# kb

id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-1.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:12.347082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Claimed experimental refutations === Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments: To conclusively decide between the theories of Abraham and Lorentz, Kaufmann repeated his experiments in 1905 with improved accuracy. However, in the meantime the theoretical situation had changed. Alfred Bucherer and Paul Langevin (1904) developed another model, in which the electron is contracted in the line of motion, and dilated in the transverse direction, so that the volume remains constant. While Kaufmann was still evaluating his experiments, Einstein published his theory of special relativity. Eventually, Kaufmann published his results in December 1905 and argued that they are in agreement with Abraham's theory and require rejection of the "basic assumption of Lorentz and Einstein" (the relativity principle). Lorentz reacted with the phrase "I am at the end of my Latin", while Einstein did not mention those experiments before 1908. Yet, others started to criticize the experiments. Max Planck (1906) alluded to inconsistencies in the theoretical interpretation of the data, and Adolf Bestelmeyer (1906) introduced new techniques, which (especially in the area of low velocities) gave different results and which cast doubts on Kaufmann's methods. Therefore, Bucherer (1908) conducted new experiments and arrived at the conclusion that they confirm the mass formula of relativity and


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-2.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:12.347082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Acceleration in special relativity === It was also claimed that special relativity cannot handle acceleration, which would lead to contradictions in some situations. However, this assessment is not correct, since acceleration actually can be described in the framework of special relativity (see Acceleration (special relativity), Proper reference frame (flat spacetime), Hyperbolic motion, Rindler coordinates, Born coordinates). Paradoxes relying on insufficient understanding of these facts were discovered in the early years of relativity. For example, Max Born (1909) tried to combine the concept of rigid bodies with special relativity. That this model was insufficient was shown by Paul Ehrenfest (1909), who demonstrated that a rotating rigid body would, according to Born's definition, undergo a contraction of the circumference without contraction of the radius, which is impossible (Ehrenfest paradox). Max von Laue (1911) showed that rigid bodies cannot exist in special relativity, since the propagation of signals cannot exceed the speed of light, so an accelerating and rotating body will undergo deformations. Paul Langevin and von Laue showed that the twin paradox can be completely resolved by consideration of acceleration in special relativity. If two twins move away from each other, and one of them is accelerating and coming back to


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-3.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:12.347082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Aether and absolute space === Many physicists (like Hendrik Lorentz, Oliver Lodge, Albert Abraham Michelson, Edmund Taylor Whittaker, Harry Bateman, Ebenezer Cunningham, Charles Émile Picard, Paul Painlevé) were uncomfortable with the rejection of the aether, and preferred to interpret the Lorentz transformation based on the existence of a preferred frame of reference, as in the aether-based theories of Lorentz, Larmor, and Poincaré. However, the idea of an aether hidden from any observation was not supported by the mainstream scientific community, therefore the aether theory of Lorentz and Poincaré was superseded by Einstein's special relativity which was subsequently formulated in the framework of four-dimensional spacetime by Minkowski. Others such as Herbert E. Ives argued that it might be possible to experimentally determine the motion of such an aether, but it was never found despite numerous experimental tests of Lorentz invariance (see tests of special relativity). Also attempts to introduce some sort of relativistic aether (consistent with relativity) into modern physics such as by Einstein on the basis of general relativity (1920), or by Paul Dirac in relation to quantum mechanics (1951), were not supported by the scientific community (see Luminiferous aether#End of aether?). In his Nobel lecture, George F. Smoot


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-4.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:12.347082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== General covariance === Einstein emphasized the importance of general covariance for the development of general relativity, and took the position that the general covariance of his 1915 theory of gravity ensured implementation of a generalized relativity principle. This view was challenged by Erich Kretschmann (1917), who argued that every theory of space and time (even including Newtonian dynamics) can be formulated in a covariant way, if additional parameters are included, and thus general covariance of a theory would in itself be insufficient to implement a generalized relativity principle. Although Einstein (1918) agreed with that argument, he also countered that Newtonian mechanics in general covariant form would be too complicated for practical uses. Although it is now understood that Einstein's response to Kretschmann was mistaken (subsequent papers showed that such a theory would still be usable), another argument can be made in favor of general covariance: it is a natural way to express the equivalence principle, i.e., the equivalence in the description of a free-falling observer and an observer at rest, and thus it is more convenient to use general covariance together with general relativity, rather than with Newtonian mechanics. Connected with this, also the question of absolute motion was


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-5.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:12.347082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
== Philosophical criticism == The consequences of relativity, such as the change of ordinary concepts of space and time, as well as the introduction of non-Euclidean geometry in general relativity, were criticized by some philosophers of different philosophical schools. Many philosophical critics had insufficient knowledge of the mathematical and formal basis of relativity, which led to the criticisms often missing the heart of the matter. For example, relativity was misinterpreted as some form of relativism. However, this is misleading as it was emphasized by Einstein or Planck. Although space and time did become relative in Einstein's theories, and inertial frames of reference are handled on equal footing, on the other hand, the theory makes natural laws invariant—examples are the constancy of the speed of light and the covariance of Maxwell's equations. Consequently, Felix Klein (1910) called it the "invariant theory of the Lorentz group" instead of relativity theory, and Einstein (who reportedly used expressions like "absolute theory") sympathized with this expression as well. Critical responses to relativity were also expressed by proponents of neo-Kantianism (Paul Natorp, Bruno Bauch etc.), and phenomenology (Oskar Becker, Moritz Geiger etc.). While some of them only rejected the philosophical consequences, others rejected also the physical


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-6.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:12.347082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Academic and non-academic criticism === Some academic scientists, especially experimental physicists such as the Nobel laureates Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark, as well as Ernst Gehrcke, Stjepan Mohorovičić, Rudolf Tomaschek and others criticized the increasing abstraction and mathematization of modern physics, especially in the form of relativity theory, and later quantum mechanics. It was seen as a tendency to abstract theory building, connected with the loss of intuitive "common sense". In fact, relativity was the first theory, in which the inadequacy of the "illustrative" classical physics was thought to have been demonstrated. Some of Einstein's critics ignored these developments and tried to revitalize older theories, such as aether drag models or emission theories (see "Alternative Theories"). However, those qualitative models were never sufficiently advanced to compete with the success of the precise experimental predictions and explanatory powers of the modern theories. Additionally, there was also a great rivalry between experimental and theoretical physicists, as regards the professorial activities and the occupation of chairs at German universities. The opinions clashed at the "Bad Nauheim debates" in 1920 between Einstein and (among others) Lenard, which attracted much public attention. In addition, there were many critics (with or without physical training) whose


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-7.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:12.347082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
While the theory of relativity was enthusiastically studied in Japan and China, it faced criticism in nations with older scientific establishments. Shortly before and during World War I, there appeared some nationalistically motivated criticisms of relativity and modern physics. For example, French theoretical physicists Pierre Duhem regarded relativity as the product of the "too formal and abstract" German spirit, which was in conflict with "common sense". In Germany the Jewish ancestry of some leading relativity proponents such as Einstein and Minkowski made them targets of racially minded critics, although many of Einstein's German critics did not show evidence of such motives. The engineer Paul Weyland, a known nationalistic agitator, arranged the first public meeting against relativity in Berlin in 1919. While Lenard and Stark were also known for their nationalistic opinions, they declined to participate in Weyland's rallies, and Weyland's campaign eventually fizzled out due to a lack of prominent speakers. Lenard and others instead responded to Einstein's challenge to his professional critics to debate his theories at the scientific conference held annually at Bad Nauheim. While Einstein's critics, assuming without any real justification that Einstein was behind the activities of the German press in promoting the triumph of relativity,


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-8.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:12.347082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== A Hundred Authors Against Einstein === A collection of various criticisms can be found in the book Hundert Autoren gegen Einstein (A Hundred Authors Against Einstein), published in 1931. It contains very short texts from 28 authors, and excerpts from the publications of another 19 authors. The rest consists of a list that also includes people who only for some time were opposed to relativity. The most targeted one is space-time followed by the speed of light as a constant and the relativity of simultaneity, with other concepts following. Besides philosophic objections (mostly based on Kantianism), also some alleged elementary failures of the theory were included; however, as some commented, those failures were due to the authors' misunderstanding of relativity. For example, Hans Reichenbach wrote a report in the entertainment section of a newspaper, describing the book as "a magnificent collection of naive mistakes" and as "unintended droll literature". Albert von Brunn interpreted the book as a pamphlet "of such deplorable impotence as occurring elsewhere only in politics" and "a fallback into the 16th and 17th centuries" and concluded “it can only be hoped that German science will not again be embarrassed by such sad scribblings”. Jacob Epstein quoted


id: dark-energy-star-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark-energy_star-0.md
category: reference
title: Dark-energy star
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark-energy_star
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:13.549201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dark-energy-star-20260505-0
summary:
A dark-energy star is a hypothetical compact astrophysical object, which a minority of physicists think might constitute an alternative explanation for observations of astronomical black hole candidates. The concept was proposed by physicist George Chapline. The theory states that infalling matter is converted into vacuum energy or dark energy, as the matter falls through the event horizon. The space within the event horizon would end up with a large value for the cosmological constant and have negative pressure to exert against gravity. There would be no information-destroying singularity. == Theory == In March 2005, physicist George Chapline claimed that quantum mechanics makes it a "near certainty" that black holes do not exist and are instead dark-energy stars. The dark-energy star is a different concept from that of a gravastar. Dark-energy stars were first proposed because in quantum physics, absolute time is required; however, in general relativity, an object falling towards a black hole would, to an outside observer, seem to have time pass infinitely slowly at the event horizon. The object itself would feel as if time flowed normally. In order to reconcile quantum mechanics with black holes, Chapline theorized that a phase transition in the phase of space occurs


id: death-ray-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_ray-0.md
category: reference
title: Death ray
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_ray
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:15.919723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: death-ray-20260505-0
summary:
The death ray or death beam is a theoretical particle beam or electromagnetic weapon first theorized around the 1920s and 1930s. Around that time, inventors such as Guglielmo Marconi, Nikola Tesla, Harry Grindell Matthews, Edwin R. Scott, Erich Graichen and others claimed to have invented it independently. In 1957, the National Inventors Council was still issuing lists of needed military inventions that included a death ray. While based in fiction, research into energy-based weapons inspired by past speculation has contributed to actual weapons used by modern militaries sometimes called a sort of "death ray", such as the United States Navy and its Laser Weapon System (LaWS) deployed in mid-2014. Such armaments are technically known as directed-energy weapons. == History == In 1923, Edwin R. Scott, an inventor from San Francisco, claimed he was the first to develop a death ray that would destroy human life and bring down planes at a distance. He was born in Detroit, and he claimed he worked for nine years as a student and protégé of Charles P. Steinmetz. Harry Grindell-Matthews tried to sell what he reported to be a death ray to the British Air Ministry in 1924. He was never able to show


id: einstein-cartan-evans-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Cartan–Evans_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Einstein–Cartan–Evans theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Cartan–Evans_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:17.108114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-cartan-evans-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Einstein–Cartan–Evans theory or ECE theory was an attempted unified theory of physics proposed by the Welsh chemist and physicist Myron Wyn Evans (May 26, 1950 – May 2, 2019), which claimed to unify general relativity, quantum mechanics and electromagnetism. The hypothesis was largely published in the journal Foundations of Physics Letters between 2003 and 2005. Several of Evans's central claims were later shown to be mathematically incorrect and, in 2008, the new editor of Foundations of Physics, Nobel laureate Gerard 't Hooft, published an editorial note effectively retracting the journal's support for the hypothesis. == Scope == Earlier versions of the theory were called "O(3) electrodynamics". Evans claims that he is able to derive a generally covariant field equation for electromagnetism and gravity, similar to that derived by Mendel Sachs. Evans argues that Einstein's theory of general relativity does not take into account torsion, which is included in the Einstein–Cartan theory. In 1998 Evans founded the Alpha Institute for Advanced Studies (AIAS) to keep developing his theory. Its website collects papers on the theory and recent developments. The theory has been used to justify the motionless electromagnetic generator, a perpetual motion machine. In July 2017, Evans claimed (on his blog):


id: energy-catalyzer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Catalyzer-0.md
category: reference
title: Energy Catalyzer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Catalyzer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:19.637644+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: energy-catalyzer-20260505-0
summary:
The Energy Catalyzer (also called E-Cat) is a supposed cold fusion reactor promoted by its inventor Andrea Rossi with support from the late physicist Sergio Focardi. An Italian patent, awarded without a technical examination, describes the apparatus as a "process and equipment to obtain exothermal reactions, in particular from nickel and hydrogen". Rossi and Focardi said the device worked by infusing heated hydrogen into nickel powder, transmuting it into copper and producing excess heat. An international patent application received an unfavorable international preliminary report on patentability in 2011 because it was adjudged to "offend against the generally accepted laws of physics and established theories". The device has been the subject of claimed demonstrations and tests several times, and commented on by various academics and others. No independent tests have ever been made, and no peer-reviewed tests of the device have ever been published. Steve Featherstone wrote in Popular Science that by the summer of 2012 Rossi's "outlandish claims" for the E-Cat seemed "thoroughly debunked". == Demonstrations == Invited guests attended several demonstrations in Bologna in 2011. The device has not been independently verified. Of a January demonstration, Discovery Channel analyst Benjamin Radford wrote that "If this all sounds fishy to


id: energy-catalyzer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Catalyzer-1.md
category: reference
title: Energy Catalyzer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Catalyzer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:19.637644+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: energy-catalyzer-20260505-0
summary:
== Reactions to the claims == Theoretical astrophysicist Ethan Siegel and nuclear physicist Peter Thieberger have pointed out that the claims for the E-Cat are incompatible with the fundamentals of nuclear physics. In particular, the Coulomb barrier for the claimed fusion reaction is so high that it is insurmountable anywhere in the known universe, including the interior of stars. The reaction also would create gamma radiation that would have penetrated the few inches of shielding apparently provided by the E-Cat, inducing acute radiation syndrome in persons in the vicinity of the purported demonstrations. Given numerous other scientific inconsistencies – such as the ratio of isotopes in the supposed copper "fusion product" being identical to that in natural copper – the authors argued that it is now time "for the E-Cat's proponents to provide the provable, testable, reproducible science that can answer these straightforward physics objections." Peter Ekström, lecturer at the Department of Nuclear Physics at Lund University in Sweden, concluded in May 2011, "I am convinced that the whole story is one big scam, and that it will be revealed in less than one year." He cited the unlikelihood of a chemical reaction being strong enough to overcome the Coulomb


id: gravastar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravastar-0.md
category: reference
title: Gravastar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravastar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:20.855209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gravastar-20260505-0
summary:
In astrophysics, a gravastar (a blend word of "gravitational vacuum star") is an object hypothesized in a 2001 paper by Pawel O. Mazur and Emil Mottola as an alternative to the black hole theory. It has the usual black hole metric outside of the horizon, but de Sitter metric inside. A typical gravastar is as big as London, but weighing ten solar masses. On the horizon there is an ultra-thin, incredibly tight shell of entirely new, unique exotic matter. This solution to the Einstein equations is stable and has no singularities. Instead, a gravastar is filled either with dark energy or with vacuum energy, but also vacuum, only the inside one is 1044 times denser than the outside. Further theoretical considerations of gravastars include the notion of a nestar (a second gravastar "nested" within the first one). == Description == In the original formulation by Mazur and Mottola, a gravastar is composed of three regions, differentiated by the relationship between the pressure p and energy density ρ. The central region consists of false vacuum or "dark energy", and in this region p = −ρ . Surrounding it is a thin shell of perfect fluid where p = ρ . On


id: hafnium-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafnium_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Hafnium controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafnium_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:23.240525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hafnium-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The hafnium controversy was a debate over the possibility of "triggering" rapid energy releases, via gamma-ray emission, from 178m2Hf, a nuclear isomer of hafnium. The energy release per event is 5 orders of magnitude (100,000 times) higher than in a typical chemical reaction, but 2 orders of magnitude less than a nuclear fission reaction. In 1998, a group led by Carl Collins in the University of Texas at Dallas reported what they interpreted as evidence of such a trigger, but these results were not independently reproduced and remain controversial. Signal-to-noise ratios were small in those first experiments, and to date no other group has reproduced these results. Peter Zimmerman (an American nuclear physicist and arms-control expert) described claims of weaponization potential as having been based on "very bad science". == Background == 178m2Hf is a particularly interesting candidate for induced gamma emission (IGE) experiments, because 178m2Hf's energy is 2.5 MeV per nucleus higher than that of ground-state 178Hf, and it has a long (31-year) half life. If lower-energy radiation could induce gamma emission in the isomer before competing processes dissipated that energy, it might, in principle, initiate a start a cascade of gamma photons. The long half-life of 178m2Hf might


id: hafnium-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafnium_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Hafnium controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafnium_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:23.240525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hafnium-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Chronology of notable events == Around 1997, the JASONS advisory group took testimony about the triggering of nuclear isomers. The JASON Defense Advisory Group published a relevant public report saying that they concluded that such a thing would be impossible and should not be attempted. Despite intervening publications in peer-reviewed journals of articles written by an international team reporting IGE from 178m2Hf, around 2003 IDA took testimony, again from relevant scientists on matters of the credibility of reported results. Professor Carl Collins, the lead U.S. member of the team publishing the successes, did not testify. Around 2003, DARPA initiated exploratory research termed stimulated isomer energy release (SIER) and public interest was aroused, at both popular levels and at professional levels. The first focus of SIER was whether significant amounts of 178m2Hf could be produced at acceptable costs for possible applications. A closed panel called HIPP was charged with the task and concluded that it could. However, a scientist on that confidential DARPA HIPP review panel "leaked" prejudicial but preliminary concerns to the press. This unsubstantiated assertion set into motion the subsequent cascade of inaccurate reports about the so-called "outrageous costs" of isomer triggering. Having satisfied the charge to the


id: burkhard-heim-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkhard_Heim-0.md
category: reference
title: Burkhard Heim
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkhard_Heim
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:25.630756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burkhard-heim-20260505-0
summary:
Burkhard Heim (German: [haɪm]; 9 February 1925 – 14 January 2001) was a German theoretical physicist known for proposing a unified field theory called Heim theory, which he claimed could have applications to the development of hyperspace travel. == Academic and work history == === 1940s === In 1943, Heim met Werner Heisenberg, a German physicist involved in atom bomb research, and told him of his plan to use a form of chemical implosion to facilitate an atomic explosion. This design was based on an idea he developed for a 'clean' hydrogen bomb when he was 18. Heisenberg was impressed by Heim's knowledge, but thought the approach would be impractical. At the start of World War II, Heim avoided conscription into the German Air Force by working in a chemical laboratory as an explosives technician. When he was 19, an explosion in the laboratory caused by the mishandling of unstable compounds left him without hands and mostly deaf and blind. Heim underwent the Krukenberg Procedure after the accident. After World War II, Heim registered to study physics at the University of Göttingen. === 1950s === In 1952, during the third congressional session of the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) in Stuttgart,


id: burkhard-heim-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkhard_Heim-1.md
category: reference
title: Burkhard Heim
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkhard_Heim
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:25.630756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burkhard-heim-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2000s === Heim died in Northeim in 2001 at age 75. In 2004, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) awarded the winning paper in the nuclear and future flight field to a retired Austrian patent officer named Walter Dröscher and Jochem Häuser, a physicist and professor of computer science at the University of Applied Sciences in Salzgitter, Germany. They turned the theoretical framework of Burkhard Heim into a proposal for an experimental test for a propulsion device that is thought to theoretically be able to travel at rates faster than the speed of light. Hans Theodor Auerbach, a theoretical physicist and colleague of Heim has stated that, "As far as I understand it, Heim theory is ingenious," and, "I think that physics will take this direction in the future". In 2008, the AIAA Nuclear and Future Flight Propulsion Technical Committee published the following statement: Much research was conducted this year on the investigation of the experimental basis of the existence of gravity-like fields that cannot be described by conventional gravitation; that is, by the accumulation of mass. Investigations emphasized a geometrized approach termed Extended Heim Theory, which extends Einstein's idea of geometrization of physics by employing the


id: magnetospheric-eternally-collapsing-object-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetospheric_eternally_collapsing_object-0.md
category: reference
title: Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetospheric_eternally_collapsing_object
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:27.991052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magnetospheric-eternally-collapsing-object-20260505-0
summary:
The magnetospheric eternally collapsing object (MECO) is an alternative model for black holes initially proposed by Indian scientist Abhas Mitra in 1998 and later generalized by American researchers Darryl J. Leiter and Stanley L. Robertson. A proposed observable difference between MECOs and black holes is that a MECO can produce its own intrinsic magnetic field. An uncharged black hole cannot produce its own magnetic field, though its accretion disk can. == Theoretical model == In the theoretical model a MECO begins to form in much the same way as a black hole, with a large amount of matter collapsing inward toward a single point. However, as it becomes smaller and denser, a MECO does not form an event horizon. As the matter becomes denser and hotter, it glows more brightly. Eventually its interior approaches the Eddington limit. At this point the internal radiation pressure is sufficient to slow the inward collapse almost to a standstill. In fact, the collapse gets slower and slower, so a singularity could only form in an infinite future. Unlike a black hole, the MECO never fully collapses. Rather, according to the model it slows down and enters an eternal collapse. Mitra provides a review of


