# kb

id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-4.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
TEM specimen stage designs include airlocks to allow for insertion of the specimen holder into the vacuum with minimal loss of vacuum in other areas of the microscope. The specimen holders hold a standard size of sample grid or self-supporting specimen. Standard TEM grid sizes are 3.05 mm diameter, with a thickness and mesh size ranging from a few to 100 μm. The sample is placed onto the meshed area having a diameter of approximately 2.5 mm. Usual grid materials are copper, molybdenum, gold or platinum. This grid is placed into the sample holder, which is paired with the specimen stage. A wide variety of designs of stages and holders exist, depending upon the type of experiment being performed. In addition to 3.05 mm grids, 2.3 mm grids are sometimes, if rarely, used. These grids were particularly used in the mineral sciences where a large degree of tilt can be required and where specimen material may be extremely rare. Electron transparent specimens have a thickness usually less than 100 nm, but this value depends on the accelerating voltage. Once inserted into a TEM, the sample has to be manipulated to locate the region of interest to the beam, such as


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-5.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
where A is the Richardson's constant, Φ is the work function and T is the temperature of the material. This equation shows that in order to achieve sufficient current density it is necessary to heat the emitter, taking care not to cause damage by application of excessive heat. For this reason materials with either a high melting point, such as tungsten, or those with a low work function (LaB6) are required for the gun filament. Furthermore, both lanthanum hexaboride and tungsten thermionic sources must be heated in order to achieve thermionic emission, this can be achieved by the use of a small resistive strip. To prevent thermal shock, there is often a delay enforced in the application of current to the tip, to prevent thermal gradients from damaging the filament, the delay is usually a few seconds for LaB6, and significantly lower for tungsten. === Electron lens === Electron lenses are designed to act in a manner emulating that of an optical lens, by focusing parallel electrons at some constant focal distance. Electron lenses may operate electrostatically or magnetically. The majority of electron lenses for TEM use electromagnetic coils to generate a convex lens. The field produced for the lens


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-6.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
The figure on the right shows the two basic operation modes of TEM – imaging and diffraction modes. In both cases the specimen is illuminated with the parallel beam, formed by electron beam shaping with the system of Condenser lenses and Condenser aperture. After interaction with the sample, on the exit surface of the specimen two types of electrons exist – unscattered (which will correspond to the bright central beam on the diffraction pattern) and scattered electrons (which change their trajectories due to interaction with the material). In Imaging mode, the objective aperture is inserted in a back focal plane (BFP) of the objective lens (where diffraction spots are formed). If using the objective aperture to select only the central beam, the transmitted electrons are passed through the aperture while all others are blocked, and a bright field image (BF image) is obtained. If we allow the signal from a diffracted beam, a dark field image (DF image) is received. The selected signal is magnified and projected on a screen (or on a camera) with the help of Intermediate and Projector lenses. An image of the sample is thus obtained. In Diffraction mode, a selected area aperture may be used


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-7.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
Samples can exhibit diffraction contrast, whereby the electron beam undergoes diffraction which in the case of a crystalline sample, disperses electrons into discrete locations in the back focal plane. By the placement of apertures in the back focal plane, i.e. the objective aperture, the desired reciprocal lattice vectors can be selected (or excluded), thus only parts of the sample that are causing the electrons to scatter to the selected reflections will end up projected onto the imaging apparatus. If the reflections that are selected do not include the unscattered beam (which will appear up at the focal point of the lens), then the image will appear dark wherever no sample scattering to the selected peak is present, as such a region without a specimen will appear dark. This is known as a dark-field image. Modern TEMs are often equipped with specimen holders that allow the user to tilt the specimen to a range of angles in order to obtain specific diffraction conditions, and apertures placed above the specimen allow the user to select electrons that would otherwise be diffracted in a particular direction from entering the specimen. Applications for this method include the identification of lattice defects in crystals. By


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-8.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
As TEM specimen holders typically allow for the rotation of a sample by a desired angle, multiple views of the same specimen can be obtained by rotating the angle of the sample along an axis perpendicular to the beam. By taking multiple images of a single TEM sample at differing angles, typically in 1° increments, a set of images known as a "tilt series" can be collected. This methodology was proposed in the 1970s by Walter Hoppe. Under purely absorption contrast conditions, this set of images can be used to construct a three-dimensional representation of the sample. The reconstruction is accomplished by a two-step process, first images are aligned to account for errors in the positioning of a sample; such errors can occur due to vibration or mechanical drift. Alignment methods use image registration algorithms, such as autocorrelation methods to correct these errors. Secondly, using a reconstruction algorithm, such as filtered back projection, the aligned image slices can be transformed from a set of two-dimensional images, Ij(x, y), to a single three-dimensional image, I′j(x, y, z). This three-dimensional image is of particular interest when morphological information is required, further study can be undertaken using computer algorithms, such as isosurfaces and


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-9.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
Before sectioning, biological tissue is often embedded in an epoxy resin block and first trimmed using a razor blade into a trapezoidal block face. Thick sections are then cut from the block face. The thick sections are crudely stained with toluidine blue and examined for specimen and block orientation before thin sectioning. Biological tissue is then thinned to less than 100 nm on an ultramicrotome. The resin block is fractured as it passes over a glass or diamond knife edge. This method is used to obtain thin, minimally deformed samples that allow for the observation of tissue ultrastructure. Inorganic samples, such as aluminium, may also be embedded in resins and ultrathin sectioned in this way, using either coated glass, sapphire or larger angle diamond knives. To prevent charge build-up at the sample surface when viewing in the TEM, tissue samples need to be coated with a thin layer of conducting material, such as carbon. === Sample staining === TEM samples of biological tissues need high atomic number stains to enhance contrast. The stain absorbs the beam electrons or scatters part of the electron beam which otherwise is projected onto the imaging system. Compounds of heavy metals such as osmium, lead,


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-10.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
A TEM can be modified into a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) by the addition of a system that rasters a convergent beam across the sample to form the image, when combined with suitable detectors. Scanning coils are used to deflect the beam, such as by an electrostatic shift of the beam, where the beam is then collected using a current detector such as a Faraday cup, which acts as a direct electron counter. By correlating the electron count to the position of the scanning beam (known as the "probe"), the transmitted component of the beam may be measured. The non-transmitted components may be obtained either by beam tilting or by the use of annular dark field detectors. Fundamentally, TEM and STEM are linked via Helmholtz reciprocity. A STEM is a TEM in which the electron source and observation point have been switched relative to the direction of travel of the electron beam. See the ray diagrams in the figure on the right. The STEM instrument effectively relies on the same optical set-up as a TEM, but operates by flipping the direction of travel of the electrons (or reversing time) during operation of a TEM. Rather than using an aperture


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-11.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
High resolution of TEM allows for monitoring the sample in question on a length scale ranging from hundreds of nanometres to several angstroms. This allows for the visualization of both elastic and plastic deformation via strain fields as well as the motion of crystallographic defects such as lattice distortions and dislocation motion. By simultaneously observing deformation phenomena and measuring mechanical response in situ, it is possible to connect nano-mechanical testing information to models that describe both the subtlety and complexity of how materials respond to stress and strain. The material properties and data accuracy obtained from such nano-mechanical tests is largely determined by the mechanical straining holder being used. Current straining holders have the ability to perform tensile tests, nano-indentation, compression tests, shear tests and bending tests on materials. ==== Classical mechanical holders ==== One of the pioneers of classical holders was Heinz G.F. Wilsdorf, who conducted a tensile test inside a TEM in 1958. In a typical experiment, electron transparent TEM samples are cut to shape and glued to a deformable grid. Advances in micromanipulators have also enabled the tensile testing of nanowires and thin films. The deformable grid attaches to the classical tensile holder which stretches the sample


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy-12.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:36.644553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-20260505-0
summary:
It is possible to reach temporal resolution far beyond that of the readout rate of electron detectors with the use of pulsed electrons. Pulses can be produced by either modifying the electron source to enable laser-triggered photoemission or by installation of an ultrafast beam blanker. This approach is termed ultrafast transmission electron microscopy when stroboscopic pump-probe illumination is used: an image is formed by the accumulation of many ultrashort electron pulses (typically of hundreds of femtoseconds) with a fixed time delay between the arrival of the electron pulse and the sample excitation. On the other hand, the use of single or a short sequence of electron pulses with a sufficient number of electrons to form an image from each pulse is called dynamic transmission electron microscopy. Temporal resolution down to hundreds of femtoseconds and spatial resolution comparable to that available with a Schottky field emission source is possible in ultrafast TEM. Using the Photon-gating approach, the temporal resolution in ultrafast electron microscope reaches to 30-fs allowing the imaging of ultrafast atomic and electron dynamics of matter. However, the technique can only image reversible processes that can be reproducibly triggered millions of times. Dynamic TEM can resolve irreversible processes down to


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-dna-sequencing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy_DNA_sequencing-0.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy_DNA_sequencing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:37.867972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-dna-sequencing-20260505-0
summary:
Transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing is a single-molecule sequencing technology that uses transmission electron microscopy techniques. The method was conceived and developed in the 1960s and 70s, but lost favor when the extent of damage to the sample was recognized. In order for DNA to be clearly visualized under an electron microscope, it must be labeled with heavy atoms. In addition, specialized imaging techniques and aberration corrected optics are beneficial for obtaining the resolution required to image the labeled DNA molecule. In theory, transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing could provide extremely long read lengths, but the issue of electron beam damage may still remain and the technology has not yet been commercially developed. == History == Only a few years after James Watson and Francis Crick deduced the structure of DNA, and nearly two decades before Frederick Sanger published the first method for rapid DNA sequencing, Richard Feynman, an American physicist, envisioned the electron microscope as the tool that would one day allow biologists to "see the order of bases in the DNA chain". Feynman believed that if the electron microscope could be made powerful enough, then it would become possible to visualize the atomic structure of any and all


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-dna-sequencing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy_DNA_sequencing-1.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy_DNA_sequencing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:37.867972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-dna-sequencing-20260505-0
summary:
Annular dark-field imaging measures the scattering of electrons as they deflect off the nuclei of the atoms in the transmission electron microscopy sample. This is best suited to samples containing heavy atoms, as they cause more scattering of electrons. The technique has been used to image atoms as light as boron, nitrogen, and carbon; however, the signal is very weak for such light atoms. If annular dark-field microscopy is put to use for transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing, it will certainly be necessary to label the DNA bases with heavy atoms so that a strong signal can be detected. Annular bright-field imaging detects electrons transmitted directly through the sample, and measures the wave interference produced by their interactions with the atomic nuclei. This technique can detect light atoms with greater sensitivity than annular dark-field imaging methods. In fact, oxygen, nitrogen, lithium, and hydrogen in crystalline solids have been imaged using annular bright-field electron microscopy. Thus, it is theoretically possible to obtain direct images of the atoms in the DNA chain; however, the structure of DNA is much less geometric than crystalline solids, so direct imaging without prior labeling may not be achievable. === Step 5 – Data analysis === Dark


id: transmission-electron-microscopy-dna-sequencing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy_DNA_sequencing-2.md
category: reference
title: Transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy_DNA_sequencing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:37.867972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-electron-microscopy-dna-sequencing-20260505-0
summary:
== Strengths and weaknesses == Compared to other second- and third-generation DNA sequencing technologies, transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing has a number of potential key strengths and weaknesses, which will ultimately determine its usefulness and prominence as a future DNA sequencing technology. === Strengths === Longer read lengths: ZS Genetics has estimated potential read lengths of transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing to be 10,000 to 20,000 base pairs with a rate of 1.7 billion base pairs per day. Such long read lengths would allow easier de novo genome assembly and direct detection of haplotypes, among other applications. Lower cost: Transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing is estimated to cost just US$5,000-US$10,000 per human genome, compared to the more expensive second-generation DNA sequencing alternatives. No dephasing: Dephasing of the DNA strands due to loss in synchronicity during synthesis is a major problem of second-generation sequencing technologies. For transmission electron microscopy DNA sequencing and several other third-generation sequencing technologies, synchronization of the reads is unnecessary as only one molecule is being read at a time. Shorter turnaround time: The capacity to read native fragments of DNA renders complex template preparation an unnecessary step in the general workflow of whole genome sequencing. Consequently, shorter


id: transmission-kikuchi-diffraction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Kikuchi_diffraction-0.md
category: reference
title: Transmission Kikuchi diffraction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Kikuchi_diffraction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:39.042429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transmission-kikuchi-diffraction-20260505-0
summary:
Transmission Kikuchi diffraction (TKD), also sometimes called transmission electron backscatter diffraction (t-EBSD), is a method for orientation mapping at the nanoscale. It’s used for analysing the microstructures of thin transmission electron microscopy (TEM) specimens in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). This technique has been widely utilised in the characterization of nano-crystalline materials, including oxides, superconductors, and metallic alloys. TKD offers improved spatial resolution, enabling effective characterization of nanocrystalline materials and heavily deformed samples where high dislocation densities can prevent successful characterization using conventional Electron backscatter diffraction. Many studies have reported sub-10 nm resolution using TKD. The main difference between diffraction spots and Kikuchi bands is that in TEM, discrete diffraction spots arise from coherent scattering of the incident beam, while the formation of Kikuchi bands is described as a two-step process consisting of incoherent scattering of the primary beam followed by coherent scattering of these forward biased electrons. TKD has also been applied to analyse fine-grained ultramylonite peridotite samples in a scanning electron microscope. The preparation of TKD samples can be done with standard methods used for transmission electron microscopy (TEM). == Description == Transmission Kikuchi diffraction (TKD or t-EBSD) is an Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique that is used


id: two-dimensional-correlation-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_correlation_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Two-dimensional correlation analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_correlation_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:40.213046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-dimensional-correlation-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Two dimensional correlation analysis is a mathematical technique that is used to study changes in measured signals. As mostly spectroscopic signals are discussed, sometime also two dimensional correlation spectroscopy is used and refers to the same technique. In 2D correlation analysis, a sample is subjected to an external perturbation while all other parameters of the system are kept at the same value. This perturbation can be a systematic and controlled change in temperature, pressure, pH, chemical composition of the system, or even time after a catalyst was added to a chemical mixture. As a result of the controlled change (the perturbation), the system will undergo variations which are measured by a chemical or physical detection method. The measured signals or spectra will show systematic variations that are processed with 2D correlation analysis for interpretation. When one considers spectra that consist of few bands, it is quite obvious to determine which bands are subject to a changing intensity. Such a changing intensity can be caused for example by chemical reactions. However, the interpretation of the measured signal becomes more tricky when spectra are complex and bands are heavily overlapping. Two dimensional correlation analysis allows one to determine at which positions in


id: two-dimensional-correlation-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_correlation_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Two-dimensional correlation analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_correlation_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:40.213046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-dimensional-correlation-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Ψ is the 2D asynchronous spectrum ν1 en ν2 are two spectral channels yν is the vector composed of the signal intensities in E in column ν n the number of signals in the original dataset N the Noda-Hilbert transform matrix The values of N, Nj, k are determined as follows: 0 if j = k 1 π ( k − j ) {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\pi (k-j)}}} if j ≠ k where: j the row number k the column number == Interpretation == Interpretation of two-dimensional correlation spectra can be considered to consist of several stages. === Detection of peaks of which the intensity changes in the original dataset === As real measurement signals contain a certain level of noise, the derived 2D spectra are influenced and degraded with substantial higher amounts of noise. Hence, interpretation begins with studying the autocorrelation spectrum on the main diagonal of the 2D synchronous spectrum. In the 2D synchronous main diagonal signal on the right 4 peaks are visible at 10, 20, 30, and 40 (see also the 4 corresponding positive autopeaks in the 2D synchronous spectrum on the right). This indicates that in the original dataset 4 peaks of changing intensity are present.


id: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy-0.md
category: reference
title: Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:41.378064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
Ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry (UV–Vis or UV-VIS) refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in part of the ultraviolet and the full, adjacent visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Being relatively inexpensive and easily implemented, this methodology is widely used in diverse applied and fundamental applications. The only requirement is that the sample absorb in the UV–Vis region, i.e. be a chromophore. Absorption spectroscopy is complementary to fluorescence spectroscopy. Parameters of interest, besides the wavelength of measurement, are absorbance (A) or transmittance (%T) or reflectance (%R), and its change with time. A UV–Vis spectrophotometer is an analytical instrument that measures the amount of ultraviolet (UV) and visible light that is absorbed by a sample. It is a widely used technique in chemistry, biochemistry, and other fields, to identify and quantify compounds in a variety of samples. UV–Vis spectrophotometers work by passing a beam of light through the sample and measuring the amount of light that is absorbed at each wavelength. The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing compound in the sample. == Optical transitions == Most molecules and ions absorb energy in the ultraviolet or visible range, i.e., they are chromophores. The absorbed photon excites an


id: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy-1.md
category: reference
title: Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:41.378064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
A = log 10 ⁡ ( I 0 / I ) = ε c L {\displaystyle A=\log _{10}(I_{0}/I)=\varepsilon cL} , where A is the measured absorbance (formally dimensionless but generally reported in absorbance units (AU)), I 0 {\displaystyle I_{0}} is the intensity of the incident light at a given wavelength, I {\displaystyle I} is the transmitted intensity, L the path length through the sample, and c the concentration of the absorbing species. For each species and wavelength, ε is a constant known as the molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient. This constant is a fundamental molecular property in a given solvent, at a particular temperature and pressure, and has units of 1 / M ∗ c m {\displaystyle 1/M*cm} . The absorbance and extinction ε are sometimes defined in terms of the natural logarithm instead of the base-10 logarithm. The Beer–Lambert law is useful for characterizing many compounds but does not hold as a universal relationship for the concentration and absorption of all substances. A 2nd order polynomial relationship between absorption and concentration is sometimes encountered for very large, complex molecules such as organic dyes (xylenol orange or neutral red, for example). UV–Vis spectroscopy is also used in the semiconductor industry


id: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy-2.md
category: reference
title: Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:41.378064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
Stray light in a UV spectrophotometer is any light that reaches its detector that is not of the wavelength selected by the monochromator. This can be caused, for instance, by scattering of light within the instrument, or by reflections from optical surfaces. Stray light can cause significant errors in absorbance measurements, especially at high absorbances, because the stray light will be added to the signal detected by the detector, even though it is not part of the actually selected wavelength. The result is that the measured and reported absorbance will be lower than the actual absorbance of the sample. The stray light is an important factor, as it determines the purity of the light used for the analysis. The most important factor affecting it is the stray light level of the monochromator. Typically a detector used in a UV–VIS spectrophotometer is broadband; it responds to all the light that reaches it. If a significant amount of the light passed through the sample contains wavelengths that have much lower extinction coefficients than the nominal one, the instrument will report an incorrectly low absorbance. Any instrument will reach a point where an increase in sample concentration will not result in an increase


id: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy-3.md
category: reference
title: Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:41.378064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
The UV–visible spectrophotometer can also be configured to measure reflectance. In this case, the spectrophotometer measures the intensity of light reflected from a sample ( I {\displaystyle I} ), and compares it to the intensity of light reflected from a reference material ( I o {\displaystyle I_{o}} ) (such as a white tile). The ratio I / I o {\displaystyle I/I_{o}} is called the reflectance, and is usually expressed as a percentage (%R). The basic parts of a spectrophotometer are a light source, a holder for the sample, a diffraction grating or a prism as a monochromator to separate the different wavelengths of light, and a detector. The radiation source is often a tungsten filament (300–2500 nm), a deuterium arc lamp, which is continuous over the ultraviolet region (190–400 nm), a xenon arc lamp, which is continuous from 160 to 2,000 nm; or more recently, light emitting diodes (LED) for the visible wavelengths. The detector is typically a photomultiplier tube, a photodiode, a photodiode array or a charge-coupled device (CCD). Single photodiode detectors and photomultiplier tubes are used with scanning monochromators, which filter the light so that only light of a single wavelength reaches the detector at one time. The


id: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy-4.md
category: reference
title: Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:41.378064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ultraviolet-visible-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
== Microspectrophotometry == UV–visible spectroscopy of microscopic samples is done by integrating an optical microscope with UV–visible optics, white light sources, a monochromator, and a sensitive detector such as a charge-coupled device (CCD) or photomultiplier tube (PMT). As only a single optical path is available, these are single beam instruments. Modern instruments are capable of measuring UV–visible spectra in both reflectance and transmission of micron-scale sampling areas. The advantages of using such instruments is that they are able to measure microscopic samples but are also able to measure the spectra of larger samples with high spatial resolution. As such, they are used in the forensic laboratory to analyze the dyes and pigments in individual textile fibers, microscopic paint chips and the color of glass fragments. They are also used in materials science and biological research and for determining the energy content of coal and petroleum source rock by measuring the vitrinite reflectance. Microspectrophotometers are used in the semiconductor and micro-optics industries for monitoring the thickness of thin films after they have been deposited. In the semiconductor industry, they are used because the critical dimensions of circuitry is microscopic. A typical test of a semiconductor wafer would entail the acquisition of


id: weisz-prater-criterion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weisz–Prater_criterion-0.md
category: reference
title: Weisz–Prater criterion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weisz–Prater_criterion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:42.548723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: weisz-prater-criterion-20260505-0
summary:
The Weisz–Prater criterion is a method used to estimate the influence of pore diffusion on reaction rates in heterogeneous catalytic reactions. If the criterion is satisfied, pore diffusion limitations are negligible. The criterion is N W − P = R R p 2 C s D e f f ≤ 3 β {\displaystyle N_{W-P}={\dfrac {{\mathfrak {R}}R_{p}^{2}}{C_{s}D_{eff}}}\leq 3\beta } Where R {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {R}}} is the reaction rate per volume of catalyst, R p {\displaystyle R_{p}} is the catalyst particle radius, C s {\displaystyle C_{s}} is the reactant concentration at the particle surface, and D e f f {\displaystyle D_{eff}} is the effective diffusivity. Diffusion is usually in the Knudsen regime when average pore radius is less than 100 nm. For a given effectiveness factor, η {\displaystyle \eta } , and reaction order, n, the quantity β {\displaystyle \beta } is defined by the equation: η = 3 R p 3 ∫ 0 R p [ 1 − β ( 1 − r / R p ) n ] r 2 d r {\displaystyle \eta ={\dfrac {3}{R_{p}^{3}}}\int _{0}^{R_{p}}[1-\beta (1-r/R_{p})^{n}]r^{2}\ dr} for small values of beta this can be approximated using the binomial theorem: η = 1 − n β 4 {\displaystyle


id: x-ray-crystal-truncation-rod-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystal_truncation_rod-0.md
category: reference
title: X-ray crystal truncation rod
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystal_truncation_rod
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:43.719814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-crystal-truncation-rod-20260505-0
summary:
X-ray crystal truncation rod scattering is a powerful method in surface science, based on analysis of surface X-ray diffraction (SXRD) patterns from a crystalline surface. For an infinite crystal, the diffracted pattern is concentrated in Dirac delta function like Bragg peaks. Presence of crystalline surfaces results in additional structure along so-called truncation rods (linear regions in momentum space normal to the surface). Crystal Truncation Rod (CTR) measurements allow detailed determination of atomic structure at the surface, especially useful in cases of oxidation, epitaxial growth, and adsorption studies on crystalline surfaces. == Theory == A particle incident on a crystalline surface with momentum K 0 {\displaystyle K_{0}} will undergo scattering through a momentum change of Q {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} } . If x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} represent directions in the plane of the surface and z {\displaystyle z} is perpendicular to the surface, then the scattered intensity as a function of all possible values of Q {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} } is given by Where α {\displaystyle \alpha } is the penetration coefficient, defined as the ratio of x-ray amplitudes scattered from successive planes of atoms in the crystal, and a x {\displaystyle a_{x}} , a y {\displaystyle a_{y}}


id: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence-0.md
category: reference
title: X-ray fluorescence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:44.876284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-0
summary:
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by being bombarded with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays. When a material is illuminated with high-energy X-rays, its atoms can become excited and emit their own unique, characteristic X-rays—a process similar to how a blacklight makes certain colors fluoresce. By measuring the energy and intensity of these emitted "secondary" X-rays, scientists can identify which elements are present in the sample and in what quantities. Thus, XRF is the basis of a non-destructive analytical technique widely used for elemental analysis and chemical analysis, particularly in the investigation of metals, glass, ceramics and building materials, and for research in geochemistry, forensic science, archaeology and art objects such as paintings. == Underlying physics == When materials are exposed to short-wavelength X-rays or to gamma rays, ionization of their component atoms may take place. Ionization consists of the ejection of one or more electrons from the atom, and may occur if the atom is exposed to radiation with an energy greater than its ionization energy. X-rays and gamma rays can be energetic enough to expel tightly held electrons from the inner orbitals of the atom.


id: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence-1.md
category: reference
title: X-ray fluorescence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:44.876284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-0
summary:
In energy-dispersive analysis, dispersion and detection are a single operation, as already mentioned above. Proportional counters or various types of solid-state detectors (PIN diode, Si(Li), Ge(Li), silicon drift detector SDD) are used. They all share the same detection principle: An incoming X-ray photon ionizes a large number of detector atoms with the amount of charge produced being proportional to the energy of the incoming photon. The charge is then collected and the process repeats itself for the next photon. Detector speed is obviously critical, as all charge carriers measured have to come from the same photon to measure the photon energy correctly (peak length discrimination is used to eliminate events that seem to have been produced by two X-ray photons arriving almost simultaneously). The spectrum is then built up by dividing the energy spectrum into discrete bins and counting the number of pulses registered within each energy bin. EDXRF detector types vary in resolution, speed and the means of cooling (a low number of free charge carriers is critical in the solid state detectors): proportional counters with resolutions of several hundred eV cover the low end of the performance spectrum, followed by PIN diode detectors, while the Si(Li), Ge(Li) and


id: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence-2.md
category: reference
title: X-ray fluorescence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:44.876284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-0
summary:
==== Processing ==== Considerable computer power is dedicated to correcting for pulse-pile up and for extraction of data from poorly resolved spectra. These elaborate correction processes tend to be based on empirical relationships that may change with time, so that continuous vigilance is required in order to obtain chemical data of adequate precision. Digital pulse processors are widely used in high performance nuclear instrumentation. They are able to effectively reduce pile-up and base line shifts, allowing for easier processing. A low pass filter is integrated, improving the signal to noise ratio. The digital pulse processor requires a significant amount of energy to run, but it provides precise results. ==== Usage ==== Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometers are different from wavelength dispersive X-ray (WDX) spectrometers in that they are smaller, simpler in design and have fewer engineered parts; however, the accuracy and resolution of EDX spectrometers are lower than for WDX. EDX spectrometers can also use miniature X-ray tubes or gamma sources, which makes them cheaper and allows miniaturization and portability. This type of instrument is commonly used for portable quality control screening applications, such as testing toys for lead (Pb) content, sorting scrap metals, and measuring the lead content of residential


id: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence-3.md
category: reference
title: X-ray fluorescence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:44.876284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-0
summary:
===== Flat crystal with Söller collimators ===== A Söller collimator is a stack of parallel metal plates, spaced a few tenths of a millimeter apart. To improve angular resolution, one must lengthen the collimator, and/or reduce the plate spacing. This arrangement has the advantage of simplicity and relatively low cost, but the collimators reduce intensity and increase scattering, and reduce the area of sample and crystal that can be "seen". The simplicity of the geometry is especially useful for variable-geometry monochromators. ===== Curved crystal with slits ===== The Rowland circle geometry ensures that the slits are both in focus, but in order for the Bragg condition to be met at all points, the crystal must first be bent to a radius of 2R (where R is the radius of the Rowland circle), then ground to a radius of R. This arrangement allows higher intensities (typically 8-fold) with higher resolution (typically 4-fold) and lower background. However, the mechanics of keeping Rowland circle geometry in a variable-angle monochromator is extremely difficult. In the case of fixed-angle monochromators (for use in simultaneous spectrometers), crystals bent to a logarithmic spiral shape give the best focusing performance. The manufacture of curved crystals to acceptable tolerances


id: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence-4.md
category: reference
title: X-ray fluorescence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:44.876284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-0
summary:
==== Detectors ==== Detectors used for wavelength dispersive spectrometry need to have high pulse processing speeds in order to cope with the very high photon count rates that can be obtained. In addition, they need sufficient energy resolution to allow filtering-out of background noise and spurious photons from the primary beam or from crystal fluorescence. There are four common types of detector: gas flow proportional counters sealed gas detectors scintillation counters semiconductor detectors Gas flow proportional counters are used mainly for detection of longer wavelengths. Gas flows through it continuously. Where there are multiple detectors, the gas is passed through them in series, then led to waste. The gas is usually 90% argon, 10% methane ("P10"), although the argon may be replaced with neon or helium where very long wavelengths (over 5 nm) are to be detected. The argon is ionized by incoming X-ray photons, and the electric field multiplies this charge into a measurable pulse. The methane suppresses the formation of fluorescent photons caused by recombination of the argon ions with stray electrons. The anode wire is typically tungsten or nichrome of 20–60 μm diameter. Since the pulse strength obtained is essentially proportional to the ratio of the detector


id: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence-5.md
category: reference
title: X-ray fluorescence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:44.876284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-fluorescence-20260505-0
summary:
X-ray absorption X-ray enhancement sample macroscopic effects All elements absorb X-rays to some extent. Each element has a characteristic absorption spectrum which consists of a "saw-tooth" succession of fringes, each step-change of which has wavelength close to an emission line of the element. Absorption attenuates the secondary X-rays leaving the sample. For example, the mass absorption coefficient of silicon at the wavelength of the aluminium Kα line is 50 m2/kg, whereas that of iron is 377 m2/kg. This means that fluorescent X-rays generated by a given concentration of aluminium in a matrix of iron are absorbed about seven times more (that is 377/50) compared with the fluorescent X-rays generated by the same concentration of aluminium, but in a silicon matrix. That would lead to about one seventh of the count rate, once the X-rays are detected. Mass absorption coefficients are well known and can be calculated. However, to calculate the absorption for a multi-element sample, the composition must be known. For analysis of an unknown sample, an iterative procedure is therefore used. To derive the mass absorption accurately, data for the concentration of elements not measured by XRF may be needed, and various strategies are employed to estimate these. As


id: x-ray-telescope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_telescope-0.md
category: reference
title: X-ray telescope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_telescope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:46.164760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-telescope-20260505-0
summary:
An X-ray telescope (XRT) is a telescope that is designed to observe remote objects in the X-ray spectrum. X-rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites. The basic elements of the telescope are the optics (focusing or collimating), that collects the radiation entering the telescope, and the detector, on which the radiation is collected and measured. A variety of different designs and technologies have been used for these elements. Many X-ray telescopes on satellites are compounded of multiple small detector-telescope systems whose capabilities add up or complement each other, and additional fixed or removable elements (filters, spectrometers) that add functionalities to the instrument. == History of X-ray telescopes == X-ray telescopes were first used for astronomy to observe the Sun, which was the only source in the sky bright enough in X-rays for those early telescopes to detect. Because the Sun is so bright in X-rays, early X-ray telescopes could use a small focusing element and the X-rays would be detected with photographic film. The first X-ray picture of the Sun from a rocket-borne telescope was taken by John V. Lindsay of the NASA


id: x-ray-telescope-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_telescope-1.md
category: reference
title: X-ray telescope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_telescope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:46.164760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-telescope-20260505-0
summary:
a high resolution imaging a high telescope sensitivity: since radiation is focused on a small area, Signal-to-noise ratio is much higher for this kind of instruments. The mirrors can be made of ceramic or metal foil coated with a thin layer of a reflective material (typically gold or iridium). Mirrors based on this construction work on the basis of total reflection of light at grazing incidence. This technology is limited in energy range due to the fact that the critical angle for total reflection is inversely proportional to the X-ray photon energy, meaning that higher energy photons require smaller incidence angles and therefore longer telescope designs. The limit in the early 2000s with Chandra and XMM-Newton X-ray observatories was about 15 kilo-electronvolt (keV) light. Using new multi-layered coated mirrors, the X-ray mirror for the NuSTAR telescope pushed this up to 79 keV light. To reflect at this level, glass layers were multi-coated with tungsten (W)/silicon (Si) or platinum (Pt)/silicon carbide(SiC). === Collimating optics === While earlier X-ray telescopes were using simple collimating techniques (e.g. rotating collimators, wire collimators), the technology most used in the present day employs coded aperture masks. This technique uses a flat aperture patterned grille in front


