
summary:
The Hart–Tipler conjecture is the idea that an absence of detectable Von Neumann probes is contrapositive evidence that no intelligent life exists outside of the Solar System. This idea was first proposed in opposition to the Drake equation in a 1975 paper by Michael H. Hart titled "Explanation for the Absence of Extraterrestrials on Earth". Assuming that the probes traveled at 1/10 the speed of light and that no time was lost in building new ships upon arriving at the destination, Hart surmised that a wave of Von Neumann probes could cross the galaxy in approximately 650,000 years, a comparatively minimal span of time relative to the estimated age of the universe at 13.7 billion years. Hart’s argument was extended by cosmologist Frank Tipler in his 1981 paper entitled "Extraterrestrial intelligent beings do not exist". Tipler's article prompted a response from Drake, as well as peers like Gregory Benford and John Daugman. The conjecture is the first of many proposed solutions to the Fermi paradox (the conflict between the lack of obvious evidence for alien life and various high probability estimates for its existence). In this case, the solution is that there is no other intelligent life because such estimates


id: high-income-trap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-income_trap-0.md
category: reference
title: High-income trap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-income_trap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:45.352478+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-income-trap-20260505-0
summary:
The high-income trap refers to the phenomenon of slower growth in most high-income, developed countries compared to lower-income countries. Some economists argue that there is more evidence for a high-income trap than the middle-income trap. Among the countries said to experience this trap are Taiwan and Japan. == References ==


id: homotopy-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Homotopy hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:46.567648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homotopy-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In category theory, a branch of mathematics, Grothendieck's homotopy hypothesis states, homotopy-theoretically speaking, that the ∞-groupoids are spaces. One version of the hypothesis was claimed to be proved in the 1991 paper by Kapranov and Voevodsky. Their proof turned out to be flawed and their result in the form interpreted by Carlos Simpson is now known as the Simpson conjecture. In higher category theory, one considers a space-valued presheaf instead of a set-valued presheaf in ordinary category theory. In view of homotopy hypothesis, a space here can be taken to an ∞-groupoid. == Formulations == A precise formulation of the hypothesis very strongly depends on the definition of an ∞-groupoid. One definition is that, mimicking the ordinary category case, an ∞-groupoid is an ∞-category in which each morphism is invertible or equivalently its homotopy category is a groupoid. Now, if an ∞-category is defined as a simplicial set satisfying the weak Kan condition, as done commonly today, then ∞-groupoids amounts exactly to Kan complexes (= simplicial sets with the Kan condition) by the following argument. If X {\displaystyle X} is a Kan complex (viewed as an ∞-category) and f {\displaystyle f} a morphism in it, consider σ : Λ 0


id: heavy-isotope-diet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_isotope_diet-0.md
category: reference
title: Heavy isotope diet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_isotope_diet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:47.708877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heavy-isotope-diet-20260505-0
summary:
Heavy isotope diet is the consumption of nutrients in which some atoms are replaced with their heavier non-radioactive isotopes, such as deuterium (2H) or heavy carbon (13C). Biomolecules that incorporate heavier isotopes give rise to more stable molecular structures under certain circumstances, which is hypothesized to increase resistance to damage associated with ageing or diseases. Medicines with some hydrogen atoms substituted with deuterium are called deuterated drugs, while substances that are essential nutrients can be used as food constituents, making this food "isotopic". Consumed with food, these nutrients become building material for the body. The examples are deuterated polyunsaturated fatty acids, essential aminoacids, DNA bases such as cytosine, or heavy water and glucose. == Suggested mechanism == One of the most pernicious and irreparable types of oxidative damage inflicted by reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon biomolecules involves the carbon-hydrogen bond cleavage (hydrogen abstraction). Intriguingly, the biomolecules most damageable by this type of damage belong to the group of essential nutrients (10 out of 20 amino acids; nucleosides at certain conditions (conditionally essential); all polyunsaturated fatty acids). In theory, replacing hydrogen with deuterium "reinforces" the bond due to the kinetic isotope effect, and such reinforced biomolecules taken up by the body