id: matter-wave-clock-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_wave_clock-0.md
category: reference
title: Matter wave clock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_wave_clock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:29.191387+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: matter-wave-clock-20260505-0
summary:
A matter wave clock is a type of clock whose principle of operation makes use of the apparent wavelike properties of matter. Matter waves were first proposed by Louis de Broglie and are sometimes called de Broglie waves. They form a key aspect of wave–particle duality and experiments have since supported the idea. The wave associated with a particle of a given mass, such as an atom, has a defined frequency, and a change in the duration of one cycle from peak to peak that is sometimes called its Compton periodicity. Such a matter wave has the characteristics of a simple clock, in that it marks out fixed and equal intervals of time. The twins paradox arising from Albert Einstein's theory of relativity means that a moving particle will have a slightly different period from a stationary particle. Comparing two such particles allows the construction of a practical "Compton clock". == Matter waves as clocks == De Broglie proposed that the frequency f of a matter wave equals E/h, where E is the total energy of the particle and h is the Planck constant. For a particle at rest, the relativistic equation E=mc2 allows the derivation of the Compton frequency


id: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-standard cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:31.530653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
A non-standard cosmology is any physical cosmological model of the universe that was, or still is, proposed as an alternative to the then-current standard model of cosmology. The term non-standard is applied to any theory that does not conform to the scientific consensus. Because the term depends on the prevailing consensus, the meaning of the term changes over time. For example, hot dark matter would not have been considered non-standard in 1990, but would have been in 2010. Conversely, a non-zero cosmological constant resulting in an accelerating universe would have been considered non-standard in 1990, but is part of the standard cosmology in 2010. Several major cosmological disputes have occurred throughout the history of cosmology. One of the earliest was the Copernican Revolution, which established the heliocentric model of the Solar System. More recent was the Great Debate of 1920, in the aftermath of which the Milky Way's status as but one of the Universe's many galaxies was established. From the 1940s to the 1960s, the astrophysical community was equally divided between supporters of the Big Bang theory and supporters of a rival steady state universe; this is currently decided in favour of the Big Bang theory by advances in


id: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology-1.md
category: reference
title: Non-standard cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:31.530653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
Scepticism about the non-standard cosmologies' ability to explain the CMB caused interest in the subject to wane since then, however, there have been two periods in which interest in non-standard cosmology has increased due to observational data which posed difficulties for the Big Bang. The first occurred in the late 1970s when there were a number of unsolved problems, such as the horizon problem, the flatness problem, and the lack of magnetic monopoles, which challenged the Big Bang model. These issues were eventually resolved by cosmic inflation in the 1980s. This idea subsequently became part of the understanding of the Big Bang, although alternatives have been proposed from time to time. The second occurred in the mid-1990s when observations of the ages of globular clusters and the primordial helium abundance, apparently disagreed with the Big Bang. However, by the late 1990s, most astronomers had concluded that these observations did not challenge the big bang and additional data from COBE and the WMAP, provided detailed quantitative measures which were consistent with standard cosmology. Today, heterodox non-standard cosmologies are generally considered unworthy of consideration by cosmologists while many of the historically significant nonstandard cosmologies are considered to have been falsified. The essentials


id: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology-2.md
category: reference
title: Non-standard cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:31.530653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
The Steady State theory extends the homogeneity assumption of the cosmological principle to reflect a homogeneity in time as well as in space. This "perfect cosmological principle" as it would come to be called asserted that the universe looks the same everywhere (on the large scale), the same as it always has and always will. This is in contrast to Lambda-CDM, in which the universe looked very different in the past and will look very different in the future. Steady State theory was proposed in 1948 by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Hermann Bondi and others. In order to maintain the perfect cosmological principle in an expanding universe, steady state cosmology had to posit a "matter-creation field" (the so-called C-field) that would insert matter into the universe in order to maintain a constant density. The debate between the Big Bang and the Steady State models would happen for 15 years with camps roughly evenly divided until the discovery of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. This radiation is a natural feature of the Big Bang model which demands a "time of last scattering" where photons decouple with baryonic matter. The Steady State model proposed that this radiation could be accounted for


id: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology-3.md
category: reference
title: Non-standard cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:31.530653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
In Lambda-CDM, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that tends to accelerate the expansion of the universe. It is less well-understood than dark matter, and similarly mysterious. The simplest explanation of dark energy is the cosmological constant (the 'Lambda' in Lambda-CDM). This is a simple constant added to the Einstein field equations to provide a repulsive force. Thus far observations are fully consistent with the cosmological constant, but leave room for a plethora of alternatives, e.g.: Quintessence, which is a scalar field similar to the one that drove cosmic inflation shortly after the Big Bang. In quintessence, dark energy will usually vary over time (as opposed to the cosmological constant, which remains a constant). Inhomogeneous cosmology. One of the fundamental assumptions of Lambda-CDM is that the universe is homogeneous – that is, it looks broadly the same regardless of where the observer is. In the inhomogeneous universe scenario, the observed dark energy is a measurement artefact caused by us being located at an emptier-than-average region of space. Variable dark energy, which is similar to quintessence in that the properties of dark energy vary over time (see figure), but different in that dark energy is not due to a


id: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology-4.md
category: reference
title: Non-standard cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:31.530653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-standard-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other alternatives === Kaluza–Klein theory, which posits an extra spatial dimension, thereby making our universe 5D instead of the 4D of General Relativity. The DGP model is one of the models in this category, claimed to be able to explain dark energy without invoking a cosmological constant. Entropic gravity, which describes gravity as an entropic force with macro-scale homogeneity but which is subject to quantum-level disorder. The theory claims to be able to remove the need for dark matter, as well as provide a natural explanation for dark energy. The GRSI model modifies General Relativity by adding self-interaction terms similar to those in quantum chromodynamics, leading to an effect similar to quark confinement in gravity. It is claimed to be able to explain observations without needing dark matter or dark energy. Shockwave cosmology, proposed by Joel Smoller and Blake Temple in 2003, has the "big bang" as an explosion inside a black hole, producing the expanding volume of space and matter that includes the observable universe. This black hole eventually becomes a white hole as the matter density reduces with the expansion. A related theory proposes that the acceleration of the expansion of the observable universe, normally attributed to


id: patterson-power-cell-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterson_power_cell-0.md
category: reference
title: Patterson power cell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterson_power_cell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:32.670231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patterson-power-cell-20260505-0
summary:
The Patterson power cell is a cold fusion device invented by chemist James A. Patterson, which he claimed created 200 times more energy than it used. Patterson claimed the device neutralized radioactivity without emitting any harmful radiation. Cold fusion was the subject of an intense scientific controversy in 1989, before being discredited in the eyes of mainstream science. Physicist Robert L. Park describes the device as fringe science in his book Voodoo Science. == Company formed == In 1995, Clean Energy Technologies Inc. was formed to produce and promote the power cell. == Claims and observations == Patterson variously said it produced a hundred or two hundred times more power than it used. Representatives promoting the device at the Power-Gen '95 Conference said that an input of 1 watt would generate more than 1,000 watts of excess heat (waste heat). This supposedly happened as hydrogen or deuterium nuclei fuse together to produce heat through a form of low energy nuclear reaction. The by-products of nuclear fusion, e.g. a tritium nucleus and a proton or an 3He nucleus and a neutron, were not detected in any reliable way, leading experts to think that no such fusion was taking place. It was


id: plasma-cosmology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cosmology-0.md
category: reference
title: Plasma cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:34.996998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plasma-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
Plasma cosmology is a non-standard cosmology whose central postulate is that the dynamics of ionized gases and plasmas play important, if not dominant, roles in the physics of the universe at interstellar and intergalactic scales. In contrast, the current observations and models of cosmologists and astrophysicists explain the formation, development, and evolution of large-scale structures as dominated by gravity (including its formulation in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity). The original form of the theory, Alfvén–Klein cosmology, was developed by Hannes Alfvén and Oskar Klein in the 1960s and 1970s, and holds that matter and antimatter exist in equal quantities at very large scales, that the universe is eternal rather than bounded in time by the Big Bang, and that the expansion of the observable universe is caused by annihilation between matter and antimatter rather than a mechanism like cosmic inflation. Cosmologists and astrophysicists who have evaluated plasma cosmology reject it because it does not match the observations of astrophysical phenomena as well as the currently accepted Big Bang model. Very few papers supporting plasma cosmology have appeared in the literature since the mid-1990s. The term plasma universe is sometimes used as a synonym for plasma cosmology, as an alternative


id: plasma-cosmology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cosmology-1.md
category: reference
title: Plasma cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:34.996998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plasma-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
== Plasma cosmology and the study of galaxies == Hannes Alfvén from the 1960s to 1980s argued that plasma played an important if not dominant role in the universe. He argued that electromagnetic forces are far more important than gravity when acting on interplanetary and interstellar charged particles. He further hypothesized that they might promote the contraction of interstellar clouds and may even constitute the main mechanism for contraction, initiating star formation. The current standard view is that magnetic fields can hinder collapse, that large-scale Birkeland currents have not been observed, and that the length scale for charge neutrality is predicted to be far smaller than the relevant cosmological scales. In the 1980s and 1990s, Alfvén and Anthony Peratt, a plasma physicist at Los Alamos National Laboratory, outlined a program they called the "plasma universe". In plasma universe proposals, various plasma physics phenomena were associated with astrophysical observations and were used to explain contemporary mysteries and problems outstanding in astrophysics in the 1980s and 1990s. In various venues, Peratt profiled what he characterized as an alternative viewpoint to the mainstream models applied in astrophysics and cosmology. For example, Peratt proposed that the mainstream approach to galactic dynamics which relied on


id: plasma-cosmology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cosmology-2.md
category: reference
title: Plasma cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:34.996998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plasma-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Alfvén, Hannes: "Cosmic Plasma" (Reidel, 1981) ISBN 90-277-1151-8 Alfvén, Hannes (1983). "On hierarchical cosmology". Astrophysics and Space Science. 89 (2): 313–324. Bibcode:1983Ap&SS..89..313A. doi:10.1007/bf00655984. S2CID 122396373. "Cosmology in the plasma universe", Laser and Particle Beams (ISSN 0263-0346), vol. 6, August 1988, pp. 389–398 Full text "Model of the plasma universe", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science (ISSN 0093-3813), vol. PS-14, December 1986, pp. 629–638 Full text (PDF) "The Plasma Universe", Physics Today (ISSN 0031-9228), vol. 39, issue 9, September 1986, pp. 22 – 27 Peratt, Anthony: "Physics of the Plasma Universe", (Springer, 1992) ISBN 0-387-97575-6 "Simulating spiral galaxies", Sky and Telescope (ISSN 0037-6604), vol. 68, August 1984, pp. 118–122 "Are Black Holes Necessary?", Sky and Telescope (ISSN 0037-6604), vol. 66, July 1983, pp. 19–22 "Evolution of the plasma universe. I – Double radio galaxies, quasars, and extragalactic jets", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science (ISSN 0093-3813), vol. PS-14, December 1986, pp. 639–660 Full text (PDF) "Evolution of the plasma universe. II – The formation of systems of galaxies", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science (ISSN 0093-3813), vol. PS-14, December 1986, pp. 763–778 Full text (PDF) "The role of particle beams and electrical currents in the plasma universe", Laser and Particle


id: polarizable-vacuum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizable_vacuum-0.md
category: reference
title: Polarizable vacuum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizable_vacuum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:36.168432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polarizable-vacuum-20260505-0
summary:
In theoretical physics, particularly fringe physics, polarizable vacuum (PV) and its associated theory refer to proposals by Harold Puthoff, Robert H. Dicke, and others to develop an analog of general relativity to describe gravity and its relationship to electromagnetism. == Description == In essence, Dicke and Puthoff proposed that the presence of mass alters the electric permittivity and the magnetic permeability of flat spacetime, εo and μo respectively by multiplying them by a scalar function, K: ε 0 → ε = K ε 0 ; μ 0 → μ = K μ 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}\to \varepsilon =K\varepsilon _{0}\;;\;\mu _{0}\to \mu =K\mu _{0}} arguing that this will affect the lengths of rulers made of ordinary matter so that in the presence of a gravitational field, the spacetime metric of Minkowski spacetime is replaced by d s 2 = − 1 κ 2 d t 2 + κ 2 ( d x 2 + d y 2 + d z 2 ) {\displaystyle ds^{2}=-{\frac {1}{\kappa ^{2}}}dt^{2}+\kappa ^{2}\,(dx^{2}+dy^{2}+dz^{2})} where κ 2 = K {\displaystyle \kappa ^{2}=K} is the so-called "dielectric constant of the vacuum". This is a "diagonal" metric given in terms of a Cartesian chart and having the same stratified conformally


id: polarizable-vacuum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizable_vacuum-1.md
category: reference
title: Polarizable vacuum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizable_vacuum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:36.168432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polarizable-vacuum-20260505-0
summary:
A proposal in 1921 by H. A. Wilson to reduce gravitation to electromagnetism by pursuing the formal analogy between "light bending" in metric theories of gravitation and propagation of light through an optical medium having a spatially varying refractive index. Wilson's approach to a unified field theory is not considered viable today. An attempt (roughly 1960–1970) by Robert Dicke and Fernando de Felice to resurrect and improve Wilson's idea of an optical analog of gravitational effects. If interpreted conservatively as an attempt to provide an alternative approach to GTR rather than as a work toward a theory unifying electromagnetism and gravitation, this approach is not unreasonable, although most likely of rather limited utility. The 1967 proposal of Andrei Sakharov that gravitation might arise from underlying quantum field theory effects in a manner somewhat analogous to the way that the (simple) classical theory of elasticity arises from (complicated) particle physics. This work is generally regarded as mainstream and not entirely implausible but highly speculative, and most physicists seem to feel that little progress has been made. In a series of papers, Bernard Haisch and Alfonso Rueda have proposed that the inertia of massive objects arises as a "electromagnetic reaction force", due


id: stochastic-electrodynamics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_electrodynamics-0.md
category: reference
title: Stochastic electrodynamics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_electrodynamics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:38.598138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stochastic-electrodynamics-20260505-0
summary:
Stochastic electrodynamics (SED) extends classical electrodynamics (CED) of theoretical physics by adding the hypothesis of a classical Lorentz invariant radiation field having statistical properties similar to that of the electromagnetic zero-point field (ZPF) of quantum electrodynamics (QED). == Key ingredients == Stochastic electrodynamics combines two conventional classical ideas – electromagnetism derived from point charges obeying Maxwell's equations and particle motion driven by Lorentz forces – with one unconventional hypothesis: the classical field has radiation even at T=0. This zero-point radiation is inferred from observations of the (macroscopic) Casimir effect forces at low temperatures. As temperature approaches zero, experimental measurements of the force between two uncharged, conducting plates in a vacuum do not go to zero as classical electrodynamics would predict. Taking this result as evidence of classical zero-point radiation leads to the stochastic electrodynamics model. == History == Stochastic electrodynamics is a term for a collection of research efforts of many different styles based on the hypothesis that there exists a Lorentz invariant random electromagnetic radiation. The work of Marshall (1963) and Timothy Boyer, on stochastic electrodynamics can be viewed building spontaneous emission into a semiclassical theory. Timothy Boyer, author of many papers in the field, has noted that some


id: tired-light-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tired_light-0.md
category: reference
title: Tired light
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tired_light
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:39.812858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tired-light-20260505-0
summary:
Tired light is a class of hypothetical redshift mechanisms that was proposed as an alternative explanation for the redshift-distance relationship. These models have been proposed as alternatives to the models that involve the expansion of the universe. The concept was first proposed in 1929 by Fritz Zwicky, who suggested that if photons lost energy over time through collisions with other particles in a regular way, the more distant objects would appear redder than more nearby ones. Zwicky acknowledged that any sort of scattering of light would blur the images of distant objects more than what is seen. Additionally, the surface brightness of galaxies evolving with time, time dilation of cosmological sources, and a thermal spectrum of the cosmic microwave background have been observed—these effects should not be present if the cosmological redshift was due to any tired light scattering mechanism. Despite periodic re-examination of the concept, tired light has not been supported by observational tests and remains a fringe topic in astrophysics. == History and reception == Tired light was an idea that came about due to the observation made by Edwin Hubble that distant galaxies have redshifts proportional to their distance. Redshift is a shift in the spectrum of


id: tired-light-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tired_light-1.md
category: reference
title: Tired light
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tired_light
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:39.812858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tired-light-20260505-0
summary:
By the 1990s and on into the twenty-first century, a number of falsifying observations have shown that "tired light" hypotheses are not viable explanations for cosmological redshifts. For example, in a static universe with tired light mechanisms, the surface brightness of stars and galaxies should be constant, that is, the farther an object is, the less light we receive, but its apparent area diminishes as well, so the light received divided by the apparent area should be constant. In an expanding universe, the surface brightness diminishes with distance. As the observed object recedes, photons are emitted at a reduced rate because each photon has to travel a distance that is a little longer than the previous one, while its energy is reduced a little because of increasing redshift at a larger distance. On the other hand, in an expanding universe, the object appears to be larger than it really is, because it was closer to us when the photons started their travel. This causes a difference in surface brilliance of objects between a static and an expanding Universe. This is known as the Tolman surface brightness test that in those studies favors the expanding universe hypothesis and rules out static


id: tired-light-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tired_light-2.md
category: reference
title: Tired light
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tired_light
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:39.812858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tired-light-20260505-0
summary:
both incline to the opinion, however, that if the red-shift is not due to recessional motion, its explanation will probably involve some quite new physical principles [... and] use of a static Einstein model of the universe, combined with the assumption that the photons emitted by a nebula lose energy on their journey to the observer by some unknown effect, which is linear with distance, and which leads to a decrease in frequency, without appreciable transverse deflection. These conditions became almost impossible to meet and the overall success of general relativistic explanations for the redshift-distance relation is one of the core reasons that the Big Bang model of the universe remains the cosmology preferred by researchers. In the early 1950s, Erwin Finlay-Freundlich proposed a redshift as "the result of loss of energy by observed photons traversing a radiation field". which was cited and argued for as an explanation for the redshift-distance relation in a 1962 astrophysics theory Nature paper by University of Manchester physics professor P. F. Browne. The pre-eminent cosmologist Ralph Asher Alpher wrote a letter to Nature three months later in response to this suggestion heavily criticizing the approach, "No generally accepted physical mechanism has been proposed for


id: tractor-beam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor_beam-0.md
category: reference
title: Tractor beam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor_beam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:40.984289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tractor-beam-20260505-0
summary:
A tractor beam is a device that can attract one object to another from a distance. The concept originates in fiction: The term was coined by E. E. Smith (an update of his earlier "attractor beam") in his novel Spacehounds of IPC (1931). Since the 1990s, technology and research have labored to make it a reality, and have had some success on a microscopic level. Less commonly, a similar beam that repels is known as a pressor beam or repulsor beam. Gravity impulse and gravity propulsion beams are traditionally areas of research from fringe physics that coincide with the concepts of tractor and repulsor beams; tractor beams developed by mainstream researchers and engineers are generally not based on gravity, and practical designs typically use electromagnetism and/or motion of a medium. == Physics == A force field confined to a collimated beam with clean borders is one of the principal characteristics of tractor and repulsor beams. Several theories have predicted that repulsive effects do not fall within the category of tractor and repulsor beams because of the absence of field collimation. For example, Robert L. Forward of Hughes Research Laboratories showed that general relativity theory allowed the generation of a very


id: tractor-beam-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor_beam-1.md
category: reference
title: Tractor beam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor_beam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:40.984289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tractor-beam-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2010s === A team of scientists at the Australian National University (ANU) led by Professor Andrei Rode created a device similar to a tractor beam to move small particles 1.5 meters through the air. Rather than create a new gravitational field, however, the device utilizes a doughnut-shaped Laguerre-Gaussian laser beam, which has a high-intensity ring of light that surrounds a dark core along the beam axis. This method confines particles to the center of the beam using photophoresis, whereby illuminated sections of the particle have a higher temperature and thus impart more momentum to air molecules incident on the surface. Owing to this method, such a device cannot work in space due to lack of air. Rode states that there are practical applications for the device on Earth, for example, the transportation of microscopic hazardous materials and other microscopic objects. John Sinko and Clifford Schlecht researched a form of reversed-thrust laser propulsion as a macroscopic laser tractor beam. Intended applications include remotely manipulating space objects at distances up to about 100 km, removal of space debris, and retrieval of adrift astronauts or tools on-orbit. Functioning tractor beams based on solenoidal modes of light were demonstrated in 2010 by physicists