id: x-ray-telescope-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_telescope-2.md
category: reference
title: X-ray telescope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_telescope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:46.164760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-ray-telescope-20260505-0
summary:
A scintillator is a material which exhibits the property of luminescence when excited by ionizing radiation. Luminescent materials, when struck by an incoming particle, such as an X-ray photon, absorb its energy and scintillate, i.e. reemit the absorbed energy in the form of a small flash of light, typically in the visible range. The scintillation X-ray detector were used on Vela 5A and its twin Vela 5B; the X-ray telescope onboard OSO 4 consisted of a single thin NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal plus phototube assembly enclosed in a CsI(Tl) anti-coincidence shield. OSO 5 carried a CsI crystal scintillator. The central crystal was 0.635 cm thick, had a sensitive area of 70 cm2, and was viewed from behind by a pair of photomultiplier tubes. The PHEBUS had two independent detectors, each detector consisted of a bismuth germinate (BGO) crystal 78 mm in diameter by 120 mm thick. The KONUS-B instrument consisted of seven detectors distributed around the spacecraft that responded to photons of 10 keV to 8 MeV energy. They consisted of NaI(Tl) scintillator crystals 200 mm in diameter by 50 mm thick behind a Be entrance window. Kvant-1 carried the HEXE, or High Energy X-ray Experiment, which employed a phoswich of


id: scientific-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:47.725273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can be or that has been repeatedly tested and has corroborating evidence in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results. Where possible, theories are tested under controlled conditions in an experiment. In circumstances not amenable to experimental testing, theories are evaluated through principles of abductive reasoning. Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge. A scientific theory differs from a scientific fact: a fact is an observation, while a theory connects and explains multiple observations. Furthermore, a theory is expected to make predictions which could be confirmed or refuted with additional observations. Stephen Jay Gould wrote that: "...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty. Facts are the world's data. Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts." A theory differs from a scientific law in that a law is an empirical description of a relationship between facts and/or other laws. For example, Newton's Law of Gravity is a mathematical equation that can be used to predict the attraction between bodies, but it is not a theory


id: scientific-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:47.725273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
It can be subjected to minor adaptations to account for new data that do not fit it perfectly, as they are discovered, thus increasing its predictive capability over time. It is among the most parsimonious explanations, economical in the use of proposed entities or explanatory steps as per Occam's razor. This is because for each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives, because one can always burden failing explanations with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified; therefore, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable. === Definitions from scientific organizations === The United States National Academy of Sciences defines scientific theories as follows: The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word. It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence. Many scientific theories are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them substantially. For example, no new evidence will demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the Sun (heliocentric theory), or that living things


id: scientific-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:47.725273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Modification and improvement == If experimental results contrary to a theory's predictions are observed, scientists first evaluate whether the experimental design was sound, and if so they confirm the results by independent replication. A search for potential improvements to the theory then begins. Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework. Over time, as successive modifications build on top of each other, theories consistently improve and greater predictive accuracy is achieved. Since each new version of a theory (or a completely new theory) must have more predictive and explanatory power than the last, scientific knowledge consistently becomes more accurate over time. If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required. Since scientific knowledge is usually durable, this occurs much less commonly than modification. Furthermore, until such a theory is proposed and accepted, the previous theory will be retained. This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts. For example, it has been


id: scientific-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:47.725273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Theories and facts === A scientific theory does not turn into a fact. Scientific facts are observations that theories organize and explain. As new facts appear, a theory may be revised or new theories may emerge that encompass these additional facts. While American vernacular speech uses "theory" as similar to a "guess" in opposition to a "fact", in science the word "theory" means a model that is expected to explain a wide range of facts. == About theories == === Theories as axioms === The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as statements in a formal language. First-order logic is an example of a formal language. The logical positivists envisaged a similar scientific language. In addition to scientific theories, the language also included observation sentences ("the sun rises in the east"), definitions, and mathematical statements. The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts. In this view, theories function as axioms: predicted observations are derived from the theories much like theorems are derived in Euclidean geometry. However, the predictions are then tested against reality to verify the predictions, and the "axioms"


id: scientific-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:47.725273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
...it is incorrect to speak of an assumption as either true or false, since there is no way of proving it to be either (If there were, it would no longer be an assumption). It is better to consider assumptions as either useful or useless, depending on whether deductions made from them correspond to reality...Since we must start somewhere, we must have assumptions, but at least let us have as few assumptions as possible. Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists). However, theories do not generally make assumptions in the conventional sense (statements accepted without evidence). While assumptions are often incorporated during the formation of new theories, these are either supported by evidence (such as from previously existing theories) or the evidence is produced in the course of validating the theory. This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested. Conventional assumptions, without evidence, may be used if the theory is only intended to apply when the assumption is valid (or approximately valid). For example, the special theory of relativity


id: scientific-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:47.725273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verifications, for nearly every theory—if we look for confirmations. Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory. Every "good" scientific theory is a prohibition: it forbids certain things from happening. The more a theory forbids, the better it is. A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific. Irrefutability is not a virtue of a theory (as people often think) but a vice. Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it or to refute it. Testability is falsifiability; but there are degrees of testability: some theories are more testable, more exposed to refutation, than others; they take, as it were, greater risks. Confirming evidence should not count except when it is the result of a genuine test of the theory, and this means that it can be presented as a serious but unsuccessful attempt to falsify the theory. (I now speak in such cases of "corroborating evidence".) Some genuinely testable theories, when


id: scientific-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:47.725273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
A theory is something other than myself. It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms. Mathematical theory reaches the highest perfection in this respect. But even a geographical map fully embodies in itself a set of strict rules for finding one's way through a region of otherwise uncharted experience. Indeed, all theory may be regarded as a kind of map extended over space and time. A scientific theory can also be thought of as a book that captures the fundamental information about the world, a book that must be researched, written, and shared. In 1623, Galileo Galilei wrote: Philosophy [i.e. physics] is written in this grand book—I mean the universe—which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a


id: decompression-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Decompression theory is the study and modelling of the transfer of the inert gas component of breathing gases from the gas in the lungs to the tissues and back during exposure to variations in ambient pressure. In the case of underwater diving and compressed air work, this mostly involves ambient pressures greater than the local surface pressure, but astronauts, high altitude mountaineers, and travellers in aircraft which are not pressurised to sea level pressure, are generally exposed to ambient pressures less than standard sea level atmospheric pressure. In all cases, the symptoms caused by decompression occur during or within a relatively short period of hours, or occasionally days, after a significant pressure reduction. The term "decompression" derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the organism and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during and after this reduction in pressure. The uptake of gas by the tissues is in the dissolved state, and elimination also requires the gas to be dissolved, however a sufficient reduction in ambient pressure may cause bubble formation in the tissues, which can lead to tissue damage and the symptoms


id: decompression-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dissolved phase gas dynamics === Solubility of gases in liquids is influenced by the nature of the solvent liquid and the solute, the temperature, pressure, and the presence of other solutes in the solvent. Diffusion is faster in smaller, lighter molecules of which helium is the extreme example. Diffusivity of helium is 2.65 times faster than nitrogen. The concentration gradient, can be used as a model for the driving mechanism of diffusion. In this context, inert gas refers to a gas which is not metabolically active. Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is the most common example, and helium (He) is the other inert gas commonly used in breathing mixtures for divers. Atmospheric nitrogen has a partial pressure of approximately 0.78 bar at sea level. Air in the alveoli of the lungs is diluted by saturated water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2), a metabolic product given off by the blood, and contains less oxygen (O2) than atmospheric air as some of it is taken up by the blood for metabolic use. The resulting partial pressure of nitrogen is about 0,758 bar. At atmospheric pressure the body tissues are therefore normally saturated with nitrogen at 0.758 bar (569 mmHg). At increased ambient


id: decompression-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bubble mechanics === Equilibrium of forces on the surface is required for a bubble to exist. The sum of the Ambient pressure and pressure due to tissue distortion, exerted on the outside of the surface, with surface tension of the liquid at the interface between the bubble and the surroundings must be balanced by the pressure on the inside of the bubble. This is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases inside due to the net diffusion of gas to and from the bubble. The force balance on the bubble may be modified by a layer of surface active molecules which can stabilise a microbubble at a size where surface tension on a clean bubble would cause it to collapse rapidly, and this surface layer may vary in permeability, so that if the bubble is sufficiently compressed it may become impermeable to diffusion. If the solvent outside the bubble is saturated or unsaturated, the partial pressure will be less than in the bubble, and the surface tension will be increasing the internal pressure in direct proportion to surface curvature, providing a pressure gradient to increase diffusion out of the bubble, effectively "squeezing the gas out of the


id: decompression-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Isobaric counterdiffusion (ICD) === Isobaric counterdiffusion is the diffusion of gases in opposite directions caused by a change in the composition of the external ambient gas or breathing gas without change in the ambient pressure. During decompression after a dive this can occur when a change is made to the breathing gas, or when the diver moves into a gas filled environment which differs from the breathing gas. While not strictly speaking a phenomenon of decompression, it is a complication that can occur during decompression, and that can result in the formation or growth of bubbles without changes in the environmental pressure. Two forms of this phenomenon have been described by Lambertsen: Superficial ICD (also known as Steady State Isobaric Counterdiffusion) occurs when the inert gas breathed by the diver diffuses more slowly into the body than the inert gas surrounding the body. An example of this would be breathing air in an heliox environment. The helium in the heliox diffuses into the skin quickly, while the nitrogen diffuses more slowly from the capillaries to the skin and out of the body. The resulting effect generates supersaturation in certain sites of the superficial tissues and the formation of inert


id: decompression-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Vascular bubbles formed in the systemic capillaries may be trapped in the lung capillaries, temporarily blocking them. If this is severe, the symptom called "chokes" may occur. If the diver has a patent foramen ovale (or a shunt in the pulmonary circulation), bubbles may pass through it and bypass the pulmonary circulation to enter the arterial blood. If these bubbles are not absorbed in the arterial plasma and lodge in systemic capillaries they will block the flow of oxygenated blood to the tissues supplied by those capillaries, and those tissues will be starved of oxygen. Moon and Kisslo (1988) concluded that "the evidence suggests that the risk of serious neurological DCI or early onset DCI is increased in divers with a resting right-to-left shunt through a PFO. There is, at present, no evidence that PFO is related to mild or late onset bends." Bubbles form within other tissues as well as the blood vessels. Inert gas can diffuse into bubble nuclei between tissues. In this case, the bubbles can distort and permanently damage the tissue. As they grow, the bubbles may also compress nerves as they grow causing pain. Extravascular or autochthonous[a] bubbles usually form in slow tissues such as


id: decompression-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Two rather different concepts have been used for decompression modelling. The first assumes that dissolved gas is eliminated while in the dissolved phase, and that bubbles are not formed during asymptomatic decompression. The second, which is supported by experimental observation, assumes that bubbles are formed during most asymptomatic decompressions, and that gas elimination must consider both dissolved and bubble phases. Early decompression models tended to use the dissolved phase models, and adjusted them by more or less arbitrary factors to reduce the risk of symptomatic bubble formation. Dissolved phase models are of two main groups. Parallel compartment models, where several compartments with varying rates of gas absorption (half time), are considered to exist independently of each other, and the limiting condition is controlled by the compartment which shows the worst case for a specific exposure profile. These compartments represent conceptual tissues and are not intended to represent specific organic tissues, merely to represent the range of possibilities for the organic tissues. The second group uses serial compartments, where gas is assumed to diffuse through one compartment before it reaches the next. A recent variation on the serial compartment model is the Goldman interconnected compartment model (ICM). More recent models attempt


id: decompression-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-6.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tissue compartments === One attempt at a solution was the development of multi-tissue models, which assumed that different parts of the body absorbed and eliminated gas at different rates. These are hypothetical tissues which are designated as fast and slow to describe the rate of saturation. Each tissue, or compartment, has a different half-life. Real tissues will also take more or less time to saturate, but the models do not need to use actual tissue values to produce a useful result. Models with from one to 16 tissue compartments have been used to generate decompression tables, and dive computers have used up to 20 compartments. For example: Tissues with a high lipid content can take up a larger amount of nitrogen, but often have a poor blood supply. These will take longer to reach equilibrium, and are described as slow, compared to tissues with a good blood supply and less capacity for dissolved gas, which are described as fast. Fast tissues absorb gas relatively quickly, but will generally release it quickly during ascent. A fast tissue may become saturated in the course of a normal recreational dive, while a slow tissue may have absorbed only a small part of


id: decompression-theory-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-7.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== The critical supersaturation approach ==== J.S. Haldane originally used a critical pressure ratio of 2 to 1 for decompression on the principle that the saturation of the body should at no time be allowed to exceed about double the air pressure. This principle was applied as a pressure ratio of total ambient pressure and did not take into account the partial pressures of the component gases of the breathing air. His experimental work on goats and observations of human divers appeared to support this assumption. However, in time, this was found to be inconsistent with incidence of decompression sickness and changes were made to the initial assumptions. This was later changed to a 1.58:1 ratio of nitrogen partial pressures. Further research by people such as Robert Workman suggested that the criterion was not the ratio of pressures, but the actual pressure differentials. Applied to Haldane's work, this would suggest that the limit is not determined by the 1.58:1 ratio but rather by the critical pressure difference of 0.58 atmospheres between tissue pressure and ambient pressure. Most Haldanean tables since the mid 20th century, including the Bühlmann tables, are based on the critical difference assumption. The M-value is the maximum


id: decompression-theory-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-8.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
A saturation exposure is where the time exposed to pressure is sufficient for all tissues to reach equilibrium with the inert gases in the breathing mixture. For practical purposes this is usually taken as 6 times the half time of the slowest tissue in the model. === No-stop limits === A no-stop limit, also called no decompression limit (NDL) is the theoretical maximum dissolved gas content of each tissue compartment of the whole body, which can be decompressed directly to surface pressure at the chosen ascent rate used by the model, without a need to stop to outgas at any depth, which has an acceptable risk of developing symptomatic decompression sickness. No decompression limit is a misnomer as the ascent at the specified ascent rate is decompression, but the term has historical inertia and continues to be used. === Decompression ceiling, floor and window === Once the gas loading of one or more tissue compartments exceeds the maximum level accepted for the no-stop limit, there is a minimum depth to which the diver can ascend at the appropriate ascent rate, at an acceptable risk for decompression sickness. This depth is known as the decompression ceiling. It may be considered a


id: decompression-theory-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-9.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Residual inert gas === Gas bubble formation has been experimentally shown to significantly inhibit inert gas elimination. A considerable amount of inert gas will remain in the tissues after a diver has surfaced, even if no symptoms of decompression sickness occur. This residual gas may be dissolved or in sub-clinical bubble form, and will continue to outgas while the diver remains at the surface. If a repetitive dive is made, the tissues are preloaded with this residual gas which will make them saturate faster. In repetitive diving, the slower tissues can accumulate gas day after day, if there is insufficient time for the gas to be eliminated between dives. This can be a problem for multi-day multi-dive situations. Multiple decompressions per day over multiple days can increase the risk of decompression sickness because of the build up of asymptomatic bubbles, which reduce the rate of off-gassing and are not accounted for in most decompression algorithms. Consequently, some diver training organisations make extra recommendations such as taking "the seventh day off". == Decompression models in practice == === Deterministic models === Deterministic decompression models are a rule based approach to calculating decompression. These models work from the idea that "excessive"


id: decompression-theory-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-10.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Perfusion limited tissues and parallel tissue models ==== The assumption that perfusion is the limiting mechanism leads to a model comprising a group of tissues with varied rates of perfusion, but supplied by blood of approximately equivalent gas concentration. It is also assumed that there is no gas transfer between tissue compartments by diffusion. This results in a parallel set of independent tissues, each with its own rate of ingassing and outgassing dependent on the rate of blood flowing through the tissue. Gas uptake for each tissue is generally modelled as an exponential function, with a fixed compartment half-time, and gas elimination may also be modelled by an exponential function, with the same or a longer half time, or as a more complex function, as in the exponential-linear elimination model. The critical ratio hypothesis predicts that the development of bubbles will occur in a tissue when the ratio of dissolved gas partial pressure to ambient pressure exceeds a particular ratio for a given tissue. The ratio may be the same for all tissue compartments or it may vary, and each compartment is allocated a specific critical supersaturation ratio, based on experimental observations. John Scott Haldane introduced the concept of


id: decompression-theory-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-11.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
For example, a diver ascends from a maximum depth of 60 metres (200 ft), where the ambient pressure is 7 bars (100 psi), to a decompression stop at 20 metres (66 ft), where the pressure is 3 bars (40 psi). The first Pyle stop would take place at the halfway pressure, which is 5 bars (70 psi) corresponding to a depth of 40 metres (130 ft). The second Pyle stop would be at 30 metres (98 ft). A third would be at 25 metres (82 ft) which is less than 9 metres (30 ft) below the first required stop, and therefore is omitted. The value and safety of deep stops additional to the decompression schedule derived from a decompression algorithm is unclear. Decompression experts have pointed out that deep stops are likely to be made at depths where ingassing continues for some slow tissues, and that the addition of deep stops of any kind should be included in the hyperbaric exposure for which the decompression schedule is computed, and not added afterwards, so that such ingassing of slower tissues can be taken into account. Deep stops performed during a dive where the decompression is calculated in real-time are simply part


id: decompression-theory-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-12.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In contrast to the independent parallel compartments of the Haldanean models, in which all compartments are considered risk bearing, the Goldman model posits a relatively well perfused "active" or "risk-bearing" compartment in series with adjacent relatively poorly perfused "reservoir" or "buffer" compartments, which are not considered potential sites for bubble formation, but affect the probability of bubble formation in the active compartment by diffusive inert gas exchange with the active compartment. During compression, gas diffuses into the active compartment and through it into the buffer compartments, increasing the total amount of dissolved gas passing through the active compartment. During decompression, this buffered gas must pass through the active compartment again before it can be eliminated. If the gas loading of the buffer compartments is small, the added gas diffusion through the active compartment is slow. The interconnected models predict a reduction in gas washout rate with time during decompression compared with the rate predicted for the independent parallel compartment model used for comparison. The Goldman model differs from the Kidd-Stubbs series decompression model in that the Goldman model assumes linear kinetics, where the K-S model includes a quadratic component, and the Goldman model considers only the central well-perfused compartment to


id: decompression-theory-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-13.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Probabilistic models === Probabilistic decompression models, also referred to as evidence-based decompression models, are designed to calculate the risk (or probability) of decompression sickness (DCS) occurring on a given decompression profile, based on actual outcomes of a statistically robust set of data. Statistical analysis is well suited to compressed air work in tunneling operations due to the large number of subjects undergoing similar exposures at the same ambient pressure and temperature, with similar workloads and exposure times, with the same decompression schedule. Large numbers of decompressions under similar circumstances have shown that it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate all risk of DCS, so it is necessary to set an acceptable risk, based on the other factors relevant to the application. For example, easy access to effective treatment in the form of hyperbaric oxygen treatment on site, or greater advantage to getting the diver out of the water sooner, may make a higher incidence acceptable, while interfering with work schedule, adverse effects on worker morale or a high expectation of litigation would shift acceptable incidence rate downward. Efficiency is also a factor, as decompression of employees occurs during working hours. These methods can vary the decompression stop depths and


id: decompression-theory-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-14.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Saturation decompression is a physiological process of transition from a steady state of full saturation with inert gas at raised pressure to standard conditions at normal surface atmospheric pressure. It is a long process during which inert gases are eliminated at a very low rate limited by the slowest affected tissues, and a deviation can cause the formation of gas bubbles which can produce decompression sickness. Most operational procedures rely on experimentally derived parameters describing a continuous slow decompression rate, which may depend on depth and gas mixture. In saturation diving all tissues are considered saturated and decompression which is safe for the slowest tissues will theoretically be safe for all faster tissues in a parallel model. Direct ascent from air saturation at approximately 7 msw produces venous gas bubbles but not symptomatic DCS. Deeper saturation exposures require decompression to saturation schedules. The safe rate of decompression from a saturation dive is controlled by the partial pressure of oxygen in the inspired breathing gas. The inherent unsaturation due to the oxygen window allows a relatively fast initial phase of saturation decompression in proportion to the oxygen partial pressure and then controls the rate of further decompression limited by the half-time


id: decompression-theory-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-15.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Effects of inert gas component changes ==== Gas switching during decompression on open circuit is done primarily to increase the partial pressure of oxygen to increase the oxygen window effect, while keeping below acute toxicity levels. It is well established both in theory and practice, that a higher oxygen partial pressure facilitates a more rapid and effective elimination of inert gas, both in the dissolved state and as bubbles. In closed circuit rebreather diving the oxygen partial pressure throughout the dive is maintained at a relatively high but tolerable level to reduce the ongassing as well as to accelerate offgassing of the diluent gas. Changes from helium-based diluents to nitrogen during ascent are desirable for reducing the use of expensive helium, but have other implications. It is unlikely that changes to nitrogen based decompression gas will accelerate decompression in typical technical bounce dive profiles, but there is some evidence that decompressing on helium-oxygen mixtures is more likely to result in neurological DCS, while nitrogen based decompression is more likely to produce other symptoms if DCS occurs. However, switching from helium rich to nitrogen rich decompression gas is implicated in inner ear DCS, connected with counter-diffusion effects. This risk can


id: decompression-theory-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-16.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Practical effectiveness of models === Bubble models for decompression were popular among technical divers in the early 2000s, although there was little data to support the effectiveness of the models in practice. Since then, several comparative studies have indicated relatively larger numbers of venous gas emboli after decompression based on bubble models, and one study reported a higher rate of decompression sickness. The deeper decompression stops earlier in the ascent appear to be less effective at controlling bubble formation than the hypotheses suggested. This failure may be due to continued ingassing of slower tissues during the extended time at greater depth, resulting in these tissues being more supersaturated at shallower depths. The optimal decompression strategy for deep bounce dives remains unknown (2016). The practical efficacy of gas switches from helium-based diluent to nitrox for accelerating decompression has not been demonstrated convincingly. These switches increase risk of inner ear decompression sickness due to counterdiffusion effects. Besides the basic dive profile and gas mixes, and the residual gas load from previous dives, three groups of factors are considered likely to have significant influence on decompression stress, the evolution of bubbles in the diver, and development of symptoms. These are exercise, before,


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:50.381723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
The modern disease theory of alcoholism states that problem drinking is sometimes caused by a disease of the brain, characterized by altered brain structure and function. Today, alcohol use disorder (AUD) is used as a more scientific and suitable approach to alcohol dependence and alcohol-related problems. The largest association of physicians – the American Medical Association (AMA) – declared that alcoholism was an illness in 1956. In 1991, the AMA further endorsed the dual classification of alcoholism by the International Classification of Diseases under both psychiatric and medical sections. == Theory == Under the model of alcoholism, alcohol use disorder is viewed as chronic problem for which abstinence is required. A brain disease model of addiction, based on the extent of neuroadaptation and impaired control, is main position advanced for proposing a disease model of alcohol use disorder. However, if managed properly, damage to the brain can be stopped and to some extent reversed. In addition to problem drinking, the disease is characterized by symptoms including an impaired control over alcohol, compulsive thoughts about alcohol, and distorted thinking. Alcoholism can also lead indirectly, through excess consumption, to physical dependence on alcohol, and diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver. The


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-1.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:50.381723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
My observations authorize me to say, that persons who have been addicted to them, should abstain from them suddenly and entirely. 'Taste not, handle not, touch not' should be inscribed upon every vessel that contains spirits in the house of a man, who wishes to be cured of habits of intemperance. Rush argued that "habitual drunkenness should be regarded not as a bad habit but as a disease", describing it as "a palsy of the will". Rush expounded his views in a book published in 1808. His views are described by Valverde, Levine Spode, and Perkins-McVey. Already in 1802 the prominent German physician Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland had published a book on the "brandy plague" stating that the "infection" with spirits makes it "inevitably necessary to drink ever more." Later he wrote an enthusiastic preface to the book On the addiction to drink and a rational cure of it by German-Russian physician C. von Brühl-Cramer. As Spode points out, this study marked the birth of a consistent "paradigm" of addiction as a mental illness, although it took many decades until this view was accepted. Perkins-McVey argues that Rush, Trotter, and Brühl-Cramer each independently developed their own disease theories of alcoholism as


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-2.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:50.381723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
== Controlled drinking == The disease theory is often interpreted as implying that problem drinkers are incapable of returning to 'normal' problem free drinking, and therefore that treatment should focus on total abstinence. Some critics have used evidence of controlled drinking in formerly dependent drinkers to dispute the disease theory of alcoholism. The first major empirical challenge to this interpretation of the disease theory followed a 1962 study by Dr. D. L. Davies. Davies' follow-up of ninety-three problem drinkers found that seven of them were able to return to "controlled drinking" (less than seven drinks per day for at least seven years). Davies concluded that "the accepted view that no alcohol addict can ever again drink normally should be modified, although all patients should be advised to aim at total abstinence"; After the Davies study, several other researchers reported cases of problem drinkers returning to controlled drinking. In 1976, a major study commonly referred to as the RAND report, published evidence of problem drinkers learning to consume alcohol in moderation. The publication of the study renewed controversy over how people with a disease which reputedly leads to uncontrollable drinking could manage to drink controllably. Subsequent studies also reported evidence of


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-3.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:50.381723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
== Current acceptance == Alcoholism is a disease with a known pathology and an established biomolecular signal transduction pathway which culminates in ΔFosB overexpression within the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens; when this overexpression occurs, ΔFosB induces the addictive state. In 2004, the World Health Organization published a detailed report on alcohol and other psychoactive substances entitled "Neuroscience of psychoactive substance use and dependence". It stated that this was the "first attempt by WHO to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological factors related to substance use and dependence by summarizing the vast amount of knowledge gained in the last 20-30 years. The report highlights the current state of knowledge of the mechanisms of action of different types of psychoactive substances, and explains how the use of these substances can lead to the development of dependence syndrome." The report states that "dependence has not previously been recognized as a disorder of the brain, in the same way that psychiatric and mental illnesses were not previously viewed as being a result of a disorder of the brain. However, with recent advances in neuroscience, it is clear that dependence is as much a disorder of the brain as any


id: effective-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Effective theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:51.573632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: effective-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In science, an effective theory is a deliberately limited scientific theory applicable under specific circumstances. In practice, all theories are effective theories, with the name "effective theory" being used to signal that the limitations are built in by design. == Examples == An early example is Galileo Galilei's theory of falling bodies. Using observed values, Galileo deduced that the height of a falling body can be accounted for by constant acceleration, written here in modern notation: d 2 z d t 2 = − g , {\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}z}{dt^{2}}}=-g,} where t is the time, z is the vertical position of an object and g is gravitational acceleration near the surface of Earth. Within the scope of objects falling on Earth, this theory works well. However, as Isaac Newton discovered in his Newton's law of universal gravitation, a more elaborate but still effective theory, has more scope at the expense of additional complications. The next layer was Albert Einstein's general relativity, with more scope but even more complications. == Effective field theory == Effective field theory is a method used to describe physical theories when there is a hierarchy of scales. Effective field theories in physics can include quantum field theories


id: expectancy-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:52.715379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy theory (or expectancy theory of motivation) proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave. Expectancy theory is a motivation theory concerned with mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. First proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management in 1964, it aims to explain the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In relation to the study of organizational behavior, the theory stresses "the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients". Vroom defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual


id: expectancy-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:52.715379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Management === Victor Vroom's expectancy theory is one such management theory focused on motivation. According to Holdford and Lovelace-Elmore, Vroom asserts, "intensity of work effort depends on the perception that an individual's effort will result in a desired outcome". In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effort-performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance. Emphasizes self-interest in the alignment of rewards with employee's wants. Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards and organizational goals Expectancy Theory, though well known in work motivation literature, is not as familiar to scholars or practitioners outside that field. === Computer users === Lori Baker-Eveleth and Robert Stone, University of Idaho in 2008 conducted an empirical study on 154 faculty members' reactions to the use of new software. It was found that ease of system use affects both self-efficacy (self-confidence) and anticipated usefulness. These in turn influenced the decision, or anticipated decision, to use the


id: expectancy-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:52.715379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticisms == Critics of the expectancy model include Graen, Lawler and Porter. Their criticisms of the theory were based upon the expectancy model being too simplistic in nature; these critics started making adjustments to Vroom's model. Edward Lawler claims that the simplicity of expectancy theory is deceptive because it assumes that if an employer makes a reward (such as a financial bonus or promotion) enticing enough, employees will increase their productivity to obtain the reward. However, this only works if the employees believe the reward is beneficial to their immediate needs. For example, a $2 increase in salary may not be desirable to an employee if the increase pushes him into a tax bracket in which he believes his net pay is actually reduced (a belief that is typically fallacious, especially in the United States). Similarly, a promotion that provides higher status but requires longer hours may be a deterrent to an employee who values evening and weekend time with their children. As an additional example, if a person in the armed forces or security agencies is promoted, there is the possibility that he or she will be transferred to other locations. In such cases, if the new posting


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy violations theory (EVT) is a theory of communication that analyzes how individuals respond to unanticipated violations of social norms and expectations. The theory was proposed by Judee K. Burgoon in the late 1970s and continued through the 1980s and 1990s as "nonverbal expectancy violations theory", based on Burgoon's research studying proxemics. Burgoon's work initially analyzed individuals' allowances and expectations of personal distance and how responses to personal distance violations were influenced by the level of liking and relationship to the violators. The theory was later changed to its current name when other researchers began to focus on violations of social behavior expectations beyond nonverbal communication. This theory sees communication as an exchange of behaviors, where one individual's behavior can be used to violate the expectations of another. Participants in communication will perceive the exchange either positively or negatively, depending upon an existing personal relationship or how favorably the violation is perceived. Violations of expectancies cause arousal and compel the recipient to initiate a series of cognitive appraisals of the violation. The theory predicts that expectancies influence the outcome of the communication interaction as either positive or negative and predicts that positive violations increase the attraction of the violator and


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Communicator reward valence === The communicator reward valence is an evaluation one makes about the person who committed a violation of expectancy. Em Griffin summarizes the concept behind communicator reward valence as "the sum of positive and negative attributes brought to the encounter plus the potential to reward or punish in the future". The social exchange theory explains that individuals seek to reward some and seek to avoid punishing others. When one individual interacts with another, Burgoon believes he or she will assess the "positive and negative attributes that person brings to the encounter". If the person has the ability to reward or punish the receiver in the future, then the person has a positive reward valence. Rewards simply refer to the person's ability to provide a want or need. It can be represented by several features, such as communicators with high social class, reputation, knowledge, positive emotional support, physical attractiveness, and so on. The term 'communicator reward valence' is used to describe the results of this assessment. For example, people will feel encouraged during conversation when the listener is nodding, making eye contact, and responding actively. Conversely, if the listener is avoiding eye contact, yawning, and texting, it


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Propositions === After assessing expectancy, violation valence, and communicator reward valence of a given situation, it becomes possible to make rather specific predictions about whether the individual who perceived the violation will reciprocate or compensate the behavior in question. Guerrero and Burgoon noticed that predictable patterns develop when considering reward valence and violation valence together. Specifically, if the violation valence is perceived as positive and the communicator reward valence is also perceived as positive, the theory predicts individuals will reciprocate the positive behavior. Similarly, if one perceives the violation valence as negative and the communicator reward valence as negative, the theory again predicts that one will reciprocate the negative behavior. Thus, if a disliked coworker is grouchy and unpleasant, people will likely reciprocate and be unpleasant in return. Conversely, if one perceives a negative violation valence but views the communicator reward valence as positive, it is likely that the person will compensate for his or her partner's negative behavior. For example, imagine a supervisor appears sullen and throws a stack of papers in front of an employee. Rather than grunt back, EVT predicts that the employee will compensate for the boss's negativity, perhaps by asking if everything is okay.