id: independence-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Independence hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:48.900629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: independence-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Independence hypothesis is a proposed solution to the synoptic problem. It holds that Matthew, Mark, and Luke are each original compositions formed independently of each other, with no documentary relationship. Scholars have long noted that the three synoptic gospels have a great deal in common, not just in content but also in order and precise Greek wording. Most scholars have asserted that this must be due to some sort of literary interrelationship among the gospels, with fragments of text copied from one source to another, but have struggled to find a satisfactory theory of who copied from whom. The independence theory rejects this consensus of documentary dependence; rather, each evangelist has independently drawn from eyewitness accounts and perhaps liturgy and other oral tradition. The similarities among the synoptic gospels, the whole basis for the synoptic problem, are held to be, first of all, vastly overstated, and secondly, explainable as artifacts of relying on the same witnesses or of different witnesses to the same events. The witnesses to the gospel content, especially apostles such as Peter, would have preached their testimony countless times before contributing to the gospels, and such numerous rehearsals tend to make a story settle into a


id: janzen-connell-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Janzen–Connell hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:50.084252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: janzen-connell-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Janzen–Connell hypothesis is a well-known hypothesis for the maintenance of high species biodiversity in the tropics. It was published independently in the early 1970s by Daniel Janzen, who focused on tropical trees, and Joseph Connell who discussed trees and marine invertebrates. According to their hypothesis, host-specific herbivores, pathogens, or other natural enemies (sometimes also referred to as predators) make the areas near a parent tree (the seed-producing tree) inhospitable for the survival of seeds or seedlings. These natural enemies are referred to as 'distance-responsive predators' if they kill seeds or seedlings near the parent tree, or 'density-dependent predators' if they kill seeds or seedlings where they are most abundant (which is typically near the parent tree). Such predators can prevent any one species from dominating the landscape, because if that species is too common, there will be few safe places for its seedlings to survive. Both Janzen and Connell originally proposed that for natural enemies to increase local diversity, they must be host-specific (also called specialists) and relatively immobile, such that they disproportionately reduce the density of the more locally common tree species. This prevents any one species from becoming dominant and excluding other species through competition, allowing more


id: janzen-connell-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Janzen–Connell hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:50.084252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: janzen-connell-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Herbivory and tree density === Specialist herbivores who consume plant matter can also be thought of as having a "transmission rate" between individuals similarly to a disease. Tree predators (especially herbivorous insects) are limited by the ease of movement. When individuals are closer together at high density, movement between trees is easier and the predators quickly spread out. However, at low tree density, predators can not find the next individual with as much ease and thus often have low transmission rates leading to less specialist predation. == Problematic aspects == Many studies examining the Janzen–Connell hypothesis have shown supporting patterns with a number of tree species, but despite this there are also problematic aspects of the hypothesis. The Janzen–Connell hypothesis explains diversity at a community-wide scale, but most studies have only looked at a single species or a localized region. Most studies do not test the diversity prediction and did not determine the causes for patterns consistent with Janzen–Connell effects. As Wright (2002) pointed out, "field measurements only demonstrate that niche differences, Janzen–Connell effects, and negative density dependence occur. Implications for species coexistence and plant diversity remain conjectural." While these host-specific predators may play keystone species roles as they


id: janzen-connell-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Janzen–Connell hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janzen–Connell_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:50.084252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: janzen-connell-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Current conclusions and further research == It is tricky to form conclusions regarding the accuracy of the Janzen–Connell hypothesis as it is difficult to falsify. This is because: Heavy predation may keep some species rare and widely spaced, and these species may also be the best competitors (although it is unclear why this would be the case). If so, these species are most likely to form dense aggregations that would reduce diversity in local areas. But due to their rarity or a belief that rare species are not regulated by density-dependence, these species may be the ones least likely to be studied. This means that the failure to find Janzen–Connell effects for what could be hundreds of tree species does not reject the hypothesis, as ecologists are missing the few key species where it does apply. However, dissenting findings do reduce the importance of the hypothesis for explaining overall coexistence of a number species. For example, Hyatt et al. (2003) found that there were "individual cases of conformity to the hypothesis," which is all that is needed for the hypothesis to work if the specific cases represent tree species that are excellent competitors, highly shade tolerant, habitat generalists, or