id: tractor-beam-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor_beam-2.md
category: reference
title: Tractor beam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor_beam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:40.984289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tractor-beam-20260505-0
summary:
As a device for securing or retrieving cargo, passengers, shuttlecraft, etc. This is analogous to cranes on modern ships. As a device to harness objects that can then be used as impromptu weapons by the craft As a means of preventing an enemy from escaping, analogous to grappling hooks. In the latter case, countermeasures can usually be employed against tractor beams. These may include pressor beams (a stronger pressor beam will counteract a weaker tractor beam) or plane shears a.k.a. shearing planes (a device to "cut" the tractor beam and render it ineffective). In some fictional realities, shields can block tractor beams, or the generators can be disabled by sending a large amount of energy along the beam to its source. Tractor beams and pressor beams can be used together as a weapon: by attracting one side of an enemy spaceship while repelling the other, one can create severely damaging shear effects in its hull. Another mode of destructive use of such beams is rapid alternating between pressing and pulling force in order to cause structural damage to the ship as well as inflicting lethal forces on its crew. Two objects being brought together by a tractor beam are usually


id: u-bit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-bit-0.md
category: reference
title: U-bit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-bit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:42.132361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: u-bit-20260505-0
summary:
In quantum mechanics, the u-bit or ubit is a proposed theoretical entity which arises in attempts to reformulate wave functions using only real numbers instead of the complex numbers conventionally used. == Description == In order to discover the real probability of a given quantum event occurring, the conventional calculation carries out an operation, analogous to squaring, on an associated set of complex numbers. A complex number involves the use of the square root of minus one, a number which is described as "imaginary" in contrast to the familiar "real" numbers used for counting and describing real physical objects. Because the computed result is required to be a real number, information is lost in the computation. This situation is regarded as unsatisfactory by some researchers, who seek an alternative formulation which does not involve the square root of minus one. Bill Wootters, of Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, and colleagues have derived such a model. This model requires the presence of a universal entity which is quantum-entangled with every quantum wave and which he calls the u-bit. Mathematically the u-bit may be represented as a vector rotating in a real two-dimensional plane. It has no known physical representation in the real


id: unparticle-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unparticle_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Unparticle physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unparticle_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:43.275644+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unparticle-physics-20260505-0
summary:
In theoretical physics, unparticle physics is a speculative theory that conjectures a form of matter that cannot be explained in terms of particles using the Standard Model of particle physics, because its components are scale invariant. Howard Georgi proposed this theory in two 2007 papers, "Unparticle Physics" and "Another Odd Thing About Unparticle Physics". His papers were followed by further work by other researchers into the properties and phenomenology of unparticle physics and its potential impact on particle physics, astrophysics, cosmology, CP violation, lepton flavour violation, muon decay, neutrino oscillations, and supersymmetry. == Background == All particles exist in states that may be characterized by a certain energy, momentum and mass. In most of the Standard Model of particle physics, particles of the same type cannot exist in another state with all these properties scaled up or down by a common factor –electrons, for example, always have the same mass regardless of their energy or momentum. But this is not always the case: massless particles, such as photons, can exist with their properties scaled equally. This immunity to scaling is called "scale invariance". The idea of unparticles comes from conjecturing that there may be "stuff" that does not necessarily have


id: voodoo-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Voodoo Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:44.488242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: voodoo-science-20260505-0
summary:
Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud is a book published in 2000 by physics professor Robert L. Park, critical of research that falls short of adhering to the scientific method. Other people have used the term "voodoo science", but amongst academics it is most closely associated with Park. The book is critical of, among other things, homeopathy, cold fusion and the International Space Station. == Categories == Park uses the term voodoo science (see the quote section below, Page 10) as covering four categories which evolve from self-delusion to fraud: pathological science, wherein genuine scientists deceive themselves junk science, speculative theorizing which bamboozles rather than enlightens pseudoscience proper, work falsely claiming to have a scientific basis, which may be dependent on supernatural explanations fraudulent science, exploiting bad science for the purposes of fraud Park criticizes junk science as the creature of "scientists, many of whom have impressive credentials, who craft arguments deliberately intended to deceive or confuse." == Examples cited == Perpetual motion, free energy suppression and fringe physics claims Robert Fludd Garabed T. K. Giragossian The Energy Machine of Joseph Newman Better World Technologies (Dennis Lee) Blacklight Power, formerly HydroCatalysis (Randell Mills) Cold fusion (Stanley Pons and


id: voodoo-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Voodoo Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:44.488242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: voodoo-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Matt Nisbet in the Skeptical Inquirer noted that the reaction to Voodoo Science has been mostly favorable. Bob Goldstein in a book review for Nature Cell Biology described Park as an equivalent to Richard Dawkins and Stephen Jay Gould, scientific writers who have "talent for defending a view of the world that is perfectly rational and free of witchcraft and superstition." American chemist Nicholas Turro wrote "the book is entertaining and provocative reading... Whether or not you agree with Park's take on voodoo science, a message of the book is that if scientists do not take a more significant role in the way that science is disseminated to the public and especially to politicians, voodoo science will continue to survive." The mathematician Malcolm Sherman in the American Scientist gave the book a positive review stating "Park does more than analyze and expose various kinds of bad ("voodoo") science. He demonstrates how valid science is distorted or ignored by the media and by those (including scientists) seeking to influence public policy." The physicist Kenneth R. Foster also positively reviewed the book concluding "Park is an articulate and skeptical voice of reason about science." Reviewing the book for The


id: water-fuelled-car-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-fuelled_car-0.md
category: reference
title: Water-fuelled car
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-fuelled_car
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:45.691110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-fuelled-car-20260505-0
summary:
A water-fuelled car is an automobile that hypothetically derives its energy directly from water. Water-fuelled cars have been the subject of numerous international patents, newspaper and popular science magazine articles, local television news coverage, and websites. The claims for these devices have been found to be pseudoscience and some were found to be tied to investment frauds. These vehicles may be claimed to produce fuel from water on board with no other energy input, or may be a hybrid claiming to derive some of its energy from water in addition to a conventional source (such as gasoline). There is no way to extract chemical energy from water alone which is consistent with the laws of physics. == What water-fuelled cars are not == A water-fuelled car is not any of the following: Water injection, which is a method for cooling the combustion chambers of engines by adding water to the incoming fuel-air mixture, allowing for greater compression ratios and reduced engine knocking (detonation). The hydrogen car, although it often incorporates some of the same elements. To fuel a hydrogen car from water, electricity is used to generate hydrogen by electrolysis. The resulting hydrogen is an energy carrier that can power


id: water-fuelled-car-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-fuelled_car-1.md
category: reference
title: Water-fuelled car
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-fuelled_car
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:45.691110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-fuelled-car-20260505-0
summary:
=== Genesis World Energy (GWE) === Also in 2002, Genesis World Energy announced a market ready device which would extract energy from water by separating the hydrogen and oxygen and then recombining them. In 2003, the company announced that this technology had been adapted to power automobiles. The company collected over $2.5 million from investors, but none of their devices were ever brought to market. In 2006, Patrick Kelly, the owner of Genesis World Energy was sentenced in New Jersey to five years in prison for theft and ordered to pay $400,000 in restitution. === Genepax Water Energy System === In June 2008, Japanese company Genepax unveiled a car it claimed ran on only water and air, and many news outlets dubbed the vehicle a "water-fuel car". The company said it "cannot [reveal] the core part of this invention" yet, but it disclosed that the system used an onboard energy generator, which it called a "membrane electrode assembly", to extract the hydrogen using a "mechanism which is similar to the method in which hydrogen is produced by a reaction of metal hydride and water". The hydrogen was then used to generate energy to run the car. This led to speculation


id: water-fuelled-car-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-fuelled_car-2.md
category: reference
title: Water-fuelled car
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-fuelled_car
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:45.691110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-fuelled-car-20260505-0
summary:
== Hydrogen on demand technologies == A hydrogen on demand vehicle uses a chemical reaction to produce hydrogen from water. The hydrogen is then burned in an internal combustion engine or used in a fuel cell to generate electricity which powers the vehicle. These designs take energy from the chemical that reacts with water; vehicles of this type are not precluded by the laws of nature. Aluminium, magnesium, and sodium borohydride react with water to generate hydrogen and have been used in hydrogen on demand prototypes. Eventually, the chemical runs out and has to be replenished. The energy required to produce such compounds exceeds the energy obtained from their reaction with water. One example of a hydrogen on demand device, created by scientists from the University of Minnesota and the Weizmann Institute of Science, uses boron to generate hydrogen from water. An article in New Scientist in July 2006 described the power source under the headline "A fuel tank full of water," and they quote Abu-Hamed as saying: The aim is to produce the hydrogen on-board at a rate matching the demand of the car engine. We want to use the boron to save transporting and storing the hydrogen. A


id: answers-research-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal-0.md
category: reference
title: Answers Research Journal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:47.237841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: answers-research-journal-20260505-0
summary:
Answers Research Journal (ARJ) is an open-access creation science journal published by Answers in Genesis (AiG), a fundamentalist, Christian apologetics organization. Founded in 2008, the online journal devotes itself to research on "recent Creation and the global Flood within a biblical framework". ARJ's research is not scientifically sound and encourages readers to doubt mainstream scientific evidence. The journal, in its embrace of young Earth creationism (YEC), supports the unscientific idea of a 6,000-year-old Earth, among other claims. The journal refuses to publish research contradicting its belief system. While ARJ undergoes a peer-review process, the journal's reviewers are selected from a pool of people who only support the stances of the journal. Therefore, members of the scientific community are excluded from the review process. Most of the journal's articles are written by a small group of authors, many without academic credentials, and authors are able to publish pseudonymously. ARJ's editorial board is not disclosed. The journal has been met with negative reception by various geologists, biologists, and scientific skeptics. Andrew Snelling, a YEC geologist, serves as the journal's editor-in-chief and as the director of research at AiG. == History and overview == === Background and beliefs === Answers in Genesis (AiG)


id: answers-research-journal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal-1.md
category: reference
title: Answers Research Journal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:47.237841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: answers-research-journal-20260505-0
summary:
=== Notable articles === The inaugural article of the journal, written by Liberty University professor Alan Gillen, was titled "Microbes and the days of creation". The paper dealt with the history of microorganisms and argued that they were created by God to act as "biological systems" with plants, animals, and humans. (The topic of microbiology is not mentioned anywhere within biblical scripture.) Additionally, Gillen argued the origins of HIV goes back to the biblical Fall (i.e., when Adam and Eve were banished from the Garden of Eden). An article written by Rod J. Martin, described only as an "independent researcher", gave a creationist and denialist interpretation of climate change. According to Martin, climate change is essentially a hoax invented by "atheistic evolutionists". His thesis, incorrectly, states: "There is no reason either biblically or scientifically to fear the exaggerated and misguided claims of catastrophe as a result of increasing levels of man-made carbon dioxide (CO2)." A 2009 article proposes that God made oil shortly after creating the Earth and cites the biblical story of Noah's Ark as "evidence for his theory." In an attempt to disprove evolution, a 2013 article argued that humans and chimpanzees only shared 70% of DNA. While


id: journal-of-cosmology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Cosmology-0.md
category: reference
title: Journal of Cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:48.420961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-of-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
The Journal of Cosmology is a website that describes itself as a "scientific journal". It has been criticized for lacking oversight and proper peer-review, and promoting fringe theories. It was established in 2009 by neuroscientist Rhawn Joseph; as of 2023, Rudolph Schild is the editor-in-chief. == Scope == The Journal of Cosmology is an online publication that contains material on a wide range of subjects in cosmology, astronomy, astrobiology, and Earth and planetary sciences. Writing on biology, geology, physics, chemistry, extinction, the origin and evolution of life, panspermia and Martian colonization and exploration has all been published. == Reliability == The quality of the claimed peer review has been heavily criticized. The website promotes fringe viewpoints and speculative viewpoints on astrobiology, astrophysics, and quantum physics. Skeptical blogger and biologist PZ Myers said that "it isn't a real science journal at all, but [the] website of a small group... obsessed with the idea of Hoyle and Wickramasinghe that life originated in outer space and simply rained down on Earth." It was identified as a predatory journal by Jeffrey Beall. == History == === Disputes with scientists === Scientists who have posted accounts of personal attacks by the journal's staff members include


id: journal-of-global-drug-policy-and-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Global_Drug_Policy_and_Practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Global_Drug_Policy_and_Practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:49.533775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-of-global-drug-policy-and-practice-20260505-0
summary:
The Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice describes itself as an open access peer-reviewed public health journal. Critics say it is biased, not peer-reviewed, and not a legitimate scientific journal. It is funded by the US Department of Justice. == Background == The journal is published online quarterly by the Institute on Global Drug Policy and the International Scientific and Medical Forum on Drug Abuse. These are both part of the Drug Free America Foundation, an organization that has referred to harm reduction efforts as "harm promotion", and characterized such efforts as "a tactic to normalize drug use". The stated goal of the Institute itself is as follows: The Institute is charged with creating and strengthening international laws that hold drug users and dealers criminally accountable for their actions. It will vigorously promote treaties and agreements that provide clear penalties to individuals who buy, sell or use harmful drugs... The institute supports efforts to oppose policies based on the concept of harm reduction. == Criticism == The publication has been criticized for having a political agenda to combat harm-reduction policies. It is funded by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention which is part of the U.S. Department


id: journal-of-historical-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Historical_Review-0.md
category: reference
title: Journal of Historical Review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Historical_Review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:50.726247+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-of-historical-review-20260505-0
summary:
The Journal of Historical Review was a non-peer reviewed, pseudoacademic periodical focused on promoting Holocaust denial. It was published by the Institute for Historical Review (IHR), based in Torrance, California. It ran quarterly from 1980 until 1992, and then bimonthly from 1993 until publication ceased in 2002. == History == The journal was established in 1978 by the far-right political activist Willis Carto, derived from Carto's The American Mercury. Its first issue appeared in 1980. Its first editor was David McCalden, who then left the periodical in 1981 after a dispute with Carto. He was replaced by Tom Marcellus, who was replaced in February 1983 with Keith Stimely, until Stimely quit the IHR in February 1985. The impetus for this was his claim that Carto had, without consulting him, removed part of an article by Robert Faurisson that was critical of David Irving (both Holocaust deniers) from the Journal. In 1985, Mark Weber joined the institute's editorial advisory committee and was made editor of the journal in 1992. He was the editor from then until the journal's end. Publication was suspended for a time due to the Mel Mermelstein case, which caused the IHR great financial difficulties. It was revived


id: journal-of-parapsychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Parapsychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Journal of Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:51.889250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-of-parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
The Journal of Parapsychology is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering research on psi phenomena, including telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and psychokinesis, as well as human consciousness in general and anomalous experiences. It was established in April 1937 by Joseph Banks Rhine while at Duke University. It is published by the Rhine Research Center, and the current editor-in-chief is Sally Ann Drucker of the same institution. The journal is abstracted and indexed in PsycINFO. It publishes research reports, theoretical discussions, book reviews, and correspondences, as well as the abstracts of papers presented at the Parapsychological Association's annual meeting. According to Anomalistic Psychology, authored by Chris French and colleagues, it is "widely recognized as the highest quality journal within the field." However, parapsychology has been criticized as a pseudoscience, and most mainstream scientists reject it. == See also == Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research Journal of Near-Death Studies Journal of Consciousness Studies Journal of Scientific Exploration Parapsychology == Further reading == Holt, Nicola; Simmonds-Moore, Christine; Luke, David; French, Christopher C. (16 September 2017). "Pseudoscience and the Scientific Status of Parapsychology". Anomalistic Psychology. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 77-93 [85ff]. ISBN 9780230364097. Gross, Richard (6 July 2017). Psychology in Historical Context: Theories


id: journal-of-social-political-and-economic-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Social,_Political_and_Economic_Studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Social,_Political_and_Economic_Studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:54.169690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-of-social-political-and-economic-studies-20260505-0
summary:
The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies was a quarterly journal published by the Council for Social and Economic Studies. It was founded in 1976 by anthropologist Roger Pearson, and was originally published by The Council of American Affairs, an American representative in the World Anti Communist League. It was published by the Council for Social and Economic Studies, of which Pearson was the president as of 1982. It had been identified as one of two international journals which regularly published articles pertaining to race and intelligence with the goal of supporting the idea that white people are inherently superior (the other such journal being Mankind Quarterly). Notable contributors to the journal include Jack Kemp, Jesse Helms, and Robert S. McNamara. In 1982, U.S. President Ronald Reagan wrote a letter to Pearson personally thanking him for the most recent issue of the Journal, which was never disavowed by the White House. The White House did, however, request that Pearson stop using the letter for the purposes of publicity. According to the journal's website, Vol. 47, Nos. 3-4 (Fall -Winter 2022) was the final issue. == References == == External links == Official website Articles at ResearchGate


id: james-lyons-weiler-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lyons-Weiler-0.md
category: reference
title: James Lyons-Weiler
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lyons-Weiler
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:57.552655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: james-lyons-weiler-20260505-0
summary:
James Lyons-Weiler (born July 4, 1967) is an American antivaxxer activist who operates the non-profit organization Institute for Pure and Applied Knowledge. His doctorate is in ecology, evolution and conservation biology. He was a University of Pittsburgh faculty member (2003-2009) and a member of the Early Detection Research Network through the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute. == History == Lyons-Weiler worked as an assistant professor and co-director of the Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology at the University of Massachusetts Lowell from 2000 to 2002. He then served as faculty at the University of Pittsburgh from 2003 to 2009. == Controversies == Lyons-Weiler has been making numerous claims about COVID-19, and about vaccines in general for years. He claimed in February 2020 that a specific genetic sequence INS1378 in the SARS-CoV-2 genome was sufficiently close to pShuttle-SN - an engineered sequence - to prove that the virus was probably engineered in a laboratory. This claim was repeatedly discredited by researchers and fact-checkers. The sequences were only 67% similar and one paper demonstrated that over 100 bat coronaviruses had closer matches to INS1378 than pShuttle-SN. The even more inaccurate claim that SARS-CoV-2 contained pShuttle-SN was, however, spread widely by Infowars and


id: neuroquantology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NeuroQuantology-0.md
category: reference
title: NeuroQuantology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NeuroQuantology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:58.703682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroquantology-20260505-0
summary:
NeuroQuantology is a monthly peer-reviewed interdisciplinary scientific journal meant to cover the intersection of neuroscience and quantum mechanics. It was established in April 2003 and its subject matter almost immediately dismissed in The Lancet Neurology as "wild invention" and "claptrap". According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2017 impact factor of 0.453, ranking it 253rd out of 261 journals in the category "Neuroscience". However, the journal has been delisted since the 2019 edition. The journal describes itself as focusing primarily on original reports of experimental and theoretical research. It also publishes literature reviews, methodological articles, empirical findings, book reviews, news, comments, letters to the editor, and abstracts. The founding editor-in-chief is Sultan Tarlacı, who was succeeded by Riyaz Ahmed abdul Khan. In the Norwegian Scientific Index, the journal has been listed as "Level 0" since 2008, which means that it is not considered scientific and publications in the journal therefore do not fulfill the necessary criteria in order to count for public research funding. According to Sadri Hassani, neither the editorial board nor the advisory board contain scientists working in the fields of quantum physics or neuroscience. The journal is abstracted and indexed in Embase and in


id: openpsych-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenPsych-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenPsych
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenPsych
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:59.883657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openpsych-20260505-0
summary:
OpenPsych is an online collection of three pseudoscientific open access journals covering behavioral genetics, psychology, and quantitative research in sociology. Many articles on OpenPsych promote scientific racism, and the site has been described as a "pseudoscience factory-farm". The journals were started in 2014 by a pair of nonprofessional researchers, Emil Kirkegaard and Davide Piffer, who had difficulty publishing their studies in mainstream peer-reviewed scientific journals. The website describes its contents as open peer reviewed journals, but the qualifications and neutrality of its reviewers and quality of reviews have been disputed. == Founders == OpenPsych was founded by Danish far-right white supremacist Emil Kirkegaard in 2014. Kirkegaard is also the founder of the white nationalist Human Diversity Foundation which publishes Mankind Quarterly, another pseudoscientific journal. The Mankind Quarterly was published by the Ulster Institute for Social Research, which was presided over by Richard Lynn until his death in 2023. Kirkegaard was the registrant of the Mankind Quarterly website between 2017 and February 2023, after which the WHOIS was anonymised. In February 2024, Kirkegaard filed his Mankind Publishing House LLC with the state of Wyoming under the name William Engman (his legal name since 2021). Co-founder Davide Piffer has written on remote


id: the-phrenological-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Phrenological_Journal-0.md
category: reference
title: The Phrenological Journal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Phrenological_Journal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:01.052897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-phrenological-journal-20260505-0
summary:
The American Phrenological Journal was a periodical in the United States devoted to the racist pseudoscience of phrenology, a collection of theories correlating skull features to personality and intelligence. The newspaper was founded in 1838 and dissolved in 1911. It was supported by the phrenologist Fowler family, who published it under the auspices of the Fowler & Wells Company. Several prominent historical figures underwent phrenological analyses by the Fowlers and the findings were published in the journal; these include abolitionist Lydia Maria Child and writer Mark Twain. == History == The American Phrenological Journal and Miscellany was founded in 1838 as a phrenological periodical, though the details of its foundation are largely unknown. It was financially and ideologically supported by the phrenologist Fowler family, including Orson Squire Fowler, Lorenzo Fowler, and Samuel R. Wells; Wells became its leading editor during the 1870s. It was published by Fowler & Wells Company, and it attributed the rise of interest in phrenology during the 1830s to Johann Spurzheim and George Combe. In its first issue, the journal explained that its purpose was support the theories underlying phrenology – a pseudoscientific and racist area of research correlating skull measurements to personality and intelligence –