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Intimate distance: (0–18 inches) – This distance is for close, intimate encounters. Normally core family, close friends, lovers, or pets. People will normally share a unique level of comfort with one another. Personal distance: (18 inches – 4 feet) – Reserved for conversations with friends, extended family, associates, and group discussions. The personal distance will give each person more space compared with the intimate distance, but is still close enough to involve touching one another. Social distance: (4–10 feet) – This distance is reserved for newly formed groups, and new acquaintances and colleagues one may have just met. People generally do not engage physically with one another within this section. Public distance: (10 feet to infinity) – Reserved for a public setting with large audiences, strangers, speeches, and theaters. Many different cultures are influenced by proxemics in different ways and respond differently to the same situation. In some cultures, those who have not formed close relationships may greet each other with kisses on the cheek, engaging one another well within the intimate range of proxemics. In other cultures, a custom greeting is a handshake which maintains a physical separation but is well within personal distance. Across the proxemic zones, actions


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Friendship ==== Expectations with friends formulate over time and are usually brought together by a series of observations of behavior and predictions on how that friend will act in the future. When these expectations are violated, it often can be damaging and dangerous for a close friendship. It can cause an end to the friendship and create a strong negative experience in that person's life. Over time, people might expect friends to act consistently around them until a violation to this expectation takes place. For example, when they begin "breaking promises or even acting in an inauthentic manner to impress others, can have aversive consequences for close relationships" (Cohen 2010). People expect their friends to act in a social manner and adhere to all of our personal rules they set in their minds, such as being nice, kind, considerate, and refraining from any comment that puts another down. This is a part of the personal rules with a personal friendship, though in a different setting with that individual around different people, the rules may be broken. While this might be an offense in one's eyes, it may not be offensive in the others. Each negative experience can deteriorate the


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy violations happen frequently in romantic relationships. In relationships there is an unspoken expectation when interacting and that is the significant other will give their full undivided attention when in the presence of their significant other. As the new generation evolves, the face to face contact has changed. With the access use of phones and social media the attention of individuals has shifted to their devices and continues to become worse. Since there is access to many mobile devices, there has been an increase of lack of communication face to face. This has made it difficult for some relationships to grow and has created conflict because the expectation of attention has been shifted. "Individuals expect conversational partners to be moderately involved in an interaction (Burgoon, Newton, Walther, & Baesler, 1989). Within existing relationships, partners rely on one another to show interest and immediacy in interactions (White, 2008). However, the presence of cell phones and the expectation to be constantly available (Ling, 2012) impacts partners' abilities to give full attention to one another" (Miller-Ott, A., & Kelly, L. 2015). Regardless of where the romantic relationship takes place, people are likely to have negative valence about cell phone usage, including texting, viewing


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-6.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Stereotypes, Gender and Sexuality ==== A study on personality traits and gender-based stereotypes in perceived negotiation skills was conducted in 2024. The study found that women tend to perform better in same-sex negotiations than in opposite-sex negotiations, while no significant differences were observed for men-pointing to the detrimental effect of gender in negotiation. Negotiation outcomes were mostly one-sided in favor of high-powered negotiators when stereotypical masculine traits were displayed, whereas stereotypically feminine traits tended to produce win-win outcomes. When negotiators' behaviors counter gender-specific beliefs, negative expectancy violations occur, generating backlash and negatively affecting negotiators' outcomes. When facing an unexpected negotiation partner, the impact of a hiring manager's gender-role violation on job candidates become evident. Job candidate believed that hiring managers were more extreme in characteristics that violated gender-role expectations: agentic female hiring managers were seen as more agentic than their male peers, while communal male hiring managers were perceived as more communal than their female counterparts. Job candidates were also less comfortable with an agentic female hiring manager than with an agentic male hiring manager. Further negotiating with an agentic female hiring manager would result in the least favorable outcomes, whereas those negotiating with a communal hiring manager would


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-7.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Human-Technology Interaction with AI and Chatbots === Researchers found that the communication style of chatbots can influence consumers' satisfaction, trust, and engagement in the context of service failure. This is demonstrated through interactions with social-oriented communication-style chatbots, which elevate the level of consumers' interaction satisfaction and behavioral intention. This study examined how the communication style of chatbots influences consumers' satisfaction, trust, and engagement in the context of service failure. Additionally, when consumers' expectations are violated to a higher level, chatbots using a socially oriented (vs. task-oriented) communication style are more likely to incite higher interaction satisfaction, trust, and patronage intention. Another study about chatbot interactions examined the opposing effects of response time in human-chatbot interaction. It was found that experienced users may find a delayed response time irritating because they are aware that a chatbot can answer instantly. The results also reveal that social presence, or the feeling of being there, mediates the effect of chatbot response time on usage intentions (the willingness of a person to use a particular product, service, or system). It was also found that when perceived social presence is low, skilled users have a higher usage intention than novice users. This means that users


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-8.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Computer-mediated communication and social media === As has previously been addressed, EVT has evolved tremendously over the years, expanding beyond its original induction when it focused on FtF communication and proxemics. The advancement of information and communications technology has provided tools for expressing oneself and conveying messages beyond just typing in text. As already discussed, arousal can divert one's attention or interest from a message to the source of the arousal. Virtual realities created online through computer-mediated communication (CMC), especially those which evoke strong visual presence through media, can increase arousal levels, such as those with high violent or sexual content. Just as people may use television viewing to increase or decrease arousal levels, people may use media in online communication to increase or decrease arousal levels. People may interact with others online by assuming the identities of avatars which may take on completely different, alternate personalities. The differences in perceived intimateness, co-presence, and emotionally-based trust can very significantly between avatar communication and other communication modalities such as text chat, audio, and audio-visual. The media options available to users when communicating with others online present a host of potential expectancy violations unique to CMC. The introduction of social media


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-9.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
""Don't stalk' – and when you do, don't talk about it" Though an understanding exists among Facebook participants that users will use the site to keep track of the behavior of others in a number of ways, excessive monitoring is likely to be perceived as an expectancy violation. "Don't embarrass me with bad pictures" Users may have the ability to control which pictures they post on their own Facebook page, but they do not have the ability to control what others post. Posting and "tagging" unflattering pictures of others may create expectancy violations. "Don't mess up my profile" Several participants expressed annoyance of others who alter their profiles knowing that their alterations could be perceived negatively, though they did not mention changing their passwords or protecting themselves in other ways. "Choose an appropriate forum for messages" Messages can be sent between Facebook participants through 'Facebook messages', which are not public, or 'wall postings', which can be viewed by anyone specified in the user's privacy controls. Posting messages which may be perceived as private, embarrassing, or inappropriate to a wall posting can create expectancy violations. "Don't compete over number of friends" Facebook users maintain a running total of 'friends' on their


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-10.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== In educational contexts === EVT posits that deviations from expected behavior can influence social judgments. In the context of teacher dress, formal attire aligns with expectations of a teacher's role, and such congruence typically results in favorable credibility assessments. The impact of clothing on expectations, where attire considered appropriate to the teaching context bolstered perceptions of a teacher's potential for student academic success. A mixed method study conducted in 2023 followed first generation college students and their social expectations for their transition to college. Overall students reported negative violations when it came to partying, making new friends, and strengthening new bonds. They also experienced positive violations when it came to stress and workload. Students who reported more negative violations also reported an overall more difficult transition period. Students who reported more positive violations reported an easier transition period. === Implications for teacher dress code === The implications of these studies are twofold: they reaffirm the importance of attire as a component of nonverbal communication within educational settings, and they highlight the potential for teacher attire to align with institutional norms and expectations to enhance educational outcomes. While the preference for formality in attire may vary by educational context, the


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-11.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Student disclosures in college classroom ==== In 2013, Frisby and Sidelinger conducted a research about student disclosures in college classroom to examine what kinds of student disclosures would violate peers' expectations and their perceptions about the disclosers. According to the study, those who make inappropriate disclosures violate others' expectations most in a classroom environment. Inappropriate disclosures are described as high frequent, negative, offensive and irrelevant topics. Disclosers of inappropriate information are more likely to be described as incompetent students, and they are less likeable than students who disclose appropriate information that are related to course materials. ==== Students' expectations towards instructors in online classes ==== Taking EVT as a lens, Renee Bourdeaux and Lindsie Schoenack investigate students' reasons for taking online classes, their expectations towards instructors, and the derivation of expectations of instructors' behaviors. Research shows that students expect clarity, respect, and well-designed course accommodating to the online environment. Participants consider effective communication and improving learning as behaviors bringing positive results. However, unprofessional behaviors, such as lack of use of teaching tools decreasing the productivity of classes, lead to negative results. === Business communication crisis === EVT can also apply to everyday business interaction between long-term partners, new partners,


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-12.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
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==== Business/Workplace Behaviors ==== In another study conducted in 2025, researchers examined the aftermath of an ethical violation and how family firms suffer more than non-family firms, as well as the reasons behind this. The presence of family firm information leads individuals to perceive the firm as more trustworthy. Although family firms may be seen as more trustworthy, the opposite effect can also be greater. effects as well. An identity threat could lead to a loss of benevolence beliefs and an avoidant reaction. Similarly, a decrease in perceived integrity and benevolence was significantly greater for family firms than for non-family firms. A 2024 study investigated the effects of greenwashing effects on corporate reputation and brand hate through environmental performance and green perceived risk. The findings show that consumer perceptions of greenwashing can damage a brand's image. Additionally, the study found that greenwashing negatively affects on corporate reputation through perceived environmental performance and green perceived risk. Reducing greenwashing practices can improve consumers' perceptions of corporate environmental performance. In 2024, another study explored whether religion mattered to angel investors specifically, the influence of religion on entrepreneurial investor decision-making. The results showed that religion contributes to social trust across multiple levels of analysis.


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-13.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Evaluation of media figures === Expectancy violations are tightly related to the changes of people's evaluation on their relationships with media figures. In 2010, Cohen made comparisons between relationships with friends and media figures in order to find similarities and differences of people's reactions when their expectations are violated in these two relationships. Violations were generally divided in three categories: social violations such as making offensive comments, trust violations such as making up stories about their life experience, and moral violations such as cheating in a marital relationship or drunk driving. Research indicated that in both friendships and relationships with media figures, social and trust violations are more offensive than moral violations. Specifically, people are more intolerable about moral violations from media figures than from their friends. According to the study, the reason for the intolerance is because relationships with media figures are relatively weak that people invest less on the relationships with media figures than on friendships. The type of media figures is also an important factor to determine the changes of closeness with media figures. People have different expectations to various types of media figures. Research discussed that moral violations negatively influence relationships with athletes, damaging their


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-14.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Expectations of adults with autism === Expectancy violations theory has been applied in studies to determine whether people judge adults with autism as violating their expectations since people with autism can exhibit little-to-no eye contact, or facial expression, not recognize certain nonverbal cues, or utilize tones that non-autistic people may perceive as abnormal. In one manuscript replying to another study, Bishop describes communication deficits in autistic individuals as potentially violating one's expectations for social communication, thus being a form of expectation violation since people with autism can struggle with social communication. One study by Lim, Young, and Brewer hypothesized that people can incorrectly perceive autistic adults as having no credibility or being deceptive. They believed that due to expectancy violations theory, people will judge those who violate their expectations unfavorably in a negative light. They recorded videos of autistic and non autistic adults attempting to persuade the interviewer that they did not steal an envelope of money and the participants of the study were to judge whether they believed the individuals in the interview were lying or telling the truth. The results showed that the autistic people were perceived as deceptive and less credible than non autistic people in


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-15.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Predictability and testability === EVT has undergone scrutiny for its attempt to provide a covering law for certain aspects of interpersonal communication. Some critics of EVT believe most interactions between individuals are extremely complex and there are many contingencies to consider within the theory. This makes the prediction of behavioral outcomes of a particular situation virtually impossible to consistently predict. Another critique of the theory is the assumption that expectancy violations are mostly highly consequential acts, negative in nature, and cause uncertainty to increase between communicators. In actuality, research shows expectancy violations vary in frequency, seriousness, and valence. While it is true that many expectancy violations carry a negative valence, numerous are positive and actually reduce uncertainty because they provide additional information within the parameters of the particular relationship, context, and communicators. ==== A First Look at Communication ==== Emory Griffin, the author of A First Look at Communication Theory, analyzed unpredictability in EVT. His test consisted in analyzing his interaction with four students who made various requests from him. The students were given the pseudonyms Andre, Belinda, Charlie and Dawn. They start with the letters A, B, C and D to represent the increasing distance between them and


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-16.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Further use and development of the theory == The concept of social norms marketing follows expectancy violation in that it is based upon the notion that messages containing facts that vary from perception of the norm will create a positive expectancy violation. Advertising, strategic communications, and public relations base social norms campaigns on this position. Interaction adaptation theory further explores expectancy violations. Developed by Burgoon to take a more comprehensive look at social interaction, IAT posits that people enter into interactions with requirements, expectations, and desires. These factors influence both the initial behavior as well as the response behavior. When faced with behavior that meets an individual's needs, expectations, or desires, the response behavior will be positive. When faced with behavior that does not meet an individual's needs, expectations, or desires, he or she can respond either positively or negatively depending on the degree of violation and positive or negative valence of the relationship. Expectancies exert significant influence on people's interaction patterns, on their impressions of one another, and on the outcomes of their interactions. People who can assume that they are well regarded by their audience are safer engaging in violations and more likely to profit from doing


id: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy-value theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:55.181654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy–value theory has been developed in many different fields including education, health, communications, marketing and economics. Although the model differs in its meaning and implications for each field, the general idea is that there are expectations as well as values or beliefs that affect subsequent behavior. == Education model == === History and model overview === John William Atkinson developed the expectancy–value theory in the 1950s and 1960s in an effort to understand the achievement motivation of individuals. In the 1980s, Jacquelynne Eccles expanded this research into the field of education. According to expectancy–value theory, students' achievement and achievement related choices are most proximally determined by two factors: expectancies for success, and subjective task values. Expectancies refer to how confident an individual is in his or her ability to succeed in a task whereas task values refer to how important, useful, or enjoyable the individual perceives the task. Theoretical and empirical work suggests that expectancies and values interact to predict important outcomes such as engagement, continuing interest, and academic achievement. Other factors, including demographic characteristics, stereotypes, prior experiences, and perceptions of others' beliefs and behaviors affect achievement related outcomes indirectly through these expectancies and values. This model has most widely


id: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy-value theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:55.181654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== History === Dr. Martin Fishbein is credited with developing the expectancy–value theory (EVT) in the early to mid-1970s. It is sometimes referred to as Fishbein's expectancy–value theory or simply expectancy–value model. The primary work typically cited by scholars referring to EVT is Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen's 1975 book called Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. The seed work of EVT can be seen in Fishbein's doctoral dissertation, A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation of the Interrelation between Belief about an Object and the Attitude toward that Object (1961, UCLA) and two subsequent articles in 1962 and 1963 in the journal Human Relations. Fishbein's work drew on the writings of researchers such as Ward Edwards, Milton J. Rosenberg, Edward Tolman, and John B. Watson. === Concepts === EVT has three basic components. First, individuals respond to novel information about an item or action by developing a belief about the item or action. If a belief already exists, it can and most likely will be modified by new information. Second, individuals assign a value to each attribute that a belief is based on. Third, an expectation is created or modified based on the result of a


id: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Language expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:56.372148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Language expectancy theory (LET) is a theory of persuasion. The theory assumes language is a rules-based system, in which people develop expected norms as to appropriate language usage in given situations. Furthermore, unexpected linguistic usage can affect the receiver's behavior resulting from attitudes towards a persuasive message. == Background == Created by Michael Burgoon, a retired professor of medicine from the University of Arizona, and Gerald R. Miller, the inspiration for LET was sparked by Brooks' work on expectations of language in 1970. Burgoon, Jones and Stewart furthered the discussion with the idea of linguistic strategies and message intensity in an essay published in 1975. The essay linked linguistic strategies, or how a message is framed, to effective persuasive outcomes. The original work for the language expectation theory was published in 1978. Titled "An empirical test of a model of resistance to persuasion", it outlined the theory through 17s. == Expectations == The theory views language expectancies as enduring patterns of anticipated communication behavior which are grounded in a society's psychological and cultural norms. Such societal forces influence language and enable the identification of non-normative use; violations of linguistic, syntactic and semantic expectations will either facilitate or inhibit an audience's


id: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Language expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:56.372148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== The role of intensity == These propositions give rise to the impact of language intensity—defined by John Waite Bowers as a quality of language that "indicates the degree to which the speaker's attitude toward a concept deviates from neutrality"—on persuasive messages. Theorists have concentrated on two key areas: (1) intensity of language when it comes to gender roles and (2) credibility. The perceived credibility of a source can greatly affect a message's persuasiveness. Researchers found that credible sources can enhance their appeal by using intense language; however, less credible speakers are more persuasive with low-intensity appeals. Similarly, females are less persuasive than males when they use intense language because it violates the expected behavior, but are more persuasive when they use low-intensity language. Males, however, are seen as weak when they argue in a less intense manner. Theorists argue further that females and speakers perceived as having low credibility have less freedom in selecting message strategies and that the use of aggressive language negatively violates expectations. == Example == To better explain the theory we look at the expectations and societal norms for a man and a woman on their first date. If the man pushed for further physical


id: the-limits-of-individual-plasticity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_of_Individual_Plasticity-0.md
category: reference
title: The Limits of Individual Plasticity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_of_Individual_Plasticity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:57.512199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-limits-of-individual-plasticity-20260505-0
summary:
"The Limits of Individual Plasticity" is a short essay written by the science fiction author H. G. Wells (21 September 1866 – 13 August 1946) in 1895. In it, Wells speculates his theories on the plasticity of animals, explaining that the default biological form of an animal may be altered in a way that it would continue to survive even if it, in any way, no longer resembles its inherent form. This could, according to Wells, theoretically be achieved through surgical or chemical modification. Wells was fully aware that surgical modification is only a physical change, and would not alter an animal's genetic blueprint. He made note that should an animal be surgically modified, its offspring would most likely retain its parent creature's original physical form. == Incorporation in novels == Wells presented many of his ideas from "The Limits of Individual Plasticity" in his 1896 science fiction novel, The Island of Doctor Moreau. In the novel, a shipwrecked Englishman named Edward Prendick is rescued from the sea and brought to a secluded island by a man named Montgomery, who reveals the island is owned and operated by an eminent British physiologist named Dr. Moreau. Moreau was shunned from the


id: membrane-theory-of-shells-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_theory_of_shells-0.md
category: reference
title: Membrane theory of shells
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_theory_of_shells
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:58.715178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: membrane-theory-of-shells-20260505-0
summary:
The membrane theory of shells, or membrane theory for short, describes the mechanical properties of shells when twisting or under bending and assumes that bending moments are small enough to be negligible. The spectacular simplification of membrane theory makes possible the examination of a wide variety of shapes and supports, in particular, tanks and shell roofs. There are heavy penalties paid for this simplification, and such inadequacies are apparent through critical inspection, remaining within the theory, of solutions. However, this theory is more than a first approximation. If a shell is shaped and supported so as to carry the load within a membrane stress system it may be a desirable solution to the design problem, i.e., thin, light and stiff. == See also == Theory of plates and shells Stress resultants in plates and shells == References == == Literature == Ventsel, Eduard; Krauthammer, Theodor (24 August 2001). "Chapter 13. The Membrane Theory Of Shells". Thin Plates and Shells - Theory: Analysis, and Applications. CRC Press. pp. 349–372. doi:10.1201/9780203908723.ch13 (inactive 12 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-8247-0575-6. Retrieved 5 October 2014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link) Practical industry example for plates and shell analysis - animated video


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Mosquito-malaria theory (or sometimes mosquito theory) was a scientific theory developed in the latter half of the 19th century that solved the question of how malaria was transmitted. The theory proposed that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes, in opposition to the centuries-old medical dogma that malaria was due to bad air, or miasma. The first scientific idea was postulated in 1851 by Charles E. Johnson, who argued that miasma had no direct relationship with malaria. Although Johnson's hypothesis was forgotten, the arrival and validation of the germ theory of diseases in the late 19th century began to shed new lights. When Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria was caused by a protozoan parasite in 1880, the miasma theory began to subside. An important discovery was made by Patrick Manson in 1877 that mosquitos could transmit human filarial parasite. Inferring from such novel discovery, Albert Freeman Africanus King proposed the hypothesis that mosquitoes were the source of malaria. In the early 1890s Manson himself began to formulate the complete hypothesis, which he eventually called the mosquito-malaria theory. According to Manson, malaria was transmitted from human to human by a mosquito. The theory was scientifically proved by Manson's confidant Ronald Ross


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Discovery of mosquito as disease vector === In the early 1880s, Laveran's germ theory of malaria was generally accepted by the science community. However pivotal problems still remained, such as what transmit the malarial parasites and how. The scientific clue emerged when a British medical officer Patrick Manson discovered for the first time that parasites were transmitted by mosquitoes. In 1877 while working in Amoy, a coastal town in China, he found that the mosquito Culex fatigans (now Culex quinquefasciatus) was the vector of the filarial roundworm that he called Filaria sanguinis hominis (but now Wuchereria bancrofti). His findings were published in the China Customs Medical Report in 1878, and relayed by Spencer Cobbold to the Linnean Society in London. This was the first direct evidence that mosquitoes could transmit microscopic parasites in humans, further suggesting that the same could be true in case of malaria. == King's theory == Based on the report of Manson's discovery, an American physician Albert Freeman Africanus King developed a proposition that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. He revealed his idea in 1881 to his colleagues C.V. Riley and L.O. Howard, who did not share the same opinion. Unfettered he developed the theory


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In 1894 Patrick Manson devised an ingenious procedure for detecting malarial parasites at different developmental stages from blood samples. This would later prove to be the tool for experimental proof of his theory. Manson demonstrated to and taught Ronald Ross the technique from which Ross became convinced of Laveran's germ theory. Trained and mentored by Manson, Ross returned to India in March 1895 to start his investigation. But to the dismay of Ross it was not an easy task. His first detection of malarial parasite from patients came only after two months of hard work. The disappointed Ross had to be encouraged by Manson calling the study as the "Holy Grail" of malaria research, and that Ross was the "Sir Galahad". After one and half years he made no significant progress. On 20 August 1897 he made a momentous discovery that some mosquitoes had malarial parasites in them. He had fed the blood of a malarial patient (Husein Khan) to different groups of mosquitoes four days before, and found that only one type (which he called "brown type" or more commonly "dappled-winged mosquitoes", not knowing the species, which in fact was Anopheles) acquired the malarial parasites in its stomach. This


id: nonequilibrium-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonequilibrium_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Nonequilibrium theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonequilibrium_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:01.047591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nonequilibrium-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Nonequilibrium theory refers to the idea that ecosystems are not in a stable state, but instead are fluctuating from disturbances and pressures. Disturbances like disease, predators, climate change, fires, and others lead to shifts in ecosystem characteristics and prevent the return to equilibrium. Once shifted to an altered state, it can be difficult to return to an original state. This theory challenges traditional ideas of stability. Ecosystems are dynamic, ever changing structures that can be influenced by numerous characteristics.This perspective has important implications for conservation, prompting a shift toward strategies that embrace change, resilience, and adaptability rather than trying to preserve a single state. == Disturbance driven dynamics == Ecosystems are frequently influenced by a large variety of different disturbances. These disturbances can be periodic, unpredictable, with very different intensities. Disturbances may arise from natural events or human activities, each having the potential to drastically alter ecosystem structure and function. === Natural disturbance === Wildfire Hurricanes Tornadoes Floods and droughts Extreme temperature fluctuations === Human disturbance === Land use change (urbanization, crop land, deforestation) Pollution Invasive species introduction Overexploitation of resources == Multiple stable states == Depending on external pressures, ecosystems can exist under alternate stable states. Even under equal


id: scientific-socialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific socialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:02.303293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-socialism-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific socialism in Marxism is the application of historical materialism to the development of socialism, as not just a practical and achievable outcome of historical processes, but the only possible outcome. It contrasts with utopian socialism by basing itself upon material conditions instead of concoctions and ideas, where "the final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought, not in men's brains, not in men's better insights into eternal truth and justice, but in changes in the modes of production and exchange. They are to be sought, not in the philosophy, but in the economics of each particular epoch." Fredrich Engels, who developed it alongside Karl Marx, described: To accomplish this act of universal emancipation [proletarian revolution and communism] is the historical mission of the modern proletariat. To thoroughly comprehend the historical conditions and thus the very nature of this act, to impart to the now oppressed proletarian class a full knowledge of the conditions and of the meaning of the momentous act it is called upon to accomplish, this is the task of the theoretical expression of the proletarian movement, scientific Socialism. The term's modern meaning is based almost totally on Engels's book Socialism: Utopian


id: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption-0.md
category: reference
title: Youngest Toba eruption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:17.793231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
summary:
The Toba eruption (also called the Toba supereruption and the Youngest Toba eruption) was a large eruption that occurred around 74,000 years ago, during the Late Pleistocene, at the site of present-day Lake Toba, in Sumatra, Indonesia. It was the last in a series of at least four caldera-forming eruptions there, the earlier known caldera having formed about 1.2 million years ago. This, the last eruption, had an estimated volcanic explosivity index of 8, making it the largest known explosive volcanic eruption in the Quaternary, and one of the largest known explosive eruptions in the Earth's history. == Eruption == === Chronology of the Toba eruption === The exact date of the eruption is unknown, but the pattern of ash deposits suggests that it occurred during the northern summer because only the summer monsoon could have deposited Toba ashfall in the South China Sea. The eruption lasted perhaps 9 to 14 days. The most recent two high-precision argon–argon datings dated the eruption to 73,880 ± 320 and 73,700 ± 300 years ago. Five distinct magma bodies were activated within a few centuries before the eruption. The eruption commenced with small and limited air-fall and was directly followed by the main


id: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption-1.md
category: reference
title: Youngest Toba eruption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:17.793231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
summary:
==== Possible climate records of the eruption ==== While the Toba eruption occurred in the backdrop of the rapid climate transitions of GS20 and MIS 4, triggered by changes in ocean currents and insolation, whether the eruption played any role in accelerating these events is much more heavily debated. South China Sea marine records of climate, sampled at every centennial interval, shows 1 °C (1.8 °F) cooling above the Toba ash layer for a thousand years but the authors concede that it may just be GS20. Arabian Sea marine records confirm that Toba ash occurred after the onset of GS20 but also that GS20 is not colder than GS21 in the records, from which authors conclude that the eruption did not intensify GS20 cooling. Dense sampling of environmental records, at every 6–9-year interval, in Lake Malawi, show no cooling-induced change in lake ecology and in grassy woodlands after the deposition of Toba ash, but cooling-forced aridity killed high-elevation afromontane forests. The Lake Malawi studies concluded that the environmental effects of the eruption were mild and limited to less than a decade in East Africa, but these studies are questioned due to sediment mixing which would have diminished the cooling signal.


id: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption-2.md
category: reference
title: Youngest Toba eruption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:17.793231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
summary:
==== Human demographic history ==== Recent analyses apply Markov models to the complete set of genetic material to infer human population history. In non-African populations, studies recover a long-term steep decline in numbers starting 200 kyr and reaching the lowest point around 40–60 kyr. During this bottleneck non-African populations experienced 5- to 15-fold reduction, with an effective population size of only 1,000–3,000 individuals by 50 kyr, consistent with the earliest mtDNA studies. This severe non-African contraction is consistent with a founder effect caused by Out-of-Africa dispersal. As a small group with a size of a few thousand people migrated from the African continent into the Near East, the drastic reduction in numbers imprinted on non-African genomic diversity. Genetic analysis identified 56 selective sweeps related to cold adaptations in non-African populations, of which 31 sweeps occurred during 72–97 kyr. This event of closely timed selections is named the "Arabian Standstill" and may have been caused by the severe cold arid conditions from the onset of MIS 4 and exacerbated by the Toba super-eruption. African populations experienced a slightly earlier, milder bottleneck and recovered earlier. Estimated effective population size based on samples from the Luhya and Maasai people attained their lowest numbers


id: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption-3.md
category: reference
title: Youngest Toba eruption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:17.793231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
summary:
Population Bottlenecks and Volcanic Winter "Toba Volcano by George Weber". Archived from the original on April 22, 2011. Retrieved June 1, 2006. "The proper study of mankind" – Article in The Economist Homepage of Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, including bibliographic information on the two papers he has published on the Toba catastrophe theory Mount Toba: Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans by Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, Department of Anthropology, University Of Illinois, Urbana, USA; Extract from "Journal of Human Evolution" [1998] 34, 623–651 Journey of Mankind by The Bradshaw Foundation – includes discussion on Toba eruption, DNA and human migrations Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005) – By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an African origin of modern humans. Out of Africa – Bacteria, As Well: Homo Sapiens And H. Pylori Jointly Spread Across The Globe ScienceDaily (Feb. 16, 2007) – When man made his way out of Africa some 60,000 years ago to populate the world, he was not alone: He was accompanied by the bacterium


id: skepticism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism-0.md
category: reference
title: Skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:19.331375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
Skepticism (US) or scepticism (UK) is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma. For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available evidence is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology. More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality (moral skepticism), atheism (skepticism about the existence of God), or the supernatural. Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely. Philosophical skepticism is one form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of common sense. Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or


id: skepticism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism-1.md
category: reference
title: Skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:19.331375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
== Types == Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject. For example, religious skeptics distrust religious doctrines and moral skeptics raise doubts about accepting various moral requirements and customs. Skepticism can also be applied to knowledge in general. However, this attitude is usually only found in some forms of philosophical skepticism. A closely related classification distinguishes based on the source of knowledge, such as skepticism about perception, memory, or intuition. A further distinction is based on the degree of the skeptical attitude. The strongest forms assert that there is no knowledge at all or that knowledge is impossible. Weaker forms merely state that one can never be absolutely certain. Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to a bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely... even in the face of demonstrable truth". Another categorization


id: skepticism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism-2.md
category: reference
title: Skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:19.331375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
There were two major schools of skepticism in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The first was Pyrrhonism, founded by Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360–270 BCE). The second was Academic Skepticism, so-called because its two leading defenders, Arcesilaus (c. 315–240 BCE) who initiated the philosophy, and Carneades (c. 217–128 BCE), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of Plato's Academy. Pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. It urges suspension of judgment (epoche) to achieve mental tranquility (ataraxia). The Academic Skeptics denied that knowledge is possible (acatalepsy). The Academic Skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas Pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view. Nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from Sextus Empiricus, a Pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in the second or third century CE. His works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments. Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly after Augustine (354–430 CE) attacked the skeptics in his work Against the Academics (386 CE). There was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in Christian Europe during the


id: skepticism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism-3.md
category: reference
title: Skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:19.331375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific or empirical skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence. Scientific skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to purported phenomena not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or empirically testable. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to systematic investigation via the scientific method. As a result, a number of ostensibly scientific claims are considered to be "pseudoscience" if they are found to improperly apply or to ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. === Auditing === Professional skepticism is an important concept in auditing. It requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence. == See also == == Notes == == Sources == Butchvarov, Panayot (1998). Skepticism About the External World. Oxford University Press. Hönigswald, Richard (2008) [1914]. Die Skepsis in Philosophie und Wissenschaft. Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3767530560. Keeton, Morris T. (1962). "skepticism". In Runes, Dagobert D. (ed.). Dictionary of Philosophy. Totowa, N.J.: Littlefield, Adams, and Company. pp. 277–278. Le Morvan, P. (March 2011). "Healthy Skepticism and Practical Wisdom" (PDF). Logos & Episteme.