id: joint-hypothesis-problem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_hypothesis_problem-0.md
category: reference
title: Joint hypothesis problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_hypothesis_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:51.300595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: joint-hypothesis-problem-20260505-0
summary:
The joint hypothesis problem is the problem that testing for market efficiency is difficult, or even impossible. Any attempts to test for market (in)efficiency must involve asset pricing models so that there are expected returns to compare to real returns. It is not possible to measure 'abnormal' returns without expected returns predicted by pricing models. Therefore, anomalous market returns may reflect market inefficiency, an inaccurate asset pricing model or both. This problem is discussed in Fama's (1970) influential review of the theory and evidence on efficient markets, and was often used to argue against interpreting early stock market anomalies as mispricing. Other arguments used by efficient market advocates include the Roll critique, which points at that testing a specific asset pricing model, the capital asset pricing model, is impossible. Roll's critique centers on the fact that the market portfolio includes all human wealth, and is not observable. Refinements of the capital asset pricing model imply that the information set of observers is important, and since this information set is not observable, one cannot test the capital asset pricing model even if the market portfolio is observed. == References == == Further reading == Cochrane, John H. (2005). "Asset Pricing," Chapter


id: keitai-kinmei-civil-war-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keitai–Kinmei_Civil_War-0.md
category: reference
title: Keitai–Kinmei Civil War
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keitai–Kinmei_Civil_War
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:52.489735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: keitai-kinmei-civil-war-20260505-0
summary:
The Keitai–Kinmei Civil War (継体・欽明朝の内乱, Keitai–Kinmeichō no Nairan) is a hypothetical civil war in Japanese history. It is based on the assumption that the death of Emperor Keitai in the first half of the 6th century precipitated a struggle over the succession to the throne, but remains speculative because the documents recording the period contain inconsistencies. The assumed year is sometimes set as 531, the year of Emperor Keitai's death according to the Nihon Shoki. 531 in the sexagenary cycle of dating is Heavenly Stem Metal (辛), Earthly Branch Pig (亥), so it is also known as the "Perverse event of Metal Pig" (辛亥の変, Shingai no Hen). == Outline == According to the Nihon Shoki, the year Keitai died was the Metal Pig year, based on the fragments of the history of Baekche about Waekoku (Japan) called the Kudara Honki (百済本記) in Japanese. Another theory places his death in the year of the Tiger (534). This is considered the year of the accession of the next emperor, Ankan, which is usually interpreted as a two-year vacancy following the death of Emperor Keitai. However, several questions emerge here. The article on the year of the Metal Pig in the Kudara Honki


id: knowledge-gap-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge gap hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:53.646189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-gap-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The knowledge gap hypothesis is a mass communication theory created by Philip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice. N Olien in 1970. The theory is based on how a member of society processes information from mass media differently based on education level and socioeconomic status (SES). Since there is already a pre-existing gap in knowledge between groups in a population, mass media amplifies this gap to another level. The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis overviews and covers theoretical concepts that the hypothesis builds upon, historical background, operationalization and the means by which the hypothesis is measured, narrative review, meta-analytic support that draws data from multiple studies, new communication technologies that have affected the hypothesis, as well as the idea of Digital Divide, and the existing critiques and scholarly debates surrounding the hypothesis. == Historical background == The knowledge gap hypothesis has been implicit throughout the mass communication literature. Research published as early as the 1920s had already begun to examine the influence of individual characteristics on people's media content preferences. 1929 William S. Gray and Ruth Munroe authors of The Reading Interests and Habits of Adults examined the education advantages of adults which influenced their reading habits. The well educated reader


id: knowledge-gap-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge gap hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:53.646189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-gap-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Hypothesis operationalization == According to the authors, Jack Rosenberry and Lauren A.Vicker, " A hypothesis is basically a research question: the researcher needs to ask questions and answer them in order to formulate theory. The term "hypothesis" also can be used to describe a theory that is still in the development stage or that has not been fully researched and verified. Because of the somewhat contradictory nature of the research findings, the knowledge gap has not yet achieved theory status and is still known as a hypothesis." Since the 1970s, many policy makers and social scientists have been concerned with how community members acquire information via mass media. Throughout the years, extensive research has been conducted and taken different approaches to researching the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis. The hypothesis operationalization consists of the following: For cross-sectional research, the knowledge gap hypothesis expects that "at any given time, there should be a higher correlation between acquisition of knowledge and education for topics highly publicized in the media than for topics less highly publicized. Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien (1970) tested this hypothesis using an experiment in which participants were asked to read and discuss two news stories of varying publicity. The results