id: physics-essays-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Essays-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:02.210657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-essays-20260505-0
summary:
Physics Essays is a quarterly journal supposedly covering theoretical and experimental physics. It was established in 1988 and the editor-in-chief is Emilio Panarella. The journal has a reputation for being a "free forum where extravagant views on physics (in particular, those involving parapsychology) are welcome". The journal has been accused of charging authors for publication without disclosing the fees up front. In the 1990s, the journal was published by University of Toronto Press. Beginning in 2009, and for some period of time, the journal was affiliated with the American Institute of Physics, which managed subscriptions. In 2003, the journal published a paper describing Randell Mills' hydrino theory, which is at odds with quantum mechanics and widely rejected by physicists. In 2004, the journal published a paper claiming proof that the usual mathematical expression of mass-energy equivalence was not valid in general, a claim the author said was being ignored by the wider scientific community. In 2017, the journal published an article from an amateur physicist who claimed to redefine the elementary charge and eliminate the fine structure constant, directly in contradiction to mainstream physics. == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is indexed and abstracted in the following bibliographic databases:


id: the-zoist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zoist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Zoist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zoist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:03.376372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-zoist-20260505-0
summary:
The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare was a British journal, devoted to the promotion of the theories and practices (and the collection and dissemination of reports of the applications) of the pseudoscientific concepts of mesmerism and phrenology, and the enterprise of "connecting and harmonizing practical science with little understood laws governing the mental structure of man". With its name derived from the Greek word Zoe (ζωή) meaning "life". The Zoist was published quarterly, without a break, for fifteen years: from April 1843 until January 1856. Edited by John Elliotson, the founder, and former president of the London Phrenological Society, who had been expelled from the University College Hospital in 1838 for his mesmeric practices, and William Collins Engledue, a former President of the British Phrenological Association, who was ostracized by both his medical colleagues for his dedication to mesmerism and phrenology, and by the majority of phrenologists for his rejection of their "socio-religious", spiritual position, in favour of a scientific, materialist, brain-centred position that, in effect, reduced mental operations to physical forces. "The Zoist was a materialist journal; it repudiated metaphysics and argued that everything—including human thinking—could be explained through the


id: the-zoist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zoist-1.md
category: reference
title: The Zoist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zoist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:03.376372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-zoist-20260505-0
summary:
(1) Mesmeric Analgesia: although The Zoist would become the major vehicle for the (post-1846) reports of James Esdaile's work in India, it completely ignored the extensive (early 1842) work reported by Braid in his Neurypnology (1843, p. 253). Elliotson had already published his Numerous Cases of Surgical Operations without Pain in early 1843. (2) Phreno-mesmerism (a.k.a. phreno-magnetism) and hemicerebral mesmerism (the mesmerization of each hemisphere of the brain separately). (3) "Reichenbach phenomena" and other matters. (4) Electro-biology and related matters. (5) Alleged instances of extra-sensory perception (ESP) occurring in a mesmeric context. According to the medical historian George Rosen (1946, p. 535): In accordance with its avowed purpose, the Zoist presented articles on phrenology and mesmerism. Many papers were contributed by Elliotson who was a constant writer in the journal. The purpose of these communications was essentially propagandistic. For the most part they comprised reports on patients treated with mesmerism, testimonials and endorsements from physicians and satisfied patients, and polemics with opponents of mesmerism.In addition, the Zoist also concerned itself with social problems, such as housing, crime, and education.The views expressed on these questions were based generally on phrenological theory; and it is worthy of note that these views were


id: the-zoist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zoist-2.md
category: reference
title: The Zoist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zoist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:03.376372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-zoist-20260505-0
summary:
"Given under my hand this 4th day of February, 1851." In response to a query from "A Patient", the editors of The Zoist, whilst assuring the enquirer that "we feel as much as he does the difficulty of procuring good mesmerisers", proceeded to set down a set of positive and negative selection criteria: "Choice of a Mesmeriser". Yet another poem, this time from Mrs Maria Abdy, widow of the late Rev. John Channing Abdy, M.A., of St. John's, Southwark: "The Mesmerist". == The end of The Zoist == In a parting address to their journal's readers and subscribers written on 31 December 1855, the editors of The Zoist reminded their readers that they had sought "neither pecuniary gain nor worldly reputation", and had willingly undertaken the enterprise despite the fact that "loss was nearly certain", and that "contempt, ridicule, virulent abuse, and serious injury, were all inevitable". Yet, they assured their readers, "the object for which The Zoist was undertaken"—namely, "the establishment of truths, splendid, exquisite, extensive in their bearings, and of the highest importance to the moral and corporeal well-being of mankind"—had been attained; and that it was their hope that it would "be regarded as a complete work


id: pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be scientific or factual but are inherently incompatible with the scientific method. Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or unfalsifiable claims; reliance on confirmation bias rather than rigorous attempts at refutation; lack of openness to evaluation by other experts; absence of systematic practices when developing hypotheses; and continued adherence long after the pseudoscientific hypotheses have been experimentally discredited. It is not the same as junk science. The demarcation between science and pseudoscience has scientific, philosophical, and political implications. Philosophers debate the nature of science and the general criteria for drawing the line between scientific theories and pseudoscientific beliefs, but there is widespread agreement "that creationism, astrology, homeopathy, Kirlian photography, dowsing, ufology, ancient astronaut theory, Holocaust denialism, Velikovskian catastrophism, and climate change denialism are pseudosciences." There are implications for health care, the use of expert testimony, and weighing environmental policies. Recent empirical research has shown that individuals who indulge in pseudoscientific beliefs generally show lower evidential criteria, meaning they often require significantly less evidence before coming to conclusions. This can be coined as a 'jump-to-conclusions' bias that can increase the spread of pseudoscientific beliefs. Addressing pseudoscience is part of science


id: pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
During the mid-20th century, the philosopher Karl Popper emphasized the criterion of falsifiability to distinguish science from non-science. Statements, hypotheses, or theories have falsifiability or refutability if there is the inherent possibility that they can be proven false, that is, if it is possible to conceive of an observation or an argument that negates them. Popper used astrology and psychoanalysis as examples of pseudoscience and Einstein's theory of relativity as an example of science. He subdivided non-science into philosophical, mathematical, mythological, religious and metaphysical formulations on one hand, and pseudoscientific formulations on the other. Another example which shows the distinct need for a claim to be falsifiable was stated in Carl Sagan's book The Demon-Haunted World when he discusses an invisible dragon that he has in his garage. The point is made that there is no physical test to refute the claim of the presence of this dragon. Whatever test one thinks can be devised, there is a reason why it does not apply to the invisible dragon, so one can never prove that the initial claim is wrong. Sagan concludes; "Now, what's the difference between an invisible, incorporeal, floating dragon who spits heatless fire and no dragon at all?".


id: pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Use of vague, exaggerated or untestable claims === Assertion of scientific claims that are vague rather than precise, and that lack specific measurements. Assertion of a claim with little or no explanatory power. Failure to make use of operational definitions (i.e., publicly accessible definitions of the variables, terms, or objects of interest so that persons other than the definer can measure or test them independently) (See also: Reproducibility). Failure to make reasonable use of the principle of parsimony, i.e., failing to seek an explanation that requires the fewest possible additional assumptions when multiple viable explanations are possible (See: Occam's razor). Lack of boundary conditions: Most well-supported scientific theories possess well-articulated limitations under which the predicted phenomena do and do not apply. Lack of effective controls in experimental design, such as the use of placebos and double-blinding. Lack of understanding of basic and established principles of physics and engineering. === Improper collection of evidence === Assertions that do not allow the logical possibility that they can be shown to be false by observation or physical experiment (See also: Falsifiability). Assertion of claims that a theory predicts something that it has not been shown to predict. Scientific claims that do not


id: pseudoscience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-3.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Use of misleading language === Creating scientific-sounding terms to persuade non-experts to believe statements that may be false or meaningless: for example, a long-standing hoax refers to water by the rarely used formal name "dihydrogen monoxide" and describes it as the main constituent in most poisonous solutions to show how easily the general public can be misled. Using established terms in idiosyncratic ways, thereby demonstrating unfamiliarity with mainstream work in the discipline. == Prevalence of pseudoscientific beliefs == === Countries === The Ministry of AYUSH in the Government of India is purposed with developing education, research and propagation of indigenous alternative medicine systems in India. The ministry has faced significant criticism for funding systems that lack biological plausibility and are either untested or conclusively proven as ineffective. Quality of research has been poor, and drugs have been launched without any rigorous pharmacological studies and meaningful clinical trials on Ayurveda or other alternative healthcare systems. There is no credible efficacy or scientific basis of any of these forms of treatment. In his book The Demon-Haunted World, Carl Sagan discusses the government of China and the Chinese Communist Party's concern about Western pseudoscience developments and certain ancient Chinese practices in China.


id: pseudoscience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-4.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Explanations == In a 1981 report Singer and Benassi wrote that pseudoscientific beliefs have their origin from at least four sources: Common cognitive errors from personal experience Erroneous sensationalistic mass media coverage Sociocultural factors Poor or erroneous science education A 1990 study by Eve and Dunn supported the findings of Singer and Benassi and found pseudoscientific belief being promoted by high school life science and biology teachers. === Psychology === The psychology of pseudoscience attempts to explore and analyze pseudoscientific thinking by means of thorough clarification on making the distinction of what is considered scientific vs. pseudoscientific. The human proclivity for seeking confirmation rather than refutation (confirmation bias), the tendency to hold comforting beliefs, and the tendency to overgeneralize have been proposed as reasons for pseudoscientific thinking. According to Beyerstein, humans are prone to associations based on resemblances only, and often prone to misattribution in cause-effect thinking. Michael Shermer's theory of belief-dependent realism is driven by the idea that the brain is essentially a "belief engine" which scans data perceived by the senses and looks for patterns and meaning. There is also the tendency for the brain to create cognitive biases, as a result of inferences and assumptions made


id: pseudoscience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-5.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Classification === Philosophers classify types of knowledge. In English, the word science is used to indicate specifically the natural sciences and related fields, which are called the social sciences. Different philosophers of science may disagree on the exact limits – for example, is mathematics a formal science that is closer to the empirical ones, or is pure mathematics closer to the philosophical study of logic and therefore not a science? – but all agree that all of the ideas that are not scientific are non-scientific. The large category of non-science includes all matters outside the natural and social sciences, such as the study of history, metaphysics, religion, art, and the humanities. Dividing the category again, unscientific claims are a subset of the large category of non-scientific claims. This category specifically includes all matters that are directly opposed to good science. Un-science includes both "bad science" (such as an error made in a good-faith attempt at learning something about the natural world) and pseudoscience. Thus pseudoscience is a subset of un-science, and un-science, in turn, is subset of non-science. Science is also distinguishable from revelation, theology, or spirituality in that it offers insight into the physical world obtained by empirical


id: pseudoscience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-6.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Karl Popper stated it is insufficient to distinguish science from pseudoscience, or from metaphysics (such as the philosophical question of what existence means), by the criterion of rigorous adherence to the empirical method, which is essentially inductive, based on observation or experimentation. He proposed a method to distinguish between genuine empirical, nonempirical or even pseudoempirical methods. The latter case was exemplified by astrology, which appeals to observation and experimentation. While it had empirical evidence based on observation, on horoscopes and biographies, it crucially failed to use acceptable scientific standards. Popper proposed falsifiability as an important criterion in distinguishing science from pseudoscience. To demonstrate this point, Popper gave two cases of human behavior and typical explanations from Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler's theories: "that of a man who pushes a child into the water with the intention of drowning it; and that of a man who sacrifices his life in an attempt to save the child." From Freud's perspective, the first man would have suffered from psychological repression, probably originating from an Oedipus complex, whereas the second man had attained sublimation. From Adler's perspective, the first and second man suffered from feelings of inferiority and had to prove himself, which drove


id: pseudoscience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-7.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Many philosophers have tried to solve the problem of demarcation in the following terms: a statement constitutes knowledge if sufficiently many people believe it sufficiently strongly. But the history of thought shows us that many people were totally committed to absurd beliefs. If the strengths of beliefs were a hallmark of knowledge, we should have to rank some tales about demons, angels, devils, and of heaven and hell as knowledge. Scientists, on the other hand, are very sceptical even of their best theories. Newton's is the most powerful theory science has yet produced, but Newton himself never believed that bodies attract each other at a distance. So no degree of commitment to beliefs makes them knowledge. Indeed, the hallmark of scientific behaviour is a certain scepticism even towards one's most cherished theories. Blind commitment to a theory is not an intellectual virtue: it is an intellectual crime. Thus a statement may be pseudoscientific even if it is eminently 'plausible' and everybody believes in it, and it may be scientifically valuable even if it is unbelievable and nobody believes in it. A theory may even be of supreme scientific value even if no one understands it, let alone believes in it.


id: pseudoscience-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience-8.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:04.927984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Health and education implications === Distinguishing science from pseudoscience has practical implications in the case of health care, expert testimony, environmental policies, and science education. Treatments with a patina of scientific authority which have not actually been subjected to actual scientific testing may be ineffective, expensive and dangerous to patients and confuse health providers, insurers, government decision makers and the public as to what treatments are appropriate. Claims advanced by pseudoscience may result in government officials and educators making bad decisions in selecting curricula. The extent to which students acquire a range of social and cognitive thinking skills related to the proper usage of science and technology determines whether they are scientifically literate. Education in the sciences encounters new dimensions with the changing landscape of science and technology, a fast-changing culture and a knowledge-driven era. A reinvention of the school science curriculum is one that shapes students to contend with its changing influence on human welfare. Scientific literacy, which allows a person to distinguish science from pseudosciences such as astrology, is among the attributes that enable students to adapt to the changing world. Its characteristics are embedded in a curriculum where students are engaged in resolving problems, conducting investigations,


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:06.132283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Many proposed diseases and diagnoses are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience due to a lack of scientific evidence for their existence, proposed mechanism or action, or manifestation that cannot be explained by something else. == Definition == Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology. Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory. In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate. Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include: Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses. Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction, baldness, jet lag, and halitosis. Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:06.132283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Medical == Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor, may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms. There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community. A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls. Multiple


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:06.132283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Psychological == Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia. Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape. As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure. Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder. Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics that have, either currently or in the past, been characterized as pseudoscience by academics or researchers. Detailed discussion of these topics may be found on their main pages. Criticism of pseudoscience, generally by the scientific community or skeptical organizations, involves critiques of the logical, methodological, or rhetorical bases of the topic in question. Though some of the listed topics continue to be investigated scientifically like psychoanalysis, others were only subject to scientific research in the past and today are considered refuted, but resurrected in a pseudoscientific fashion. Other ideas presented here are entirely non-scientific, but have in one way or another impinged on scientific domains or practices. Many adherents or practitioners of the topics listed here dispute their characterization as pseudoscience. Each section here summarizes the alleged pseudoscientific aspects of that topic. == Physical sciences == === Astronomy and space sciences === 2012 phenomenon – a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012. This date was regarded as the end-date of a 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and as such, festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Earth sciences === Megalithic geometry or 366 geometry – posits the existence of an Earth-based geometry dating back to at least 3500 BCE and the possibility that such a system is still in use in modern Freemasonry. According to proponents, megalithic civilizations in Britain and Brittany had advanced knowledge of geometry and the size of Earth. The megalithic yard is correlated to the polar circumference of Earth using a circle divided into 366 degrees. The Bermuda Triangle – a region of the Atlantic Ocean that lies between Bermuda, Puerto Rico and (in its most popular version) Florida. Ship and aircraft disasters and disappearances perceived as frequent in this area have led to the circulation of stories of unusual natural phenomena, paranormal encounters and interactions with extraterrestrials. Climate change denial – involves denial, dismissal, unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which depart from the scientific consensus on climate change, including the extent to which it is caused by humans, its impacts on nature and human society, or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions. Flood geology – creationist form of geology that advocates most of the geologic features on Earth are explainable by a global flood. The Hollow


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Agriculture === Lysenkoism, or Lysenko-Michurinism – was a political campaign against genetics and science-based agriculture conducted by Trofim Lysenko, his followers and Soviet authorities. Lysenko served as the director of the Soviet Union's Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Lysenkoism began in the late 1920s and formally ended in 1964. The pseudoscientific ideas of Lysenkoism built on Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's concepts of the heritability of acquired characteristics. Lysenko's theory rejected Gregor Mendel's theory of inheritance and the concept of the "gene"; it departed from Darwinian evolutionary theory by rejecting natural selection, viewing that concept as being incompatible with Marxist ideology. Biodynamic agriculture – method of organic farming that treats farms as unified and individual organisms. Biodynamics uses a calendar which has been characterized as astrological. The substances and composts used by biodynamicists have been described as unconventional and homeopathic. For example, field mice are countered by deploying ashes prepared from field mice skin when Venus is in the Scorpius constellation. No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture lacks strong scientific evidence for its efficacy and has been labeled a pseudoscience because of its overreliance


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis posits that having an induced abortion can increase the risk of breast cancer. This hypothesis is at odds with mainstream scientific opinion and is rejected by major medical professional organizations. Access Consciousness is an alternative medicine technique similar to a combination of phrenology, reiki, energy therapies and therapeutic touch, where health and wellness can be improved by touching the 32 "Energy Bars" on a person's head. Acupuncture – use of fine needles to stimulate acupuncture points and balance the flow of qi. There is no known anatomical or histological basis for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians and acupuncture is regarded as an alternative medical procedure. Some acupuncturists regard them as functional rather than structural entities, useful in guiding evaluation and care of patients. Acupuncture has been the subject of active scientific research since the late 20th century and its effects and application remain controversial among medical researchers and clinicians. Some scholarly reviews conclude that acupuncture's effects are mainly attributable to the placebo effect and others find likelihood of efficacy for particular conditions. Dry needling is the therapeutic insertion of fine needles without regard to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and is similarly controversial. Acupressure is


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
There is disputed evidence that it may be effective in combating postoperative nausea and vomiting. Auriculotherapy (also auricular therapy, ear acupuncture, and auriculoacupuncture) is a form of alternative medicine based on the idea that the ear is a micro-system which reflects the entire body, represented on the auricle, the outer portion of the ear. Conditions affecting the physical, mental or emotional health of the patient are assumed to be treatable by stimulation of the surface of the ear exclusively. Similar mappings are used in many areas of the body, including the practices of reflexology and iridology. These mappings are not based on or supported by any medical or scientific evidence and are therefore considered to be pseudoscience. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed by discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield when he suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's now-retracted and fraudulent report used inadequate controls and suppressed negative findings and multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful. Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Chromotherapy, sometimes called color therapy, colorology or cromatherapy, is an alternative medicine method which is considered pseudoscience. Chromotherapists claim to be able to use light in the form of color to balance "energy" lacking from a person's body, whether it be on physical, emotional, spiritual, or mental levels. Color therapy is distinct from other types of light therapy, such as neonatal jaundice treatment and blood irradiation therapy, which is a scientifically accepted medical treatment for a number of conditions, and from photobiology, the scientific study of the effects of light on living organisms. French skeptic and lighting physicist Sébastien Point considers LED lamps at domestic radiance to be safe in normal use for the general population; he also pointed out the risk of overexposure to light from LEDs for practices like chromotherapy, when duration and time exposure are not under control. Chronic Lyme disease (not to be confused with Lyme disease) is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection." Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The field has been compared to pseudoscience due to irreproducible or contradictory findings, exaggerated claims of usefulness and lack of high quality research protocols. Ear candling, also called ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine practice claimed to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the other end in the ear canal. Medical research has shown that the practice is both dangerous and ineffective and does not functionally remove earwax or toxicants, despite product design contributing to that impression.