id: betteridge-s-law-of-headlines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge's_law_of_headlines-0.md
category: reference
title: Betteridge's law of headlines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge's_law_of_headlines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:20.500979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: betteridge-s-law-of-headlines-20260505-0
summary:
Betteridge's law of headlines is an adage that states: "Any headline that ends in a question mark can be answered by the word no." It is based on the assumption that if the publishers were confident that the answer was yes, they would have presented it as an assertion; by presenting it as a question, they are not accountable for whether it is correct or not. The law is named after Ian Betteridge, a British technology journalist who wrote about it in 2009. The maxim has been cited by other names since 1991, when a published compilation of Murphy's law variants called it "Davis's law", a name that also appears online without any explanation of who Davis was. It has also been referred to as the "journalistic principle" and in 2007 was referred to in commentary as "an old truism among journalists". == History == Betteridge's name became associated with the concept after he discussed it in a February 2009 article, which examined a previous TechCrunch article that carried the headline "Did Last.fm Just Hand Over User Listening Data to the RIAA?": This story is a great demonstration of my maxim that any headline which ends in a question mark


id: betteridge-s-law-of-headlines-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge's_law_of_headlines-1.md
category: reference
title: Betteridge's law of headlines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge's_law_of_headlines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:20.500979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: betteridge-s-law-of-headlines-20260505-0
summary:
== Question headlines == Phrasing headlines as questions is a tactic employed by newspapers that do not "have the facts required to buttress the nut graph". Roger Simon characterized the practice as justifying "virtually anything, no matter how unlikely", giving "Hillary to Replace Biden on Ticket?" and "Romney to Endorse Gay Marriage Between Corporations?" as hypothetical examples of such a practice. Many question headlines were used, for example, in reporting of Bharatiya Janata Party in-fighting in 2004, because no politicians went on record to confirm or deny facts, such as "Is Venkaiah Naidu on his way out?" Because this implication is known to readers, guides giving advice to newspaper editors state that so-called "question heads" should be used sparingly. Freelance writer R. Thomas Berner calls them "gimmickry". Grant Milnor Hyde observed that they give the impression of uncertainty in a newspaper's content. When Linton Andrews worked at the Daily Mail after the First World War, one of the rules set by Lord Northcliffe was to avoid question headlines, unless the question itself reflected a national issue. Question headlines are not legally sound when it comes to avoiding defamation. The Supreme Court of Oklahoma held in 1913, in its decision in


id: doubting-antiquity-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Doubting Antiquity School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:21.630643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doubting-antiquity-school-20260505-0
summary:
The Doubting Antiquity School or Yigupai (Chinese: 疑古派; pinyin: Yígǔpài; Wade–Giles: I-ku-p'ai) refers to a group of scholars and writers in Chinese academia, starting during the New Culture Movement (mid-1910s to 1920s), who applied a critical historiographical approach to Chinese historical sources. They put forward theories doubting the authenticity of texts and narratives that, in traditional Chinese historiography, were often accepted as authentic. Hu Shih studied in the West and was deeply influenced by Western thought. He then argued in Peking University that Chinese written history was not credible before the Eastern Zhou period without critical examination. This view was accepted by his students Fu Sinian and especially Gu Jiegang, who further advanced the position that "our traditional knowledge of Chinese antiquity was built up in successive strata, but in an order exactly the reverse of the actual occurrence." Most of their criticism concerns the authenticity of pre-Qin texts and deals with questions put forward by the past dynastic writers, as well as other subjects. Hu Shih initiated the critical movement, with his pupil Gu Jiegang and his friend Qian Xuantong continuing this school of thought. Their writings also had influence on many western sinologists, including Bernhard Karlgren and Samuel


id: doubting-antiquity-school-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School-1.md
category: reference
title: Doubting Antiquity School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:21.630643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doubting-antiquity-school-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == The Doubting Antiquity School's opinion and claims were not universally accepted by other schools in the 1920s. Major critics of the Doubting Antiquity School were historians from the Historiography and Geography School (史地學派) of the National Central University in Nanjing and the academics associated with the academic journal Critical Review, termed the Xueheng School. The major opposition included Chu Coching, Liu Yizheng, Liang Qichao, Wang Guowei, Chen Yinque, and Miao Fenglin. These historians claimed that the many hypotheses of the Doubting Antiquity School were radical nationalist revisionism influenced by the May Fourth Movement and New Culture Movement, which aimed to abolish Chinese tradition, as well as that some claims of the Doubting Antiquity School, such as Sino-Babylonianism, were based on assumptions without any archaeological evidence. Chinese writer Lu Xun dismissed the Doubting Antiquity School and their publication Gushibian (古史辨, Debates on Ancient History). He argued that the real intention behind the Doubting Antiquity School was to aggressively demolish the Chinese imperial legacy, so much so that they would reject real historiography. Much archaeological evidence discovered in the 20th century, such as Yinxu and Taosi, proved some of the Doubting Antiquity School's claims to be incorrect. Zhang Guoan


id: escaping-the-rabbit-hole-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaping_the_Rabbit_Hole-0.md
category: reference
title: Escaping the Rabbit Hole
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaping_the_Rabbit_Hole
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:22.876404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escaping-the-rabbit-hole-20260505-0
summary:
Escaping the Rabbit Hole: How to Debunk Conspiracy Theories Using Facts, Logic, and Respect is a non-fiction book by Mick West that describes a method for helping people disengage from conspiratorial beliefs through patient dialogue, clear evidence, and an emphasis on trust building. Skyhorse Publishing released the first edition in 2018. A revised and updated edition appeared in 2023 with new case material on the COVID-19 pandemic, election fraud narratives, QAnon, and contemporary UFO claims. The work combines practical communication tactics with case studies drawn from West's investigations on the Metabunk forum. == Background == West is a science writer and investigator who founded Metabunk, an online forum focused on analyzing extraordinary claims. The book emerged from a decade of moderating and documenting conversations with believers and former believers, which shaped the focus on respectful engagement, calibration of claims to evidence, and attention to the social dynamics around conspiracist communities. An excerpt from the book appeared in Salon before publication, outlining steps for approaching a friend who believes a conspiracy theory, including establishing common ground, isolating specific points of disagreement, and agreeing on shared standards of evidence. == Contents == The first edition sets out a communication framework that prioritizes


id: local-skepticism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_skepticism-0.md
category: reference
title: Local skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:24.030944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: local-skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
Local skepticism is the view that one cannot possess knowledge in some particular domain. It contrasts with global skepticism (also known as absolute skepticism or universal skepticism), the view that one cannot know anything at all. == Examples of local skepticism == Moral skepticism is the belief that moral knowledge is either nonexistent or unattainable. Metaphysical skepticism, often called external world skepticism, is the denial of metaphysical knowledge. This belief is generally said to follow from the argument that material knowledge can only be attained through our perception of the world, and that our senses which constitute that perception do not necessarily correspond with any actual state of affairs. See also: subjective idealism. Theological skepticism it is the view that we cannot know for certain whether one or more deities exist. A theological skeptic may be an atheist, theist, or agnostic. == Notes == == Further reading == The Impossibility of Local Skepticism by Stephen Maitzen -- a critique of the possibility of local skepticism Theory of Knowledge, notes by Richard Feldman, University of Rochester


id: reasonable-doubt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonable_doubt-0.md
category: reference
title: Reasonable doubt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonable_doubt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:25.218620+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reasonable-doubt-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond (a) reasonable doubt is a legal standard of proof required to reach a criminal conviction in most adversarial legal systems. It is a higher standard of proof than the standard of balance of probabilities (US English: preponderance of the evidence) commonly used in civil cases. The prosecution bears the burden of presenting compelling evidence that establishes guilt beyond a reasonable doubt; if the trier of fact is not convinced to that standard, the accused is entitled to an acquittal. The standard is now widely accepted in criminal justice systems throughout common law jurisdictions. == In practice == Because the defendant is presumed innocent, prosecutors must prove each element of the crime charged beyond a reasonable doubt in order to obtain a conviction. This means the evidence must leave little actual doubt in the mind of the judge or jury that the defendant committed the alleged offense. Unreasonable or purely speculative doubts are excluded, whereas doubts grounded in tangible conflicts within the evidence or its sufficiency warrant an acquittal. In many jurisdictions, the phrase "reasonable doubt" remains purposefully undefined in jury instructions to reduce confusion, although critics argue that the lack of a clear definition may itself cause confusion. Academic


id: anita-superson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Superson-0.md
category: reference
title: Anita Superson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Superson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:26.369349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anita-superson-20260505-0
summary:
Anita Superson is an American philosopher who is a professor of philosophy at the University of Kentucky. She was also the visiting Churchill Humphrey and Alex P. Humphrey Professor of Feminist Philosophy at the University of Waterloo during the winter term of 2013. == Education and career == Superson received a bachelor's in biology from DePaul University in 1981 and went on to receive a master's in philosophy (with a concentration in medical ethics) from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville in 1985 and a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Illinois at Chicago in 1989. Superson is currently a professor of philosophy at the University of Kentucky, where she has held an appointment since 1992. She is an affiliated faculty member of the Gender and Women's Studies Department at the University of Kentucky. She also holds the visiting Churchill Humphrey and Alex P. Humphrey Professorship in Feminist Philosophy at the University of Waterloo for the winter of 2013. She also held a visiting professorship at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor in 2008. Before her current appointments, she held an assistant professorship at Kansas State University, and also taught at the University of Illinois at Chicago and the University


id: am-d-e-all-on-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amédée_Alléon-0.md
category: reference
title: Amédée Alléon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amédée_Alléon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:28.293449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: am-d-e-all-on-20260505-0
summary:
Count Jean Gérard Amédée Alléon (8 October 1838 – 16 January 1904) was a French nobleman, naturalist, taxidermist and artist who lived in the Ottoman Empire. He noted the migrations of birds of prey in the Bosporus Straits and wrote on the birds of the region. == Biography == Alléon was born in Buyuk-Déré, near Istanbul (Constantinople), the son of Count Jacques Alléon (1792–1876), a Galata banker in the Ottoman Empire, and Marie Marion. He took an interest in nature and art at an early age with a talent for music and drawing. The family owned land and real estate and he became a shareholder of the English railroad company. He produced a number of artworks, and also made a collection of mounted bird specimens. In 1863 he married Madeleine Asselin de Villequier-Alléon (1844–1911) and they had five children including Maurice and Abel who were involved in natural history. He worked with Jules Vian of the French zoological society, sending many specimens to France. The English naturalist H. J. Elwes stayed with Alléon when he passed through Constantinople in 1870. In 1864, he donated a large set of his collections to the Ottoman government and in 1899, some to the


id: tamara-awerbuch-friedlander-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamara_Awerbuch-Friedlander-0.md
category: reference
title: Tamara Awerbuch-Friedlander
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamara_Awerbuch-Friedlander
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:29.465606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tamara-awerbuch-friedlander-20260505-0
summary:
Tamara Eugenia Awerbuch-Friedlander (Hebrew: תמרה אוורבוך-פרידלנדר; 1941–2021) was an Uruguay-born Israeli-American biomathematician and public health scientist who worked at the Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) in Boston, Massachusetts. Her primary research and publications focus on biosocial interactions that cause or contribute to disease. She also is believed to be the first female Harvard faculty member to have had a jury trial for a lawsuit filed against Harvard University for sex discrimination. == Early life == Tamara Eugenia Friedlander was born in Uruguay, lived until the age of 12 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, then moved to Israel with her parents, where her grandparents and parents had lived after they had escaped Nazi Germany just before the Holocaust began. She studied and completed two degrees at Hebrew University in Jerusalem. She studied chemistry and minored in biochemistry and completed the BSc degree in 1965. In 1967, she completed both the Master of Science (MSc) in Physiology and the Master of Education (MEd) degree from Hebrew University. She was certified to teach grades K–12 in Israel, where she lectured and appeared on panels and in workshops, as she did also in the United States and elsewhere. She also served for two years


id: tamara-awerbuch-friedlander-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamara_Awerbuch-Friedlander-1.md
category: reference
title: Tamara Awerbuch-Friedlander
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamara_Awerbuch-Friedlander
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:29.465606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tamara-awerbuch-friedlander-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sex-discrimination suit against Harvard === Although Theda Skocpol had alleged gender bias in denial of tenure as early as 1980, Awerbuch-Friedlander was believed to be the first female Harvard Faculty member to file a lawsuit against Harvard University for sex discrimination. The suit was "filed with the Middlesex County Superior Court in June 1997." Encouraged by her mentors, Richard Levins and Marvin Zelen, Awerbuch-Friedlander sought "nearly $1 million in lost wages and benefits, as well as a promotion at the HSPH" and argued "that Fineberg refused to promote her to a tenure-track position because she is a woman, despite the positive recommendation of the HSPH's selection committee of appointment and re-appointment (SCARP)." Intermittently from 1998 through 2007, the gender discrimination case was covered by the Harvard Crimson (campus media), The Boston Globe (local media), and Science magazine (professional and scientific print media). Science documented the case developments of the sex-discrimination case in its "News of the Week: Women in Science" section. and in Science's SCIENCESCOPE two months later. Her sex discrimination lawsuit was based upon Harvard's denial of tenure to her, despite her significant accomplishments in her fields of expertise, biomathematics, epidemiology, biostatistics and public health. The University argued


id: j-nas-hallgr-msson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jónas_Hallgrímsson-0.md
category: reference
title: Jónas Hallgrímsson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jónas_Hallgrímsson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:30.606913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-nas-hallgr-msson-20260505-0
summary:
Jónas Hallgrímsson (16 November 1807 – 26 May 1845) was an Icelandic poet, writer and naturalist. He was one of the founders of the Icelandic journal Fjölnir, which was first published in Copenhagen in 1835. The magazine was used by Jónas and his fellow Fjölnismenn to promote Icelandic nationalism, in the hope of giving impetus to the Icelandic Independence Movement. Jónas remains one of Iceland's most beloved poets, penning some of the best-known Icelandic poems about Iceland and its people. Since 1996, Jónas's birthday has been officially recognised in Iceland as the Day of the Icelandic Language. On 16 November each year, the Jónas Hallgrímsson Award is awarded to an individual for their outstanding contribution to the Icelandic Language. == Biography == Jónas was born in the north of Iceland, in Öxnadalur in Eyjafjörður. He was the son of Hallgrímur Þorsteinsson, a curate, and Rannveig Jónasdóttir. He was the third of their four children; his siblings were Þorsteinn (born 1800), Rannveig (born 1802) and Anna Margrét (born 1815). In 1816 Jónas' father drowned in a lake and Jónas was sent to live with his aunt. In 1821 he returned home to Öxnadalur to be confirmed, before going away to a


id: yonetar-kikuchi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonetarō_Kikuchi-0.md
category: reference
title: Yonetarō Kikuchi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonetarō_Kikuchi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:32.100533+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yonetar-kikuchi-20260505-0
summary:
Yonetaro Kikuchi (菊池 米太郎; 1869 – 1921) was a Japanese zoologist and naturalist. He was born in Miyazaki Prefecture, Empire of Japan, and is best known for his extensive collection and study of birds, mammals, and reptiles in Taiwan during the Japanese colonial period. == Biography == In 1906, Kikuchi traveled to Taiwan to work for the Taiwan Government-General under the Bureau of Productive Industries. Over the following decade, he conducted extensive fieldwork across the island, including Mount Niitaka (now Yushan), Green Island, the Alishan Range, Orchid Island, and the Penghu archipelago. His collections of Taiwanese birds, mammals, and reptiles were large in scale and scientifically significant. Kikuchi is particularly known for being the first person to successfully capture the Mikado pheasant (Syrmaticus mikado) in 1906, after being commissioned by a British specimen dealer. In 1918, by order of Governor-General Akashi Motojirō, Kikuchi again captured Mikado pheasants and personally presented them to Emperor Taishō, accompanied by the Governor-General. The birds were subsequently kept in the Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden. In addition to his field expertise, Kikuchi was a highly skilled taxidermist. A large proportion of the zoological specimens currently held by the National Taiwan Museum were prepared by him. Kikuchi


id: josef-menges-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Menges-0.md
category: reference
title: Josef Menges
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Menges
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:33.294691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: josef-menges-20260505-0
summary:
Jakob Josef Menges (7 October 1850– 4 January 1910) was a German explorer, naturalist, zoologist, cartographer, trader and author. During the 1870s and until the end of the 19th century, Menges undertook commercial and scientific expeditions in Northeast Africa and the Horn of Africa. His routes took him through the Turco-Egyptian Sudan, the interior of British Somaliland and Abyssinia in modern-day Ethiopia. To fund his journeys, Menges published travel and research reports on the region's geography, zoology and ethnology in German scientific journals. Later in life, he focused on animal trading, supplying exotic animals to European zoos, as well as facilitating human shows of Somali people in Europe. == Biography == === Early life and education === Josef Menges was the son of Joseph Menges and his wife Maria Josepha Diefenbach. His father was the last Thurn-und-Taxis postmaster of Limburg an der Lahn, actively involved in local politics and elected mayor in 1877. Josef Menges attended the Realgymnasium in Limburg and completed training as a railway official in Frankfurt am Main. === Travels === After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the coastal regions of the Horn of Africa drew growing attention from foreign governments, companies, and private


id: josef-menges-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Menges-1.md
category: reference
title: Josef Menges
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Menges
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:33.294691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: josef-menges-20260505-0
summary:
In addition to English, French and Italian, Menges learned several African dialects. To obtain information and establish his position, he depended largely on the support of local inhabitants. In a letter of 11 April 1883 to the editors of Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, he wrote:Nor did I fail to ask the accompanying natives, who knew every detail about the land, in order to be able to write down the names of the various localities, so that I believe I have made as accurate a sketch as is at all possible of a hunting expedition that had no scientific purpose. === Animal trading === To support his expeditions financially, Menges formed a professional association in 1876 with the Hamburg circus manager and animal trainer Carl Hagenbeck. This included providing Hagenbeck with information about animal populations, possibilities for capture and logistics to transport animals to the coast and further to Europe. Menges played a central role in establishing early contacts between Somali intermediaries and Hagenbeck’s enterprise. Besides Hamburg, the Frankfurt Zoological Garden became the main hub for animal collections imported by Menges to Europe. When Adalbert Seitz became director of the Frankfurt Zoo on 1 April 1893, he provided Menges with temporary storage


id: antonio-pineda-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Pineda-0.md
category: reference
title: Antonio Pineda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Pineda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:34.423278+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antonio-pineda-20260505-0
summary:
Antonio Pineda (January 17, 1751 – June 23, 1792) was a Spanish naturalist and military officer. He participated in the Malaspina Expedition as leader of the natural history team which included Thaddäus Haenke and Luis Née. His scientific exploration and collecting covered a significant portion of the Pacific basin including the coast of South America, Mexico, and the Philippines. Before his untimely death in the Philippines, Pineda had amassed a huge volume of documents including scientific reports, diaries, and logbooks as well as a significant collection of natural history specimens. == Biography == Pineda was born on January 17, 1751, in Guatemala City, New Spain. His Spanish father, José de Pineda, was a knight in the Order of Santiago and served as a judge in the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala. His mother, María Josefa Ramírez, was a native of Lucena, Spain and held estates in Laxa. When Pineda was six years old the family returned to Spain where his father served the Royal Chancellery in Granada. Antonio was first educated at the "Colegio de Nobles" in Madrid. When he turned seventeen he enrolled in the Spanish Military Academy and was accepted as a cadet in the distinguished Spanish Royal Guard.


id: natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural history museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:35.990276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
A natural history museum or museum of natural history is a scientific institution with natural history collections that include current and historical records of animals, plants, fungi, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, climatology, and more. == History == The primary role of a natural history museum is to provide the scientific community with current and historical specimens for their research, which is to improve our understanding of the natural world. Some museums have public exhibits to share the beauty and wonder of the natural world with the public; these are referred to as 'public museums'. Some museums feature non-natural history collections in addition to their primary collections, such as ones related to history, art, and science. Renaissance cabinets of curiosities were private collections that typically included exotic specimens of national history, sometimes faked, along with other types of object. The first natural history museum was possibly that of Swiss scholar Conrad Gessner, established in Zürich in the mid-16th century. The National Museum of Natural History, established in Paris in 1635, was the first natural history museum to take the form that would be recognized as a natural history museum today. Early natural history museums offered limited accessibility, as they were generally private


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-0.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
summary:
Cabinets of curiosities (German: Kunstkammer [ˈkʊnstˌkamɐ] and Kunstkabinett [ˈkʊnstkabiˌnɛt]), also known as wonder-rooms (German: Wunderkammer [ˈvʊndɐˌkamɐ] ), were encyclopedic collections of objects whose categorical boundaries were, in Renaissance Europe, yet to be defined. Although more rudimentary collections had preceded them, the classic cabinets of curiosities emerged in the sixteenth century. The term cabinet originally described a room rather than a piece of furniture. Modern terminology would categorize the objects included as belonging to natural history (sometimes faked), geology, ethnography, archaeology, religious or historical relics, works of art (including cabinet paintings), and antiquities. In addition to the most famous and best documented cabinets of rulers and aristocrats, members of the merchant class and early practitioners of science in Europe formed collections that were precursors to museums. Cabinets of curiosities served not only as collections to reflect the particular interests of their curators but also as social devices to establish and uphold rank in society. There are said to be two main types of cabinets. As R. J. W. Evans notes, there could be "the princely cabinet, serving a largely representational function, and dominated by aesthetic concerns and a marked predilection for the exotic," or the less grandiose, "the more modest collection


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-1.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
summary:
Two of the most famously described seventeenth-century cabinets were those of Ole Worm, known as Olaus Wormius (1588–1654) (illustration, above right), and Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680). These seventeenth-century cabinets were filled with preserved animals, horns, tusks, skeletons, minerals, as well as other interesting man-made objects: sculptures wondrously old, wondrously fine or wondrously small; clockwork automata; ethnographic specimens from exotic locations. Often they would contain a mix of fact and fiction, including apparently mythical creatures. Worm's collection contained, for example, what he thought was a Scythian Lamb, a woolly fern thought to be a plant/sheep fabulous creature. However he was also responsible for identifying the narwhal's tusk as coming from a whale rather than a unicorn, as most owners of these believed. The specimens displayed were often collected during exploring expeditions and trading voyages. Cabinets of curiosities would often serve scientific advancement when images of their contents were published. The catalog of Worm's collection, published as the Museum Wormianum (1655), used the collection of artifacts as a starting point for Worm's speculations on philosophy, science, natural history, and more. Cabinets of curiosities were limited to those who could afford to create and maintain them. Many monarchs, in particular, developed large collections. A


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-2.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
summary:
Sloane meticulously cataloged and created extensive records for most of the specimens and objects in his collection. He also began to acquire other collections by gift or purchase. Herman Boerhaave gave him four volumes of plants from Boerhaave's gardens at Leiden. William Charleton, in a bequest in 1702, gave Sloane numerous books of birds, fish, flowers, and shells and his miscellaneous museum consisting of curiosities, miniatures, insects, medals, animals, minerals, precious stones and curiosities in amber. Sloane purchased Leonard Plukenet's collection in 1710. It consisted of twenty-three volumes with over 8,000 plants from Africa, India, Japan and China. Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort (1630–1715), left him a twelve-volume herbarium from her gardens at Chelsea and Badminton upon her death in 1714. Reverend Adam Buddle gave Sloane thirteen volumes of British plants. In 1716, Sloane purchased Engelbert Kaempfer's volume of Japanese plants and James Petiver's virtual museum of approximately one hundred volumes of plants from Europe, North America, Africa, the Near East, India, and the Orient. Mark Catesby gave him plants from North America and the West Indies from an expedition funded by Sloane. Philip Miller gave him twelve volumes of plants grown from the Chelsea Physic Garden. Sloane acquired approximately


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-3.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === Thomas Dent Mutter (1811–1859) was an early American pioneer of reconstructive plastic surgery. His specialty was repairing congenital anomalies, cleft lip and palates, and club foot. He also collected medical oddities, tumors, anatomical and pathological specimens, wet and dry preparations, wax models, plaster casts, and illustrations of medical deformities. This collection began as a teaching tool for young physicians. Just prior to Mütter's death in 1859, he donated 1,344 items to the American College of Physicians in Philadelphia, along with a $30,000 endowment for the maintenance and expansion of his museum. Mütter's collection was added to ninety-two pathological specimens collected by Doctor Isaac Parrish between 1849 and 1852. The Mütter Museum began to collect antique medical equipment in 1871, including Benjamin Rush's medical chest and Florence Nightingale's sewing kit. In 1874 the museum acquired one hundred human skulls from Austrian anatomist and phrenologist, Joseph Hyrtl (1810–1894); a nineteenth-century corpse, dubbed the "soap lady"; the conjoined liver and death cast of Chang and Eng Bunker, the Siamese twins; and in 1893, Grover Cleveland's jaw tumor. The Mütter Museum is an excellent example of a nineteenth-century grotesque cabinet of medical curiosities. P. T. Barnum established Barnum's American Museum


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-4.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Under the Sign: John Bargrave as Collector, Traveler, and Witness, Stephen Bann, Michigan, 1995 Beßler, Gabriele, Chambers of Art and Wonders, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2015, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (pdf). The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe, ed. Oliver Impey and Arthur MacGregor, 2001, paperback, 431 pages, ISBN 1-84232-132-3 Cabinets for the curious: looking back at early English museums, Ken Arnold, Ashgate, 2006, ISBN 0-7546-0506-X. Mr. Wilson's Cabinet Of Wonder: Pronged Ants, Horned Humans, Mice on Toast, and Other Marvels of Jurassic Technology, Lawrence Weschler, 1996, trade paperback, 192 pages, ISBN 0-679-76489-5 (see website link above) The Cabinet of Curiosities (novel), Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child, Warner Books, 2003, paperback, ISBN 0-446-61123-9. Helmar Schramm et al. (ed.). Collection, Laboratory, Theater. Scenes of Knowledge in the 17th Century, Berlin/New York 2005, ISBN 978-3-11-017736-7 The Lure of Antiquity and the Cult of the Machine: The Kunstkammer and the Evolution of Nature, Art and Technology Horst Bredekamp (Allison Brown, translator) (Princeton: Marcus Weiner) 1995. Steven Lubar, "Cabinets of Curiosity: What they were, why they disappeared, and why they’re so popular now" == External links == Historic


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-0.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of natural history museums whose exhibits focus on the subject of natural history, including such topics as animals, plants, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, and climatology. Some museums feature natural-history collections in addition to other collections, such as ones related to history, art and science. In addition, nature centers often include natural history exhibits. == Africa == === Algeria === Beni Abbes Museum (Musee de Beni-Abbes), Béni Abbès === Angola === National Museum of Natural History of Angola (Museu Nacional de História Natural de Angola), Luanda === Botswana === Botswana National Museum, Gaborone === Egypt === Egyptian Geological Museum, Cairo Alexandria Aquarium Museum, Alexandria === Ethiopia === Zoological Natural History Museum, Addis Ababa === Kenya === Kitale Museum, Kitale National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi === Mozambique === Museu de História Natural de Moçambique, Maputo === Namibia === National Earth Science Museum, Geological Survey of Namibia, Windhoek === Nigeria === Natural History Museum, OAU, Ifẹ, located at the Obafemi Awolowo University === South Africa === Albany Museum, Grahamstown Amathole Museum, King William's Town Bleloch Geological Museum, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Wits Life Sciences Museum, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg CP Nel Museum, Oudtshoorn Natural Science Museum, Durban Iziko


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-1.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Singapore === Science Centre Singapore Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum === Taiwan === Insect Science Museum, Taipei National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung National Museum of Taiwan History, Tainan City National Taiwan Museum, Taipei City National Chiayi University Insect Museum, Chiayi City === Thailand === Thailand National Science Museum, Pathum Thani Chulalongkorn University Museum of Natural History, Bangkok Chulalongkorn University's Geological Museum, Bangkok Chulalongkorn University's Traditional Medicine Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Mollusk Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Mosquito Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Bio-Geo Path, Bangkok Rattanakosin Natural History Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Veterinarical Anatomy Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Pathology Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Kasetsart University's Ant Museum, Bangkok Kasetsart University's Zoological Museum, Bangkok Kasetsart University Museum of Fisheries (Natural History), Bangkok Kasetsart University's 60th Anniversary Museum and Park of Insects, Bangkok Lichen Museum, Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok Bangkok Butterfly and Insect Park, Bangkok Dusit Zoo Museum, Bangkok Soil Museum, Bangkok Geological Museum, Bangkok Horn and Antler Museum, Bangkok Biological Science Museum at Faculaty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai Chiang Mai University's Geological Museum, Chiang Mai Museum of World Insects and Natural Heritages, Chiang Mai Lignite Learning Centre Museum, Lampang King Mongkut Memeorail Park of Science and Technology, Prachuap


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-2.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Croatia === Croatian Natural History Museum, Zagreb (Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej) Dubrovnik Natural History Museum, Dubrovnik Hunting Museum, Zagreb Karlovac Municipal Museum, Karlovac Museum of Evolution and Prehistoric Human Habitation, Krapina Museum of Slavonia, Osijek Mushroom Museum, Zagreb Natural History Museum, Rijeka Natural History Museum and Zoo, Split Ornithological Collection, Metković Senj City Museum, Senj Varazdin Municipal Museum: The Herzer Palace, Varaždin Zoological Museum of Baranja – Kopačevo, Baranja – Kopačevo === Czech Republic === Moravian Museum, Brno National Museum (Prague), Prague Chlupáč's Museum of the History of Earth, Prague Městské muzeum Čáslav, Čáslav === Denmark === Copenhagen Amber Museum, Copenhagen Natural History Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen Fossil and Mo-clay Museum, near Sejerslev (northern Mors Island) Fur Museum, Nederby (on Fur Island) GeoCenter Møns Klint, Borre (eastern Møn) Gram Natural History Museum, Gram Museum of Evolution at Knuthenborg Safaripark, Bandholm NaturBornholm, Aakirkeby Naturhistorisk Museum, Aarhus Naturama, Svendborg Stevns Klint Experience, Rødvig Wadden Sea Centre, Vester Vedsted (near Ribe) === Estonia === Estonian Museum of Natural History, Tallinn Ice Age Centre, Tartu University of Tartu Natural History Museum, Tartu === Finland === Finnish Museum of Natural History, Helsinki Geological Museum, University of Oulu, Oulu Mineralogical Museum of the Geological Survey of


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-3.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Italy === Museo Civico Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi, Bergamo University Museums, University of Bologna, Bologna Museo della Preistoria Luigi Donini, San Lazzaro di Savena, Bologna Museo del Fossile del Monte Baldo, Brentonico, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Carmagnola, Piedmont Museo Civico Comunale di Comiso, Sicily Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Ferrara, Ferrara Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze, University of Florence, Florence Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria, Genoa Museo di Storia Naturale della Maremma, Grosseto Museo di Storia Naturale del Mediterraneo, Livorno Museo di Scienze Naturali, Lodi, Lombardy Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, Milan Zoological Museum of Naples, Naples Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia, University of Padua, Padua Museo per la Storia dell'Università, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Storia Naturale, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Archeologia, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Mineralogia, University of Pavia, Pavia Natural History Museum, Pisa Museo Geologico delle Dolomiti, Predazzo, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Museo Civico di Zoologia di Roma, Rome Geological Museum, Rome Museo Civico Rovereto, Rovereto Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali, Saint-Pierre Museo di Storia Naturale, Sulmona Museo di Storia Naturale Bios Taras, Taranto Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, Trento Museo Civico di Storia


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-4.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spain === Cau del Cargol Conquilles del Món (Shells of the World Museum, malacology), Catalonia Institut Paleontològic Dr. M. Crusafont, Sabadell Museo de Ciencias de Arnedo (Museum of Science Arnedo), Arnedo Museo de Ciencias Naturales, Álava Museu de Ciències Naturals, Barcelona Museo de Ciencias Naturales (Guadalcazar) and Mocha Tower, Córdoba Museo Geominero, Madrid Museo Municipal de Ciencias Naturales (Municipal Museum of Natural Science), Valencia Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid Museo Paleontologico de la Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza Museu de Ciencies Naturals de Costix, Mallorca Museu de Granollers Ciències Naturals, Granollers Museu de les Papallones de Catalunya, Lleida Museu Geològic del Seminari de Barcelona, Barcelona Museu Montsia, Amposta Museu Valencià d'Història Natural – Fundación Entomológica Torres Sala, Valencia Museum of Zoology, University of Navarra, Pamplona === Sweden === Biologiska Museet (Biological Museum), Djurgården, Stockholm Gotland Museum (Gotlands museum), Visby Geological Museum Villa Heidelberg, Klimpfjäll Göteborg Natural History Museum (Göteborgs Naturhistoriska Museum), Gothenburg Malmö Museums – Natural History Museum, Malmö Lund University Zoology Museum (Lunds Universitet Zoologiska museet), Lund Museum of Evolution, Uppsala University (Evolutions Museet Uppsala Universitet), Uppsala Swedish Museum of Natural History (Naturhistoriska riksmuseet), Stockholm Swedish Amber Museum, Höllviken === Switzerland === Musée cantonal de géologie (Cantonal Museum