id: knowledge-gap-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge gap hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_gap_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:53.646189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-gap-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== New communication technologies == The internet has changed how people engage media. The internet-based media has to be accessed with digital devices and accessed to the internet. In the United States, there is a concern about the digital divide because not all Americans have access to the internet and devices. With the hope that Internet would close the knowledge gap, it has exposed the following inequities: access, motivation and cognitive ability. The following research displays the link between access to internet and socioeconomic status, SES. According to a Pew Research Center survey of U.S. adults conducted Jan. 25-Feb. 8, 2021, Emily Vogels, a research associate focusing on internet and technology, wrote, "More than 30 years after the debut of the World Wide Web, internet use, broadband adoption and smartphone ownership have grown rapidly for all Americans – including those who are less well-off financially. However, the digital lives of Americans with lower and higher incomes remain markedly different." "Americans with higher household incomes are also more likely to have multiple devices that enable them to go online. Roughly six-in-ten adults living in households earning $100,000 or more a year (63%) report having home broadband services, a smartphone, a desktop


id: landscape-zodiac-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_zodiac-0.md
category: reference
title: Landscape zodiac
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_zodiac
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:54.828123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: landscape-zodiac-20260505-0
summary:
A landscape zodiac (or terrestrial zodiac) is a purported map of the stars on a gigantic scale, formed by features in the landscape, such as roads, streams and field boundaries. Perhaps the best known alleged example is the Glastonbury Temple of the Stars, situated around Glastonbury in Somerset, England. The temple is thought by some to depict a colossal zodiac. == Theory == The theory was first put forward in 1935 by Katherine Maltwood, an artist who "discovered" the zodiac in a vision, and held that the "temple" was created by Sumerians about 2700 BC. Interest was re-ignited in 1969 by Mary Caine in an article in the magazine Gandalf's Garden. The landscape zodiac plays an important role in many occult theories. It has been associated with the Celtic Saints, Grail legend and King Arthur (according to some legends buried in Glastonbury). == Criticism == The idea was examined by two independent studies, one by Ian Burrow in 1975 and the other in 1983 by Tom Williamson and Liz Bellamy, using the standard methods of landscape historical research. Both studies concluded that the evidence contradicted the idea. The eye of Capricorn identified by Maltwood was a haystack. The western wing


id: law-of-crime-concentration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Crime_Concentration-0.md
category: reference
title: Law of Crime Concentration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Crime_Concentration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:56.013628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: law-of-crime-concentration-20260505-0
summary:
The law of crime concentration states that "for a defined measure of crime at a specific micro-geographic unit, the concentration of crime will fall within a narrow bandwidth of percentages for a defined cumulative proportion of crime." This law builds on the well-established empirical observation in the criminology of place that crime concentrates on very small units of geography. Criminologist, David Weisburd, first proposed a formal "law of crime concentration" in 2015 after having observed the phenomenon across many cities. In their longitudinal study of street segments in Seattle, WA, Weisburd and colleagues (2012) observed not only that crime was concentrated, but across a 16-year observation period the level of concentration was remarkedly consistent: 50% of crime incidents were found at between 4.7% and 6.1% of street segments in the city each year, despite a decline of more than 20% in overall crime during that period. To test whether the law of crime concentration existed in other cities, Weisburd examined 8 additional cities in 2015. While noting variability between the five larger and three smaller cities, the overall range or bandwidth of crime concentrations observed was between 2.1% and 6.0% of streets producing 50% of city crime, and between 0.4%


id: liberation-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Liberation hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:57.172817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: liberation-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In criminal justice, the liberation hypothesis proposes that extra-legal factors (such as race of offender and pretrial publicity) affect sentencing outcomes more in regards to less serious offenses compared to more serious ones, ostensibly because juries and judges will feel less able to follow their personal sentiments with regard to more serious crimes. The hypothesis also proposes that the extent to which extra-legal factors sentencing outcomes is dependent on the strength of the evidence in the case. The hypothesis was first proposed by Harry Kalven and Hans Zeisel in their 1966 book "The American Jury". Since then, multiple studies have found support for it. == References ==