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Earthing therapy or grounding is a therapy that is claimed to ease pain, provide a better night's sleep, and assist with symptoms of inflammation by being in direct physical contact with the ground or a device connected to electrical ground. Practitioners claim that Earth has an excess of electrons which people are missing due to insulating shoes and ground cover. Being in electrical contact with Earth is claimed to provide the body with those excess electrons, which then act as antioxidants. A 2012 systematic review study showed inconclusive results related to methodological issues across the literature. Subsequently, a 2017 systematic review of the benefits of spending time in forests demonstrated positive health effects, but not enough to generate clinical practice guidelines or demonstrate causality. Electrohomeopathy (or Mattei cancer cure) is a derivative of homeopathy invented in the 19th century by Count Cesare Mattei. The name is derived from a combination of electro (referring to an electric bio-energy content supposedly extracted from plants and of therapeutic value, rather than electricity in its conventional sense) and homeopathy (referring to an alternative medicinal philosophy developed by Samuel Hahnemann in the 18th century). Electrohomeopathy has been defined as the combination of electrical devices and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Systematic reviews of clinical trials of Bach flower solutions have found no efficacy beyond a placebo effect. Iridology – means of medical diagnosis which proponents believe can identify and diagnose health problems through close examination of the markings and patterns of the iris. Practitioners divide the iris into 80–90 zones, each of which is connected to a particular body region or organ. This connection has not been scientifically validated and disorder detection is neither selective nor specific. Because iris texture is a phenotypical feature which develops during gestation and remains unchanged after birth (which makes the iris useful for Biometrics), iridology is all but impossible. Jilly Juice – a potentially dangerous fermented drink that has been claimed to treat a variety of medical conditions. Leaky gut syndrome – in alternative medicine, a proposed condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. It has been proposed as the cause of many conditions, including multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific. According to the UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven. Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Radionics – means of medical diagnosis and therapy which proponents believe can diagnose and remedy health problems using various frequencies in a putative energy field coupled to the practitioner's electronic device. The first such "black box" devices were designed and promoted by Albert Abrams and were definitively proven useless by an independent investigation commissioned by Scientific American in 1924. The internal circuitry of radionics devices is often obfuscated and irrelevant, leading proponents to conjecture dowsing and ESP as operating principles. Similar devices continue to be marketed under various names, though none is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration; there is no scientific evidence for the efficacy or underlying premise of radionics devices. The radionics of Albert Abrams and his intellectual descendants should not be confused with similarly named reputable and legitimate companies, products, or medical treatments such as radiotherapy or radiofrequency ablation. Reiki is a form of alternative medicine called energy healing. Reiki practitioners use a technique called palm healing or hands-on healing through which a "universal energy" is said to be transferred through the palms of the practitioner to the patient in order to encourage emotional or physical healing. Reiki is a pseudoscience, and is used as


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including hypertension, pain and cancer, and with respect to quality of life. Most research concerning health benefits of qigong has been of poor quality, such that it would be unwise to draw firm conclusions at this stage. Zang-fu – concept of organs as functional yin and yang entities for the storage and manipulation of qi. These organs are not based in anatomy. Tomatis Method A type of auditory integration training devised by Alfred A. Tomatis and promoted, without supporting evidence, as being of benefit to people with autism. Urine therapy – drinking either one's own undiluted urine or homeopathic potions of urine for treatment of a wide variety of diseases is based on pseudoscience. Promotion of a link between autism and vaccines, in which the vaccines are accused of causing autism-spectrum conditions, triggering them, or aggravating them, has been characterized as pseudoscience. Many epidemiological studies have reported no association between either the MMR vaccine and autism, or thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism. Consequently, the Institute of Medicine has concluded that there is no causal link between either of these varieties of vaccines and autism. Similarly, "vaccine overload", a


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technology === 5G conspiracies and 5G causes coronavirus theories – theory proposing that 5G causes health issues, including COVID-19. == Social sciences == === History === Christ myth theory – A fringe theory that proposes that the historical Jesus did not exist in any capacity whatsoever. While the divinity of Jesus is a matter of religious and philosophical rather than historical debate, Christian and non-Christian scholars of antiquity universally agree that Jesus of Nazareth was a Galilean Jew who lived in the first century, was baptized, and later crucified by Roman authorities. This is based on sources written by historians, scholars, and politicians who lived during the time of Christ. Holocaust denial – Historical revisionist movements associated with Holocaust denial have employed pseudoscientific evidence and conspiracy theories published in intradiegetic pseudo-academic journals and presented at fringe conferences (e.g. misconstruing cyanide residue studies, claiming despite all evidence to the contrary that gas chambers were built after the war). Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry – A fringe theory that postulates that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Psychology === Attachment therapy – common name for a set of potentially fatal clinical interventions and parenting techniques aimed at controlling aggressive, disobedient, or unaffectionate children using "restraint and physical and psychological abuse to seek their desired results." (The term "attachment therapy" may sometimes be used loosely to refer to mainstream approaches based on attachment theory, usually outside the US where the pseudoscientific form of attachment therapy is less known.) Probably the most common form is holding therapy, in which the child is restrained by adults for the purpose of supposed cathartic release of suppressed rage and regression. Perhaps the most extreme, but much less common, is "rebirthing", in which the child is wrapped tightly in a blanket and then made to simulate emergence from a birth canal. This is done by encouraging the child to struggle and pushing and squeezing them to mimic contractions. Despite the practice's name, it is not based on traditional attachment theory and shares no principles of mainstream developmental psychology research. In 2006, it was the subject of an almost entirely critical Taskforce Report commissioned by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). Conversion therapy – sometimes called reparative therapy, seeks


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Applications of Psychological Type claims that the MBTI is scientifically supported, but most of the research on it is done through its own journal, Journal of Psychological Type, raising questions of bias. Results are said to follow the Barnum effect. Neuro-linguistic programming – an approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy created in the 1970s. The title refers to a stated connection between the neurological processes ("neuro"), language ("linguistic") and behavioral patterns that have been learned through experience ("programming") and can be organized to achieve specific goals in life. According to certain neuroscientists psychologists and linguists, NLP is unsupported by current scientific evidence, and uses incorrect and misleading terms and concepts. Reviews of empirical research on NLP indicate that NLP contains numerous factual errors, and has failed to produce reliable results for the claims for effectiveness made by NLP's originators and proponents. According to Devilly, NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s and 1980s. Criticisms go beyond the lack of empirical evidence for effectiveness; critics say that NLP exhibits pseudoscientific characteristics, title, concepts and terminology. NLP is used as an example of pseudoscience for facilitating the teaching of scientific literacy at the


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Racial theories === Scientific racism – claim that scientific evidence shows the inferiority or superiority of certain races. Aryanism – the claim that there is a distinct "Aryan race" that is superior to other putative races was an important tenet of Nazism and "the basis of the German government policy of exterminating Jews, Gypsies, and other 'non-Aryans.'" Drapetomania was a conjectural mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. It has since been debunked as pseudoscience and part of the edifice of scientific racism. Melanin theory – belief founded in the distortion of known physical properties of melanin, a natural polymer, that posits the inherent superiority of dark-skinned people and the essential inhumanity and inferiority of light-skinned people. Turkish History Thesis – the belief that Turks from Central Asia migrated and brought civilization to China, India, the Middle East, and Europe. Eugenics – As a movement, eugenics was associated with pseudoscience including pseudoscientific journals and professional societies. This is to be contrasted with the common and scientifically accepted practice of selective breeding. === Sociology === Alpha and beta male – pseudoscientific terms for men derived from alpha and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Animal mutilations – cases of animals, primarily domestic livestock, with seemingly inexplicable wounds. These wounds have been said to be caused by extraterrestrials, cults, covert government organizations, or cryptids such as el chupacabra, when in fact most such cases were found to be caused by natural predation. An aura or human energy field is, according to New Age beliefs, a colored emanation said to enclose a human body or any animal or object. In some esoteric positions, the aura is described as a subtle body. Psychics and holistic medicine practitioners often claim to have the ability to see the size, color and type of vibration of an aura. In New Age alternative medicine, the human aura is seen as a hidden anatomy that affects the health of a client, and is often understood to be composed of centers of vital force called chakra. Such claims are not supported by scientific evidence and are pseudoscience. When tested under controlled experiments, the ability to see auras has not been shown to exist. Channeling – communication of information to or through a person allegedly from a spirit or other paranormal entity. Crop circles – geometric designs of crushed or knocked-over crops created in


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Affirmative prayer is a form of prayer or a metaphysical technique that is focused on a positive outcome, rather than a negative situation. For instance, a person who is experiencing some form of illness would focus the prayer on the desired state of perfect health and affirm this desired intention "as if already happened" rather than identifying the illness and then asking God for help to eliminate it. William James described affirmative prayer as an element of the American metaphysical healing movement that he called the "mind-cure"; he described it as the United States' "only decidedly original contribution to the systemic philosophy of life." What sets affirmative prayer apart from secular affirmations of the autosuggestion type taught by the 19th century self-help author Émile Coué (whose most famous affirmation was "Every day in every way, I am getting better and better") is that affirmative prayer addresses the practitioner to God, the Divine, the Creative Mind, emphasizing the seemingly practical aspects of religious belief. Christian Science is generally considered a Christian new religious movement; however, some have called it "pseudoscience" because its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, used "science" in its name, and because of its former stance against medical science. Also,


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:07.426142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientology === Dianetics, a therapeutic technique promoted by Scientology, purports to treat a hypothetical reactive mind. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of an actual reactive mind, apart from the stimulus response mechanisms documented in behaviorist psychology. Narconon and Purification Rundown are Scientology programs that purport to clean the human body of toxins and drugs respectively. Their method consists of very long saunas over many days, extremely large (possibly toxic) doses of vitamins including niacin, and Scientology 'training routines', sometimes including attempts at telekinesis. The programs have been described as "medically unsafe", "quackery" and "medical fraud", while academic and medical experts have dismissed Narconon's educational programme as containing "factual errors in basic concepts such as physical and mental effects, addiction and even spelling". In turn, Narconon has claimed that mainstream medicine is "biased" against it, and that "people who endorse so-called controlled drug use cannot be trusted to review a program advocating totally drug-free living." Narconon has said that criticism of its programmes is "bigoted", and that its critics are "in favor of drug abuse [...] they are either using drugs or selling drugs". === Other === Quantum mysticism – builds on a superficial similarity between certain


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-0.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
The 2012 phenomenon was a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012. This date was regarded as the end-date of a 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, and festivities took place on 21 December 2012 to commemorate the event in the countries that were part of the Maya civilization (Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador), with main events at Chichén Itzá in Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala. Various astronomical alignments and numerological formulae were proposed for this date. A New Age interpretation held that the date marked the start of a period during which Earth and its inhabitants would undergo a positive physical or spiritual transformation, and that 21 December 2012 would mark the beginning of a new era. Others suggested that the date marked the end of the world or a similar catastrophe. Scenarios suggested for the end of the world included the arrival of the next solar maximum; an interaction between Earth and Sagittarius A*, the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy; the Nibiru cataclysm, in which Earth would collide with a mythical planet called Nibiru; or even the heating


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-1.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Objections === Coe's interpretation was repeated by other scholars through the early 1990s. In contrast, later researchers said that, while the end of the 13th bʼakʼtun would perhaps be a cause for celebration, it did not mark the end of the calendar. "There is nothing in the Maya or Aztec or ancient Mesoamerican prophecy to suggest that they prophesied a sudden or major change of any sort in 2012," said Mayanist scholar Mark Van Stone. "The notion of a 'Great Cycle' coming to an end is completely a modern invention." In 1990, Mayanist scholars Linda Schele and David Freidel argued that the Maya "did not conceive this to be the end of creation, as many have suggested". Susan Milbrath, curator of Latin American Art and Archaeology at the Florida Museum of Natural History, stated that, "We have no record or knowledge that [the Maya] would think the world would come to an end" in 2012. Sandra Noble, executive director of the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, said, "For the ancient Maya, it was a huge celebration to make it to the end of a whole cycle," and, "The 2012 phenomenon is a complete fabrication and a chance


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-2.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
=== La Corona === In April–May 2012, a team of archaeologists unearthed a previously unknown inscription on a stairway at the La Corona site in Guatemala. The inscription, on what is known as Hieroglyphic Stairway 12, describes the establishment of a royal court in Calakmul in 635 AD, and compares the then-recent completion of 13 kʼatuns with the future completion of the 13th bʼakʼtun. It contains no speculation or prophecy as to what the scribes believed would happen at that time. === Dates beyond bʼakʼtun 13 === Maya inscriptions occasionally mention predicted future events or commemorations that would occur on dates far beyond the completion of the 13th bʼakʼtun. Most of these are in the form of "distance dates"; Long Count dates together with an additional number, known as a Distance Number, which when added to them makes a future date. On the west panel at the Temple of Inscriptions in Palenque, a section of text projects forward to the 80th 52-year Calendar Round from the coronation of the ruler Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal. Pakal's accession occurred on 9.9.2.4.8, equivalent to 27 July 615 AD in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. The inscription begins with Pakal's birthdate of 9.8.9.13.0 (24 March, 603


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-3.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Galactic alignment === There is no significant astronomical event tied to the Long Count's start date. Its supposed end date was tied to astronomical phenomena by esoteric, fringe, and New Age literature that placed great significance on astrology, especially astrological interpretations associated with the phenomenon of axial precession. Chief among these ideas is the astrological concept of a "galactic alignment". ==== Precession ==== In the Solar System, the planets and the Sun lie roughly within the same flat plane, known as the plane of the ecliptic. From our perspective on Earth, the ecliptic is the path taken by the Sun across the sky over the course of the year. The twelve constellations that line the ecliptic are known as the zodiacal constellations, and, annually, the Sun passes through all of them in turn. Additionally, over time, the Sun's annual cycle appears to recede very slowly backward by one degree every 72 years, or by one constellation approximately every 2,160 years. This backward movement, called "precession", is due to a slight wobble in the Earth's axis as it spins, and can be compared to the way a spinning top wobbles as it slows down. Over the course of 25,800 years,


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-4.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
"Timewave zero" is a numerological formula that purports to calculate the ebb and flow of "novelty", defined as increase over time in the universe's interconnectedness, or organized complexity. Terence McKenna claimed that the universe has a teleological attractor at the end of time that increases interconnectedness. He believed this which would eventually reach a singularity of infinite complexity in 2012, at which point anything and everything imaginable would occur simultaneously. He conceived this idea over several years in the early to mid-1970s whilst using psilocybin mushrooms and DMT. The scientific community considers novelty theory to be pseudoscience. McKenna expressed "novelty" in a computer program which produces a waveform known as "timewave zero" or the "timewave". Based on McKenna's interpretation of the King Wen sequence of the I Ching, an ancient Chinese book on divination, the graph purports to show great periods of novelty corresponding with major shifts in humanity's biological and sociocultural evolution. He believed that the events of any given time are resonantly related to the events of other times, and chose the atomic bombing of Hiroshima as the basis for calculating his end date of November 2012. When he later discovered this date's proximity to the end of


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-5.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geomagnetic reversal === Another idea tied to 2012 involved a geomagnetic reversal (often referred to as a pole shift by proponents), possibly triggered by a massive solar flare, that would release an energy equal to 100 billion atomic bombs. This belief was supposedly supported by observations that the Earth's magnetic field was weakening, which could precede a reversal of the north and south magnetic poles, and the arrival of the next solar maximum, which was expected sometime around 2012. Most scientific estimates say that geomagnetic reversals take between 1,000 and 10,000 years to complete, and do not start on any particular date. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted that the solar maximum would peak in late 2013 or 2014, and that it would be fairly weak, with a below-average number of sunspots. There was no scientific evidence linking a solar maximum to a geomagnetic reversal, which is driven by forces entirely within the Earth. A solar maximum does affect satellite and cellular phone communications. David Morrison attributed the rise of the solar storm idea to physicist and science popularizer Michio Kaku, who claimed in an interview with Fox News that a solar peak in 2012 could be


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-6.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
Beginning in 2000, the small French village of Bugarach, population 189, began receiving visits from "esoterics"—mystic believers who had concluded that the local mountain, Pic de Bugarach, was the ideal location to weather the transformative events of 2012. In 2011, the local mayor, Jean-Pierre Delord, began voicing fears to the international press that the small town would be overwhelmed by an influx of thousands of visitors in 2012, even suggesting he might call in the army. "We've seen a huge rise in visitors", Delord told The Independent in March 2012. "Already this year more than 20,000 people have climbed right to the top, and last year we had 10,000 hikers, which was a significant rise on the previous 12 months. They think Pic de Bugarach is 'un garage à ovnis' [a garage for UFOs]. The villagers are exasperated: the exaggerated importance of something which they see as completely removed from reality is bewildering. After 21 December, this will surely return to normal." In December 2012, the French government placed 100 police and firefighters around both Bugarach and Pic de Bugarach, limiting access to potential visitors. Ultimately, only about 1,000 visitors appeared at the height of the "event". Two raves were


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-7.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
On the final day of bʼakʼtun 13, residents of Yucatán and other regions formerly dominated by the ancient Maya celebrated what they saw as the dawn of a new, better era. According to official figures from Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), about 50,000 people visited Mexican archaeological sites on 21 December 2012. Of those, 10,000 visited Chichén Itzá in Yucatán, 9,900 visited Tulum in Quintana Roo, and 8,000 visited Palenque in Chiapas. An additional 10,000 people visited Teotihuacan near Mexico City, which is not a Maya site. The main ceremony in Chichén Itzá was held at dawn in the plaza of the Temple of Kukulkán, one of the principal symbols of Maya culture. The archaeological site was opened two hours early to receive thousands of tourists, mostly foreigners who came to participate in events scheduled for the end of bʼakʼtun 13. The fire ceremony at Tikal was held at dawn in the main plaza of the Temple of the Great Jaguar. The ceremony was led by Guatemalan and foreign priests. The President of Guatemala, Otto Pérez, and of Costa Rica, Laura Chinchilla, participated in the event as special guests. During the ceremony the priests asked for unity,


id: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon-8.md
category: reference
title: 2012 phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:10.848554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2012-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
== Cultural influence == The 2012 phenomenon was discussed or referenced by several media outlets. Several TV documentaries, as well as some contemporary fictional references to the year 2012, referred to 21 December as the day of a cataclysmic event. The TV series The X-Files cited 22 December 2012 as the date for an alien colonization of the Earth, and mentioned the Mayan calendar "stopping" on this date. The History Channel aired a handful of special series on doomsday that included analysis of 2012 theories, such as Decoding the Past (2005–2007), 2012, End of Days (2006), Last Days on Earth (2006), Seven Signs of the Apocalypse (2009), and Nostradamus 2012 (2008). The Discovery Channel also aired 2012 Apocalypse in 2009, suggesting that massive solar storms, magnetic pole reversal, earthquakes, supervolcanoes, and other drastic natural events could occur in 2012. In 2012, the National Geographic Channel launched a show called Doomsday Preppers, a documentary series about survivalists preparing for various cataclysms, including the 2012 doomsday. Hundreds of books were published on the topic. The bestselling book of 2009, Dan Brown's The Lost Symbol, featured a coded mock email number (2456282.5) that decoded to the Julian date for 21 December 2012. In


id: 2015-indian-science-congress-ancient-aircraft-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Indian_Science_Congress_ancient_aircraft_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: 2015 Indian Science Congress ancient aircraft controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Indian_Science_Congress_ancient_aircraft_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:12.052830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2015-indian-science-congress-ancient-aircraft-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The 2015 Indian Science Congress ancient aircraft controversy refers to protests that occurred during the 102nd Indian Science Congress in Mumbai on 4 January 2015 when a paper claiming to prove that aircraft were invented in the Vedic age was allowed to be presented. == Overview == In December 2014, it was announced that Anand J. Bodas and his copresenter Ameya Jadhav, who claim that aircraft more advanced than today's versions existed in ancient India, would be allowed to speak at the Indian Science Congress and present a paper on aviation in the Vedic age. During an interview, he said that such aircraft were huge and could fly to other planets. He also said that those planes could fly backwards, left, or right, contrary to modern aircraft that can fly only forward. Bodas, who was a principal at a pilot training school in Kerala, and Jadhav, currently a lecturer at the Swami Vivekanand International School and Junior College in Mumbai, cited a text called Vaimanika Prakaranam (also called Vaimānika Shāstra) as evidence. Scientists from the Indian Institute of Science studied the text in 1974, concluding that "craft is a decided impossibility" and that the Vaimānika Shāstra was written no earlier


id: abortion-breast-cancer-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:13.301340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abortion-breast-cancer-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis posits that having an induced abortion can increase the risk of getting breast cancer. This hypothesis is at odds with mainstream scientific opinion and is rejected by major medical professional organizations; despite this, it continues to be widely propagated as pseudoscience, typically in service of an anti-abortion agenda. In early pregnancy, hormone levels increase, leading to breast growth. The hypothesis proposes that if this process is altered by an abortion, then more immature cells could be left behind, and that these immature cells could increase the risk of breast cancer over time. The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis has been the subject of extensive scientific inquiry, and the scientific community has concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer; and that breast cancer should not be a concern for women who are having a miscarriage or considering having an abortion. This consensus is supported by major medical bodies, including the World Health Organization, the U.S. National Cancer Institute, the American Cancer Society, the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, the German Cancer Research Center, and the Canadian Cancer Society. Some anti-abortion activists have continued to advance a discredited causal link between


id: abortion-breast-cancer-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:13.301340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abortion-breast-cancer-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
In early pregnancy, levels of estrogen, progesterone, and estradiol increase, leading to breast growth in preparation for lactation. Proponents speculate that if this process is interrupted by an abortion or miscarriage—before full maturity (differentiation) in the third trimester—then more immature cells could be left than there were prior to the pregnancy. These immature cells could then be exposed to carcinogens and hormones over time, resulting in a greater potential risk of breast cancer. This mechanism was first proposed and explored in rat studies conducted in the 1980s. Breast tissue contains many lobes (segments) and these contain lobules which are groups of breast cells. There are four types of lobules: Type 1 has 11 ductules (immature) Type 2 has 47 ductules (immature) Type 3 has 80 ductules (mature, fewer hormone receptors) Type 4 are fully matured (cancer resistant) and contain breast milk During early pregnancy, type 1 lobules quickly become type 2 lobules because of changes in estrogen and progesterone levels. Maturing into type 3 and then reaching full differentiation as type 4 lobules requires an increase of human placental lactogen (hPL) which occurs in the last few months of pregnancy. According to the abortion–breast cancer hypothesis, if an abortion were