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-5.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ontario ==== 1000 Islands History Museum, Gananoque Aquatarium, Brockville Arkona Lions Museum, Arkona Ball's Falls Centre for Conservation, Ball's Falls, Ontario Bonnechere Museum, Bonnechere Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa Dynamic Earth, Sudbury Entomica Insectarium, Sault Ste. Marie Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto The Earth Sciences Museum, University of Waterloo, Waterloo The Miller Museum of Geology, Queen's University at Kingston Museum of Northern History, Kirkland Lake The Niagara Falls Museum, Niagara Falls Pelee Island Heritage Centre, Pelee Science North, Greater Sudbury Stones 'N Bones Museum, Sarnia ==== Quebec ==== Lake Timiskaming Fossil Centre, Quebec City Montreal Biosphere, Montreal Montreal Insectarium, Montreal Musée de la Nature et des Sciences, Sherbrooke Musee du Fjord, La Baie Musée de Paléontologie et de l'Evolution, Montreal Musée Minéralogique d'Asbestos, Asbestos Musée minèralogique et minier de Thetford Mines, Thetford Mines Redpath Museum, Montreal Sherbrooke Nature and Science Museum, Sherbrooke ==== Saskatchewan ==== Abernethy Nature-Heritage Museum, Abernethy Ancient Echoes Interpretive Center, Herschel Museum of Natural Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon Royal Saskatchewan Museum, Regina T.rex Discovery Centre, Eastend ==== Yukon ==== Kluane Museum of Natural History, Burwash Landing Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre, Whitehorse === Mexico === Caracol, Museo de Ciencias de Ensenada, Ensenada Museo de Geología UNAM, Mexico


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-6.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Brazil === Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia – USP, São Paulo, SP Museu de Ciências Naturais – PUC MINAS, Belo Horizonte, MG Museu Entomológico Fritz Plaumann, Santa Catarina Museu Geológico Valdemar Lefèvre, São Paulo, SP Museu de Geociências – USP, São Paulo, SP Museu de História Natural de Taubaté, Taubaté Museu de Historia Natural Capão da Imbuia Wood, Curitiba Museu Nacional, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém Museu de Rochas, Minerais e Minérios – USP, São Paulo, SP Museum of Veterinary Anatomy FMVZ USP, São Paulo Museu de Zoologia da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo state Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo === Chile === Chilean National Museum of Natural History, Santiago Museo de Historia Natural de Valparaiso, Región de Valparaiso Museo de Historia Natural de Concepción, Región del Biobío === Colombia === Museo de Historia Natural, Popayán Museo La Salle, Bogotá Museo Prehistórico National University of Colombia, Bogotá: Museo de Historia Natural (Museum of Natural History) Museo Entomológico (Museum of Entomology) Museo Paleontológico (Museum of Paleontology) Botanic Garden Medellín === Ecuador === Gustavo Orcés V. Natural History Museum, Quito === Guyana === Guyana National Museum, Georgetown === Paraguay


id: alaska-museum-of-science-and-nature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Museum_of_Science_and_Nature-0.md
category: reference
title: Alaska Museum of Science and Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Museum_of_Science_and_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:39.618711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alaska-museum-of-science-and-nature-20260505-0
summary:
The Alaska Museum of Science and Nature (AKSCI) is a natural history museum in Anchorage, Alaska. It is known for its collection of fossils. == History == The museum initially opened in 1994, in a shopping mall in the Eagle River community of Anchorage. By 2015, it had moved to its own building in the Mountain View neighborhood. == Exhibits == The museum has six main exhibits: Dinosaurs of Darkness, Alaska Marine Life, Birds of a Feather, Bare Bones, Ice Age Alaska, and Rocks & Minerals. The Dinosaurs exhibit contains skeletons and reproductions of dinosaurs such as Hadrosaurs, Ceratopsians, Albertosaurus, and raptors. The Marine Life exhibit shows off whalebones and skulls and a full skeleton of a beluga whale. The birds exhibit contains a rookery with a variety of bird species, and the bones exhibit contains replicas of human bones and compares them to animal ones. The Ice Age exhibit displays models of animals from the Pleistocene, such as American lions and saber-toothed tigers. The rocks exhibit shows off fluorescent and multi-colored minerals, meteorites, and fossils from the prehistoric forest in Sutton. The museum contains several life-sized dinosaur paintings by local artist James Haven. == References == == External links


id: anthropos-pavilion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropos_Pavilion-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropos Pavilion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropos_Pavilion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:40.809214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropos-pavilion-20260505-0
summary:
Anthropos (or Anthropos Pavilion, from the Greek Άνθρωπος, human or man) is a museum located in the city of Brno, South Moravia, Czech Republic. The museum is a part of the Moravské zemské muzeum (Moravian Museum). It focuses on exhibitions presenting the oldest history of Europe and mankind. In a 2009 exhibition, the museum presented the most important art works of the Paleolithic era, such as Venus of Willendorf (exhibited for the first time outside of Austria) and Venus of Dolní Věstonice. == Basic characteristics == The museum is situated on the right bank of the river Svratka, in the cadastral municipality of Pisárky in the western part of Brno. It consists of a permanent, three-part exhibition presenting the oldest history of human settlement in Moravia and Europe and of temporary exhibitions. The permanent exhibition includes a life-size model of mammoth. == History == In 1928, during an exhibition of the contemporary culture held at the Brno Exhibition Centre, the archaeologist Karel Absolon presented the findings of the oldest history of human settlements in a solo exhibition called Člověk a jeho rod (Man and his Ancestry). The exhibition was supported by the first Czechoslovak president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and by


id: bangladesh-national-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_National_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Bangladesh National Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_National_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:41.955974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bangladesh-national-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Bangladesh National Museum (Bengali: বাংলাদেশ জাতীয় জাদুঘর, romanized: Bānlādēśa Jātīẏa Jādughara) is the national repository of Bangladesh's cultural and historical artifacts, located in the Shahbag area of Dhaka. The museum was established on 20 March 1913, under the name Dhaka Museum, and was formally inaugurated on 7 August 1913. With an initial collection of 379 objects, it was opened to the public on 25 August 1914. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the institution was reorganized under the name Bangladesh National Museum, incorporating various parts of the former Dhaka Museum, and was formally inaugurated in its present form in 1983. The museum has departments of ethnography and decorative art, history and classical art, natural history, and world civilization. Artifacts from the prehistoric era to contemporary history are displayed here, which include over 50,000 ancient and medieval coins, Buddhist sculptures from the Gandhara period, and exhibits related to the 1971 Liberation War. == History == In 1855, the Asiatic Society of Bengal proposed establishing a museum in Dhaka, but it was postponed due to logistical constraints. Later, in 1907, this initiative re-emerged among the elite class of Dhaka. Following this, on 20 March 1913, the Dhaka Museum was formally


id: belarusian-nature-and-environment-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Nature_and_Environment_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Belarusian Nature and Environment Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Nature_and_Environment_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:43.122911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: belarusian-nature-and-environment-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Nature and Environment of the Republic of Belarus (Belarusian: Музей прыроды і экалогіі Рэспублікі Беларусь, romanized: Muzey pryrody i ekalogii Respubliki Byelarus) is a museum in Minsk, Belarus, founded in 1991 at Minsk on the basis of the nature of Belarusian National History and Culture Museum. There are more than 40 thousand exhibits inside an exposition area of 350 m2. In the 6 thematic rooms (mineralogical, fenalagichny, nature, river, lake, forest) exhibits tell about the natural riches of the evolution of flora and fauna from antiquity to the present day. == Gallery == == External links == Official website


id: beni-abbes-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beni_Abbes_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Beni Abbes Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beni_Abbes_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:44.315522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beni-abbes-museum-20260505-0
summary:
Beni Abbes Museum, also known as Béni Abbès Museum (Arabic: متحف بني عباس, romanized: Matḥaf Banī ʻAbbās) is an art museum located in oasis town of Beni Abbes, Béchar Province, Algeria. It is "a resource dedicated to desert fauna, fossils and Algerian arts and crafts." == Displays == Béni Abbès Museum is popular in Algeria. It is supported by the Saharan Research Center. The museum houses displays desert fauna, fossils and traditional arts and crafts, such as carpets, wall hangings, ceramic items, woodcarvings and jewelry. The museum, which is supported by the Saharan Research Center, displays an extensive range of different types of dates. Dates are one of the mainstay crops of oasis towns and villages in Algeria. == Myth == The oasis of Beni Abbes has its own myth. Local people claim that: “The spring which waters this lush oasis came about as a miracle. It is said that a traveler pushed his walking-stick into the ground, declaring that if he should die in this place, water would come out of the ground. He apparently died the following night, possibly due to lack of water, and the spring began to flow, continuing to do so to this day”. ==


id: biblical-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Biblical Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:45.519755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biblical-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Biblical Museum of Natural History (Hebrew: מוזיאון הטבע התנ"כי, romanized: Muzeyum haTeva haTanakhi), currently located in Hartuv at the entrance to Beit Shemesh, Israel, was founded in 2014 by Rabbi Dr. Natan Slifkin, affectionately referred to as the "Zoo Rabbi." == Vision and purpose == The establishment describes itself as "part natural history museum, part zoo" and is meant to "enhance the appreciation and understanding of biblical scripture and Jewish tradition via the natural world." Visitors are able to gain insight into the animals that lived in Israel during biblical times even if they no longer exist there now, such as bears and crocodiles. Visitors to the museum are currently directed by special tour by appointment only. Features include live animal, taxidermy and skeleton exhibits, as well as audio/visual presentations. Tour topics include unraveling incidents of misidentification of animals by biblical scholars of species mentioned in both the Five Books of Moses and the Talmud due to their lack of familiarity with different families that are not represented in places like Europe, where much of the Jewish medieval biblical commentary was written. == History == In 2017 the Museum held a "Feast of Exotic Curiosities," at which foods including


id: biomuseo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomuseo-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomuseo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomuseo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:46.661955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomuseo-20260505-0
summary:
Biomuseo is a museum focused on the natural history of Panama, whose isthmus was formed very recently in geologic time, with major impact on the ecology of the Western Hemisphere. Located on the Amador Causeway in Panama City, Panama, it was designed by renowned architect Frank Gehry. This is Gehry's first design for Latin America. The design was conceived in 1999 and the museum opened on 2 October 2014. The Biomuseo highlights Panama's natural and cultural history, emphasizing the role of humans in the 21st century. Its galleries tell the story of how the rise of the isthmus of Panama changed the world. == Location == Biomuseo is located in Amador, also known as Causeway, at the south entrance of the Panama Canal. Visitors can get there via taxi or bus. == The building and its galleries == With 4,000 square meters, the Biomuseo has eight galleries for its permanent exhibits, designed in sequence by Bruce Mau Design. The museum also has a public atrium, a space for temporary exhibits, a gift store, a coffee shop and exterior exhibits in a botanical garden designed by Edwina von Gal. On October 2, 2014, the Biomuseo opened the first five galleries to


id: b-tov-castle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bítov_Castle-0.md
category: reference
title: Bítov Castle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bítov_Castle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:47.958468+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: b-tov-castle-20260505-0
summary:
Bítov Castle (Czech: Hrad Bítov, German: Schloss Vöttau) is a castle on a steep promontory towering above the meandering River Želetavka, near the Vranov reservoir, in the village of Bítov, some 25 kilometres (16 mi) northwest of Znojmo, Czech Republic. Built in the 11th century, Bítov is one of the oldest and largest Moravian castles. == History == A Přemyslid fortified settlement originally stood on the site and included the Chapel of Our Lady (Kostelík Panny Marie). The fort was rebuilt in the first half of the 13th century as an impregnable Gothic castle guarding the southern boundaries of the Přemyslid lands. In the 14th century a new inner ward was built along with Late Gothic fortifications. The Lords of Bítov became the new owners of the castle and based themselves here for four centuries. They carried out further improvements to the defensive capabilities of the castle. Bítov finally underwent Baroque remodelling, and gained its present form at the beginning of the 19th century, when it passed into the hands of the Counts of Daun. The descendants of Marshal Daun, the famous military leader, rebuilt the castle in the spirit of the Romantic style. Between 1811 and 1845 the richly


id: botanical-garden-and-zoo-of-asunci-n-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Garden_and_Zoo_of_Asunción-0.md
category: reference
title: Botanical Garden and Zoo of Asunción
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Garden_and_Zoo_of_Asunción
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:49.175308+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-and-zoo-of-asunci-n-20260505-0
summary:
The Botanical Garden and Zoo of Asunción (Spanish: Jardín Botánico y Zoológico de Asunción) is a botanical garden and zoo located in Asunción, capital of the Republic of Paraguay. The Botanical Garden and Zoo is one of the principal open spaces of the city of Asunción, set in natural forest covering 110 hectares (270 acres) to the north of the city. The zoo is home to nearly seventy species of wildlife including birds, mammals and reptiles, mostly representing the fauna of South America. The botanical garden is home to native species, exhibiting, in particular, the variety and beauty of its lush trees. == History == This sprawling property was the former country house and estate of Carlos Antonio López, president of Paraguay between 1842 and 1862. Lopez ordered the construction of "Casa Lopez" as his home in the 1840s. Besides its historical value, the main building is very representative of the era in which it was built, in terms of technology, architecture and decoration, and is registered in the "Catalogue of Buildings and Sites of Urban Planning, architectural, Historical and Artistic Heritage of the city of Asunción", and specially protected by Law 946/82 "Protection of Cultural Property". In 1896, Lopez's


id: botanical-garden-and-zoo-of-asunci-n-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Garden_and_Zoo_of_Asunción-1.md
category: reference
title: Botanical Garden and Zoo of Asunción
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Garden_and_Zoo_of_Asunción
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:49.175308+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-and-zoo-of-asunci-n-20260505-0
summary:
African lion (Panthera leo ) Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) Jaguar (Panthera onca) Puma (Puma concolor) Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi ) Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) Crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) Ring-tailed coati (Nasua nasua) Tayra (Eira barbara) Fallow deer (Dama dama) Gray brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira) Domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) White-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) Tapir (Tapirus terrestris) Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana) Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) Common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Black-headed spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps) Azara's night monkey(Aotus azarae) Black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya)) Azaras's capuchin (Sapajus cay paraguayanus) ==== Birds ==== Birds at the zoo include: Chaco eagle or Crowned solitary eagle (Harpyhaliaetus coronatus) Common rhea (Rhea americana) Red-and-green macaw (Ara chloroptera) Monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis) Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria) southern crested caracara (Caracara plancus) Southern screamer (Chauna torquata) Nanday parakeet (Aratinga nenday) black vulture or American black vulture(Coragyps atratus) Barn owl (Tyto (sp.)) Burrowing parrot or Patagonian conure (Cyanoliseus patagonus) Blue-fronted amazon (Amazona aestiva) Blue-winged macaw (Primolius maracana) Vinaceous-breasted amazon (Amazona vinacea) Striped owl (Asio clamator) Spectacled owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata) Toco toucan


id: bournemouth-natural-science-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_Natural_Science_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Bournemouth Natural Science Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_Natural_Science_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:50.347678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bournemouth-natural-science-society-20260505-0
summary:
Bournemouth Natural Science Society is a historic museum in Bournemouth, Dorset, England. == History == The building was constructed circa 1865. The museum holds collections covering Natural History, Geology, Egyptology and Archaeology. In 2019, a project began to restore a lantern roof light. == See also == List of museums in Dorset == References ==


id: croatian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Croatian Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:51.545007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: croatian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Croatian Natural History Museum (Croatian: Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej) is the oldest and biggest natural history museum and the main body for natural history research, preservation and collection in Croatia. Located on Dimitrije Demeter Street in Gornji Grad, one of the oldest neighbourhoods of the Croatian capital Zagreb, it owns one of the biggest museum collections in Croatia, with over 2 million artefacts, including over 1.1 million animal specimens. It was founded in 1846 as the "National Museum". The National Museum was later split up into five museums, three of which were in 1986 merged as departments of the newly named Croatian Natural History Museum. The museum contains a large scientific library open to the public, and publishes the first Croatian natural history scientific journal, Natura Croatica. The permanent display of the Croatian Natural History Museum consists of mineralogical, petrographical and zoological collections, as well as two permanent exhibits in the atrium: the Rock Map of Croatia and the Geological Pole. It is home to the remains of the Neanderthal from Krapina. In 2021, the museum was closed pending the completion of reconstruction following the 2020 Zagreb earthquake, and then reopened in 2024. == History == The history of the


id: croatian-natural-history-museum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum-1.md
category: reference
title: Croatian Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:51.545007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: croatian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The museum is divided into Mineralogical–Petrographical, Geological–Palaeontological, Zoological and Botanical Departments. The first three are successors to the National Museum's 19th-century offspring museums, while the Botanical Department was established in 1990. The museum's holdings number over 2 million rocks, minerals, fossils, and other artefacts collected all over the country. The zoological collection consists of 1,135,000 animal specimens, including a tissue bank for DNA analysis. It also holds the remains of the Neanderthal man found near Krapina by Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger, a former director of the National Museum. The original remains are held in the museum's vault, while a replica is being exhibited in the Krapina museum. The museum's permanent display encompasses mineralogical and petrographical collections, as well as a collection of animals, the bulk of which dates back to the 19th century. The zoological collection is on the second floor of the museum. It includes the skeleton of a Mediterranean monk seal, a basking shark native to the Adriatic Sea and an Atlantic puffin, a bird today native to the Arctic area, which is believed to have nested in the Adriatic in the 19th century. The mineralogical and petrographical collections are divided into three exhibitions. "From a Collection to a Museum"


id: cyprus-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Cyprus Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:52.711815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyprus-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Cyprus Museum of Natural History (Greek: Κυπριακό Μουσείο Φυσικής Ιστορίας, romanized: Kypriakó Mouseío Fysikís Istorías) is a natural history museum on the outskirts of Nicosia, Cyprus. The museum was founded by the Photos Photiades Charity, Scientific and Cultural Foundation, and is the largest museum of its kind in Cyprus. Its approximately 2,500 exhibits include various embalmed animals including mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and insects. It also includes rocks, minerals, semi-precious stones, shells, and fossils, showcasing the region's geological history and evolution over millions of years. == References == == External links == Museum website


id: dead-sea-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Dead Sea Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:53.867630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-sea-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Dead Sea Museum (Arabic: متحف البحر الميت, romanized: Matḥaf al-Baḥr al-Mayyit) is a history and natural history museum located in the Maeen subdistrict, Jordan. The museum is dedicated to showing the history of the Dead Sea and how civilizations developed around it. == History == Among the intentions for the creation was to promote tourism, and to facilitate the public to learn more about how the Dead Sea is constituted. The museum aims to raise awareness about the conservation of the Dead Sea. The construction of the museum was funded by the Japan International Cooperation Agency. The museum first opened in 2006, and is Jordan's first natural history museum. In 2015, for International Museum Day, educational activities for students from the South Jordan Valley were organized in this place. == Collections == The museum contains collections of rocks and minerals The museum exhibits are divided into four sections First section: The geology of the Dead Sea, as well as its formation. Second section: The study of the Dead Sea ecosystem. Third section: The human impact on the Dead Sea as well as the benefits that the existence of this sea has brought to the civilizations of the Middle East.


id: dippy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippy-0.md
category: reference
title: Dippy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:55.062702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dippy-20260505-0
summary:
Dippy is a composite Diplodocus skeleton. The original skeleton is in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Natural History, and the holotype of the species Diplodocus carnegii. It is considered the most famous single dinosaur skeleton in the world, due to the numerous plaster casts donated by Andrew Carnegie to several major museums around the world at the beginning of the 20th century. One well known cast in the United Kingdom was displayed at the Natural History Museum in London from 1905 until 2017. The casting and distribution of the skeleton made the word dinosaur a household word; for millions of people it became the first dinosaur they had ever seen. It was also responsible for the subsequent popularity of the entire genus Diplodocus, since the skeleton has been on display in more places than any other sauropod dinosaur. Its discovery was catalyzed by the announcement of the excavation of a large thigh bone (unrelated to Dippy) by William Reed near Medicine Bow, Wyoming in December 1898. On a return trip financed by Carnegie, Reed excavated Sheep Creek Quarry D in which he found the first part of Dippy's skeleton, a toe bone, on July 4, 1899. Its discovery on Independence Day,


id: dippy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippy-1.md
category: reference
title: Dippy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:55.062702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dippy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early history === The London cast of Dippy came about when King Edward VII, then a keen trustee of the British Museum, saw a sketch of the bones at Carnegie's Scottish home, Skibo Castle, in 1902, and Carnegie agreed to donate a cast to the Natural History Museum as a gift. Carnegie paid £2,000 for the casting in plaster of paris, copying the original fossil bones held by the Carnegie Museum (not mounted until 1907, as a new museum building was still being constructed to house it).The 292 cast pieces of the skeleton were sent to London in 36 crates, and the 25.6 metres (84 ft) long exhibit was unveiled on May 12, 1905, to great public and media interest, with speeches from the museum director Professor Ray Lankester, Andrew Carnegie, Lord Avebury on behalf of the trustees, the director of the Carnegie Museum William Jacob Holland, and finally the geologist Sir Archibald Geikie. The cast was mounted in the museum's Reptile Gallery to the left of the main hall (until recently the gallery of Human Biology) as it was too large to display in the Fossil Marine Reptile Gallery (to the right of the main hall). Dippy was


id: estonian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Estonian Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:56.201383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: estonian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Estonian Museum of Natural History (EMNH; Estonian: Eesti Loodusmuuseum) is the Estonian national museum for natural history. It is situated in Tallinn's Old Town. The museum focuses on natural history and nature education, offering its visitors a tour in the wilderness of Estonia. == History == The origins of the museum goes back to the Estonian Literary Society's museum founded in 1842 and renamed to the Provincial Museum in 1864. This museum was active in exploring the natural sciences, an area that increased in significance at the museum in 1872 when Alexander von der Pahlen (1820–1895) began to contribute to the collection. Pahlen was later elected chairman and under his leadership the collection continued to grow. As the collection grew, a new building on Kohtu Street was purchased in 1911 to house it. During World War I, due to passive resistance, the museum's collection were not moved to Russia. The Provincial Museum continued to operate under the Arts and Heritage Department of the Minister of Education and Research but changed its name to the Museum of the Estonian Literary Society in 1926. After the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Baltic-German institutions, including the Estonian Literary Society, were closed. In 1940, through the


id: gozo-nature-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gozo_Nature_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Gozo Nature Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gozo_Nature_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:57.428881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gozo-nature-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Gozo Nature Museum, formerly known as the Natural Science Museum, is a museum in Victoria, on the island of Gozo, Malta. Open to public since 1991, the museum is housed in a group of houses in the Cittadella, the oldest part of the city. These houses date back to various ages: the older one, which was an inn, to 1495; the other to the 17th century. The Natural Science Museum shows collections "relating to the Island’s geology, minerals, marine life, insects, local habitats and ecosystems" as well as national plants (including the Maltese Rock Centaury), human and animal evolution. During later years, this building was used as an inn for visitors, and is mentioned in Thomas McGill’s “Handbook, or Guide, for Strangers visiting Malta” of 1839, and described as: an excellent house of entertainment offering clean and comfortable beds and reasonably-priced dinners. During World War II the building served as a shelter for families during aerial bombings. The buildings which house the museum are listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands. == See also == List of museums in Malta == References == == External links == Official website museum on Official Malta


id: guatemalan-national-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemalan_National_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Guatemalan National Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemalan_National_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:58.616369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: guatemalan-national-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Guatemalan National Natural History Museum (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural 'Jorge A. Ibarra') is a national natural history museum in Guatemala City, Guatemala. It was founded in 1950 and moved to its present facility in 1986. It was renamed in honor of its founder and long-term director, Jorge A. Ibarra. == References == == External links == Official website


id: gustavo-orc-s-v-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavo_Orcés_V._Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Gustavo Orcés V. Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavo_Orcés_V._Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:59.747039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gustavo-orc-s-v-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
Gustavo Orcés V. Natural History Museum (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural Gustavo Orcés V.) is a natural history museum in Quito, Ecuador. It was established in 2005. == Background == From the eighteenth century European naturalists came to Ecuador for scientific expeditions, during which they collected specimens of flora, fauna, rocks and fossils. In the early twentieth century, Franz Spillmann brought together a collection of fossils, which formed the "Cabinet of Natural Sciences" of the Central University. Later, in 1946, Robert Hoffstetter and Gustavo Orcés founded the Department of Biology at the National Polytechnic School, and made numerous paleontological expeditions, particularly in the Santa Elena peninsula. Hoffstetter’s extensive work and organization formed the basis of the modern museum. == References ==


id: hasanbey-zardabi-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasanbey_Zardabi_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Hasanbey Zardabi Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasanbey_Zardabi_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:00.908048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hasanbey-zardabi-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Hasanbey Zardabi Natural History Museum (Azerbaijani: Həsən bəy Zərdabi adına Təbiət Tarixi Muzeyi) is a natural history museum in Baku, Azerbaijan. The museum bears the name of Hasan bey Zardabi, an Azerbaijani journalist and intellectual, and founder of the first Azeri-language newspaper Akinchi ("The Ploughman") in 1875. The museum has two departments: a geology department that has samples of metallic and nonmetallic natural resources and minerals and rocks of Azerbaijan and a zoology department. The general collection of the museum numbers more than 1400 different items. The biological department exhibits numerous skeletons and fragments of animal bones found during field work and treated by researchers. The oldest exhibit is the teeth of an ichthyosaur from the Cretaceous period, more than 120 million years old. The research activities of the Natural History Museum have developed in several directions, focused especially on paleontological sites. The main research focuses on the study of the Binagadi quaternary and the Eldar late Sarmatian hipparion faunas, Pirekishkuli Maykop vertebrate fauna, numerous sites of primitive people, as well as Azokh cave and others. In the collection of the quaternary fauna of Binagadi, there are 41 species of mammals, 110 species of birds, 2 reptiles, 1 amphibian,


id: international-inventories-programme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Inventories_Programme-0.md
category: reference
title: International Inventories Programme
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Inventories_Programme
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:02.043688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-inventories-programme-20260505-0
summary:
The International Inventories Programme (IIP) is an international research and database project for investigating objects pertaining to the cultural heritage of Kenya that are held in cultural institutions like ethnographic museums across the globe. The programme is jointly run by the National Museums of Kenya in Nairobi, the Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum in Cologne and the Weltkulturen Museum in Frankfurt a. M., both in Germany. To establish a direct relation to contemporary cultural activities both in Kenya and in Germany, the multi-disciplinary arts groups The Nest Collective (Kenya) and SHIFT Collective in Germany and France are further members of the IIP. - The programme and its projects are supported by the Goethe-Institut - German cultural centre in Kenya - and the German Federal Cultural Foundation. == Background and international cooperation == The IIP was publicly launched in 2018, and was described by Quartz Africa magazine as "a movement to investigate the cultural artifacts stolen and kept outside the country’s borders (...) exploring where in the West they are actually housed, who holds the agency to demand their repatriation, and how their historical and cultural legacy can be harnessed for sustainable and creative development.” As much of Kenya's cultural heritage is inaccessible both


id: kitale-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitale_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Kitale Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitale_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:03.196256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kitale-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Kitale Museum is a regional museum located in Kitale, Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya. Operating under the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) network, it holds the distinction of being the first regional museum to be integrated into the national system. In February 2024, it became the first national museum in the country to transition to the management of a county government under the Kenya devolution framework. While it maintains a technical partnership with the NMK, the facility is currently managed by the Trans-Nzoia County Government, which oversees its daily operations, budget, and staff. The museum originated from the private collection of Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Stoneham established in 1926 and was officially nationalized in 1974. It features natural history exhibitions and ethnographic displays including traditional Kenyan homesteads. Following Stoneham's death in 1966, the collection was bequeathed to the Kenyan government on the condition that a permanent museum be established in Kitale. In 1974, the facility was officially nationalized and opened to the public as the first regional branch of the NMK. Today, the museum is notable for its outdoor exhibits of traditional homesteads representing the Luhya, Maasai, and Kalenjin cultures, as well as a nature trail through a protected riverine known as


id: latvian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Latvian Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:04.336595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: latvian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Latvian National Museum of Natural History (Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālais dabas muzejs) is a natural history museum in Riga, Latvia. It was founded in 1845 as the Riga Naturalist Society (German: Naturforscherverein zu Riga). The museum contains the following Departments: Custodial Botany Zoology Geology and Palaeontology Technological Support Communications Administration == External links == Official site


id: lebanese-marine-and-wildlife-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Marine_and_Wildlife_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Marine_and_Wildlife_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:05.545747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lebanese-marine-and-wildlife-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum (Arabic: المتحف اللبناني للحياة البحرية و البرية, al-matḥaf al-lubnani lil-hayat al-bahriya wa al-bariya) is a zoological museum in Jeita. Its goals are to study Lebanon's ecosystem, encourage preservation, and maintain a scientific archive of Lebanon's wildlife and the Mediterranean marine life. == History == The Museum was first opened in Tyre in 2001. == Collections == The Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum has over 2000 species with over 5000 specimen. The museum currently contains 6 Exhibits: === Mammals === Displaying over 30 of Lebanon's mammals which once roamed freely the forests of Lebanon, most of which are now critically endangered, due to deforestation, indiscriminate hunting and habitat destruction. === Birds === The Museum Has over 200 species of birds === Reptiles === over 20 species of lizards and 30 species of snakes === Minerals, Gems and Fossils === over 300 specimens of minerals and gems === Seashells === The seashell collections contains over 200 seashell species from the Mediterranean and over 300 of the largest seashells from around the world. === Marine life === This display contains over 40 species sharks, in additions to fish, crabs, cephalopods, crustaceans, sea turtles, dolphins and a monk


id: lee-kong-chian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Kong_Chian_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Kong_Chian_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:06.718966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lee-kong-chian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum (LKCNHM; Malay: Muzium Sejarah Alamiah Lee Kong Chian, Chinese: 李光前自然历史博物馆; pinyin: Lǐguāngqián zìrán lìshǐ bówùguǎn) is a museum of natural history at the Kent Ridge Campus of the National University of Singapore. It is named after Lee Kong Chian, a prominent Chinese businessman and philanthropist active in Malaya and Singapore between the 1930s and the 1960s. It was officially opened on 18 April 2015. The idea for a natural history collection was first mooted by Sir Stamford Raffles, and the collection of Southeast Asian biodiversity was begun in 1849 at the Raffles Museum (now the National Museum of Singapore). In 1972, the Government of Singapore removed the natural history collections from the National Museum and gave them to the Zoology Department of what was then the University of Singapore. They were housed in various temporary premises, including the Nanyang Technological University for seven years. Subsequently, they were returned to the NUS and housed in the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. LKCNHM inherited the natural history collections from the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. The Museum currently has more than 560,000 catalogued lots in its collection and over a million specimens from throughout the


id: list-of-sites-and-monuments-in-kenya-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sites_and_monuments_in_Kenya-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sites and monuments in Kenya
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sites_and_monuments_in_Kenya
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:07.992336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sites-and-monuments-in-kenya-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sites and monuments of historic value that are maintained by the National Museums of Kenya. == Historic sites == == See also == List of museums in Kenya == References == == External links == Hassan, Mohamed (27 April 2019). "NMK Seek More Funds To Protect Historical Sites, Monuments". Kenya News Agency. Retrieved 11 October 2010. "Overview". Kenya Wildlife Service. Retrieved 11 October 2010.