id: life-cycle-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Life-cycle hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:58.356118+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: life-cycle-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In economics, the life-cycle hypothesis (LCH) is a model that strives to explain the consumption patterns of individuals. == Theory and evidence == Elderly dissaving is also influenced by the present factors that materially prevent them from the possibility of spending their previous savings. One of them is the loss of the driving license. An extended survey held in 1998, 2000, and 2002 among the U.S. retired citizens highlighted that "about 90% of the trips among people older than age 65 are in a private vehicle" and that driving cessation was highly correlated (46% to 63%, Tobit regression) to a reduction in spending on non basic needs such as trips, tickets, and dinings out. It is also relevant to distinguish elderly poor people in two basic tipologies: people who are poor on income, or those who are poor in terms of both income and consumption. While the life cycle hypothesis predicts the income and the consumption patterns of the elderly population, a series of research papers published in the 2000s highlighted the role of other factors in making the elderly class of people among the income-poor alone, and not people who are both income and consumption-poor. It is the latter


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistic relativity asserts that language influences worldview or cognition. One form of linguistic relativity, linguistic determinism, regards peoples' languages as determining and influencing the scope of cultural perceptions of their surrounding world. Various colloquialisms refer to linguistic relativism: the Whorf hypothesis; the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis ( sə-PEER WHORF); the Whorf–Sapir hypothesis; and Whorfianism. The hypothesis is disputed, with many different variations throughout its history. The strong hypothesis of linguistic relativity, now referred to as linguistic determinism, is that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and restrict cognitive categories. This was a claim by some earlier linguists pre-World War II; since then it has fallen out of acceptance by contemporary linguists. Nevertheless, research has produced positive empirical evidence supporting a weaker version of linguistic relativity: that a language's structures influence a speaker's perceptions, without strictly limiting or obstructing them. Although common, the term Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is sometimes considered a misnomer for several reasons. Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941) never stated their ideas in terms of a hypothesis. The distinction between a weak and a strong version of this hypothesis is also a later development; Sapir and Whorf never used such a dichotomy, although often their writings and


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-1.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Wilhelm von Humboldt ==== In 1820, Wilhelm von Humboldt associated the study of language with the national romanticist program by proposing that language is the fabric of thought. Thoughts are produced as a kind of internal dialog using the same grammar as the thinker's native language. This opinion was part of a greater idea in which the assumptions of an ethnic nation, their "Weltanschauung", was considered as being represented by the grammar of their language. Von Humboldt argued that languages with an inflectional morphological type, such as German, English and the other Indo-European languages, were the most perfect languages and that accordingly this explained the dominance of their speakers with respect to the speakers of less perfect languages. Wilhelm von Humboldt declared in 1820: The diversity of languages is not a diversity of signs and sounds but a diversity of views of the world.In Humboldt's humanistic understanding of linguistics, each language creates the individual's worldview in its particular way through its lexical and grammatical categories, conceptual organization, and syntactic models. === Boas and Sapir === The idea that some languages are superior to others and that lesser languages maintained their speakers in intellectual poverty was widespread during the early


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-2.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
More than any linguist, Benjamin Lee Whorf has become associated with what he termed the "linguistic relativity principle". Studying Native American languages, he attempted to account for the ways in which grammatical systems and language-use differences affected perception. Whorf's opinions regarding the nature of the relation between language and thought remain under contention. However, a version of theory holds some "merit", for example, "different words mean different things in different languages; not every word in every language has a one-to-one exact translation in a different language" Critics such as Lenneberg, Black, and Pinker attribute to Whorf a strong linguistic determinism, while Lucy, Silverstein and Levinson point to Whorf's explicit rejections of determinism, and where he contends that translation and commensuration are possible. Detractors such as Lenneberg, Chomsky and Pinker criticized him for insufficient clarity of his description of how language influences thought, and for not proving his conjectures. Most of his arguments were in the form of anecdotes and speculations that served as attempts to show how "exotic" grammatical traits were associated with what were apparently equally exotic worlds of thought. In Whorf's words: We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language. The categories and types that