id: abortion-breast-cancer-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:13.301340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abortion-breast-cancer-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Epidemiological evidence == The results of prospective cohort studies on the relationship between abortion and breast cancer have been consistently negative. Such studies are considered more reliable than retrospective studies and case-control studies. The positive association between abortion and breast cancer risk observed in case-control studies may be accounted for by recall bias. In 1996, Brind et al. published a meta-analysis of 23 studies which reported a positive association existed between induced abortion and breast cancer risk. The authors estimated the relative risk of breast cancer among women who had had an induced abortion to be 1.3, compared to women who had not had an abortion. It was criticized by other researchers for multiple reasons, including allegations that it failed to account for publication bias (positive studies tend to be more likely to be published). The meta-analysis was also criticized because the studies it included were almost all case-control studies, which are susceptible to recall bias, and for which it is difficult to select an appropriate control group. In 1997, Wingo et al. reviewed 32 studies on the abortion-breast cancer relationship and concluded that the results of studies on this subject were too inconsistent to allow for definitive conclusions,


id: abortion-breast-cancer-hypothesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:13.301340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abortion-breast-cancer-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
[T]he possible relationship between abortion and breast cancer has been examined in over thirty published studies since 1957. Some studies have reported statistically significant evidence of an increased risk of breast cancer in women who have had abortions, while others have merely suggested an increased risk. Other studies have found no increase in risk among women who have had an interrupted pregnancy. This alteration, which suggested that there was scientific uncertainty on the ABC issue, prompted an editorial in The New York Times describing it as an "egregious distortion" and a letter to the Secretary of Health and Human Services from members of Congress. In response to the alteration the NCI convened a three-day consensus workshop entitled Early Reproductive Events and Breast Cancer on 24–26 February 2003. The workshop concluded that induced abortion does not increase a woman's risk of breast cancer, and that the evidence for this had been well established. Afterwards, the director of epidemiology research for the American Cancer Society stated, "[t]his issue has been resolved scientifically ... This is essentially a political debate." Brind was the only attendee at the workshop to file a dissenting opinion as a minority report criticizing the conclusions. He contends the


id: access-consciousness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_Consciousness-0.md
category: reference
title: Access Consciousness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_Consciousness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:14.508126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: access-consciousness-20260505-0
summary:
Access Consciousness is a pseudoscientific New Age movement founded by Gary Douglas in 1990 in Santa Barbara, California, initially called Access Energy Transformation. After a failed real estate business and subsequent bankruptcy in 1993, Douglas claimed to begin channeling spirits, including Russian mystic Grigori Rasputin, from whom he learned about "Access Bars" which are points on the head purported to help with energy, health, and wealth. As of 2024, the practice has since evolved into a global movement, offering a range of self-help and energy healing techniques. Access Consciousness promotes a mix of energy therapy, elements of phrenology, and prosperity gospel principles, with practitioners claiming to "run the bars" to manipulate energy fields for various life improvements. The organization has faced significant criticism, with skeptics denouncing its practices as pseudoscientific, and allegations of abuse, cult-like behavior, and exploitation have surfaced over the years. == History == After filing for bankruptcy in 1993 due to a failed real estate venture and briefly working for the United Way, Gary Douglas founded Access Consciousness, initially named Access Energy Transformation, in Santa Barbara, California, in 1990. Douglas allegedly started channeling spirits in the early 1990s after witnessing a channeler at work in the late


id: access-consciousness-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_Consciousness-1.md
category: reference
title: Access Consciousness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_Consciousness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:14.508126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: access-consciousness-20260505-0
summary:
=== Training and certification === To become a practitioner you need one day of training. Subsequent training to become a facilitator includes a minimum of twelve courses, in addition to regular teleconferences. Continuous training is required annually. There are over eight thousand tools to learn. The cost in 2024 for this training was AUD 30,000, with a licence renewal costing AUD 17,000. As of 2024, there were approximately 3,000 licensed facilitators. A former facilitator, Kerry Purcell, reported that she would spend AUD 60,000 on travel and fees for Access Consciousness courses. She invested AUD 150,000 in what she thought was Milasas' bottled water business but later believed it was used to pay off Milasas' personal debts, which Milasas claimed were paid off because of her positive energy. Some practitioners teach communicating with animals. == Criticisms and controversies == Critics have referred to Access Consciousness as a milder version of Scientology. Douglas is familiar with the church as he was a Scientologist himself. His first wife, Laurie Alexander, was an auditor for the church and his second wife, Mary Wernicke, was a former Scientologist. According to medical doctor David Gorski in an article called Access Consciousness: Phrenology fused with energy medicine,


id: acquired-homosexuality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquired_homosexuality-0.md
category: reference
title: Acquired homosexuality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquired_homosexuality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:15.703997+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acquired-homosexuality-20260505-0
summary:
Acquired homosexuality is the pseudoscientific idea that homosexuality can be spread, either through sexual seduction or recruitment by homosexuals, or through exposure to media depicting homosexuality. According to this belief, any child or young person could become homosexual if exposed to it; conversely, through conversion therapy, a homosexual person could be made heterosexual. == Scientific evidence == Although there is not yet complete understanding of the causes of sexual orientation, the evidence supporting biological causes is much stronger than that supporting social factors, and there is little or no evidence supporting the theory that homosexuality can be acquired through sexual contact with homosexual adults. In contrast, there is evidence that homosexual attractions precede behavior, usually by a few years, in most cases. Bailey et al. state, "a belief in the recruitment hypothesis has often been associated with strongly negative attitudes toward homosexual people", and those who make this argument generally do not explain an empirical basis for this belief. == History == In her book Epistemology of the Closet, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick distinguishes between the minoritizing and universalizing view of sexual orientation; according to the former view, homosexuality is a property of a relatively stable minority, while according to latter


id: action-type-approach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_type_approach-0.md
category: reference
title: Action type approach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_type_approach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:15:16.864893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: action-type-approach-20260505-0
summary:
The action type approach is a series of mental exercises—variously described as "pseudoscientific", "empirically challenged", or a "neuromyth"— that purport to increase physical performance in athletes. == References ==


id: activated-charcoal-cleanse-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_charcoal_cleanse-0.md
category: reference
title: Activated charcoal cleanse
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_charcoal_cleanse
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:39.124240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: activated-charcoal-cleanse-20260505-0
summary:
Activated charcoal cleanses, also known as charcoal detoxes, are a pseudoscientific use of a proven medical intervention for poisoning, activated charcoal. Activated charcoal is available in powder, tablet, and liquid form. Its proponents claim the use of activated charcoal regularly will detoxify and cleanse the body as well as boost one's energy and brighten the skin. Such claims violate basic principles of chemistry and physiology. There is no medical evidence for any health benefits of cleanses or detoxes via activated charcoal or any other method. Charcoal, when ingested, will absorb vitamins and nutrients as well as prescription medications present in the gastrointestinal tract which can make it dangerous to use unless directed by a medical doctor. == Background == === Production and industrial applications === Activated charcoal, also known as activated carbon, is commonly produced from high-carbon source materials such as wood or coconut husk. It is made by treating the source material with either a combination of heat and pressure, or with a strong acid or base followed by carbonization to make it highly porous. This gives it a very large surface area for its volume, up to 3000 square metres per gram. It has a large number of


id: acupuncture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-0.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientific knowledge, and it has been characterized as quackery. There is a range of acupuncture technological variants that originated in different philosophies, and techniques vary depending on the country in which it is performed. However, it can be divided into two main foundational philosophical applications and approaches; the first being the modern standardized form called eight principles TCM and the second being an older system that is based on the ancient Daoist wuxing, better known as the five elements or phases in the West. Acupuncture is most often used to attempt pain relief, though acupuncturists say that it can also be used for a wide range of other conditions. Acupuncture is typically used in combination with other forms of treatment. The global acupuncture market was worth US$24.55 billion in 2017. The market was led by Europe with a 32.7% share, followed by Asia-Pacific with a 29.4% share and the Americas with a 25.3% share. It was estimated in 2021 that the industry


id: acupuncture-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-1.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine. It is used most commonly for pain relief, though it is also used to treat a wide range of conditions. Acupuncture is generally only used in combination with other forms of treatment. For example, the American Society of Anesthesiologists states it may be considered in the treatment of nonspecific, noninflammatory low back pain only in conjunction with conventional therapy. Acupuncture is the insertion of thin needles into the skin. According to the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (Mayo Clinic), a typical session entails lying still while approximately five to twenty needles are inserted; for the majority of cases, the needles will be left in place for ten to twenty minutes. It can be associated with the application of heat, pressure, or laser light. Classically, acupuncture is individualized and based on philosophy and intuition, and not on scientific research. There is also a non-invasive therapy developed in early 20th-century Japan using an elaborate set of instruments other than needles for the treatment of children (shōnishin or shōnihari). Clinical practice varies depending on the country. A comparison of the average number of patients treated per hour found significant differences between China (10) and


id: acupuncture-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-2.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
==== De-qi sensation ==== De-qi (Chinese: 得气; pinyin: dé qì; "arrival of qi") refers to a claimed sensation of numbness, distension, or electrical tingling at the needling site. If these sensations are not observed then inaccurate location of the acupoint, improper depth of needle insertion, inadequate manual manipulation, are blamed. If de-qi is not immediately observed upon needle insertion, various manual manipulation techniques are often applied to promote it (such as "plucking", "shaking" or "trembling"). Once de-qi is observed, techniques might be used which attempt to "influence" the de-qi; for example, by certain manipulation the de-qi can allegedly be conducted from the needling site towards more distant sites of the body. Other techniques aim at "tonifying" (Chinese: 补; pinyin: bǔ) or "sedating" (Chinese: 泄; pinyin: xiè) qi. The former techniques are used in deficiency patterns, the latter in excess patterns. De qi is more important in Chinese acupuncture, while Western and Japanese patients may not consider it a necessary part of the treatment. === Related practices === Acupressure, a non-invasive form of bodywork, uses physical pressure applied to acupressure points by the hand or elbow, or with various devices. Acupuncture is often accompanied by moxibustion, the burning of cone-shaped preparations


id: acupuncture-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-3.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sham acupuncture and research === It is difficult but not impossible to design rigorous research trials for acupuncture. Due to acupuncture's invasive nature, one of the major challenges in efficacy research is in the design of an appropriate placebo control group. For efficacy studies to determine whether acupuncture has specific effects, "sham" forms of acupuncture where the patient, practitioner, and analyst are blinded seem the most acceptable approach. Sham acupuncture uses non-penetrating needles or needling at non-acupuncture points, e.g. inserting needles on meridians not related to the specific condition being studied, or in places not associated with meridians. The under-performance of acupuncture in such trials may indicate that therapeutic effects are due entirely to non-specific effects, or that the sham treatments are not inert, or that systematic protocols yield less than optimal treatment. A 2014 review in Nature Reviews Cancer found that "contrary to the claimed mechanism of redirecting the flow of qi through meridians, researchers usually find that it generally does not matter where the needles are inserted, how often (that is, no dose-response effect is observed), or even if needles are actually inserted. In other words, "sham" or "placebo" acupuncture generally produces the same effects as "real"


id: acupuncture-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-4.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
=== Adverse events === Acupuncture is generally safe when administered by an experienced, appropriately trained practitioner using clean-needle technique and sterile single-use needles. When improperly delivered it can cause adverse effects. Accidents and infections are associated with infractions of sterile technique or neglect on the part of the practitioner. To reduce the risk of serious adverse events after acupuncture, acupuncturists should be trained sufficiently. A 2009 overview of Cochrane reviews found acupuncture is not effective for a wide range of conditions. People with serious spinal disease, such as cancer or infection, are not good candidates for acupuncture. Contraindications to acupuncture (conditions that should not be treated with acupuncture) include coagulopathy disorders (e.g. hemophilia and advanced liver disease), warfarin use, severe psychiatric disorders (e.g. psychosis), and skin infections or skin trauma (e.g. burns). Further, electroacupuncture should be avoided at the spot of implanted electrical devices (such as pacemakers). A 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews (internationally and without language restrictions) found that serious complications following acupuncture continue to be reported. Between 2000 and 2009, ninety-five cases of serious adverse events, including five deaths, were reported. Many such events are not inherent to acupuncture but are due to malpractice of acupuncturists. This


id: acupuncture-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-5.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
==== Chinese, Korean, and Japanese-language ==== A 2010 systematic review of the Chinese-language literature found numerous acupuncture-related adverse events, including pneumothorax, fainting, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and infection as the most frequent, and cardiovascular injuries, subarachnoid hemorrhage, pneumothorax, and recurrent cerebral hemorrhage as the most serious, most of which were due to improper technique. Between 1980 and 2009, the Chinese-language literature reported 479 adverse events. Prospective surveys show that mild, transient acupuncture-associated adverse events ranged from 6.71% to 15%. In a study with 190,924 patients, the prevalence of serious adverse events was roughly 0.024%. Another study showed a rate of adverse events requiring specific treatment of 2.2%, 4,963 incidences among 229,230 patients. Infections, mainly hepatitis, after acupuncture are reported often in English-language research, though are rarely reported in Chinese-language research, making it plausible that acupuncture-associated infections have been underreported in China. Infections were mostly caused by poor sterilization of acupuncture needles. Other adverse events included spinal epidural hematoma (in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine), chylothorax, injuries of abdominal organs and tissues, injuries in the neck region, injuries to the eyes, including orbital hemorrhage, traumatic cataract, injury of the oculomotor nerve and retinal puncture, hemorrhage to the cheeks and the hypoglottis, peripheral


id: acupuncture-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-6.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
Acupuncture is a substantial part of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Early acupuncture beliefs relied on concepts that are common in TCM, such as a life force energy called qi. Qi was believed to flow from the body's primary organs (zang-fu organs) to the "superficial" body tissues of the skin, muscles, tendons, bones, and joints, through channels called meridians. Acupuncture points where needles are inserted are mainly (but not always) found at locations along the meridians. Acupuncture points not found along a meridian are called extraordinary points and those with no designated site are called A-shi points. In TCM, disease is generally perceived as a disharmony or imbalance in energies such as yin, yang, qi, xuĕ, zàng-fǔ, meridians, and of the interaction between the body and the environment. Therapy is based on which "pattern of disharmony" can be identified. For example, some diseases are believed to be caused by meridians being invaded with an excess of wind, cold, and damp. In order to determine which pattern is at hand, practitioners examine things like the color and shape of the tongue, the relative strength of pulse-points, the smell of the breath, the quality of breathing, or the sound of the voice. TCM


id: acupuncture-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-7.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
==== Alternative theories ==== The 5,000-year-old mummified body of Ötzi the Iceman was found with 15 groups of tattoos, many of which were located at points on the body where acupuncture needles are used for abdominal or lower back problems. Evidence from the body suggests Ötzi had these conditions. This has been cited as evidence that practices similar to acupuncture may have been practised elsewhere in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age; however, The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine calls this theory "speculative". It is considered unlikely that acupuncture was practised before 2000 BC. Acupuncture may have been practised during the Neolithic era, near the end of the Stone Age, using sharpened stones called Bian shi. Many Chinese texts from later eras refer to sharp stones called "plen", which means "stone probe", that may have been used for acupuncture purposes. The ancient Chinese medical text, Huangdi Neijing, indicates that sharp stones were believed at-the-time to cure illnesses at or near the body's surface, perhaps because of the short depth a stone could penetrate. However, it is more likely that stones were used for other medical purposes, such as puncturing a growth to drain its pus. The Mawangdui texts,


id: acupuncture-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-8.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
==== Establishment and growth ==== In the first half of the 1st century AD, acupuncturists began promoting the belief that acupuncture's effectiveness was influenced by the time of day or night, the lunar cycle, and the season. The 'science of the yin-yang cycles' (運氣學 yùn qì xué) was a set of beliefs that curing diseases relied on the alignment of both heavenly (tian) and earthly (di) forces that were attuned to cycles like that of the sun and moon. There were several different belief systems that relied on a number of celestial and earthly bodies or elements that rotated and only became aligned at certain times. According to Needham and Lu, these "arbitrary predictions" were depicted by acupuncturists in complex charts and through a set of special terminology. Acupuncture needles during this period were much thicker than most modern ones and often resulted in infection. Infection is caused by a lack of sterilization, but at that time it was believed to be caused by use of the wrong needle, or needling in the wrong place, or at the wrong time. Later, many needles were heated in boiling water, or in a flame. Sometimes needles were used while they were still


id: acupuncture-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-9.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
Korea is believed to be the first country in Asia that acupuncture spread to outside of China. Within Korea there is a legend that acupuncture was developed by emperor Dangun, though it is more likely to have been brought into Korea from a Chinese colonial prefecture in 514 AD. Acupuncture use was commonplace in Korea by the 6th century. It spread to Vietnam in the 8th and 9th centuries. As Vietnam began trading with Japan and China around the 9th century, it was influenced by their acupuncture practices as well. China and Korea sent "medical missionaries" that spread traditional Chinese medicine to Japan, starting around 219 AD. In 553, several Korean and Chinese citizens were appointed to re-organize medical education in Japan and they incorporated acupuncture as part of that system. Japan later sent students back to China and established acupuncture as one of five divisions of the Chinese State Medical Administration System. Acupuncture began to spread to Europe in the second half of the 17th century. Around this time, Willem ten Rhijne, a physician working for the Dutch East India Company, met Japanese acupuncture practitioners and later encouraged Europeans to further investigate it. He published the first in-depth description


id: acupuncture-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture-10.md
category: reference
title: Acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:40.362060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
== Adoption == Acupuncture is most heavily practiced in China and is popular in the US, Australia, and Europe. In Switzerland, acupuncture has become the most frequently used alternative medicine since 2004. In the United Kingdom, a total of 4 million acupuncture treatments were administered in 2009. Acupuncture is used in most pain clinics and hospices in the UK. An estimated 1 in 10 adults in Australia used acupuncture in 2004. In Japan, it is estimated that 25 percent of the population will try acupuncture at some point, though in most cases it is not covered by public health insurance. Users of acupuncture in Japan are more likely to be elderly and to have a limited education. Approximately half of users surveyed indicated a likelihood to seek such remedies in the future, while 37% did not. Less than one percent of the US population reported having used acupuncture in the early 1990s. By the early 2010s, more than 14 million Americans reported having used acupuncture as part of their health care. In the US, acupuncture is increasingly (as of 2014) used at academic medical centers, and is usually offered through CAM centers or anesthesia and pain management services. Examples include


id: adrenal-fatigue-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue-0.md
category: reference
title: Adrenal fatigue
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:41.642836+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adrenal-fatigue-20260505-0
summary:
Adrenal fatigue is a pseudoscientific term used by alternative medicine providers to suggest that the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. There is no scientific basis for the existence of adrenal fatigue, and the term should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. == Definition == Neither the condition nor the symptoms have any stable or recognized definition. == History == The term "adrenal fatigue" was invented in 1998 by chiropractor James Wilson and applied to a collection of mostly non-specific symptoms. == Lack of evidence == A systematic review found no evidence for the condition, supporting the consensus among mainstream endocrinologists that it is a myth. There is no evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue, and it is not a valid diagnosis recognized by the scientific or medical communities. == Tests == Blood or salivary testing is sometimes offered, but there is no evidence that adrenal fatigue exists, or that it can be tested for. == Diagnosis == Adrenal fatigue is not an accepted medical diagnosis. == Dietary supplements == The concept


id: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: African traditional medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:42.803926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
African traditional medicine is a range of traditional medicine disciplines involving indigenous herbalism and African spirituality, typically including diviners, midwives, and herbalists. Practitioners of traditional African medicine claim, largely without evidence, to be able to cure a variety of diverse conditions including cancer, psychiatric disorders, high blood pressure, cholera, most venereal diseases, epilepsy, asthma, eczema, fever, anxiety, depression, benign prostatic hyperplasia, urinary tract infections, gout, and healing of wounds and burns and Ebola. Diagnosis is reached through spiritual means and a treatment is prescribed, usually consisting of a herbal remedy that is considered to have not only healing abilities but also symbolic and spiritual significance. Traditional African medicine, with its belief that illness is not derived from chance occurrences, but through spiritual or social imbalance, differs greatly from modern scientific medicine, which is technically and analytically based. In the 21st century, modern pharmaceuticals and medical procedures remain inaccessible to large numbers of African people due to their relatively high cost and concentration of health facilities in urban centres. Traditional medicine was the dominant medical system for millions of people in Africa prior the arrival of the Europeans, who introduced evidence-based medicine, which was a noticeable turning point in the history