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-luxembourg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Luxembourg-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History, Luxembourg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Luxembourg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:09.168043+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-luxembourg-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History (Luxembourgish: Nationalmusée fir Naturgeschicht, French: Musée national d'histoire naturelle, German: Nationalmuseum für Naturgeschichte) is a natural history museum in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. The museum is located in the Grund quarter on the eastern bank of the Alzette river, next to the Neumünster Abbey cultural centre. The museum is composed of eight separate scientific sections, spanning the natural sciences: botany, ecology, geology and mineralogy, geophysics and astrophysics, palaeontology, vertebrate zoology, and invertebrate zoology. == History == The Society of the Natural Sciences was established in 1850, under the patronage of Prince Henry, the newly appointed Governor of Luxembourg representing Grand Duke William III. The society's primary aim was the promotion of the natural sciences and natural history to the general population. To achieve this, the government put at the society's disposal a section of the city Athenaeum, now the National Library. Opening its doors in 1854, this area hosted a number of cabinets displaying fossil specimens, spread across three rooms. After almost four decades of this arrangement, pressure for display area caused the museum to move into its own premises, at the Vauban Barracks in Pfaffenthal, in 1892. However, these were criticised for


id: national-museum-malaysia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Malaysia)-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Malaysia)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Malaysia)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:10.309796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-malaysia-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum (Malay: Muzium Negara) is a public museum in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia dedicated to Malaysian art, culture, and history. Located on Jalan Damansara close to Perdana Lake Gardens across KL Sentral station. Its façade comprises elements from both traditional Malay and modern features. It was inaugurated on 31 August 1963. The National Museum is a three-story structure, 109.7 metres (359 ft 11 in) long and 15.1 metres (49 ft 6 in) wide, which is 37.6 metres (123 ft 4 in) high at the central point. The museum houses four main galleries allotted to ethnology and natural history (geology). The displays range from free-standing tableaux showing cultural events like weddings, festivals and costumes; to traditional weapons, musical instruments, arts and crafts, ceramics, and flora and fauna. == History == === The Old Selangor Museum === Selangor Museum was the de facto national museum pre-independence. Selangor Museum was established in 1887 as an amateur affair by colonial civil servants. It was taken over by the colonial government, and following the formation of the Federated Malay States in 1896, in 1904 it was administratively merged with the Perak Museum in Taiping as the Federated Malay States Museums under director Leonard Wray


id: national-museum-malaysia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Malaysia)-1.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Malaysia)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Malaysia)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:10.309796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-malaysia-20260505-0
summary:
Other galleries include the National Sports Gallery and the Natural History Gallery. In the vicinity of the museum building, there are a number of outdoor displays of transportation in Malaysia, past and present. The Melaka Bullock Cart exhibit closely resembles the early American horse-drawn wagon. Of unparalleled interest are the Steam Locomotive made by Kitson & Co, England, which was put into service in 1921 until it ceased operation in 1969. It covered 1.5 million rail miles; a Tin Dredge which resembles a floating factory, on a natural or artificial lake. Also on display are motorized vehicles, including antiqued civic vehicles and private vehicles, including an early 1.3 liter Proton Saga, the first national car launched on July 9, 1985. In addition, there are two monuments in the grounds: a bronze bust of King Edward VII, and a statue of Sir Frank Swettenham. National Museum also holds regular thematic exhibitions featuring specific aspects of life and world culture. === Central Hall === Adorning the floor of the Central Hall are blue geometric-design mosaic tiles from Pakistan, with intricate carved panels on the ceiling of the hall. The Central Hall houses temporary exhibitions, and thematic and special exhibitions are held at


id: marine-exhibition-center-of-punta-culebra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Exhibition_Center_of_Punta_Culebra-0.md
category: reference
title: Marine Exhibition Center of Punta Culebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Exhibition_Center_of_Punta_Culebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:11.477332+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-exhibition-center-of-punta-culebra-20260505-0
summary:
The Punta Culebra Nature Center (Spanish: Centro de Exhibiciones Marinas de Punta Culebra) is a visitor center located in Panama City, on one of the islands connected by the Amador Causeway. It is operated by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, also located in Panama. The center focuses mainly on marine and terrestrial science and education, conservation and interpretation of marine coastal environments in the tropics. Among its attractions, the Fabulous Frogs of Panama, a touch tank with equinoderms and turtles are some of the exhibits found in Punta Culebra. A trail to a stretch of tropical dry forest is also part of the attractions where free roaming animals such as raccoons, sloths, green iguanas and beautiful birds and butterflies can be found. == References == == External links == Punta Culebra Nature Center official site


id: mongolian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Mongolian Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:12.622406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mongolian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum (Mongolian: Байгалийн түүхийн музей, romanized: Baigaliin tüükhiin muzyei) is a repository and research institution located in Chingeltei, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The museum was previously known as the Mongolian National Museum or State Central Museum. The museum includes Departments of Geology, Geography, Flora and Fauna, Paleontology, and Anthropology encompassing the natural history of Mongolia. The museum's holdings include more than 15000 specimens, 45% of which were on permanent public display. The museum is particularly well known for its dinosaur and other paleontological exhibits, among which the most notable are a nearly complete skeleton of a late Cretaceous Tarbosaurus tyrannosaurid and broadly contemporaneous nests of Protoceratops eggs. == History == The museum was established in 1924 as the National Museum (Mongolian: Үндэсний музей). In 1940–1941, it became known as the Rural Research Museum (Mongolian: Орон нутаг судлах музей) and in 1956 as the State Central Museum (Mongolian: Улсын төв музей). It received its current designation after 1991. Authorities deemed the museum's 1953 building to be highly susceptible to natural disasters such as earthquakes in a study made in 2013. The museum was closed in June 2013, with its exhibits put into storage or displayed at other venues. Initial plans


id: moravsk-zemsk-muzeum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravské_zemské_muzeum-0.md
category: reference
title: Moravské zemské muzeum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravské_zemské_muzeum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:13.848491+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moravsk-zemsk-muzeum-20260505-0
summary:
Moravské zemské muzeum (English: Moravian Museum) is a museum in Brno in the Czech Republic. It is the second-largest and second-oldest museum in the country. Its collections include several million objects from many fields of science and culture. == Location == The museum's seat is located in Dietrichstein Palace in Zelný trh in the historic centre of Brno. It was built as a residence of Cardinal Franz von Dietrichstein in 1613–1616. It was rebuilt in late Baroque style at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries and become one of the largest Baroque buildings in Brno. == History == The Moravian Museum was founded in July 1817 by a decree of Emperor Francis II. Science figures such as Christian Carl André, Count Josef Auersperg, Count Hugo-František Salm-Reifferscheid, or Antonín Bedřich Mitrovský were involved in the establishment of the museum. === Beethoven score manuscript === Following the Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia, the Petschek family, a wealthy Czech Jewish family involved in banking and the mining industry, fled to the US. They attempted to send by post a prized family possession, the original score of the fourth movement of Beethoven's String Quartet No. 13. However, it was intercepted by the Gestapo.


id: museo-de-vida-silvestre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Vida_Silvestre-0.md
category: reference
title: Museo de Vida Silvestre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Vida_Silvestre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:14.999359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museo-de-vida-silvestre-20260505-0
summary:
The Museo de Vida Silvestre (in English, the Wildlife Museum) is located in San Juan, Puerto Rico. It was inaugurated on November 1, 2010, and houses more than 200 specimens in their respective habitats. The museum has garnered popularity in the island, receiving more than 100,000 visitors shortly after its first year. == Building == The Museo de Vida Silvestre is located in the John F. Kennedy Avenue in San Juan, inside a 55,000 square feet, 2-story building. The building features several environmentally friendly elements within its structure, like the installation of ivy around it, and the use of photovoltaic cells to provide partial energy to the facilities. == See also == Tourism in Puerto Rico == References == == External links == Official website (in Spanish)


id: museo-la-salle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_La_Salle-0.md
category: reference
title: Museo La Salle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_La_Salle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:16.156785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museo-la-salle-20260505-0
summary:
The Museo de Ciencias Naturales La Salle (English: Natural Science Museum La Salle) is a natural history museum in San José, Costa Rica. It consists of 3 main halls where exhibitions are organized by categories, such as insects, ichthyology, herpetology, ornithology, mammals, and anthropology. The museum was founded in 1960 by Eduardo Fernández, a science teacher at Colegio La Salle, who with the help of his students began the collection. == Exhibitions == The museum has over 65,000 pieces in exhibition, with sections like paleontology, including replicas of dinosaurs fossils, butterflies, geology and mineralogy with many minerals and rocks, and malacology with the collection of molluscs. It also has a large collection of taxidermy that includes lots of species of fish, reptiles, mammals and birds, that are well preserved thanks to the taxidermy. It has been considered as one of the most complete museums in all of Latin America. == References == == External links == Official website


id: museo-nacional-de-historia-natural-cubana-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_Nacional_de_Historia_Natural_Cubana-0.md
category: reference
title: Museo Nacional de Historia Natural Cubana
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_Nacional_de_Historia_Natural_Cubana
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:17.347002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museo-nacional-de-historia-natural-cubana-20260505-0
summary:
The Museo Nacional de Historia Natural Cubana or Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Cuba in Havana, Cuba is the national museum of Natural History, with exhibits of Cuba's plants and animals. It is located in a former U.S. embassy building. == History == The museum has origins going back before the Cuban revolution. The Museo Cubana de Ciencias Naturales existed from 1959 to 1961, and became El Museo de Ciencias 'Felipe Poey' in 1962-1980, named for Cuban zoologist Felipe Poey (1799-1891). The exhibitions were open to the public for the first time in 1964-1980. In the period 1980-1984 the museum had financial problems, but has since undergone major restructuring, first under the Ministry of Culture and, since 1992, under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment. In November 2016, the American Museum of Natural History presented the exhibit "¡Cuba!", created in collaboration with the MNHNC and featuring unique anthropological acquisitions, video, collected specimens, and live animals that are endemic to the environment of Cuba. The exhibit is considered one of the largest displays of Cuban natural history ever seen in the United States and is the first fully bilingual exhibit at AMNH. == Overview == == Address == ==


id: museum-of-natural-history-in-cabo-san-lucas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_History_in_Cabo_San_Lucas-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Natural History in Cabo San Lucas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_History_in_Cabo_San_Lucas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:18.606631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-natural-history-in-cabo-san-lucas-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Natural History in Cabo San Lucas (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural de Cabo San Lucas), also known as the Museum of the Californias (Museo de las Californias), is a natural history museum in Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur. Established in 2006 and located in the city's center, it offers exhibits on the history of Cabo and skeletons of native animals. == History == The museum first opened on 9 October 2006. The building it is in was previously the first elementary school in the city, called Article 123 of the United Nations (Artículo 123 Naciones Unidas) and it was built in 1952. The museum was originally a project run by professors at the Autonomous University of Baja California Sur, but the current curator and director, Roberto Cuétara González, took over in 2007. He viewed it as a continuation of the Old Museum of the Californias that was previously housed in the schoolbuilding. The museum has been consistently neglected, however, and, its director, Roberto Cuétara González, has had to put his own money into keeping the museum open. The museum's facade was renovated in 2019. == Exhibits == The museum has exhibits that cover paleobotany, anthropology, astronomy,


id: museum-of-natural-history-lima-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_History,_Lima-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Natural History, Lima
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_History,_Lima
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:19.780308+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-natural-history-lima-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural) in Lima, is Peru's most important museum of natural history. It was established in 1918 and belongs to the National University of San Marcos. == History == The museum was founded in 1918 by the Faculty of Sciences of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. The first director and founder of the museum was Carlos Rospigliosi. The initial personal of the museum consisted in one curator in chief, and three curators for the areas of Zoology, Botany and Mineralogy. The first scientific expedition was organized by Rospigliosi in April 1918, that collected specimens of fauna, flora and minerals from the departments of Junín and Huánuco. The second expedition was organized by the Geographic Society of Lima in 1920 that included the participation of Swedish geologist and explorer Otto Nordenskiöld. This expedition explored the highlands and foothills of the Andes in the department of Junín. In 1920, the rector of the National University of San Marcos, Dr. Javier Prado, interceded in order to acquire the collections of Antonio Raimondi for the recently created museum. These samples included zoological, botanical and mineralogical specimens. == The building == Originally, the museum was located


id: museum-of-natural-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Natural Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:20.944418+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-natural-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Natural Sciences (French: Muséum des sciences naturelles, pronounced [myzeɔm de sjɑ̃s natyʁɛl]; Dutch: Museum voor Natuurwetenschappen, pronounced [myˈzeːjʏɱ voːr naːˈtyːrˌʋeːtə(n)sxɑpə(n)]) is a museum in Brussels, Belgium, dedicated to natural history. It is a part of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (French: Institut royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique (IRSNB); Dutch: Koninklijk Belgisch Instituut voor Natuurwetenschappen (KBIN)), itself part of the institutions of the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO). The museum's Dinosaur Hall is the world's largest museum hall completely dedicated to dinosaurs. Its most important pieces are 30 fossilised Iguanodon skeletons, which were discovered in 1878 in Bernissart, Belgium. Another famous piece is the Ishango bone, which was discovered in 1960 by Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt in the Belgian Congo. The museum also houses a research department and a public exhibit department. The museum is located at 29, rue Vautier/Vautierstraat, in Leopold Park, close to the European institutions and the House of European History (HEH). This area is served by Brussels-Luxembourg railway station, as well as by the metro stations Maelbeek/Maalbeek and Schuman on lines 1 and 5. == History == The Museum of Natural Sciences was founded on 31 March 1846 as


id: museum-of-the-sea-uruguay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_the_Sea_(Uruguay)-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of the Sea (Uruguay)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_the_Sea_(Uruguay)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:22.095860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-the-sea-uruguay-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of the Sea (Spanish: Museo del Mar), opened in 1996, is a museum of natural history located in La Barra, in the department of Maldonado, Uruguay. It occupies about 2,300 m2 (25,000 sq ft) and is divided into four large halls, which are open to the public all year round. == Overview == The museum contains over 5,000 specimens of marine fauna, all of which are clearly labelled. Among these specimens are whale skeletons, sea urchins, starfish and turtle shells. In addition, there are old photographs and an old bathing machine used by women in the early days of the 20th century, as well as telescopes and blunderbusses of the period. There is also an exhibit about the most famous pirates. This huge collection of objects, exhibits, photographs and stories is the work of the museum's creator, Pablo Etchegaray. This self-taught collector began his collection of marine-related items many years ago. == Exhibit halls == The Museum of the Sea is composed of four museums in one. In the Museum of the Sea, everything is related to marine life: whale skeletons, seashells, a deep sea room, interactive exhibits, an area where children can draw their own pictures, a


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-malta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Malta-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History, Malta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Malta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:23.265094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-malta-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History (Maltese: Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Istorja Naturali) is a natural history museum in the mediaeval walled city of Mdina, Malta. It is housed in Palazzo Vilhena, a French Baroque palace rebuilt in 1726 by Grand Master Antonio Manoel de Vilhena to designs of Charles François de Mondion. The museum opened to the public in 1973, and is run by Heritage Malta. The museum gives the visitor an overview of Maltese ecosystems (both on ground and under water), focusing on endemic plants and bird of the Islands, such as the Maltese Centaury and Blue Rock Thrush. This museum display ranks a large variety of minerals, fossils, insects, reptiles, birds, mammals, fish and sections about Geology and Palaeontology. == Apollo 17 Goodwill Moon Rock == On Tuesday May 18, 2004, Malta's Apollo 17 Goodwill Moon rock was stolen from the Museum. According to an Associated Press story the Moon rock has a value of 5 million dollars (U.S), making it one of the largest valued thefts in Malta's history. The Moon rock has not been recovered. == See also == List of museums in Malta == References ==


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-of-paraguay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History_of_Paraguay-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History of Paraguay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History_of_Paraguay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:24.425321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-of-paraguay-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History of Paraguay (MNHNP), officially known as the Dirección de Investigación Biológica / Museo Nacional de Historia Natural del Paraguay (DIB/MNHNP), is a state public museum, funded by the Paraguayan government, located in San Lorenzo, Central Department, Paraguay. Its main objectives are to conserve, investigate, educate and communicate the knowledge generated through its collections, and to promote sustainable development in Paraguay. It is a fundamental institution for the study, conservation and teaching of biodiversity in Paraguay. The museum houses specialists, specimen collections, laboratories and libraries. It is open to the public during weekdays from 8AM to 14PM, free of charge. == Bulletin == The museum publishes a peer-reviewed scientific journal called "Boletín del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural del Paraguay", which features original research, reviews, and monographs in botany, zoology, paleontology, and descriptive geology. It focuses mostly on Paraguay and the Neotropical region. The journal is available freely online. == Awards == In 2020, the museum was one of 5 finalists of the Museo del Año (Museum of the Year) award, an award organised by the "Paraguayan Association of Museologists and Museum Workers". In 2021, it was one of 5 finalists and in 2022, it


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-colombo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Colombo-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History, Colombo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Colombo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:26.146219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-colombo-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History (Sinhala: ජාතික ස්වාභාවික විද්‍යා කෞතුකාගාරය, romanized: Jātika Svābhāvika Vidyā Kautukāgāraya, Tamil: தேசிய இயற்கை வரலாறு நூதனசாலை, கொழும்பு, romanized: Tēciya Iyaṟkai Varalāṟu Nūtaṉacālai, Koḻumpu) is a museum that covers the natural heritage of Sri Lanka. The museum is located closer to the National Museum of Colombo. It was established on September 23, 1986, and became only one museum in Sri Lanka that represents natural history and natural heritage. The National Museum of Natural History exhibits rare and threatened with extinction such as natural heritage of plant and animal species endemic to Sri Lanka, over 5,000 specimens of mammals, jurassic period indigenous fossils and various kinds of geological rocks. == See also == List of museums in Sri Lanka == References ==


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-uruguay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Uruguay-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History, Uruguay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Uruguay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:27.306631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-uruguay-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History (Spanish: Museo Nacional de Historia Natural or MNHN) in Montevideo is a natural history museum in Uruguay. It opened in 1838, and is the oldest scientific institution in Uruguay and one of the oldest natural history collections in the world. The museum's first permanent exhibition space is at Miguelete 1825—the former Miguelete Prison—and the scientific collections, library and administrative offices are at Calle 25 de Mayo 582 in the Old City. == History == In September 1837 the Government of Uruguay established a commission to create a library and a national museum. Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga was appointed president of the commission, but the commission itself requested that Teodoro Vilardebó take over. The commission undertook an expedition that December to excavate a glyptodon fossil from the banks of the Pedernal River in Canelones Department, the results of which were published in 1838. The museum itself first opened on 18 July 1838 in what is now the Plaza Zabala. The museum, Uruguay's oldest scientific institution, predates the American Museum of Natural History (1871) and the Natural History Museum in London (1881). In 1840, the poet Francisco Acuña de Figueroa was appointed director and for some years


id: natural-history-museum-in-belgrade-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_in_Belgrade-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum in Belgrade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_in_Belgrade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:28.435679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-in-belgrade-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum in Belgrade (Serbian: Природњачки музеј у Београду / Prirodnjački muzej u Beogradu) is a museum located in Belgrade, Serbia. It is one of the oldest specialized national institutions in Serbia, and is the only museum of this type in Serbia. By the richness and diversity of the exhibited species, as well as the results achieved in the domain of museology and science, this museum is one of the most important in the South-Eastern Europe. It was officially founded in 1895, registered as The Natural History Museum of Serbian Land at that time (Јестаственички музеј српске земље). == History == Prior to the foundation of the Museum, in the first half of the 19th century, in the former Principality of Serbia, there was a large number of natural history collections, predominantly kept in the Natural History Cabinet of the Great Lyceum (Great School). The museum was initially located at an Endowment house of Stevče Mihajlovic on the Vracar (central municipality of Belgrade). Josif Pančić is considered to be the founder of the Natural History Museum who, accompanied by the group of his associates and students, systematically collected, studied and extracted specimens from nature to be exhibited. He


id: natural-history-museum-in-belgrade-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_in_Belgrade-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum in Belgrade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_in_Belgrade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:28.435679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-in-belgrade-20260505-0
summary:
== Museum publishing activity == Publishing activity of the Museum commenced in 1903. Initially, the former Natural History Museum of the Serbian Land has published concise articles on fauna, flora and gea. The first papers were printed in periodicals such as The Hunter, The Teacher and The Educational Gazette. The Natural History Museum has its own journal, which first issue have been published in 1948, as the Gazette of the Natural History Museum of Serbian Land (beginning with 1958 as The Gazette of the Natural History Museum, and from 2008 on as the Bulletin of the Natural History Museum in Belgrade). Since 2007, the museum initiated edition: Yearbook of Natural History Museum. The yearbook was designed to disclose data on all activities and events in a calendar year: news, information on curator's results, collections arrangements, training and workshops, published papers, participation at conferences, media appearances, the work of the library, educational work and the like activities. == Gallery at Kalemegdan == The Museum has no permanent exhibition and various exhibition activities, educational workshops, promotions and conferences are all held in the Gallery at Kalemegdan. Educational service of the Museum collaborates with numerous schools and nurseries of Serbia, adjusting its activities


id: natural-history-museum-of-armenia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Armenia-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum of Armenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Armenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:29.605341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-of-armenia-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Armenia (Armenian: Հայաստանի բնության պետական թանգարան, romanized: Hayastani bnut'yan petakan t'angaran) represents Armenia's unique nature and its diversity. The museum was reopened in 2004. == History == During the Soviet period, an anti-religion museum was opened in 1952 which was later transformed into a museum of natural sciences and in 1960 renamed as The Natural History Museum of Armenia. In 1999 the museum was relocated in another building. From 2000 to 2004 with the patronage of Bella and Levon Aharonyan, two Iranian-Armenian benefactors, the building of the museum was reconstructed and opened to the public with its new exhibition. == Exhibition == The museum is home to over 6000 objects, only one-third of which are temporarily or primarily put on display. In four rooms, rare types of flora and fauna are exhibited. The museum also presents the personal collection of the Aharonyan family. The objects in the museum represent the diversity of nature in Armenia. The main exhibition contains photos related to zoology, botany, geology and plastic arts. replicas of mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibious animals, fish, insects, and arachnid as well as skulls, skins, shells, pieces of trees, samples of herbarium, animal or plant fossils,


id: natural-history-museum-of-nepal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Nepal-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum of Nepal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Nepal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:30.836033+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-of-nepal-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Nepal (Nepali: प्राकृतिक इतिहास सङ्ग्रहालय नेपाल, romanized: Prākr̥tika Itihāsa Saṅgrahālaya Nēpāla) is located near the World Heritage Site of Swayambhunath. The museum was established in 1975. Since then the museum has collected 50,000 specimens of Nepal’s flora, fauna, and funga. == Journal of Natural History Museum == The Natural History Museum of Nepal has been publishing a journal annually since 1977. The journal, entitled the Journal of Natural History Museum, is the oldest journal on nature in Nepal. The museum has also published numerous books and field guides on Nepal's wildlife. === NHM and CITES === The museum is the scientific authority in fauna for CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) in Nepal. It conducts training programs on CITES-related issues for teachers, students, and people working in Nepal’s conservation sector. == Specimens == The museum's huge specimen collection is a treasure trove of Nepal's bio-diversity. There are 14,843 specimens of butterflies and moths; 4,142 of beetles; 1,464 of dragonflies and 1,604 of other insects. It also has six specimens of lower chordates, 890 of fish, 107 amphibians specimens, 390 of reptiles and 1,194 of birds. The museum's mammalian


id: natural-history-museum-of-tripoli-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Tripoli-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum of Tripoli
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Tripoli
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:32.061054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-of-tripoli-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Tripoli is a museum located in Tripoli, Libya. It was developed by Professor Zahid Baig Mirza (Z. B. Mirza). == See also == List of museums in Libya List of natural-history museums == References ==


id: natural-history-museum-of-zimbabwe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Zimbabwe-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Zimbabwe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:33.223566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-of-zimbabwe-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe is located in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, on Leopold Takawira Avenue. Designed by architect James Whalley, the museum officially opened in 1964, the museum contains exhibits illustrating the history, mineral wealth and wildlife of Zimbabwe, including the second largest mounted elephant in the world. It is one of the five national museums nationwide and the only natural history museum in Zimbabwe. The museum has nine public display galleries, a lecture hall with a seating capacity of 120 people, a cafeteria, and eight research departments with substantial study collections and ongoing research in the following disciplines: Arachnology and invertebrates, Entomology, Ornithology, Mammology, Herpetology, Ichthyology, Paleontology and Geology and Archaeology. == History == 1901 - Cecil Rhodes visited Bulawayo and received a request from the Rhodesia Scientific Board to build a museum to house their growing collection of minerals. 1 January 1902 - the Rhodesia Museum came into being with Mr F. P. Mennell as the Geologist and the first curator. At this time the museum was housed at the now Bulawayo Public Library. September 1905 - the Museum Committee moved to the former Congregation Chapel after buying the Chapel. This museum was opened by Professor G Darwin,


id: natural-sciences-museum-sabiha-kasimati-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_Museum_Sabiha_Kasimati-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural Sciences Museum Sabiha Kasimati
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_Museum_Sabiha_Kasimati
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:34.405301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-sciences-museum-sabiha-kasimati-20260505-0
summary:
Natural Sciences Museum "Sabiha Kasimati" (Albanian: Muzeu i Shkencave të Natyrës "Sabiha Kasimati") is a natural science museum in Tirana, Albania. == History == Established in 1948, the museum is affiliated with the University of Tirana and has branches in zoology, botany and geology. On 8 March 2018, the museum was named after Sabiha Kasimati, first Albanian scientist to make major contributions to the study of freshwater fish. Kasimati was killed in February 1951 by the Communist regime, accused of being part of a group of 22 Albanian intellectuals who had detonated a bomb in the Russian embassy in Tirana. In 1991, all victims were rehabilitated by the new government and awarded posthumously by the Order of Honour of the State. == Collections == The museum is composed of seven pavilions that collect 3,000 items related to the rich Albanian biodiversity, including animals (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and aquatic invertebrates) and plants. Invertebrates represent the largest number of faunal specimens exhibited in the museum and kept in the scientific storage area. The rich collection of the Museumis due to its talented researchers such as Sabiha Kasimati, Ilia Mitrushi, Vasil Puzanov, Fotaq Lamani, Kastriot Misja, Idriz Haxhiu, Vangjel Andoni,


id: nature-museum-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Museum_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Museum_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:35.606778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-museum-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-20260505-0
summary:
The Nature Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Russian: Музей природы Казахстана, tr. muzei prirody kazakhstana) is a natural history museum of the National Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan, located in the Gylym Ordasy complex in Almaty. == History == The Museum of Nature and Paleontology opened in 1959 at 85 Lenin Avenue, now Dostyk Avenue. According to the Decree of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR № 44 of 29 April 1961, the official opening of the museum was timed to the 40th anniversary of the founding of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. In accordance with the Order of the Committee of Science of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan on 1 June 2010 № 35-PR, the museum was relocated to the Gylym Ordasy in order to preserve, study and popularize the research and collections. In 2012 the museum reopened after reconstruction as part of the Gylym Ordasy complex, in the building of the Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan. == Museum exposition == The museum is divided into two sections: Paleontological and Zoological. Among the artefacts displayed are fossils of animals and plants, skeletons of dinosaurs, tarbosaurs and other


id: nha-trang-oceanography-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nha_Trang_Oceanography_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Nha Trang Oceanography Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nha_Trang_Oceanography_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:36.746768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nha-trang-oceanography-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang (Vietnamese: Viện Hải dương học Nha Trang) is a marine science research institute located in Nha Trang, Khánh Hòa Province, Vietnam. Established on September 14, 1922, it is one of the oldest scientific research institutions in Vietnam and serves as a leading center for tropical oceanographic research in Southeast Asia. The institute operates under the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) and focuses on basic and applied research in marine sciences, resource management, environmental protection, and education. == History == The institute was founded in 1922 as the Sở Hải dương học nghề cá Đông Dương (Indochina Fisheries Oceanography Department) during the French colonial period, following a proposal by Dr. Alexandre Yersin. In 1929, it was upgraded to the Viện Hải dương học Đông Dương (Indochina Oceanography Institute), with Dr. A. Krempf as its first director. After several name changes and reorganizations, including Hải học viện Nha Trang in 1952, it was officially renamed the Institute of Oceanography in 1993. In 2001, its branches in Hanoi and Hai Phong were separated into independent institutes: the Institute of Marine Geology and Geophysics (Hanoi) and the Institute of Marine Environment and Resources (Hai Phong). Over


id: oceanographic-museum-of-monaco-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographic_Museum_of_Monaco-0.md
category: reference
title: Oceanographic Museum of Monaco
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographic_Museum_of_Monaco
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:37.893164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanographic-museum-of-monaco-20260505-0
summary:
The Oceanographic Museum (French: Musée océanographique), is a museum of marine sciences in Monaco City, Monaco. This building is part of the Institut océanographique, which is committed to sharing its knowledge of the oceans. == History == The Oceanographic Museum was inaugurated in 1910 by Monaco's modernist reformer Prince Albert I, who invited to the celebrations not just high officials and celebrities but also the world-leading oceanographers of the day to develop the concept of a future Mediterranean Commission dedicated to oceanography, now called Mediterranean Science Commission. Jacques-Yves Cousteau was director from 1957 to 1988. The Museum celebrated its centenary in March 2010, after extensive renovations. == Overview == The museum is home to exhibitions and collections of various species of sea fauna (starfish, seahorses, turtles, jellyfish, crabs, lobsters, rays, sharks, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, eels, cuttlefish etc.). The museum's holdings also include a great variety of sea related objects, including model ships, sea animal skeletons, tools, weapons etc., as well as a collection of material culture and ritual objects made from, or integrating materials such as pearls, molluscs and nacre. At the first floor, A Sailor’s Career showcases the work of Prince Albert I. It includes the laboratory from


id: olduvai-gorge-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olduvai_Gorge_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Olduvai Gorge Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olduvai_Gorge_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:39.071350+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: olduvai-gorge-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Olduvai Gorge Museum (Swahili: Makumbusho ya Bonde la Oltupai) is located in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Northern Tanzania on the edge of the Olduvai Gorge. The museum was founded by Mary Leakey and is now under the jurisdiction of the Tanzanian government's Department of Cultural Antiquities and is managed by the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority. It is a museum dedicated to the appreciation and understanding of the Olduvai Gorge and Laetoli fossil sites. == History == The museum was founded in the late 1970s by Mary Leakey, an archaeologist and paleoanthropologist who conducted research in the gorge for decades. The museum was created to house and showcase paleoanthropological artifacts from the surrounding area. After Mary's death, the Olduvai Gorge Museum was put under control of the Tanzanian government's Department of Cultural Antiquities. During the mid-1990s, the J. Paul Getty Museum's Department of Conservation renovated and added to the museum. This included a new wing with exhibits that were designed by the Getty Museum. The Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority replaced the original museum structure with the construction of a new museum and visitors center which opened to the public in 2018. The new museum construction included the expansion and


id: oman-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Oman Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:40.258113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oman-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Oman (Arabic: متحف التاريخ الطبيعي, romanized: Matḥaf al-Tārīkh al-Ṭabīʻī) is a natural history museum, located at the Ministry of Heritage and Culture complex, Al Khuwair, opposite the Zawawi Mosque in Muscat, Oman. The museum opened on 20 December 1985, and has detailed coverage of Oman's flora and fauna, with displays on indigenous mammals, insects, and birds and botanical gardens. One of the highlights of the museum is the whale hall: it houses the huge skeleton of a sperm whale, which was washed up on the Omani coastline in the 1986. The museum contains marine and animal fossils and ancient mammals such as monkeys and elephants primitive, teeth Deinotherium and Gomphotherium, and stuffed animals: Arabian leopard, caracal, Arabian Oryx, Arabian wolf, Arab Red fox, Arabian Ibex, flamingo, birds, crow, owl, reptiles, snakes, izards, snails, and shells. == New premises == In January 2014, the Ministry of Heritage and Culture announced plans to build new premises for the museum, the project will consist of three floors with a gross area rated to 5,000 square meters. The first floor is specialised for exhibiting marine environments such as sandy coasts, mangroves, rocky coasts and coral reef environments as well