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-3.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Structure-centered approach === Whorf's argument about Hopi speakers' conceptualization of time is an example of the structure-centered method of research into linguistic relativity, which Lucy identified as one of three main types of research of the topic. The "structure-centered" method starts with a language's structural peculiarity and examines its possible ramifications for thought and behavior. The defining example is Whorf's observation of discrepancies between the grammar of time expressions in Hopi and English. More recent research in this vein is Lucy's research describing how usage of the categories of grammatical number and of numeral classifiers in the Mayan language Yucatec result in Mayan speakers classifying objects according to material rather than to shape as preferred by English speakers. However, philosophers including Donald Davidson and Jason Josephson Storm have argued that Whorf's Hopi examples are self-refuting, as Whorf had to translate Hopi terms into English in order to explain how they are untranslatable. === Whorf dies === Whorf died in 1941 at age 44, leaving multiple unpublished papers. His ideas were continued by linguists and anthropologists such as Hoijer and Lee, who both continued investigating the effect of language on habitual thought, and Trager, who prepared a number of Whorf's


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-4.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Rethinking Linguistic Relativity === The publication of the 1996 anthology Rethinking Linguistic Relativity edited by Gumperz and Levinson began a new period of linguistic relativity studies that emphasized cognitive and social aspects. The book included studies on linguistic relativity and universalist traditions. Levinson documented significant linguistic relativity effects in the different linguistic conceptualization of spatial categories in different languages. For example, men speaking the Guugu Yimithirr language in Queensland gave accurate navigation instructions using a compass-like system of north, south, east and west, along with a hand gesture pointing to the starting direction. Lucy defines this method as "domain-centered" because researchers select a semantic domain and compare it across linguistic and cultural groups. Space is another semantic domain that has proven fruitful for linguistic relativity studies. Spatial categories vary greatly across languages. Speakers rely on the linguistic conceptualization of space in performing many ordinary tasks. Levinson and others reported three basic spatial categorizations. While many languages use combinations of them, some languages exhibit only one type and related behaviors. For example, Yimithirr only uses absolute directions when describing spatial relations—the position of everything is described by using the cardinal directions. Speakers define a location as "north of the house",


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-5.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Berlin and Kay === Studies by Berlin and Kay continued Lenneberg's color research. They studied color terminology formation and showed clear universal trends in color naming. For example, they found that even though languages have different color terminologies, they generally recognize certain hues as more focal than others. They showed that in languages with few color terms, it is predictable from the number of terms which hues are chosen as focal colors: For example, languages with only three color terms always have the focal colors black, white, and red. The fact that what had been believed to be random differences between color naming in different languages could be shown to follow universal patterns was seen as a powerful argument against linguistic relativity. Berlin and Kay's research has since been criticized by relativists such as Lucy, who argued that Berlin and Kay's conclusions were skewed by their insistence that color terms encode only color information. This, Lucy argues, made them unaware of the instances in which color terms provided other information that might be considered examples of linguistic relativity. == Universalism == Universalist scholars began a period of dissent from ideas about linguistic relativity. Lenneberg was one of the first


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-6.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parameters === In his 1987 book Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind, Lakoff reappraised linguistic relativity and especially Whorf's ideas about how linguistic categorization represents and/or influences mental categories. He concluded that the debate had been confused. He identified four parameters on which researchers differed in their opinions about what constitutes linguistic relativity: The degree and intensity of linguistic relativity. Perhaps a few examples of superficial differences in language and associated behavior are enough to demonstrate the existence of linguistic relativity. Alternatively, perhaps only great differences that permeate the linguistic and cultural system suffice. Whether conceptual systems are absolute or whether they can evolve. Whether the similarity criterion is translatability or the use of linguistic expressions. Whether the emphasis of linguistic relativity is language or the brain. Lakoff concluded that many of Whorf's critics had criticized him using novel definitions of linguistic relativity, rendering their criticisms moot. == Refinements == Researchers such as Boroditsky, Choi, Majid, Lucy and Levinson believe that language influences thought in more limited ways than the broadest early claims. Researchers examine the interface between thought (or cognition), language and culture and describe the relevant influences. They use experimental data to