id: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: African traditional medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:42.803926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The use of "bleed-cupping" (also called "wet cupping"), followed by herbal ointment and herbal drugs to treat Migraines, coughs, abscesses, and pleurisy. Some cultures rub hot herbal ointment across the patient's eyelids to treat headaches. A steaming mixture of herbs is both consumed and inhaled in the treatment of Malaria. Fevers are often treated using a steam bath. Vomiting induced by emetics is used to treat alcoholism. The fat of a boa constrictor is used to treat gout and rheumatism, and is thought to relieve chest pain when applied topically. Animals are also sometimes used to transfer the illness to afterward or for the manufacture of medicines for zootherapy. For example, the bones of baboons are used to treat arthritis. The terpenoids of the blister beetle (Mylabris sp.) are rubbed into the skin as a treatment for skin diseases. Consensus between traders of the components of the medication used by practitioners of traditional African medicine regarding what should be used to treat different illnesses varies considerably, even within a small area such as the Faraday Street market in Johannesburg, South Africa. However, approximately 60%-80% of the people in Africa rely on traditional remedies to treat themselves for various diseases. A


id: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: African traditional medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:42.803926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Cannabis sativa (iNtsango). Various parts of the plant are used to treat asthma, bronchitis, headache, epilepsy, pains, colds, influenza, labour pains, hypertension, diabetes, malaria, blackwater fever, blood-poisoning, anthrax, dysentery, tetanus, menstrual cramps and rabies. Carduus tenuiflorus (uMhlakavuthwa). The patient is given an emetic and instructed to vomit onto the plant. The belief is that the plant will "suck out the cause of the illness." Datura stramonium (uQhwangu-qhwangu). The leaves are used to treat pain and swelling (including after a circumcision), boils and abscesses, measles, asthma and headaches, tetanus, foot ailments and respiratory conditions. Emex australis (iNkunzane). A decoction of the root is used to treat constipation, biliousness and other stomach complaints and to stimulate appetite. Galenia secunda (uMvenyathi). The roots are mixed with Emex australis, boiled and used to treat kidney pains in adults and colic in babies. Lantana camara (iQunube). The roots are boiled and the liquid consumed for lower back or abdominal pain, or used as an enema to treat gonococcal infections and urinary tract infections. It is also used to treat coughs, colds, jaundice, rheumatism and as a contraceptive. Opuntia ficus-indica (iTolofiya). A poultice of the cooked leaves is used to treat sores between toes and the


id: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: African traditional medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:42.803926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Learning the trade === Some healers learn the trade through personal experience while being treated as a patient who decide to become healers upon recovery. Others become traditional practitioners through a "spiritual calling" and, therefore, their diagnoses and treatments are decided through belief in supernatural intervention. Another route is to receive the knowledge and skills passed down informally from a close family member such as a father or uncle, or even a mother or aunt in the case of midwives. Apprenticeship to an established practitioner, who formally teaches the trade over a long period of time and is paid for their tutoring, is another route to becoming a healer. === Importance === In Africa, traditional healers and remedies made from indigenous plants play a crucial role in the health of millions since as many as 85% of African routinely use these services for primary health care in Sub-Saharan Africa. The relative ratios of traditional practitioners and university trained doctors in relation to the whole population in African countries underscores this importance. Across Sub-Saharan Africa, from Ghana to Eswatini there are, on average almost, 100 traditional practitioner for every university trained doctor. This equates to one traditional healer for every


id: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine-4.md
category: reference
title: African traditional medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:42.803926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criticism === During the HIV/AIDS epidemic traditional healers' methods were criticised by practitioners of modern medicine, and in particular the use of certain herbal treatments for HIV/AIDS. According to Edward Mills, herbal remedies are used as a therapy for HIV-symptoms such as "dermatological disorders, nausea, depression, insomnia, and weakness." While some of these remedies have been beneficial, the herbal treatments hypoxis and sutherlandia "may put the patients at risk for antiretroviral treatment failure, viral resistance, or drug toxicity" since they interact with antiretroviral treatments and prevent the expression of CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein. This results in the inhibition of drug metabolism and transport. Peltzer et al. also found that an important issue with herbal medicines used in traditional medicine is that when a patient decides to see a doctor in addition to a traditional healer, they do not always mention that he or she is taking an herbal medicine. Herbal medicines can interact with the modern medicine prescribed by the doctor to treat HIV and negatively impact the patient. Peltzer et al. mentions that a "IGM-1 seem to be effective in symptom improvement, but generally no significant effect on antiviral or immunity enhancement among reviewed herbs was seen" for the


id: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine-5.md
category: reference
title: African traditional medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:42.803926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-traditional-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Safety === A small proportion of ethnoveterinary medicine plants in South Africa have been researched for toxic effects. The possible adverse effects of South African traditional medicines are not well documented; there has been limited research into mutagenic properties and heavy metal contamination. Serious adverse effects, even death, can result from misidentification or misuse of healing plants. For example, various aloe plants are widely used in traditional African medicine, but some varieties, such as Aloe globuligemma, are toxic and can cause death. The potential for traditional African medicine and pharmacokinetic interactions is unknown, especially interactions between traditional treatments and antiretroviral drugs for HIV/AIDS. Herbal treatments are frequently used in Africa as a primary treatment for HIV/AIDS and for HIV-related issues. Collaboration with traditional healers has been recommended to determine what herbal treatments are used for HIV and to educate people supplying alternative treatments against unsafe practices. Given the demands of the local population on the use of traditional African medicine, it has been proposed that South African medical schools should inform medical students about traditional, supplementary and alternative medicine and the possible conflicts and interactions with modern medicine. Use of traditional African medicines as antivirals instead of using specific


id: aktip-therapeutic-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKTIP_(therapeutic_institute)-0.md
category: reference
title: AKTIP (therapeutic institute)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKTIP_(therapeutic_institute)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:44.036677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aktip-therapeutic-institute-20260505-0
summary:
AKTIP – Konzultační a terapeutický institut Praha (lit. 'Consultation and Therapeutic Institute Prague') was a private institute in Prague run by the public business company Progressive consulting, offering services in the field of psychosomatic care. The head of the institute was Czech psychiatrist Jarmila Klímová. Controversy about the methods of the institute emerged when the documentary Infiltrace: Obchod se zdravím (Infiltration: Health Business) was broadcast by Czech television on May 21, 2018. The documentary revealed that the company uses unethical techniques to the detriment of its patients for its financial gain, including pseudoscience, manipulation, and incitement of fear of cancer and anxiety. AKTIP offers examinations and healing by instrumentation and homeopathic preparations of doubtful effectiveness for various somatic diseases, including thyroid disease. Although it has physicians on staff, this institution is not a legitimate provider of health services. It is not a medical facility. == Erratic Boulder award in the category of teams 2016 == AKTIP is the holder of the Silver Erratic Boulder award in the category of teams for 2016. "An eventual client meets here imaginary care in a wide range of disciplines. His complex problems will be treated by a graphologist, an expert in oriental diagnostics and


id: alternative-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments-0.md
category: reference
title: Alternative cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:45.218242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Alternative cancer treatment describes any cancer treatment or practice that is not part of the conventional standard of cancer care. These include special diets and exercises, chemicals, herbs, devices, and manual procedures. Most alternative cancer treatments do not have high-quality evidence supporting their use and many have been described as fundamentally pseudoscientific. Concerns have been raised about the safety of some purported treatments, and some have been found unsafe in clinical trials. Despite this, many untested and disproven treatments are used around the world. Alternative cancer treatments are typically contrasted with experimental cancer treatments – science-based treatment methods – and complementary treatments, which are non-invasive practices used in combination with conventional treatment. All approved chemotherapy medications were considered experimental treatments before completing safety and efficacy testing. Since the late 19th century, medical researchers have established modern cancer care through the development of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapies, and refined surgical techniques. As of 2019, only 32.9% of cancer patients in the United States died within five years of their diagnosis. Despite their effectiveness, many conventional treatments are accompanied by a wide range of side effects, including pain, fatigue, and nausea. Some side effects can even be life-threatening. Many supporters of


id: alternative-cancer-treatments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments-1.md
category: reference
title: Alternative cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:45.218242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
== People who choose alternative treatments == People drawn to alternative treatments tend to believe that evidence-based medicine is invasive or ineffective, while still hoping that their health could be improved. They are loyal to their alternative healthcare providers and believe that "treatment should concentrate on the whole person". Among people who (correctly or incorrectly) believe their condition is untreatable, "desperation drives them into the hands of anyone with a promise and a smile." Con artists have long exploited patients' perceived lack of options to extract payments for ineffectual and even harmful treatments. No evidence suggests that the use of alternative treatments improves survival. In 2017, one retrospective, observational study suggested that people who chose alternative medicine instead of conventional treatments were more than twice as likely to die within five years of diagnosis. Breast cancer patients choosing alternative medicine were 5.68 times more likely to die within five years of diagnosis. Although they are more likely to die than non-users, some users of alternative treatments feel a greater sense of control over their destinies and report less anxiety and depression. They are more likely to engage in benefit finding, which is the psychological process of adapting to a traumatic


id: alternative-cancer-treatments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments-2.md
category: reference
title: Alternative cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:45.218242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mind-body connection === This idea says that cancer progression is related to a person's mental and emotional state. Treatments based on this idea are mind–body interventions. Proponents say that cancer forms because the person is unhappy or stressed, or that a positive attitude can cure cancer after it has formed. A typical claim is that stress, anger, fear, or sadness depresses the immune system, whereas love, forgiveness, confidence, and happiness cause the immune system to improve, and that this improved immune system will destroy the cancer. This belief that generally boosting the immune system's activity will kill the cancer cells is not supported by any scientific research. In fact, many cancers require the support of an active immune system (especially through inflammation) to establish the tumor microenvironment necessary for a tumor to grow. === Toxin theory of cancer === In this idea, the body's metabolic processes are overwhelmed by normal byproducts. These byproducts, called "toxins", are said to build up in the cells and cause cancer and other diseases through a process sometimes called autointoxication or autotoxemia. Treatments following this approach are usually aimed at detoxification or body cleansing, such as enemas. === Low activity by the immune system


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Alternative medicine refers to practices that aim to achieve the healing effects of medicine, but that by definition lack biological plausibility, testability, repeatability, or supporting evidence of effectiveness. Such practices are not part of evidence-based medicine. Unlike modern medicine, which employs the scientific method to test plausible therapies by way of responsible and ethical clinical trials, producing repeatable evidence of either effect or of no effect, alternative therapies reside outside of mainstream medicine and do not originate from using the scientific method, but instead rely on testimonials, anecdotes, religion, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural "energies", pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, fraud, or other unscientific sources. Frequently used terms for relevant practices are New Age medicine, pseudo-medicine, unorthodox medicine, holistic medicine, fringe medicine, and unconventional medicine, with little distinction from quackery. Some alternative practices are based on theories that contradict the established science of how the human body works; others appeal to the supernatural or superstitions to explain their effect or lack thereof. In others, the practice has plausibility but lacks a positive risk–benefit outcome probability. Research into alternative therapies often fails to follow proper research protocols (such as placebo-controlled trials, blind experiments and calculation of prior probability), providing invalid results.


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Complementary medicine (CM) or integrative medicine (IM) is when alternative medicine is used together with mainstream medical treatment in a belief that it improves the effect of treatments. Several medical organizations differentiate between complementary and alternative medicine including the UK National Health Service (NHS), Cancer Research UK, and the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the latter of which states that "Complementary medicine is used in addition to standard treatments" whereas "Alternative medicine is used instead of standard treatments." For example, acupuncture (piercing the body with needles to influence the flow of energy) might be believed to increase the effectiveness or "complement" science-based medicine when used at the same time. Significant drug interactions caused by alternative therapies may make treatments less effective, notably in cancer therapy. Some mainstream academic medical centers have integrative or functional medicine departments, including the Cleveland Clinic, the Mayo Clinic, Stanford University, UCLA, UC San Francisco and Northwestern University. In contrast, other medical practitioners are unconvinced by these practices. For example, surgical oncologist, David Gorski has described integrative medicine as an attempt to bring pseudoscience into academic science-based medicine with skeptics such as Gorski and David Colquhoun referring to this with the pejorative term


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Traditional medicine (TM) refers to certain practices within a culture which have existed since before the advent of medical science, Many TM practices are based on "holistic" approaches to disease and health, versus the scientific evidence-based methods in conventional medicine. The 2019 WHO report defines traditional medicine as "the sum total of the knowledge, skill and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness." When used outside the original setting and in the absence of scientific evidence, TM practices are typically referred to as "alternative medicine". Holistic medicine is another rebranding of alternative medicine. In this case, the words balance and holism are often used alongside complementary or integrative, claiming to take into fuller account the "whole" person, in contrast to the supposed reductionism of medicine. === Challenges in defining alternative medicine === Prominent members of the science and biomedical science community say that it is not meaningful to define an alternative medicine that is separate from a conventional medicine because the expressions "conventional medicine", "alternative medicine", "complementary medicine", "integrative medicine",


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Whole medical systems: Cut across more than one of the other groups; examples include traditional Chinese medicine, naturopathy, homeopathy, and ayurveda. Mind-body interventions: Explore the interconnection between the mind, body, and spirit, under the premise that they affect "bodily functions and symptoms". A connection between mind and body is conventional medical fact, and this classification does not include therapies with proven function such as cognitive behavioral therapy. "Biology"-based practices: Use substances found in nature such as herbs, foods, vitamins, and other natural substances. (As used here, "biology" does not refer to the science of biology, but is a usage newly coined by NCCIH in the primary source used for this article. "Biology-based" as coined by NCCIH may refer to chemicals from a nonbiological source, such as use of the poison lead in traditional Chinese medicine, and to other nonbiological substances.) Manipulative and body-based practices: feature manipulation or movement of body parts, such as is done in bodywork, chiropractic, and osteopathic manipulation. Energy medicine: is a domain that deals with putative and verifiable energy fields: Biofield therapies are intended to influence energy fields that are purported to surround and penetrate the body. The existence of such energy fields have been disproven.


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-4.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
There is a general scientific consensus that alternative therapies lack the requisite scientific validation, and their effectiveness is either unproved or disproved. Many of the claims regarding the efficacy of alternative medicines are controversial, since research on them is frequently of low quality and methodologically flawed. Selective publication bias, marked differences in product quality and standardisation, and some companies making unsubstantiated claims call into question the claims of efficacy of isolated examples where there is evidence for alternative therapies. The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine points to confusions in the general population – a person may attribute symptomatic relief to an otherwise-ineffective therapy just because they are taking something (the placebo effect); the natural recovery from or the cyclical nature of an illness (the regression fallacy) gets misattributed to an alternative medicine being taken; a person not diagnosed with science-based medicine may never originally have had a true illness diagnosed as an alternative disease category. Edzard Ernst, the first university professor of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, characterized the evidence for many alternative techniques as weak, nonexistent, or negative and in 2011 published his estimate that about 7.4% were based on "sound evidence", although he believes that may be an overestimate.


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-5.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other factors === There are also reasons why a placebo treatment group may outperform a "no-treatment" group in a test which are not related to a patient's experience. These include patients reporting more favourable results than they really felt due to politeness or "experimental subordination", observer bias, and misleading wording of questions. In their 2010 systematic review of studies into placebos, Asbjørn Hróbjartsson and Peter C. Gøtzsche write that "even if there were no true effect of placebo, one would expect to record differences between placebo and no-treatment groups due to bias associated with lack of blinding." Alternative therapies may also be credited for perceived improvement through decreased use or effect of medical treatment, and therefore either decreased side effects or nocebo effects towards standard treatment. == Use and regulation == === Appeal === Practitioners of complementary medicine usually discuss and advise patients as to available alternative therapies. Patients often express interest in mind-body complementary therapies because they offer a non-drug approach to treating some health conditions. In addition to the social-cultural underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine, there are several psychological issues that are critical to its growth, notably psychological effects, such as the will to believe,


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-6.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prevalence of use === According to research published in 2015, the increasing popularity of CAM needs to be explained by moral convictions or lifestyle choices rather than by economic reasoning. In developing nations, access to essential medicines is severely restricted by lack of resources and poverty. Traditional remedies, often closely resembling or forming the basis for alternative remedies, may comprise primary healthcare or be integrated into the healthcare system. In Africa, traditional medicine is used for 80% of primary healthcare, and in developing nations as a whole over one-third of the population lack access to essential medicines. In Latin America, inequities against BIPOC communities keep them tied to their traditional practices and therefore, it is often these communities that constitute the majority of users of alternative medicine. Racist attitudes towards certain communities disable them from accessing more urbanized modes of care. In a study that assessed access to care in rural communities of Latin America, it was found that discrimination is a huge barrier to the ability of citizens to access care; more specifically, women of Indigenous and African descent, and lower-income families were especially hurt. Such exclusion exacerbates the inequities that minorities in Latin America already face. Consistently


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-7.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
==== In palliative care ==== Complementary therapies are often used in palliative care or by practitioners attempting to manage chronic pain in patients. Integrative medicine is considered more acceptable in the interdisciplinary approach used in palliative care than in other areas of medicine. "From its early experiences of care for the dying, palliative care took for granted the necessity of placing patient values and lifestyle habits at the core of any design and delivery of quality care at the end of life. If the patient desired complementary therapies, and as long as such treatments provided additional support and did not endanger the patient, they were considered acceptable." The non-pharmacologic interventions of complementary medicine can employ mind-body interventions designed to "reduce pain and concomitant mood disturbance and increase quality of life." === Regulation === The alternative medicine lobby has successfully pushed for alternative therapies to be subject to far less regulation than conventional medicine. Some professions of complementary/traditional/alternative medicine, such as chiropractic, have achieved full regulation in North America and other parts of the world and are regulated in a manner similar to that governing science-based medicine. In contrast, other approaches may be partially recognized and others have no regulation at


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-8.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
==== Side-effects ==== Conventional treatments are subjected to testing for undesired side-effects, whereas alternative therapies, in general, are not subjected to such testing at all. Any treatment – whether conventional or alternative – that has a biological or psychological effect on a patient may also have potential to possess dangerous biological or psychological side-effects. Attempts to refute this fact with regard to alternative therapies sometimes use the appeal to nature fallacy, i.e., "That which is natural cannot be harmful." Specific groups of patients such as patients with impaired hepatic or renal function are more susceptible to side effects of alternative remedies. An exception to the normal thinking regarding side-effects is homeopathy. Since 1938, the FDA has regulated homeopathic products in "several significantly different ways from other drugs." Homeopathic preparations, termed "remedies", are extremely dilute, often far beyond the point where a single molecule of the original active (and possibly toxic) ingredient is likely to remain. They are, thus, considered safe on that count, but "their products are exempt from good manufacturing practice requirements related to expiration dating and from finished product testing for identity and strength", and their alcohol concentration may be much higher than allowed in conventional drugs. ====


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-9.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is not as well researched as conventional medicine, which undergoes intense research before release to the public. Practitioners of science-based medicine also discard practices and treatments when they are shown ineffective, while alternative practitioners do not. Funding for research is also sparse making it difficult to do further research for effectiveness of CAM. Most funding for CAM is funded by government agencies. Proposed research for CAM are rejected by most private funding agencies because the results of research are not reliable. The research for CAM has to meet certain standards from research ethics committees, which most CAM researchers find almost impossible to meet. Even with the little research done on it, CAM has not been proven to be effective. Studies that have been done will be cited by CAM practitioners in an attempt to claim a basis in science. These studies tend to have a variety of problems, such as small samples, various biases, poor research design, lack of controls, negative results, etc. Even those with positive results can be better explained as resulting in false positives due to bias and noisy data. Alternative medicine may lead to a false understanding of the body and