id: palestine-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Palestine Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:41.406724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palestine-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Palestine Museum of Natural History (PMNH; Arabic: متحف فلسطين للتاريخ الطبيعي, romanized: Matḥaf Filasṭīn lil-Tārīkh al-Ṭabīʻī) is a natural history museum in Bethlehem, West Bank, Palestine. Founded in 2013, it opened to the public in 2017. The museum collections focus on botany, zoology and entomology. The goals of the museum include research, collecting and education to record and amplify the importance of Palestine's biodiversity and environmental heritage. == Location == It is part of Bethlehem University and is closely linked to the Palestine Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainability. As of 2019 it had 10 full-time staff, both Palestinian and Israeli. The museum also features a botanic garden, a wildlife rehabilitation centre, and an aviary. The museum also runs educational programs for children. == History == The museum opened to the public on 12 April 2017 and is the first of its kind in Palestine. Its collection began to be established in 2014 by Mazin Qumsiyeh, who many years previously had recognised the need for an archive of Palestinian biodiversity and research programmes to understand its significance. The initial foundation costs were supported by Mazin and Jesse Qumsiyeh and Bethlehem University: with $250,000 donation from the former, supported by $450,000


id: national-museum-prague-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Prague)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:42.577921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum (NM; Czech: Národní muzeum) is a public museum dedicated to natural scientific and historical collections of the Czech Republic, its history, culture and people, among others. The museum was founded in 1818 by Kašpar Maria Šternberg. Historian František Palacký was also strongly involved in the foundation of the museum. The National Museum houses nearly 14 million items from the areas of natural history, history, arts, music and librarianship, which are located in dozens of museum buildings. The main hall of the National Museum is located on Wenceslas Square in downtown Prague. Built in neo-Renaissance style in 1891, the building underwent significant restoration from 2011 to 2018 to mark the centennial of the Czech and Czechoslovak declaration of independence. Due to its dominance over the busiest intersection of Prague, the National Museum building carries a significant national importance. As such, it frequently serves as a focal point for protests, rallies, gatherings and public events. == Origins == Even before the French Revolution, some royal and private collections of art, science and culturally relevant items were made available to the public. The beginnings of the museum can be seen as far back as 1796 when the private Society of


id: national-museum-prague-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)-1.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Prague)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:42.577921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
The Main Building of the National Museum (Historical Building) is located on the upper end of Wenceslas Square and was built by prominent Czech neo-renaissance architect Josef Schulz between 1885 and 1891. Prior to the museum being constructed, there had been several noblemen's palaces located at this site. With the construction of a permanent building for the museum, a great deal of work, which had previously been devoted to ensuring that the collections would remain intact, was now put toward collecting new materials. The building was damaged during World War II in 1945 by a bomb, but the collections were not damaged due to their removal to secured storage sites. The museum was reopened after intensive repairs in 1947, and in 1960, exterior night floodlighting was installed, which followed a general repair of the facade that had taken place in previous years. During the 1968 Warsaw Pact intervention, the main facade was severely damaged by strong Soviet machine-gun and automatic submachine-gun fire. The shots made numerous holes in sandstone pillars and plaster, destroyed stone statues and reliefs, and also caused damage in some of the depositories. Despite the general facade repair made between 1970 and 1972 the damage still can


id: national-museum-prague-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)-2.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Prague)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:42.577921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
==== Departments ==== The Department of Prehistory and Protohistory contains a rich collection of artifacts which were used in daily life thousands of years ago. The curators of this collection were also among the first Czech archeologists: J.L. Píč, curator of one of the collections from 1893 to 1911 is credited with conducting the first system archeological field exploration in Czechoslovakia. The department also maintains collections in the field of classical archaeology; however, its main value is in the documentation of Greek and Roman arts and crafts. Among its most valuable objects are a painted dish of Nikosthenes, a glass bottle from the port of Puteolo, and a gilded silver rhyton. The Collection of Classical Archaeology belongs to the same department. The Department of the Old Czech History has assembled numerous objects which trace the development of the Czech state beginning from the Slavonic culture of the 10th century up to the independent republic of Czechoslovakia in 1918. This is done through the acquisition of objects which recall figures of Czech culture and leadership. The collection of archaeology concerns many objects from archaeological excavation of the land (ceramics, metals, stone), artifacts of painting, sculpture and decorative arts beginning from the


id: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum, Prague
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:43.845092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum (Czech: Přírodovědecké muzeum) is a museum in Prague in the Czech Republic. It is one of the five components of the National Museum and currently consists of eight departments: the Mineralogical and Petrological, Paleontological, Mycological, Botanical, Entomological, Zoological, Anthropological, and the Ringing Station. The Natural History Museum employs over 80 people, and its collections contain more than 15 million objects, of which only a fraction are exhibited. Ivo Macek has been the director of the museum since 2015. The museum's activities fulfill three main tasks: It expands and manages natural history collections and continuously documents nature in the Czech Republic and abroad. It scientifically processes its collections and organizes its own research at the international level. It presents its own collections and scientific activities to the general public through expositions, exhibitions, popular educational publications, lectures, and accompanying programs to expositions and exhibitions. It also involves the public in scientific research through citizen science projects. == History == Natural sciences, with their rich collections, have been one of the main focuses of the National (originally Patriotic) Museum since its foundation in 1818. Kaspar Maria von Sternberg, a versatile naturalist and a leading figure among the founders of


id: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum, Prague
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:43.845092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
=== Paleontology Department === The Paleontological Department was established in 1864, but for many years it operated in association with the Zoological Department and as the Geological and Paleontological Department. The modern history of the Paleontological Department began in 1964. The collections of the department comprise about five million specimens, mainly from the Czech Republic, but there are also important foreign collections. The collections are continuously replenished both by collections of the department staff and donations and purchases from institutions, scientists, and private collectors. Among the most important collections of the Paleontological Department are, among others, the paleobotanical collection of Kaspar Maria von Sternberg, the collection of protohistoric invertebrates of Joachim Barrande, and the collection of fossil animals of the Czech permocarbon by Antonín Frič. The most scientifically valuable part of the collection is the extensive collection of material comprising over 2,500 pieces. In addition to fossils, the department also preserves a large amount of field and collection documentation, documents for paleontological works, personal equipment of leading personalities of Czech paleontology, and an extensive collection of scientific illustrations and pictorial reconstructions. Paleontology Department staff is engaged in the study of the taxonomy, morphology, ontogeny, and phylogeny of animal and plant


id: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague-2.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum, Prague
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:43.845092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
=== Zoology Department === Although the first zoological exhibits were donated to the museum's collections as early as 1818, the Zoological Department was not separated until 1864 in conjunction with the Paleontological Department. The department has been functioning independently since 1895. The zoological collection is divided into five departments, which manage specialized collections of mammals (mammalological and osteological collections), birds (ornithological collection), amphibians and reptiles (herpetological collection), fish vertebrates (ichthyological collection) and all invertebrates, except insects (evertebrate collection). The collections of the Zoology Department include over 1.1 million items from all over the world. Annual additions exceed 10,000 specimens. The collections also include many hundreds of type specimens from the Czech Republic and abroad. The staff of the department is currently working mainly on systematics, evolution, ecology and biogeography of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals and spiders. They also study the molecular phylogeny of fish, reptiles and bats. Biodiversity conservation is also an integral part of the department's work. === Anthropology Department === Anthropology Department, which was established in 1967, is dedicated to the study of human populations. The collections of the Anthropology Department comprise about 30,000 items, mainly from the Czech Republic. They can be divided into four basic


id: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague-3.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum, Prague
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:43.845092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
== Citizen Science == The Natural History Museum has traditionally organized citizen science projects in which the general public participates to a greater or lesser extent in the process of scientific research. By involving a large number of trained volunteers, naturalists gain a wealth of important data, and participants learn skills about the process of scientific inquiry. One such project, for example, is bird ringing, in which trained volunteers have participated since 1914. In 2018, the Natural History Museum participated for the first time in the international City Nature Challenge project, which aims to bring the general public and the natural history community together in a collaborative activity of observing urban nature. Using the iNaturalist app, interested people take photos of nature in their neighborhood, providing valuable data for professional naturalists. A number of citizen science projects are currently underway and, based on similar projects abroad and the positive public response, which is reflected in the increasing number of visitors to the museum, it is likely that the museum will continue these projects. == Directors of the Natural History Museum == === Term of office === 1 August 1964 – 31 December 1964: Otakar Štěpánek 1 January 1965 – 28


id: red-castle-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Castle_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Red Castle Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Castle_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:44.989303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: red-castle-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Red Castle Museum, also known as As-saraya Al-hamra Museum (Arabic: متحف السرايا الحمراء, romanized: Matḥaf al-Sarāyā al-Ḥamrāʼ), the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli or Jamahiriya Museum, is a national museum in Libya. It is located in the historic building known as the Red Castle of Tripoli (Arabic: السراي الحمراء, romanized: al-Sarāy al-Ḥamrāʼ), sometimes also referred to as Red Saraya, on the promontory above and adjacent to the old-town district with medina Ghadema. Designed in conjunction with UNESCO, the museum covers 5,000 years from prehistory to the independence revolution (1953) era. The museum has an entrance on historic As-Saha al-Kradrah, the Martyrs' Square. The museum was closed from 2011 to 2025 for security concerns. == History == The museum was established in 1919, when the colonial Italians in Libya converted a section of the castle to a museum to house many of the archaeological artifacts scattered across the country since prehistoric times. The building was renovated in the early 1920s on plans by Armando Brasini, who designed its characteristic arches. The square around the castle was designed in the thirties by architect Florestano Di Fausto. When the British occupied Libya during World War II, the museum occupied the entire complex of


id: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa-0.md
category: reference
title: Royal Museum for Central Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:46.224492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-0
summary:
The Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) (Dutch: Koninklijk Museum voor Midden-Afrika (KMMA); French: Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale (MRAC); German: Königliches Museum für Zentralafrika (KMZA)), communicating under the name AfricaMuseum since 2018, is an ethnography and natural history museum situated in Tervuren in Flemish Brabant, Belgium, just outside Brussels. It was originally built to showcase King Leopold II's Congo Free State in the International Exposition of 1897. The museum focuses on the Congo, a former Belgian colony. The sphere of interest, however, especially in biological research, extends to the whole Congo Basin, Central Africa, East Africa, and West Africa, attempting to integrate "Africa" as a whole. Intended originally as a colonial museum, from 1960 onwards it has focused more on ethnography and anthropology. Like most museums, it houses a research department in addition to its public exhibit department. Not all research pertains to Africa (e.g. research on the archaeozoology of Sagalassos, Turkey). Some researchers have strong ties with the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. In November 2013, the museum closed for extensive renovation work, including the construction of new exhibition space, and re-opened in December 2018. == History == === International Exposition (1897) === After the Congo Free


id: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa-1.md
category: reference
title: Royal Museum for Central Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:46.224492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-0
summary:
== Buildings == The current AfricaMuseum complex consists of six buildings. The centrally located main building houses the permanent exhibitions. It was built under Leopold II by the French architect Charles Girault. The building is 125 metres (410 ft) long and 75 metres (246 ft) wide. The façade is decorated in the style of the neoclassical French grand palaces. On the right (south-west) side of this imposing building is the Executive Pavilion, and on the left (north-east), the Stanley Pavilion, which houses the entire Stanley Archive. The former Palace of the Colonies (now the Africa Palace) has been transformed into a reception centre, media library and banquet hall. The Centre d'Accueil du Personnel Africain (CAPA) building, erected in 1957 for the African staff, houses several scientific departments. Following the museum's complete renovation, a part of the previously scattered archives are now presented in new on-site exhibition spaces. A reception pavilion, newly built in 2016, between the management building and the Palace of Africa, functions as the entrance building. In this building are the ticket offices, cloakrooms, a shop, a restaurant, as well as a picnic area for children. An underground gallery leads from the reception building into the existing museum


id: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa-2.md
category: reference
title: Royal Museum for Central Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:46.224492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-0
summary:
Atrocities in the Congo Free State Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 Brussels Conference Act of 1890 Archives Africaines of the Belgian SPF Affaires étrangères, Commerce extérieur et Coopération au Développement Belgium in the long nineteenth century == References == == Bibliography == === Issued by the museum === Verswijver; et al., eds. (1995). Masterpieces from Central Africa. Patricia Van Schuylenbergh (1997), La mémoire des Belges en Afrique; Inventaire des archives historiques privées du Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale de 1858 a nos jours (PDF) (in French), Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale, ISBN 2-87398-006-0 Toma Muteba Luntumbue & Claire Ponas, ed. (2001). EXITCONGOMUSEUM/Contemporary Art. === About the museum === in English "Tervueren", Belgium and Holland (15th ed.), Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1910, OCLC 397759 – via Internet Archive, Congo Museum Jean Muteba Rahier (2003). "Ghost of Leopold II: The Belgian Royal Museum of Central Africa and Its Dusty Colonialist Exhibition". Research in African Literatures. 34. Véronique Bragard (2011). "'Indépendance!': The Belgo-Congolese Dispute in the Tervuren Museum". Human Architecture. ISSN 1540-5699. Patrick Hoenig (2014). "Visualizing trauma: the Belgian Museum for Central Africa and its discontents". Postcolonial Studies. 17. Institute of Postcolonial Studies, Melbourne. ISSN 1466-1888. in other languages


id: seychelles-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Seychelles Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:47.418681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seychelles-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Seychelles Natural History Museum is a natural history museum in the Seychelles. == Location == The museum is located in next to the main post office in Victoria, the capital of the Seychelles, on Mahé Island. == Galleries == The displays include sections on botany, zoology, geology and anthropology. There are also some items related to the history of the Seychelles People's Militia, the Seychelles People's Liberation Army and the Seychelles People's Defence Forces. == See also == Seychelles National Museum of History == References == == Further reading == Smith, David (12 February 2010). "Quirky museum reveals the Seychelles' rich history". The Guardian. London.


id: slovenian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Slovenian Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:48.599061+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slovenian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Slovenian Museum of Natural History (Slovene: Prirodoslovni muzej Slovenije, Latin: Museum Historiae Naturalis Sloveniae) is a Slovenian national museum with natural history, scientific, and educational contents. It is the oldest cultural and scientific Slovenian institution. The museum features national, European, and worldwide collections demonstrating the changes in biodiversity, the development of the natural history thought, as well as different techniques of collection and preparation of samples. Its research activities focus on natural heritage of Slovenia. The Slovenian Museum of Natural History operates in the Center District in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, at Museum Street (Muzejska ulica), near Tivoli Park, the Parliament and the Opera House. Along with the National Museum of Slovenia, it is housed in a building from 1885, built upon the plans by the Viennese architect Wilhelm Rezori and the master builder Wilhelm Treo from Ljubljana. The symbol of the museum is an almost complete woolly mammoth skeleton, found in Nevlje near Kamnik in 1938. Its official publication, published since autumn 1978, has been named Scopolia in honour of Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, a leading Carniolan naturalist of the 18th century. == History == The museum was founded in 1821 as the Carniolan Estates Museum (German: Krainisch


id: state-museum-of-nature-of-uzbekistan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Museum_of_Nature_of_Uzbekistan-0.md
category: reference
title: State Museum of Nature of Uzbekistan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Museum_of_Nature_of_Uzbekistan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:49.792378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: state-museum-of-nature-of-uzbekistan-20260505-0
summary:
The Uzbekistan State Museum of Nature (Uzbek: Tabiat muzeyi) is one of the oldest museums in Uzbekistan. The museum's main purpose is to show the natural beauty of Uzbekistan and to help protect its environment. The museum features chronologically-ordered exhibits and seeks to educate visitors about Uzbekistan's geography through time. == Contents == The Museum consists of about 400,000 specimens and artefacts that are on display. Three hundred thousand items are insects. Eleven thousand are herbarium leaves and other zoological and geological materials. The museum is visited mainly by Uzbeks and visitors from formerly-Soviet Union countries. The four areas in the museum are geological-geographic department, flora and fauna department, scientific department and funds department. The museum organizes many social events in Tashkent, including assemblies in many of the Republic's schools, academic lyceums, colleges and higher education facilities. == History == The Museum is the oldest in Uzbekistan. It was established in Tashkent by Russian scientists on July 12, 1876, as the Tashkent Museum. The museum closed and re-opened several times. In 1919, it opened as Turkestan National Museum. Two years later, in 1921, it became The State Museum of Nature of Uzbekistan. In 1930, the museum joined with the agricultural


id: steinhardt-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinhardt_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Steinhardt Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinhardt_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:50.985111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steinhardt-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History (Hebrew: מוזיאון הטבע ע״ש שטיינהרדט), Israel National Center for Biodiversity Studies at Tel Aviv University, is a natural history museum in Israel, including both education and a research center. It is the largest and most active center in Israel of documentation and science, focusing on biodiversity research and its varied applications including nature conservation, environmental protection, and agriculture. The museum is set for the discovery, collections development and care, and scientific categorization of millions of specimens, documenting the flora and fauna in Israel and the Middle East for thousands of years, as well as the history of humankind and its interactions with the environment. It provides access to the public and the scientific and professional community. Collections holding some 5.5 million items, accumulated by scientists from Tel Aviv University and other institutions, were moved to the new museum before it opened to the public in July 2018. == Architecture and concept == The museum was designed by Kimmel Eshkolot Architects. The 9,620 sq m five-story building was designed as a "Treasure Box" or "Noah's Ark". Thousands of items from the collections, used primarily for basic and applied research, for teaching and training, are presented


id: stephen-hui-geological-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hui_Geological_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Stephen Hui Geological Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hui_Geological_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:52.178891+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stephen-hui-geological-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Stephen Hui Geological Museum (Chinese: 許士芬地質博物館; pinyin: Xǔshìfēn Dìzhí Bówùguǎn) is the first and only geological museum in Hong Kong. It is located on the ground and first floors of the James Hsioung Lee Building (厲樹雄科學館), in the University of Hong Kong Main Campus. The museum is part of the Department of Earth Sciences, the only earth sciences department in Hong Kong. With the goal of making the rock collection available for public viewing, the museum opened on January 16, 2009. It houses around 10,000 catalogued specimens from different parts of the world. In 2014, a student examining the museum's collections discovered a fish fossil which was estimated to be around 147 million-years-old. The fossil was later determined to be the first dinosaur-era fish to be identified from Hong Kong. The museum is open from Mondays to Fridays, 1PM to 6PM, with mornings reserved for guided group tours. In 2017, the museum hosted the largest exhibition of private geological collections in Hong Kong. == References == == External links == Museum official website


id: university-of-tartu-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tartu_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Tartu Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tartu_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:53.358719+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-tartu-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
University of Tartu Natural History Museum (Estonian: Tartu Ülikooli Loodusmuuseum) is a natural history museum in Tartu, Estonia. The museum is affiliated with Tartu University. The museum was established in 1802. The museum has zoological, geological, botanical and mycological collections. The permanent exhibition of the museum is titled as "Earth. Life. Story." == References == == External links == Official website


id: african-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: African Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:54.851895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
African Natural History was a scientific journal published by Iziko Museums (Cape Town). It took the place of the Annals of the South African Museum, which has been discontinued. Now the journal has been discontinued. == External links == Official website


id: the-american-naturalist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Naturalist-0.md
category: reference
title: The American Naturalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Naturalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:56.085658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-american-naturalist-20260505-0
summary:
The American Naturalist is the monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal of the American Society of Naturalists, whose purpose is "to advance and to diffuse knowledge of organic evolution and other broad biological principles so as to enhance the conceptual unification of the biological sciences." It was established in 1867 and is published by the University of Chicago Press. The journal covers research in ecology, evolutionary biology and behavior. As of 2023, the editor-in-chief is Volker H. W. Rudolf. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2023 impact factor of 2.4. == History == The journal was founded by Alpheus Hyatt, Edward S. Morse, Alpheus S. Packard Jr., and Frederick W. Putnam at the Essex Institute in Salem, Massachusetts. The first issue appeared in print dated March 1867. In 1885 the four men founded the American Naturalist Society, where in 1887 the journal was designated an official organ of the society for publication. In 1878 the journal was for sale and Edward Cope bought half the rights. He moved the journal to Philadelphia and arranged to edit it jointly with Professor Alpheus S. Packard Jr. Cope became editor-in-chief in 1887 and continued in that capacity until his death in


id: boston-journal-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Journal_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Boston Journal of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Journal_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:57.274838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boston-journal-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Boston Journal of Natural History (1834–1863) was a scholarly journal published by the Boston Society of Natural History in mid-19th century Massachusetts. Contributors included Charles T. Jackson, Augustus A. Gould, and others. Each volume featured lithographic illustrations, some in color, drawn/engraved by E.W. Bouvé, B.F. Nutting, A. Sonrel, et al. and printed by Pendleton's Lithography and other firms. The journal was continued by Memoirs Read Before the Boston Society of Natural History in 1863. == Further reading == Boston Journal of Natural History v.1 (1834–1837); v.2 (1838–1839); v.4 (1843–1844); v.5 (1845–1847); v.6 (1850–1857); v.7 (1859–1863). == Image gallery == == References ==


id: the-irish-naturalist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Naturalist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Irish Naturalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Naturalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:58.412322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-irish-naturalist-20260505-0
summary:
The Irish Naturalist was a scientific journal that was published in Dublin, Ireland, from April 1892 until December 1924. == History == The journal owed its establishment to the efforts of several leading Dublin naturalists, notably George H. Carpenter and R. M. Barrington. The first editors were Carpenter and Robert Lloyd Praeger, of the National Library of Ireland. The journal was supported by a number of societies, including the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland, the Dublin Microscopical Club, the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club, and the Dublin Naturalists' Field Club. The Irish Naturalist was published for 33 years and contained in total over 3000 pages. The journal ceased publication in December 1924. It had been having some financial problems, but the final blow came when Carpenter took up his appointment to the keepership of the Manchester Museum in 1923. The journal was succeeded in 1925 by the Irish Naturalists' Journal. == Contributors == Among notable contributors to The Irish Naturalist were: George James Allman Gerald Edwin Hamilton Barrett-Hamilton Alfred Cort Haddon Maxwell Henry Close Annie Massy Amy Warren == See also == Irish Naturalists' Journal, the successor to The Irish Naturalist == References == == External links == About the Irish


id: irish-naturalists-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Naturalists'_Journal-0.md
category: reference
title: Irish Naturalists' Journal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Naturalists'_Journal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:59.634673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: irish-naturalists-journal-20260505-0
summary:
The Irish Naturalists' Journal (ISSN 0021-1311) is a scientific journal covering all aspects of natural history. It has been published since 1925. It was preceded by The Irish Naturalist (1892−1924). == References == == External links == Official website The Irish Naturalist (1892−1924) in Biodiversity Heritage Library


id: natural-history-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Review-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:00.810744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-review-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Review was a short-lived, quarterly journal devoted to natural history. It was published in Dublin and London between 1854 and 1865. The Natural History Review included the transactions of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Cork Cuvierian Society, Dublin Natural History Society, Dublin University Zoological Association, and the Literary and Scientific Institution of Kilkenny, as authorised...It was founded by Edward Perceval Wright who was also the editor. The parts are: Vols 1-4, 1854–57; title concludes: ...by the Councils of these Societies (Geological Society of Dublin later added to list) This was continued as Natural History Review, and quarterly journal of science. Edited by Edward Percival Wright, William Henry Harvey, Joseph Reay Greene, Samuel Haughton and Alexander Henry Haliday London, Vols 5-7, 1858-60. In turn continued as Natural History Review: a quarterly journal of biological science. Edited by George Busk, William Benjamin Carpenter, Frederick Currey et al., London, Vols 1-5, 1861–65; no more published. == External links == Volume 1 (1854) Volume 2 (1855) Volume 3 (1856) Volume 4 (1857) Volume 5 (1858) Volume 6 (1859) Volume 7 (1860) Volume 1 (1861) Volume 2 (1862) Volume 5 (1865)


id: der-naturforscher-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Naturforscher-0.md
category: reference
title: Der Naturforscher
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Naturforscher
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:01.970159+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: der-naturforscher-20260505-0
summary:
Der Naturforscher (transl. "The Naturalist") was a German scientific publication of the Enlightenment devoted to natural history. It was published yearly from 1774 to 1804, by J. J. Gebauers Witwe and Joh. Jac. Gebauer at Halle and edited first by Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch (from 1774 to 1778) and later by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber (from 1779 to 1802). Both editors were also contributors. Most of the articles concern aspects of invertebrate zoology, mostly entomology and conchology. A few concern ornithology and other subjects, including mineralogy. It is usually bound in fifteen volumes octavo. Indices and registers are given at ten year intervals enumerating 640 memoirs. Just over 150 plates accompany the text. Many of the illustrations are by Johann Stephan Capieux and are of a very high standard. Armin Geus provides comprehensive indices. == Contributors == Most authors contributing to Der Naturforscher were German, but the journal also included some French authors. No natural history journal published in France existed at the time. Amongst others, some notable naturalists contributing to Der Naturforscher were: Johann August Ephraim Goeze Theodor Gottlieb von Scheven Josef Aloys Frölich Nikolaus Joseph Brahm Eugen Johann Christoph Esper Johann Kaspar Füssli Johann Friedrich Gmelin Siegmund


id: nemouria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemouria-0.md
category: reference
title: Nemouria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemouria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:03.120658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nemouria-20260505-0
summary:
Nemouria: Occasional Papers of the Delaware Museum of Natural History is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering natural history that is published by the Delaware Museum of Natural History. It was established in 1970. The journal mainly focuses on molluscs and birds, but occasionally publishes papers on other topics, relating to North America or a region well represented in the museum's collection, such as the Indo-West Pacific or Philippines. == References == == External links == Official website Archive and statistics at BioStor


id: revista-chilena-de-historia-natural-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revista_Chilena_de_Historia_Natural-0.md
category: reference
title: Revista Chilena de Historia Natural
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revista_Chilena_de_Historia_Natural
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:04.317924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revista-chilena-de-historia-natural-20260505-0
summary:
The Revista Chilena de Historia Natural is a bilingual open access scientific journal published by the Sociedad de Biología de Chile covering research in many areas of biology. It was established in 1897 by Carlos Porter. == References == == External links == Official website


id: revista-de-biolog-a-tropical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revista_de_Biología_Tropical-0.md
category: reference
title: Revista de Biología Tropical
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revista_de_Biología_Tropical
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:05.478663+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revista-de-biolog-a-tropical-20260505-0
summary:
The Revista de Biología Tropical is a bilingual open access scientific journal published by the University of Costa Rica covering research in the field of tropical biology and conservation biology. It was established in 1953. It is indexed and abstracted in Current Contents, Science Citation Index and Biological Abstracts among others. == References == == External links == Official website


id: belfast-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Belfast Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:06.994654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: belfast-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society was founded in 1821 to promote the scientific study of animals, plants, fossils, rocks and minerals. == History == The Society was founded by George Crawford Hyndman, James Lawson Drummond, James Grimshaw, James McAdam, Robert Patterson, Robert Simms, Francis Archer, the Thomas Dix Hincks, Edward Hincks and Edmund Getty. Five years later in 1826 Alexander Henry Haliday and William Thompson both joined. In 1823, the Society's collection and the small collection begun in 1788 in the rooms of the Belfast Reading Society and that of the Belfast Literary Society were moved to Belfast Academical Institution where James Bryce was centralising Belfast's rapidly expanding natural history holdings. A new building opened at No. 7 College Square North in 1831. How big the first collections were is unknown but the 1831 figure of 300 insects given when the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society Museum opened to non-members may refer to specimens on display. The research material would have been much more numerous and expanded rapidly during the next decade. Specimens from England, the West Indies, Lapland, France, Greece, Italy, Senegal, New Holland, Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, Mauritius, Colombia, Recife, Peru, Virginia, India and West Africa


id: belfast-natural-history-society-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Natural_History_Society-1.md
category: reference
title: Belfast Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:06.994654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: belfast-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
Georges Cuvier, 1829 Regne Animalium, in English, The Animal Kingdom, published by Chez Deterville at Paris; 1832 Class Insecta Whitaker, London Justin Pierre Marie Macquart, 1834–1835. Histoire naturelle des insectes. Dipteres Paris : Roret. Pierre André LatreilleGenera crustaceorum et insectorum, secundum ordinem naturalem ut familias disposita (4 vols., 1806 1807 1807 1809) Peter Simon Pallas Zoographia Rosso-asiatica Friedrich Wilhelm Martini Neues systematisches Conchylien-Cabinet; Emanuel Mendez da Costa A Natural History of Fossils (1757), Elements of Conchology, or An Introduction to the Knowledge of Shells (1776), British Conchology (1778) Gilbert White The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789) Thomas Pennant History of Quadrupeds Johannes Allart, Afbeeldingen der fraaiste, meest uitheemsche boomen en heesters. Amsterdam, Johannes Allart, 1802 [-1808]; William Smith Strata by Organized Fossils (1815); Louis Agassiz Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (1833–1843); Philipp Franz von Siebold Fauna Japonica: Birds or Aves, 1844–1850 12 vol.; Fish or Pisces 1842–1850 16 vol.; Crustaceans or Crustacea 1833–1850 8 vol.; Mammals or Mammalia 1842–1844 4 vol Pierre Barrère Ornithologiae Specimen Novum, sive Series Avium in Ruscinone, Pyrenaeis Montibus, atque in Galliâ Aequinoctiali Observatarum, in Classes, genera & species, novâ methodo, digesta (1745); Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg Die Waldverderber und ihre Feinde, Berlin, 1841


id: birmingham-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Birmingham Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:08.197571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birmingham-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
Birmingham Natural History Society was a learned society for the study of the natural history of Birmingham, England, and in the surrounding Midlands region, and beyond. It was founded in 1858, and was a registered charity. The Society has had various names, e.g. in the 1870s it was called the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, and from 1894 to 1963 the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. It was agreed that the society should be dissolved in 2022, due to lack of volunteer officers to run it. == History == The Society was founded in 1858. For a considerable part of its early life, it was called the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. In 1877, the Society played the lead in forming the Union of Midland Natural History Societies, which published the journal The Midland Naturalist. Some of the societies in the union later merged with the Birmingham Natural History Society. The Birmingham Philosophical Society, founded in 1876, merged in 1894, when the title of the Society was changed to the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. The Midland Malacological Society and the Birmingham Entomological Society were amalgamated in 1906 and 1908 respectively. The society's activities were greatly


id: bombay-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Bombay Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:09.410140+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bombay-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), founded on 15 September 1883, is one of the largest non-governmental organisations in India engaged in conservation and biodiversity research. It supports many research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Many prominent naturalists, including the ornithologists Sálim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley, have been associated with it. == History == British hunters in Bombay organized a hunting group around 1811, their activities included riding with foxhounds and shooting. A Bombay Hunt was supported by Sir Bartle Frere from 1862. A natural history society was begun, possibly as spinoff from the Bombay Geographical Society, in 1856 by Doctors Don (of Karachee), Andrew Henderson Leith (surgeon), George Buist, and Henry John Carter along with Lawrence Hugh Jenkins, then a registrar of the Supreme Court. The group did not last more than three years. On 15 September 1883 eight men interested in natural history met at Bombay in the Victoria and Albert Museum (now Bhau Daji Lad Museum) and: constituted themselves as the Bombay Natural History Society. They proposed to meet monthly and exchange notes, exhibit interesting specimens and otherwise encourage each other. According to E. H. Aitken (the first


id: boston-society-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Society_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Boston Society of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Society_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:10.559085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boston-society-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Boston Society of Natural History (1830–1948) in Boston, Massachusetts, was an organization dedicated to the study and promotion of natural history. It published a scholarly journal and established a museum. In its first few decades, the society occupied several successive locations in Boston's Financial District, including Pearl Street, Tremont Street and Mason Street. In 1864 it moved into a newly constructed museum building at 234 Berkeley Street in the Back Bay, designed by architect William Gibbons Preston. In 1951 the society evolved into the Museum of Science, and relocated to its current site on the Charles River. == History == Founders of the society in 1830 included Amos Binney Jr., Edward Brooks, Walter Channing, Henry Codman, George B. Emerson, Joshua B. Flint, Benjamin D. Greene, Simon E. Greene, William Grigg, George Hayward, David Humphreys Storer, and John Ware. Several had previously been involved with the Linnaean Society of New England. By 1838, the society held "regular meetings on the 2nd and 4th Wednesday of each month." "In its collection are about 700 specimens in mineralogy and geology, besides the rich collection of Dr. C.T. Jackson, and the state collection; botany, 5,000; mammalia, 30 entire skeletons and 30 crania; birds,