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-7.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Psycholinguistic research === Psycholinguistic studies explored motion perception, emotion perception, object representation and memory. The gold standard of psycholinguistic studies on linguistic relativity is now finding non-linguistic cognitive differences in speakers of different languages (thus rendering inapplicable Pinker's criticism that linguistic relativity is "circular"). Recent work with bilingual speakers attempts to distinguish the effects of language from those of culture on bilingual cognition including perceptions of time, space, motion, colors, and emotion. Researchers described differences between bilinguals and monolinguals in perception of color, representations of time and other elements of cognition. == Other domains == Linguistic relativity inspired others to consider whether thought and emotion could be influenced by manipulating language. === Science and philosophy === A major question is whether human psychological faculties are mostly innate or whether they are mostly a result of learning, and hence subject to cultural and social processes such as language. The innate opinion is that humans share the same set of basic faculties, variability due to cultural differences is less important, and the human mind is a mostly biological construction, so all humans who share the same neurological configuration can be expected to have similar cognitive patterns. Multiple alternatives have advocates. The


id: linguistic-relativity-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity-8.md
category: reference
title: Linguistic relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:59:59.583130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linguistic-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Programming languages === APL programming language originator Kenneth E. Iverson believed that the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis applied to computer languages (without actually mentioning it by name). His Turing Award lecture, "Notation as a Tool of Thought", was devoted to this theme, arguing that more powerful notations aided thinking about computer algorithms. The essays of Paul Graham explore similar themes, such as a conceptual hierarchy of computer languages, with more expressive and succinct languages at the top. Thus, the so-called blub paradox (after a hypothetical programming language of average complexity called Blub) says that anyone preferentially using some particular programming language will know that it is more powerful than some, but not that it is less powerful than others. The reason is that writing in some language means thinking in that language. Hence the paradox, because typically programmers are "satisfied with whatever language they happen to use, because it dictates the way they think about programs". In a 2003 presentation at an open source convention, Yukihiro Matsumoto, creator of the programming language Ruby, said that one of his inspirations for developing the language was the science fiction novel Babel-17, based on the Whorf Hypothesis. === Science fiction === Numerous examples of


id: lottery-ticket-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_ticket_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Lottery ticket hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery_ticket_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:00:00.797214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lottery-ticket-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In machine learning, the lottery ticket hypothesis is that artificial neural networks with random weights can contain a subnetwork which (entirely by chance) can be tuned to a similar performance as tuning the whole network. The original statement of the hypothesis is:A randomly-initialized, dense neural network contains a subnetwork that is initialized such that—when trained in isolation—it can match the test accuracy of the original network after training for at most the same number of iterations.The original algorithm is: Randomily initialize dense network: weights θ 0 {\displaystyle \theta _{0}} . Train for j {\displaystyle j} iterations → weights θ j {\displaystyle \theta _{j}} . Magnitude pruning: build a bitmask m {\displaystyle m} by setting to 0 the lowest-magnitude weights in each layer (one-shot), or repeat train → prune across rounds to reach higher sparsity (iterative). Reset surviving weights to initialization: use m ⊙ θ 0 {\displaystyle m\odot \theta _{0}} as the starting point. Here ⊙ {\displaystyle \odot } is elementwise multiplication. Train the masked network f ( x ; m ⊙ θ 0 ) {\displaystyle f\!\left(x;m\odot \theta _{0}\right)} with the same optimizer, schedule, and data. Declare "winning ticket" if it achieves comparable test accuracy in ≤ j {\displaystyle \leq j}


id: marcan-priority-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-0.md
category: reference
title: Marcan priority
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marcan-priority-20260505-0
summary:
Marcan priority (or Markan priority) is the hypothesis that the Gospel of Mark was the first of the three synoptic gospels to be written, and was used as a source by the other two (Matthew and Luke). It is a central element in discussion of the synoptic problem—the question of the documentary relationship among these three gospels. Most scholars since the late 19th century have accepted the concept of Marcan priority, although a number of scholars support different forms of Marcan priority or reject it altogether. It forms the foundation for the widely accepted two-source theory. == History == The tradition handed down by the Church Fathers regarded Matthew as the first Gospel written in Hebrew, which was later used as a source by Mark and Luke. It is seen as early as in Irenaeus's book Against Heresies. Augustine of Hippo wrote in the 5th century: "Now, those four evangelists whose names have gained the most remarkable circulation over the whole world, and whose number has been fixed as four, ...are believed to have written in the order which follows: first Matthew, then Mark, thirdly Luke, lastly John." And: "Of these four, it is true, only Matthew is reckoned to


id: marcan-priority-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-1.md
category: reference
title: Marcan priority
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marcan-priority-20260505-0
summary:
Marcan posteriority states that Mark's correspondence with other synoptics was due to Mark taking from them. The view of the Church Fathers such as Augustine was that the order in the New Testament was also the order of publication and inspiration – Matthew, then Mark, then Luke, then John. This is usually called the Augustinian hypothesis. A modern tweak of this view that maintains Matthaean priority is the two-gospel (Griesbach) hypothesis which holds that Mark used both Matthew and Luke as a source (thus, in order, Matthew—Luke—Mark). This view envisions a Mark who mostly collected the common material shared between Matthew and Luke. Lucan priority has been revived in recent decades in the complex form of the Jerusalem school hypothesis, which also places Mark in the middle. Here, Mark uses Luke, then Matthew uses Mark but not Luke, while all three Synoptics draw from a hypothetical Greek translation of an earlier Hebrew work. Some theories deny literary priority to any one of the Synoptic Gospels, asserting that, whatever their chronological order of composition, none of them draws from any of the others. The multi-source hypothesis has each synoptic gospel combining a distinct mix of earlier documents, while the independence hypothesis


id: marcan-priority-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-2.md
category: reference
title: Marcan priority
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marcan-priority-20260505-0
summary:
=== Content not present in Mark === Mark's gospel is by far the shortest, just over half the length of Luke, and omits much found in Matthew and Luke. In fact, while the majority of Mark is included in the other two Synoptics, the additional material shared between Matthew and Luke only is quite extensive. While Marcan priority easily sees Matthew and Luke building upon Mark by adding new material, Marcan posteriority must explain some surprising omissions. Mark has no infancy narrative nor any version of the Lord's Prayer, for example. Nor does Mark have more than a handful of unique pericopes. This is expected under Marcan priority, where Matthew has reused nearly everything he found in Mark, but if Mark was written last, it is harder to explain why so little new material was added. However, Mark's selection of material must be explained in either case, unless it is to be believed that the author of Mark knew nothing more about Jesus than what was written in Mark. Bauckham argues that Mark's content is limited to what Peter himself had witnessed, or at least learned from trusted associates. Powers argues that Mark's purpose is fundamentally kerygmatic, needing to hold


id: marcan-priority-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-3.md
category: reference
title: Marcan priority
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marcan-priority-20260505-0
summary:
=== Order === Comparing the sequential order of parallel pericopes among the three Synoptics, the arrangement often varies, but some general patterns emerge. Mark nearly always follows Matthew and Luke where they agree in order and one or the other when they disagree. On the other hand, the double tradition pericopae shared between Matthew and Luke show little agreement in order. Such observations have been studied in detail for centuries, but the difficulty has been in how to interpret them. Marcan priority views this order as support for Matthew and Luke each building upon Mark; Marcan posteriority, however, sees this order as proof that Mark drew alternately from Matthew and Luke. Even the Augustinian hypothesis can see Mark adapting Matthew's order, then Luke adapting Mark's order. === Dualisms === Mark displays a special fondness for "dualisms" of various kinds, one of which is repeating essentially the same thing in two adjacent phrases. In a majority of cases, the parallel passages in Matthew and Luke, if any, echo only one of the two, and it often happens that Matthew chooses one and Luke chooses the other. Some prominent examples: "When it was evening, after sunset" vs "When it was evening" +


id: marcan-priority-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority-4.md
category: reference
title: Marcan priority
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcan_priority
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:00:02.051601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marcan-priority-20260505-0
summary:
The early patristic evidence records a few traditions on the origins of the Synoptic Gospels. It never indicates that one gospel used another as a source and shows little concern even for their chronological order; the focus was rather on who composed them and on their apostolic authority. What evidence there is as to the order of composition or publication is seen as virtually unanimous agreement on placing Matthew first. The earliest relevant source is Papias (c. 105), whose surviving fragments report two notable facts, echoed by most later sources. The evangelist Mark, he says, was Peter's interpreter and compiled his Gospel from the preaching of Peter in Rome, which Peter then sanctioned for use in the churches. Matthew the Apostle, on the other hand, wrote his account himself in the "Hebrew dialect". This account of the origin of Mark is seen as likely genuine by many scholars, though hardly all. If so, Mark's source is not the other two Synoptics but Peter—unless Peter himself drew from them, as some propose. The curious statement that Matthew's logia (as Papias calls it) was written in the "Hebrew dialect"—the ordinary way of referring to either the Hebrew or the Aramaic language—has been