id: british-entomological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Entomological_and_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: British Entomological and Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Entomological_and_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:11.869634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: british-entomological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The British Entomological and Natural History Society or BENHS is a British entomological society. It is based at Dinton Pastures Country Park in Reading, England. == History == BENHS was founded in 1872 as the South London Entomological and Natural History Society. == Publications == BENHS publishes a quarterly journal, the British Journal of Entomology and Natural History (ISSN 0952-7583), formerly Proceedings and Transactions of the British Entomological and Natural History Society, and Proceedings and Transactions of the South London Entomological and Natural History Society. BENHS has published a number of books. Among the most well-known are two illustrated identification guides to British flies: Stubbs, Alan E. and Steven J. Falk (1983) British Hoverflies, an illustrated identification guide Stubbs, Alan E. and Martin Drake (2001) British Soldierflies and their allies Another title published by BENHS was New British Beetles - species not in Joy's practical handbook by Peter J. Hodge and Richard A. Jones, a companion volume to Norman H. Joy's A Practical Handbook of British Beetles. In 2024 BENHS published A checklist of the Lepidoptera of the British Isles (2nd Edition) edited by David J.L. Agassiz, Stella D. Beavan & Robert J. Heckford == Affiliated societies == The following


id: deyrolle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deyrolle-0.md
category: reference
title: Deyrolle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deyrolle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:13.039623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deyrolle-20260505-0
summary:
Deyrolle is a historic Parisian institution specialising in natural sciences, entomology, and taxidermy. Founded in 1831, it is one of the best known companies of entomology and taxidermy of Paris, celebrated for its collections in taxidermy, entomology, and natural history. Today, Deyrolle is a shop and a cabinet of curiosities open to the public, whose vocation is to show the beauty of Nature. == History == === Since 1831 === Deyrolle was created in 1831 by Jean-Baptiste Deyrolle, who was soon succeeded by his son Achille, at 46 rue du Bac in a building constructed in 1697-1699 by Jean-Baptiste Voille for a member of the Bruand family (Libéral Bruand). It was deeply transformed in 1739 by Samuel-Jacques Bernard, son of the banker of King Louis XIV (the Sun King), Samuel Bernard (7e arrondissement). Beyond its scientific material, minerals collections, seashells, fossils, mounted animals and prehistoric tools, Deyrolle provides pedagogical charts to schools and universities in France, made to illustrate teacher’s lessons. (Musée scolaire Deyrolle). In 1995, the world famous painter Richard Marolle bought Deyrolle before selling it to entrepreneur and duke Louis Albert de Broglie. In 2001 Louis Albert de Broglie bought Deyrolle and he restored the shop. === The


id: dolphin-nature-conservation-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphin_Nature_Conservation_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Dolphin Nature Conservation Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphin_Nature_Conservation_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:14.261005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dolphin-nature-conservation-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Dolphin Nature Conservation Society (DNCS) is a registered (no. 507/2001) voluntary environmental non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) located in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. It is committed to the causes of nature conservation, environmental protection, research, education, and awareness. The society was founded on March 5, 2001, by Dr. Mantha Rama Murty and Dr. Mangathayi, who had previously launched several nature conservation programs in Andhra Pradesh, particularly in Visakhapatnam. The organization's activities are intended to instill a love for nature and conservation among people, especially among the younger generation. Notable research, documentation, conservation, and awareness campaigns of the society have involved Olive-Ridley Sea Turtles, intertidal rocky shore fauna and flora of the Visakhapatnam coast, and butterflies of the Eastern Ghats. The society's flagship project is the development and maintenance of the Biodiversity Park in Visakhapatnam. == Precursor: Penguin Nature Club (WWF-India) == In 1987, an environmental organization known as the Penguin Nature Club was formed at the BVK College (part of Andhra University, Visakhapatnam) in affiliation with WWF-India. The organization engaged in nature conservation and environmental protection activities for more than a decade. Seeking to expand its activities, the organization was renamed the Dolphin Nature Conservation Society in 2001 and


id: essex-county-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_County_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Essex County Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_County_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:15.402808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: essex-county-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Essex County Natural History Society (1833–1848) in Salem, Massachusetts, United States, was formed "for the purpose of promoting the science of natural history." It endeavored "to form a complete collection of natural productions, curiosities. &c, particularly of this county; and, to form a library of standard books on the natural sciences." The society incorporated in 1836; Andrew Nichols, William Oakes, and William Prescott served as signatories. Other members included Samuel B. Buttrick, Samuel P. Fowler, John M. Ives, John C. Lee, George Osgood, Charles G. Page, Gardner B. Perry, George Dean Phippen, William P. Richardson, John Lewis Russell, Henry Wheatland. By 1836 some 100 members belonged to the society. In Salem its "cabinets and library were first deposited in Essex Place, then in Franklin Building, then in Chase's Building, Washington Street, and finally removed to Pickman Place, in 1842." In 1848 the society merged with the Essex Historical Society to form the Essex Institute. == See also == Essex Institute (1848–1992), successor to the Natural History Society == References == == Further reading == Journal of the Essex County Natural History Society. 1836-ca.1852 Samuel P. Fowler. An historical sketch. Bulletin of the Essex Institute, v.16, 1884. == External links


id: gibraltar-ornithological-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar_Ornithological_&_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Gibraltar Ornithological & Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar_Ornithological_&_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:16.613013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gibraltar-ornithological-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Gibraltar Ornithological & Natural History Society (GONHS), founded in 1976, is a non-governmental, membership-based organisation committed to research into and conservation of nature in Gibraltar and the region of the Strait of Gibraltar. It works independently and in collaboration with other organisations and scientific or conservation institutions to achieve these aims. GONHS is a Partner of BirdLife International, a member of IUCN (The World Conservation Union), of the UK Overseas Territories Conservation Forum, the British Trust for Ornithology, the Iberian Council for the Defence of Nature, the Association of European Rarities Committees, and Countdown 2010. Its first General Secretary was Dr. John Cortes who served until 2011. == References == == External links == GONHS Official Website


id: lincolnshire-naturalists-union-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincolnshire_Naturalists'_Union-0.md
category: reference
title: Lincolnshire Naturalists' Union
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincolnshire_Naturalists'_Union
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:17.794512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lincolnshire-naturalists-union-20260505-0
summary:
Lincolnshire Naturalist's Union (LNU) is an association of amateur naturalists covering a wide range of natural history subjects. It was founded in 1893 and aims to promote the investigation of the fauna, flora, and physical features of the county of Lincolnshire and to promote the study of natural history. == History == The society was formed on 12 June 1893 during a meeting held in Mablethorpe. The meeting came about from conversations held by William F. Baker and Joseph Coe with "prominent naturalists connectected with Lincolnshire". About 30 naturalists met at Mablethrope, travelled to Theddlethorpe and then returned to the Book-in-Hand hotel at Mablethorpe to discuss the formation of a union. A subsequent meeting was held on 1 July 1893 at Lincoln to elect officers to organise the union. John Cordeaux was elected as the inaugural President of the LNU and William F. Baker as its Secretary. Officers were also elected to six divisional sections: Vertebrate Zoology, Conchology, Entomology, Botany, Geology, and Micro-Zoology & Botany. == Activities == The LNU has hosted over 800 field meetings across the county of Lincolnshire. Historically, several members of the LNU have donated their collections to the county museum, The Collection, in Lincoln. ==


id: linnaean-society-of-new-england-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_England-0.md
category: reference
title: Linnaean Society of New England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:18.960427+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linnaean-society-of-new-england-20260505-0
summary:
The Linnaean Society of New England (1814–1822) was established in Boston, Massachusetts, to promote natural history. The society organized a natural history museum and also arranged lectures and excursions for its members. In 1817 it became involved in the Gloucester sea serpent debate. Although the society itself did not last, its initial energy and rapid accomplishments helped shape the growing field of natural history in the early years of the United States. == History == The society began December 8, 1814, "at the room of Dr. Jacob Bigelow." Founders included Bigelow; Walter Channing; Ezekiel D. Cushing; James Freeman Dana; George Hayward; LaFayette Perkins; Octavius Pickering; William Smith Shaw; Nathaniel Tucker; John Ware; and John White Webster. John Davis served as president. "Meetings were held weekly, on Saturday evenings. The members were divided into 6 classes: viz., for minerals; for plants and vegetables; for quadrupeds and birds; for fishes, reptiles, and serpents; for insects; and for vermes, corals, madrepores, &c." Initially, the society had a room "in Joy's Buildings" in Boston; they soon moved to Boylston Market. In January 1815, the society agreed to call itself the "Linnaean Society of New England" (instead of its previous name, "New-England Society for the


id: linnaean-society-of-new-england-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_England-1.md
category: reference
title: Linnaean Society of New England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:18.960427+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linnaean-society-of-new-england-20260505-0
summary:
Among the quadrupeds may be mentioned the Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Catamount, Wolf, Bear, Stag, Sea-Elephant, and a great number of smaller species, principally native. The birds amount to nearly three hundred in number, and consist of elegant species in every order, and of every size, from the Albatross and the large Sea-Eagle of North America, to the minutest Humming birds of Cayenne. A majority of the birds are natives of this country, but there are many beautiful species from tropical countries ... The fishes are prepared in uniform half specimens fixed upon a white ground, and afford a fine display, being sufficiently numerous to nearly cover one end of the hall. The insects and shells amounting to some thousands in number, include many rare and elegant species, both native and foreign, and among them may be mentioned, a fine collection of insects from China, and of shells from the Isle of France and Calcutta. The mineralogical specimens already fill four large cabinets. ... The whole collection, with the exception of the fishes and a few other specimens, have been inclosed at a great expense, in mahogany cases with glass fronts. ... The specimens have been prepared by members of the


id: madras-naturalists-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Naturalists'_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Madras Naturalists' Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Naturalists'_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:20.100203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: madras-naturalists-society-20260505-0
summary:
Madras Naturalists' Society is a non-governmental organization that promotes appreciation, education and conservation of Nature. It was founded by bird watchers from the city of Madras (now Chennai), India) on 17 May 1978. G. K. Bhat was the organization's first President. The logo of the society is a Blackbuck The society started publishing a monthly bulletin from December 1978 and a quarterly journal Blackbuck from January 1985 Blackbuck carries semi-technical articles and works of popular interest. The digitised Version of 'Blackbuck' and the monthly bulletin was unveiled on 2 July 2015 to the members. An anthology of writings from the Blackbuck titled Sprint of the Blackbuck was published in 2012. The volume was edited by noted Tamil film historian and Madras Naturalists' Society member S. Theodore Baskaran. Starting from Madhavaiah Krishnan's birth centenary year in 2012, the society annual presents a "M. Krishnan Memorial Nature Writing Award" for young wildlife writers. == Notable members == Madhaviah Krishnan S. Theodore Baskaran V. Krishnamurthy == See also == Birding in Chennai == Notes ==


id: midland-union-of-natural-history-societies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Union_of_Natural_History_Societies-0.md
category: reference
title: Midland Union of Natural History Societies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Union_of_Natural_History_Societies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:21.360259+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: midland-union-of-natural-history-societies-20260505-0
summary:
The Midland Union of Natural History Societies (initially the Union of Midland Natural History Societies) was an association of amateur groups in the English Midlands and central Wales, which existed from 1877. For sixteen years it published a journal, The Midland Naturalist, and from 1881 awarded a medal, the Darwin Prize. The phrase "Natural History" was interpreted broadly, and the groups' interests included archaeology, architecture and geology. == History == The success of a Tamworth Natural History, Geological, and Antiquarian Society meeting held early in 1874, joined by the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society (BNHMS) led William G. Blatch, Honorary Secretary of the latter, to propose closer collaboration between local natural history societies. Eventually, on 17 August 1876 committee meeting of the Birmingham society, decided to investigate the formation of a union of such groups. Representatives of various societies met at the Midland Institute, Birmingham, on 28 August 1877, and elected a council to manage the union. The eminent surgeon and president of the BNHMS, Lawson Tait, played a leading role in the formation and early administration of the Union. He resigned his positions on the managing bodies of both organisations in 1878, in a dispute over the Union's


id: natural-history-society-of-montreal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Montreal-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Society of Montreal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Montreal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:22.520949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-society-of-montreal-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Society of Montreal, which ran from 1827 to 1928, was the oldest scientific organisation in Canada, and one of the oldest in North America. Its first meeting took place on May 12, 1827. The first chair of the society was Andrew Fernando Holmes. Other notable members were George Barnston and his son James Barnston and the first recorded Canadian clerk of works, John Mactaggart (1791-1830). The society published a journal, originally titled the Canadian naturalist and quarterly journal of science (1856-1883) and subsequently the Canadian record of science (1884-1916). The society founded a natural history museum, some of whose collections are now stored in the McGill University Herbarium. == References ==


id: natural-history-society-of-northumbria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Society of Northumbria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:23.715047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-society-of-northumbria-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Society of Northumbria (NHSN) is a voluntary organization to promote the study of natural history and protect the wildlife of North East England. Its offices and library are in the Great North Museum: Hancock, whose building, land and collections it owns. It leases them to Newcastle University, on whose behalf they are administered by Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums. It possesses a substantial natural history library and archive and maintains the Gosforth Nature Reserve, one of the oldest designated nature reserves in North East England. It also carries out research and provides talks, field trips and educational courses, as well as publishing scientific papers. == Gosforth Nature Reserve == NHSN has managed Gosforth Nature Reserve since 1929. This 1 km x 1 km wildlife refuge north of Newcastle upon Tyne includes a shallow lake with extensive reed bed, mixed woodland and small areas of wildflower meadow. The reserve is scientifically important for its uncommon flora and fauna, which includes bittern, kingfisher, otter, coralroot orchid and purple hairstreak butterfly. The reserve has hides and boardwalks that enable visitors to view waterfowl, waders and reed bed birds at one of the most popular birdwatching sites in the Newcastle


id: natural-history-society-of-northumbria-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Society of Northumbria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:23.715047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-society-of-northumbria-20260505-0
summary:
William Loftus (c.1821–1858) was an English archaeologist and traveller. Joshua Alder (1792–1867) was an amateur zoologist and malacologist specialising in tunicates and gastropods. Albany Hancock (1806–1873) was the brother of the ornithologist John Hancock and specialised in the anatomy of sea creatures especially sea slugs or nudibranchs, depicting them in minute detail. His watercolour drawings are held in the Society's archives. William Chapman Hewitson (1806–1878) was a wealthy collector, particularly of beetles, lepidopterans, bird's nests and eggs. He built up an extensive collection of butterflies of the world and was an accomplished illustrator. John Hancock (1808–1890) was an ornithologist, produced his Catalogue of the Birds of Northumberland and Durham in 1874. His greatest talent, however, was taxidermy and his collection of mounted British birds can still be seen today in the Bird Gallery of the Great North Museum: Hancock. Mary Jane Hancock (1810–1896) was an amateur botanist and enthusiastic watercolour painter, and the youngest sister of John and Albany Hancock. The Natural History Society of Northumbria holds over 60 of her paintings and more than 300 botany specimens from her personal collections. Marie Victoire Lebour (1876–1971) studied the life cycles of many aquatic organisms, rearing them from eggs to larvae


id: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet-0.md
category: reference
title: Naturhistorieselskabet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:24.940250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
summary:
Naturhistorieselskabet (lit. 'the Society for Natural History') was a private society that was the only institution to offer education in natural history in Denmark in the late 18th century. The spirit of the Age of Enlightenment and an escalating agricultural crisis, led the king and the Danish elite to call foreign experts on economy, including botany and silviculture, to the country. The autonomous University of Copenhagen, on the other hand, was reluctant to employ foreign experts in little-established disciplines. Naturhistorieselskabet was formed in 1788 in order to ensure education in botany, zoology and mineralogy based on private funds. For example, Martin Vahl lectured in botany. After the appointment in 1795 of a professor in geology and in 1797 one in botany, the society gradually lost its importance. It was soon abolished and its collections donated to the state (much later united with the university collections). == Sources == Wagner, P.H. 2001. Institutionaliseringen af botanik og geologi i Danmark-Norge i det 18. århundrede (colloquium). Institut for Videnskabshistorie.


id: orkney-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Orkney Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:26.119623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orkney-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Orkney Natural History Society was a scientific society established in 1837 on Orkney, Scotland by Rev. William Stobbs, and Rev. William Clouston, L.L.D. It was one of many provincial naturalist societies to emerge in Victorian Britain. Their role in contributing knowledge, collecting specimens, and fostering cultures of scientific inquiry outside the metropolitan centers is now widely recognized by historians of science. == Founding == The Orkney Natural History Society was established on 28 December 1837 at Stromness, Orkney. Its first Annual Report stated that the society aimed at 'investigating the Natural History and Antiquities' of Orkney county, 'promoting of natural science by the support of a museum', and 'stimulating the inhabitants of these islands to study of the Almighty's works'. It organised public lectures and excursions and founded the Stromness Museum, which is still in existence today. By 1838, the society's collection of specimens included 100 fossil fish, 400 minerals, 60 specimens of birds, 200 eggs, and 600 land plants. == People == The first President was the Reverend Charles Clouston, a Prebystarian Minister from Stromness. The second president was the Rev. William Clouston, who published widely on Orkney flora and fauna. Members in this early period included marine


id: penzance-natural-history-and-antiquarian-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penzance_Natural_History_and_Antiquarian_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penzance_Natural_History_and_Antiquarian_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:27.278675+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: penzance-natural-history-and-antiquarian-society-20260505-0
summary:
Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society (1839–1961) was a local society founded in Penzance in Cornwall, England, UK, whose aim was "the cultivation of the science of Natural History, and for the investigation of the Antiquities referring to the early inhabitants." == History == The Society was established at a public meeting on 20 November 1839, with an annual subscription of 10 shillings or life membership of £5. The society held meetings, where lectures were delivered and discussed, held an annual excursion to visit the antiquities of the area, and maintained a museum. Despite the initial enthusiasm, very little happened as the Secretaries and Curators' Report at the 1845 AGM concluded with "The society having somewhat revived from the torpor which has for some time hung over it, the council hopes that its increased energy will be continued without further interruption". The first volume of Reports and Transactions was finally published in 1851, covering the years 1845–51. Transactions continued with the publication of volume two in 1864 (covering the years 1851–55) and volume three in 1865 (the years 1862–65). The society then lay dormant apart from the annual excursions which continued until 1872 when it became defunct. Fifty-three members joined


id: perthshire-society-of-natural-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perthshire_Society_of_Natural_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Perthshire Society of Natural Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perthshire_Society_of_Natural_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:28.466795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perthshire-society-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Perthshire Society of Natural Science (PSNS) is one of the oldest scientific societies in Scotland, having been established in 1867. Under its parent body, it has three sections covering Nature (formerly Botany and Ornithology), Archaeology & History, and Photography (also known as Perthshire Photographic Society). Additionally it runs a series of talks on a broad science theme called Curious Minds. Now based at the A. K. Bell Library in Perth, Scotland, the society was initially composed of men, but by the end of the 19th century, around a quarter of its members were women. The membership ranged across social classes, hence it was known as "a society for all". Whereas specimens were physically collected by the society's members during its early years, now digital photography is used, along with digital data, to create records. In 1935, the society donated paintings and natural-history collections to Perth Museum and Art Gallery to display in its new extension, which was opened by the Duke and Duchess of York, the future King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. The society undertook an excavation at Pitmiddle village (whose history dates to the 12th century) and Elcho Nunnery, and published its report in 1988. The society's longest-serving


id: society-for-the-history-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Society for the History of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:29.703434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: society-for-the-history-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Society for the History of Natural History (SHNH) is an international society for everyone who is interested in natural history in the broadest sense. This includes botany, zoology and geology as well as natural history collections, exploration, art and bibliography. Everyone with an interest in these subjects – professional or amateur – is welcome to join. The Society's Patron is Sir David Attenborough OM CH FRS. Originally named the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History, SHNH was founded in 1936 by a small group of distinguished scientists, librarians and bibliographers whose appreciation and love of books inspired the formation of the Society in London. The Society's first President was Charles Davies Sherborn (1861–1942), who compiled the Index Animalium single-handedly over 43 years (1758–1850). This 11 volume, 9,000 page work, that catalogued 444,000 names of every living and extinct animal discovered between 1758 and 1850 is considered to be the bibliographic foundation for zoological nomenclature. The Society's main publication is Archives of Natural History which is published for the Society by Edinburgh University Press. Archives of Natural History provides an avenue for the publication of papers on the history and bibliography of natural history in its broadest sense, and


id: somerset-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:32.076426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: somerset-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society (SANHS) is a learned society established in 1849 to encourage the study of archaeology, natural history and history relating to the historic county of Somerset. In 1874 the society acquired Taunton Castle, subsequently restoring and adapting the building for use as a museum, library and venue for meetings. Since 2010 the society's administrative base has been at the Somerset Heritage Centre in Norton Fitzwarren. During the first half of the 20th century the society expanded its activities under the leadership of Harold St George Gray, whose excavations and curatorial work influenced the development of the collections and raised the society's profile. In 1958 financial pressures led to the leasing of Taunton Castle, with the museum collections, to Somerset County Council (now Somerset Council). The society works collaboratively with Somerset Council and the South West Heritage Trust, and continues its activities through lectures, research, conservation initiatives and publications, as well as through its ownership of Taunton Castle and extensive collections. == Origins of the society == Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society was founded in 1849 following discussions among several residents of Taunton and its surrounding area. Individuals associated with its establishment and early development


id: somerset-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society-1.md
category: reference
title: Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:32.076426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: somerset-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
== Later history == Following Gray's retirement in 1949, Wilfred Seaby was appointed as his successor. During Seaby's short tenure the collections were returned from wartime storage, the library was reorganised and additional office accommodation was created. In 1952 major repairs to the castle began, focusing on the Great Hall, and by the end of the year negotiations had been completed for bringing the recently-discovered Low Ham Roman mosaic to the museum. Although visitor numbers and educational use increased during the mid-20th century, financial pressures also intensified. Castle Lodge and Ine's Cottage were sold, and in 1958 the society ended its direct management of the museum by leasing Taunton Castle, together with the museum collections, to Somerset County Council. Since 2014 responsibility for the management of the museum and the collections has rested with the South West Heritage Trust. The society was a partner with Somerset County Council in a major project, supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, to refurbish and redisplay the museum. It reopened in 2011 as the Museum of Somerset. In 2013 the society worked with Somerset Buildings Preservation Trust and the County Council on a Lottery-funded project to repair Castle House, part of the Taunton Castle


id: vindhyan-ecology-and-natural-history-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhyan_Ecology_and_Natural_History_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhyan_Ecology_and_Natural_History_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:33.277587+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vindhyan-ecology-and-natural-history-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation (VENHF) is a registered non-profit organisation (2012) with its headquarter in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, India, working for the protection and conservation of the nature, natural resources and rights of the nature dependent communities in the ecologically fragile landscape of Vindhya Range in India. Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan is the flagship campaign of the organization. == Programs == === Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan === Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan (Hindi pronunciation: [viŋd̪ʱyaː batʃaːoː] English meaning: Save Vindhya Campaign) is the flagship program of VENHF which works towards environmental equity and bringing ecological justice through research-based environmental litigation, strengthening grass-root environmental movements, supporting institution of local governance and protecting the rights of nature dependent indigenous communities. == Activities and projects == === Natural history research === ==== Wildlife Inventory of Mirzapur Forests ==== In the year 2017, Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation in association with WWF-India published a sign-based study on Sloth Bears in Mirzapur, which identified five forest ranges as critical wildlife habitats. The study estimated an area of 430 km2 (170 sq mi). of core Sloth bear habitat and a total of 1,110 km2 (430 sq mi) of Reserve Forests area which may be protected as


id: vindhyan-ecology-and-natural-history-foundation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhyan_Ecology_and_Natural_History_Foundation-1.md
category: reference
title: Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhyan_Ecology_and_Natural_History_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:33.277587+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vindhyan-ecology-and-natural-history-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
==== Kanhar Dam ==== Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan exposed the illegalities in environment clearance and forest clearance surrounding the controversial Kanhar Dam Project in Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh on Kanhar River. The information collected by Vindhya Bachao using the Right to Information Act, 2005 was the basis of challenging the construction of the dam. Members of Vindhya Bachao and the People's Union for Civil Liberties challenged the project in National Green Tribunal, New Delhi. The construction of the dam was thereafter stayed by the National Green Tribunal in December 2014. The Chief Secretary of the Chhattisgarh government in April 2015 took note of the irregularities highlighted by Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan and asked the Uttar Pradesh government to stop the construction until the survey and compensation for the affected villages are completed. The National Green Tribunal passed its final judgement on 7 May 2015 staying any new construction to be undertaken but allowing the construction already underway. The court also formed a high-level committee under the chairmanship of Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Uttar Pradesh to report on the directions issued in the judgment. The members filed a review petition against the judgment passed by the tribunal, following which the court gave


id: wernerian-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernerian_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Wernerian Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernerian_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:34.449198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wernerian-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Wernerian Natural History Society (12 January 1808 – 16 April 1858), commonly abbreviated as the Wernerian Society, was a learned society interested in the broad field of natural history, and saw papers presented on various topics such as mineralogy, plants, insects, and scholarly expeditions. The Society was an offshoot of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and from its beginnings it was a rather elite organization. The Society was named after Abraham Gottlob Werner, a German geologist who was a creator of Neptunism, a theory of superposition based on a receding primordial ocean that had deposited all the rocks in the crust. At this time all rocks, including basalt, and crystalline substances were thought by some to be precipitated from solution. == History == Robert Jameson, Regius Professor of Natural History at the University of Edinburgh, was the founder and life president of the Society. In 1800, he spent a year at the mining academy in Freiberg, Saxony, where he studied under Werner. The Society was founded on 12 January 1808, and the first meeting of the Society occurred on 2 March 1808. Between 1811 and 1839 eight volumes of Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society appeared. More than


id: wiltshire-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiltshire_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiltshire_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:35.593919+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wiltshire-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society was founded in 1853, and is one of the largest county-based archaeological societies in the United Kingdom. It runs the Wiltshire Museum in Devizes, Wiltshire which has the best Bronze Age collections in Britain, including finds from Avebury and Stonehenge. It also publishes the annual Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine. The society has in the past published books of Wiltshire interest, such as the Tropenell Cartulary. The present-day Wiltshire Record Society began life as the Records Branch of the society. == History == A motivation for the creation of the society was an 1852 proposal by the antiquarian and writer John Britton (1771–1857) to sell his collection of Wiltshire-related books, drawings etc. William Cunnington III (grandson of the pioneering excavator of the same name) formed a Devizes-based committee which purchased the collection for £150. The inaugural meeting of the society was held at Devizes Town Hall on 12 October 1853, and attracted between 200 and 300 people including "many of the neighbouring Gentry and Clergy". The resolution to form the society stated that its objects would be "to cultivate and collect information on Archaeology and Natural History in their various branches, and


id: yorkshire-naturalists-union-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_Naturalists'_Union-0.md
category: reference
title: Yorkshire Naturalists' Union
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_Naturalists'_Union
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:36.757553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yorkshire-naturalists-union-20260505-0
summary:
The Yorkshire Naturalists' Union is an association of amateur and professional naturalists covering a wide range of aspects of natural history. It is one of United Kingdom's oldest extant wildlife organisations and oldest natural history federation. Its Mycological Committee, founded in 1892, is the oldest permanent organisation dedicated to the study of fungi in Great Britain. == History == The Yorkshire Naturalists' Union was founded in 1861 as the West Riding Consolidated Naturalists' Society. Initially a collaboration of five local natural history field clubs, additional clubs and societies from across Yorkshire continued to join. The association renamed itself the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union in 1876. == Activities == The Yorkshire Naturalists' Union organises joint field trips, co-operates with the British Association for the Advancement of Science and other county-sized associations, and publishes a journal, The Naturalist. The journal was first published by the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union in August 1878. == Notable members == William Sawney Bisat(1886–1973), geologist Frederick Orpen Bower (1855–1948), botanist William Norwood Cheesman (1847–1925), mycologist Alfred Clarke (1848–1925), mycologist and photographer William Eagle Clarke (1853–1938), ornithologist William James Clarke (1871–1945), naturalist and folklorist Charles Crossland (1844–1916), mycologist and ecologist James William Davis (1846–1893), geologist John Farrah (1849–1907), botanist and


id: anthropologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:38.314828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropologist-20260505-0
summary:
An anthropologist is a scientist engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropologists study aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms, values, and general behavior of societies. Linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life, while economic anthropology studies human economic behavior. Biological (physical), forensic, and medical anthropology study the biology and evolution of humans and their primate relatives, the application of biological anthropology in a legal setting, and the study of diseases and their impacts on humans over time, respectively. == Education == Anthropologists usually cover a breadth of topics within anthropology in their undergraduate education and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a student's understanding of anthropology; the students who pass are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Anthropologists typically hold graduate degrees, either doctorates or master's degrees. Not holding an advanced degree is rare in the field. Some anthropologists hold undergraduate degrees in other fields than anthropology and graduate degrees in anthropology. == Career == Research topics of anthropologists include the discovery of


id: archivist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist-0.md
category: reference
title: Archivist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:39.518023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archivist-20260505-0
summary:
An archivist is an information professional who assesses, collects, organizes, preserves, maintains control over, and provides access to records and archives determined to have long-term value. The records that are maintained by an archivist can consist of a variety of forms, including but not limited to letters, diaries, logs, other personal documents, government documents, sound or picture recordings, digital files, or other physical objects. == Description == As Richard Pearce-Moses wrote: Archivists keep records that have enduring value as reliable memories of the past, and they help people find and understand the information they need in those records. Determining what records have enduring value can be challenging. Archivists must also select records valuable enough to justify the costs of storage and preservation, plus the labor-intensive expenses of arrangement, description, and reference service. The theory and scholarly work underpinning archives practices is called archival science. The most common related occupations are librarians, museum curators, and records managers. The occupation of archivist is distinct from that of librarian. The two occupations have separate courses of training, adhere to separate and distinct principles, and are represented by separate professional organizations. In general, the librarian tends to deal with published media (where the metadata,


id: archivist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist-1.md
category: reference
title: Archivist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:39.518023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archivist-20260505-0
summary:
Archivists' duties include acquiring and appraising new collections, arranging and describing records, providing reference service, and preserving materials. In arranging records, archivists apply two important principles: provenance and original order. Provenance refers to the creation of records and keeping different records separate in order to maintain context. Many entities create records, including governments, businesses, universities, and individuals. Original order is applied by keeping records in their order as established and maintained by the creator(s). Both provenance and original order are closely related to the concept of respect des fonds, which states that records from one corporate body should not be mixed with records from another. There are two aspects to arrangement: intellectual and physical. Both aspects follow the principle of original order. Archivists process the records physically by placing them in acid-free folders and boxes to ensure their long-term survival. They also process the records intellectually, by determining what the records consist of, how they are organized, and what, if any, finding aids need to be created. Finding aids can be box lists or descriptive inventories, or indexes. Even if the original arrangement is unclear or unhelpful in terms of accessing the collection, it is rarely rearranged to something that


id: archivist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist-2.md
category: reference
title: Archivist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:39.518023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archivist-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === In France, the oldest Archivist School is the École des chartes, founded in 1821. This prestigious grande école (literally, "grand schools") offers a diploma in "Archivist-Paleography", created in 1849, after a three-year curriculum. Many graduates become curators in archives, museums, and libraries or become researchers in universities. Some universities, like University of Angers, Jean Moulin University Lyon 3, and Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, offer a master's degree in Archival Science, while the Burgundy has a course for their history degree focusing on archives of 20th and 21st century Europe. === Ireland === In the Republic of Ireland, the School of History of the University College Dublin (UCD) offers a Masters of Arts degree in Archives and Records Management, providing the only recognized course in Ireland for the training of professional archivists, which is accredited by the Archives and Records Association. UCD also offers certificates in Archives Management and Records Management. === New Zealand === Victoria University of Wellington is the only tertiary institution in New Zealand that provides postgraduate archival courses. Victoria Information Studies qualifications with ARCR endorsement have been recognized by Records and Information Management Professionals Australasia. The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand has an undergraduate course