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-10.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Alternative therapies typically lack any scientific validation, and their effectiveness either is unproven or has been disproved. It is usually based on religion, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural energies, pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, or fraud. Methods may incorporate or base themselves on traditional medicine, folk knowledge, spiritual beliefs, ignorance or misunderstanding of scientific principles, errors in reasoning, or newly conceived approaches claiming to heal. Research on alternative medicine is frequently of low quality and methodologically flawed. Treatments are not part of the conventional, science-based healthcare system. Where alternative therapies have replaced conventional science-based medicine, even with the safest alternative medicines, failure to use or delay in using conventional science-based medicine has caused deaths. Many alternative medical treatments are not patentable, which may lead to less research funding from the private sector. In addition, in most countries, alternative therapies (in contrast to pharmaceuticals) can be marketed without any proof of efficacy – also a disincentive for manufacturers to fund scientific research. English evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, in his 2003 book A Devil's Chaplain, defined alternative medicine as a "set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested, or consistently fail tests." Dawkins argued that if a technique is


id: alternative-medicine-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine-11.md
category: reference
title: Alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:46.424743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Bivins, R. (2007). Alternative Medicine? A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921887-5. Board of Science and Education, British Medical Association (1993). Complementary Medicine: New Approaches to Good Practice. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286166-5. Callahan, D., ed. (2004). The Role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Accommodating Pluralism. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-464-0. Cohen, Michael H. (1998). Complementary & Alternative Medicine: Legal Boundaries and Regulatory Perspectives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5689-1. Committee on the Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by the American Public for the Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Institute of Medicine (2005). Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. ISBN 978-0-309-09270-8. Gevitz, N. (1997) [1993]. "Chapter 28: Unorthodox Medical Theories". In Bynum, W.F.; Porter, R.S. (eds.). Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine. Vol. 1. New York & London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16419-1. Hahnemann, S. (1833). The Homœopathic Medical Doctrine, or "Organon of the Healing Art". Translated by Devrient, C.H. Annotated by Stratten, S. Dublin: W.F. Wakeman. Kasper, Dennis L; Fauci, Anthony S.; Hauser, Stephen L.; Longo, Dan L.; Jameson, J. Larry; Loscalzo, Joseph (2015). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (19th ed.). New York: McGraw


id: terminology-of-alternative-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Terminology of alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:47.617551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminology-of-alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Alternative medicine is a term often used to describe medical practices where are untested or untestable. Complementary medicine (CM), complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), integrated medicine or integrative medicine (IM), functional medicine, and holistic medicine are among many rebrandings of the same phenomenon. == Terms for alternative medicine == The terms alternative medicine, complementary medicine, integrative medicine, holistic medicine, natural medicine, unorthodox medicine, fringe medicine, unconventional medicine, and new age medicine are used interchangeably as having the same meaning and are almost synonymous in most contexts. There is concern that a lack of stabilized terminology for these practices may give the appearance of effectiveness. Loose terminology may also be used to suggest that a dichotomy exists when it does not, e.g., the use of the expressions "Western medicine" and "Eastern medicine" to suggest that the difference is a cultural difference between the Asiatic east and the European west, rather than that the difference is between evidence-based medicine and other forms of treatment. Some scholars adopt this "Western" and "Eastern" language. For example, in a study done on musculoskeletal pain acupuncture treatment, researchers use the term "Western Acupuncture", which is defined as the acupuncture practices that are evidence based. This term


id: terminology-of-alternative-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Terminology of alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:47.617551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminology-of-alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Challenges in defining alternative medicine === Terminology has shifted over time, reflecting the preferred branding of practitioners. For example, the United States National Institutes of Health department studying alternative medicine, currently named the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), was established as the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) and was renamed the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) before obtaining its current name. Therapies are often framed as "natural" or "holistic", in apparent opposition to conventional medicine which is "artificial" and "narrow in scope", statements which are intentionally misleading. Prominent members of the science and biomedical science community say that it is not meaningful to define an alternative medicine that is separate from a conventional medicine, because the expressions "conventional medicine", "alternative medicine", "complementary medicine", "integrative medicine", and "holistic medicine" do not refer to any medicine at all. Others say that alternative medicine cannot be precisely defined because of the diversity of theories and practices it includes, and because the boundaries between alternative and conventional medicine overlap, are porous, and change. The systems and practices it refers to are diffuse, and its boundaries poorly defined. Healthcare practices categorized as alternative may differ in their historical


id: terminology-of-alternative-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Terminology of alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:47.617551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminology-of-alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Different types of definitions === Some definitions seek to specify alternative medicine in terms of its social and political marginality to mainstream healthcare. This can refer to the lack of support that alternative therapies receive from medical scientists regarding access to research funding, sympathetic coverage in the medical press, or inclusion in the standard medical curriculum. In 1993, the British Medical Association (BMA) stated that it referred to "...those forms of treatment which are not widely used by the conventional healthcare professions, and the skills of which are not taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of conventional medical and paramedical healthcare courses". In a US context, a definition coined in 1993 by the Harvard-based physician David M. Eisenberg described alternative medicine as "interventions neither taught widely in medical schools nor generally available in US hospitals". In a definition published in 2000 by the World Health Organization (WHO), CAM was defined as a broad set of health care practices that are not part of that country's own tradition and are not integrated into the dominant health care system. A widely used descriptive definition devised by the US NCCIH calls it "a group of diverse medical and health care systems,


id: terminology-of-alternative-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: Terminology of alternative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:47.617551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminology-of-alternative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
==== Australia ==== The public information website maintained by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) of the Commonwealth of Australia uses the acronym "CAM" for a wide range of health care practices, therapies, procedures and devices not within the domain of conventional medicine. In the Australian context this is stated to include acupuncture; aromatherapy; chiropractic; homeopathy; massage; meditation and relaxation therapies; naturopathy; osteopathy; reflexology, traditional Chinese medicine; and the use of vitamin supplements. ==== Denmark ==== The Danish National Board of Health's Council for Alternative Medicine (Sundhedsstyrelsens Råd for Alternativ Behandling (SRAB)), an independent institution under the National Board of Health (Danish: Sundhedsstyrelsen), uses the term "alternative medicine" for: Treatments performed by therapists that are not authorized healthcare professionals. Treatments performed by authorized healthcare professionals, but those based on methods otherwise used mainly outside the healthcare system. People without a healthcare authorisation are [also] allowed to perform the treatments. == Other terms == === Allopathic medicine === Allopathic medicine or allopathy is a pejorative term used by proponents of alternative medicine to refer to modern scientific systems of medicine, such as the use of pharmacologically active agents or physical interventions to treat or suppress symptoms or pathophysiologic processes


id: amen-clinics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amen_Clinics-0.md
category: reference
title: Amen Clinics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amen_Clinics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:48.760251+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amen-clinics-20260505-0
summary:
Amen Clinics is a chain of brain health clinics focused on the treatment of brain activity functions and psychiatric disorders. It was founded in 1989 by Daniel Amen an American medical doctor and psychiatrist. They use brain SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) imaging to diagnose brain activity patterns in their patients. Amen's marketing of SPECT scans has been condemned by scientists and doctors as lacking scientific validity and as being unethical, especially since the way SPECT is used in his clinics exposes people to harmful radiation with no clear benefit. == Operations == Amen Clinics were founded in 1989. Since 1991, the clinics have performed brain SPECT scans, purportedly to diagnose brain conditions that manifest as psychiatric health issues by evaluating the brain activity amount and location in the brain. The effectiveness of SPECT scans in treating psychiatric conditions has been the subject of scientific debate. John Seibyl of the Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging has stated that it is settled that SPECT is of no value for diagnosing psychological disorders. In 2008, Tufts professor and writer Daniel Carlat published an article on Amen's use of SPECT imaging. After visiting Amen's clinics, Carlat called Amen's interpretations of


id: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:49.995978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine (A4M) is a United States 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, that promotes the field of anti-aging medicine, and the organization trains and certifies physicians in this specialty. As of 2011, approximately 26,000 practitioners had been given A4M certificates. The field of anti-aging medicine is not recognized by established medical organizations, such as the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) and the American Medical Association (AMA). The academy's activities include lobbying and public relations. The A4M was founded in 1993 by osteopathic physicians Robert M. Goldman and Ronald Klatz, and as of 2013 claimed 26,000 members from 120 countries. Several of the anti-aging methods recommended by the academy have wide support among experts in the field, such as exercise and a healthy diet, but others, such as hormone treatments, do not have support from a consensus of the wider medical community. Many scientists studying aging, dissociate themselves from the claims of A4M, and critics have accused the group of using misleading marketing to sell expensive and ineffective products. The A4M's founders and merchants who promote products through the organization have been involved in legal and professional disputes. The activities of the A4M are controversial: in 2003 a


id: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:49.995978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
== Publications == The A4M publishes Anti Aging Medical News, a trade periodical which is their official magazine, as well as proceedings of its anti-aging conferences in a periodical called Anti-Aging Therapeutics, this is edited by Klatz and Goldman. The International Journal of Anti-Aging Medicine (IJAAM) was another periodical published by the A4M. According to Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, IJAAM was published by Total Health Holdings, LLC from 1998 to 2001, on behalf of the A4M. The contents of the International Journal of Anti-Aging Medicine have been strongly criticised. In a 2002 letter published in Science, Aubrey de Grey described them as consisting of a set of advertisements for a "pseudoscientific anti-aging industry". According to Bruce Carnes of the University of Oklahoma: This alleged "journal" is particularly misleading because it gives the false impression that it is a genuine scientific journal and that what is published in it is peer-reviewed. It is little more than an advertising vehicle for every conceivable anti-aging product. Leonard Hayflick of the University of California, San Francisco, a former editor of Experimental Gerontology, writes: The International Journal of Anti-Aging Medicine is not a recognized scientific journal. What I find reprehensible about this 'journal' is that advertisers


id: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:49.995978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine was formed following a 1990 study on human growth hormone (hGH) that was published in the New England Journal of Medicine. The study was performed by Daniel Rudman and colleagues at the Medical College of Wisconsin. Rudman had treated twelve men over 60 years of age with human growth hormone; after six months, these men had an increase in lean body mass and a decrease in adipose tissue mass when compared with a group of nine men who did not receive hormone. Members of the anti-aging movement have interpreted these results to support a role for growth hormone in slowing or reversing aging. A review in The Journal of Urology noted that this promotion of growth hormone as an anti-aging remedy is "arguably similar" to ideas that date back to the late 19th century, when the physiologist Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard advocated rejuvenating hormone products prepared from animal testicles and stated that "the injections have taken 30 years off my life". The New York Times reports that the idea that growth hormone can improve "health, energy level and sense of well-being." is a core belief of the A4M, with Klatz writing a book in 1998 entitled


id: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:49.995978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
As with other hormones, hGH levels often decline with age, but this decrease is not necessarily bad. At least one epidemiological study suggests that people who have high levels of hGH are more apt to die at younger ages than those with lower levels of the hormone. Researchers have also studied animals with genetic disorders that suppress growth hormone production and secretion and found reduced growth hormone secretion may actually promote longevity in those species that have been tested. The Clinical Interventions in Aging review also stated that although the decreasing levels of the hormone seen in the elderly might reduce quality of life, this change could protect from age-related diseases and cited evidence linking GH to cancer. This concern was mirrored in a 2008 review published in Clinical Endocrinology, which stated that the risk of increasing the incidence of cancer was a strong argument against the use of this hormone as an "elixir of youth" in healthy adults. == Legal disputes == === Credential dispute === The academy's co-founders include Klatz and Goldman, who are licensed osteopathic physicians and have Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degrees (D.O.). However, according to The New York Times, they also received M.D. degrees as


id: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine-4.md
category: reference
title: American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:49.995978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-academy-of-anti-aging-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dispute with Olshansky and Perls === In 2002, A4M was a co-recipient of the first "Silver Fleece Award", created to publicize "the most ridiculous claims about antiaging medicine" according to the award's inventor, S. Jay Olshansky. Heated legal and academic controversies ensued. Olshansky, a biodemographer at the University of Illinois at Chicago, described it as "a lighthearted attempt to make the public aware of ... anti-aging quackery". This "award" was presented by Olshansky, who stated that in his opinion, a "suite of anti-aging substances created by Ronald Klatz and Robert Goldman ... and sold on the Internet by Market America, Inc." had made "outrageous or exaggerated claims about slowing or reversing human aging". Writing in Biogerontology, anthropologist Courtney Mykytyn of the University of Southern California states that this award appears to have been an attempt by Olshansky to protect what he saw as "'real' science from the taint of swindle." Mykytyn states that this involved Olshansky "tagging the A4M as fraudulent and its principals as profiteers". In response, the academy filed defamation lawsuits, demanding $150 million in damages, with Klatz stating "We take great exception to Mr Olshansky and his tactics which have finally compelled us to file suit


id: ancient-astronauts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts-0.md
category: reference
title: Ancient astronauts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:51.153763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-astronauts-20260505-0
summary:
Ancient astronauts (or ancient aliens) refers to a pseudoscientific set of beliefs, also called paleocontact, that hold that intelligent extraterrestrial beings (alien astronauts) visited Earth and made contact with humans in antiquity and prehistoric times. Proponents of the theory suggest that this contact influenced the development of modern cultures, technologies, religions, and human biology. A common position is that deities from most (if not all) religions are extraterrestrial in origin, and that advanced technologies brought to Earth by ancient astronauts were interpreted as evidence of divine status by early humans. The idea that ancient astronauts existed and visited Earth is not taken seriously by academics and archaeologists, who identify such claims as pseudoarchaeological or unscientific. It has received no credible attention in peer-reviewed studies. When proponents of the idea present evidence in favor of their beliefs, it is often distorted or fabricated. Some authors and scholars also argue that ancient astronaut theories have racist undertones or implications, diminishing the accomplishments and capabilities of indigenous cultures. Well-known proponents of these beliefs in the latter half of the 20th century who have written numerous books or appear regularly in mass media include Robert Charroux, Jacques Bergier, Jean Sendy, Erich von Däniken, Alexander


id: ancient-astronauts-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts-1.md
category: reference
title: Ancient astronauts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:51.153763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-astronauts-20260505-0
summary:
Carl Sagan co-authored a widely popular book Intelligent Life in the Universe, with Soviet astrophysicist Iosif Shklovsky and published in 1966. In his 1979 book Broca's Brain, Sagan suggested that he and Shklovsky might have inspired the wave of 1970s ancient astronaut books, expressing disapproval of "von Däniken and other uncritical writers" who seemingly built on these ideas not as guarded speculations but as "valid evidence of extraterrestrial contact." Sagan pointed out that while many legends, artifacts, and purported out-of-place artifacts were cited in support of ancient astronaut hypotheses, "very few require more than passing mention" and could be easily explained with more conventional hypotheses. Sagan also reiterated his earlier conclusion that extraterrestrial visits to Earth were possible but unproven and improbable. === Erich von Däniken === Erich von Däniken was a leading proponent of this hypothesis in the late 1960s and early 1970s, gaining a large audience through the 1968 publication of his best-selling book Chariots of the Gods? and its sequels. According to von Däniken, certain artifacts require a more sophisticated technological ability in their construction than that which was available to the ancient cultures who constructed them. Von Däniken maintains that these artifacts were constructed either directly


id: ancient-astronauts-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts-2.md
category: reference
title: Ancient astronauts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:51.153763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-astronauts-20260505-0
summary:
Zecharia Sitchin's series The Earth Chronicles, beginning with The 12th Planet, revolves around Sitchin's unique interpretation of ancient Sumerian and Middle Eastern texts, megalithic sites, and artifacts from around the world. He hypothesizes that the gods of old Mesopotamia were astronauts from the planet "Nibiru", which Sitchin states the Sumerians believed to be a remote "12th planet" (counting the Sun, Moon, and Pluto as planets) associated with the god Marduk. According to Sitchin, Nibiru continues to orbit the Sun on a 3,600-year elongated orbit. Modern astronomy has found no evidence to support Sitchin's ideas. Sitchin argues that there are Sumerian texts that tell the story that 50 Anunnaki, inhabitants of a planet named Nibiru, came to Earth approximately 400,000 years ago with the intent of mining raw materials, especially gold, for transport back to Nibiru. With their small numbers they soon grew tired of the task and set out to genetically engineer laborers to work the mines. After much trial and error they eventually created Homo sapiens sapiens: the "Adapa" (model man) or Adam of later mythology. Sitchin contended the Anunnaki were active in human affairs until their culture was destroyed by global catastrophes caused by the abrupt end of


id: ancient-astronauts-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts-3.md
category: reference
title: Ancient astronauts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:51.153763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-astronauts-20260505-0
summary:
When human beings began to increase in number on the earth and daughters were born to them, the sons of God saw that the daughters of humans were beautiful, and they married any of them they chose... The Nephilim were on the earth in those days—and also afterward—when the sons of God went to the daughters of humans and had children by them. Many Christians consider these groups to be the different families of Adam and Eve's children. Another interpretation is that the Nephilim are the children of the "sons of God" and "daughters of humans", although scholars are uncertain. The King James Version translates "Nephilim" as "giants" (or Gibborim). Ancient Astronaut proponents argue that Adam and Eve ate of the forbidden fruit in order "to be godlike", and this was the first step in human evolution. The first part of the apocryphal Book of Enoch expands and interprets Genesis 6:1: that the "sons of God" were a group of 200 "angels" called "Watchers", who descended to Earth to breed with humans. Their offspring are the Nephilim, "giants" who "consumed all the acquisitions of men". When humans could no longer sustain the Nephilim, they turned against humanity. The Watchers also


id: ancient-astronauts-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts-4.md
category: reference
title: Ancient astronauts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:51.153763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-astronauts-20260505-0
summary:
==== The Book of Invasions ==== Childress and others have written that the passage in the Book of Invasions describing the arrival of the Tuatha Dé Danann in Ireland, records "the arrival of aliens in spacecraft with cloaking devices" at Slieve Anierin. The text states "so that they were the Tuatha De Danand who came to Ireland. In this wise they came, in dark clouds. They landed on the mountains of Conmaicne Rein in Connacht and they brought a darkness over the sun for three days and three nights". === Ancient artwork === ==== Worldwide petroglyphic evidence ==== Ancient astronaut proponents believe Hopi cave drawings of Kachinas (spirit beings) found in the desert link the origins of the Hopi and Zuni tribes with "star people". They point to similar etchings elsewhere as evidence that extraterrestrials visited many different ancient civilizations. Other artistic support for the ancient astronaut hypothesis has been sought in Palaeolithic cave paintings. Wondjina in Australia and in the Rock Drawings in Valcamonica, in Italy (seen above) are said to bear a resemblance to present day astronauts. Supporters of the ancient astronaut hypothesis sometimes argue that similarities such as dome shaped heads, interpreted as beings wearing space helmets,


id: ancient-astronauts-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts-5.md
category: reference
title: Ancient astronauts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_astronauts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:51.153763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-astronauts-20260505-0
summary:
==== Moai ==== The Moai statues of Easter Island were moved miles from the Rano Raraku quarry to their current locations, and archaeologists have wondered how massive statues such as these could have been transported. The folklore of the native Rapa Nui people says that chiefs and priests used mana to make the statues of the island walk. In 1982, Czech engineer Pavel Pavel and a group of sixteen people used a replica concrete moai to test a method that could have transported the statues. They tied ropes to it and in two groups pulled and twisted it back and forth, making it move forward in a walking motion. They called it the "refrigerator method" and demonstrated that the massive statues could be easily moved by a small group of people. === Religious and cultural practices === A number of ancient cultures, such as the ancient Egyptians and some Native Americans, artificially lengthened the skulls of their children. Some ancient astronaut proponents propose that this was done to emulate extraterrestrial visitors, whom they saw as gods. ==== Akhenaten ==== Among the ancient rulers depicted with elongated skulls are pharaoh Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti. The depiction of Akhenaten and his


id: anthroposophic-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthroposophic medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:53.536351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthroposophic-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Anthroposophic medicine (or anthroposophical medicine) is a form of alternative medicine based on pseudoscientific and occult notions. Devised in the 1920s by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925) in conjunction with Ita Wegman (1876–1943), anthroposophical medicine draws on Steiner's spiritual philosophy, which he called anthroposophy. Practitioners employ a variety of treatment techniques based upon anthroposophic precepts, including massage, exercise, counselling, and administration of substances. Many drug preparations used in anthroposophic medicine are ultra-diluted, similar to those used in homeopathy. Homeopathic remedies are not medically effective and are generally considered harmless, except when used as a substitute for a scientifically proven and effective prevention and cure. In certain European countries, people with cancer are sometimes prescribed remedies made from specially harvested mistletoe, although no evidence of clinical benefit exists. Some anthroposophic doctors oppose childhood vaccination, and this has led to preventable outbreaks of disease. Anthroposophic medicine departs from fundamental biological, physical, and chemical principles in several respects. For example, Steiner said that the heart is not a pump, but that the blood, in a sense, pumps itself. Anthroposophic medicine also proposes that patients' past lives may influence their illness and that the course of an illness is subject to karmic destiny. Professor of complementary


id: anthroposophic-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Anthroposophic medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:53.536351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthroposophic-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Anthroposophic nursing Counselling Eurythmy – claimed to affect "inner life functions" leading to a "re-integration of body, soul, and spirit". External applications Rhythmic massages === Plant-derived treatments === To select an anthroposophic substance for a particular illness, practitioners consider the source of the substances used. The character of a mineral, plant, or animal is hypothesised to have been formed by the substances most active within it, in the belief that this character may also influence what those substances accomplish when given to treat another organism. This is related to the doctrine of signatures. Willow, for example, is considered to have an unusual character: ... plants that grow near water are usually heavy, with big, dark green leaves that wilt and break easily. An exception is ... the white willow, a tree that always grows near water and loves light. However, unlike other "watery" plants, the willow has fine, almost dry leaves and looks very light ... Its branches are unbelievably tough. They are elastic and cannot be broken. They bend easily and form "joints" rather than break. These few signatures can give us the clue to what salix can be used for therapeutically: arthritis, deformation of joints, swollen joints ...


id: anthroposophic-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Anthroposophic medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:53.536351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthroposophic-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The risks arising from using anthroposophical medicine as a substitute for evidence-based medicine are exemplified by several cases of low vaccination levels in Waldorf schools, since some anthroposophical doctors oppose immunization. A 1999 study of children in Sweden showed that in Waldorf schools, only 18% had received MMR vaccination, compared to a level of 93% in other schools nationally. A 2003 report of a widespread measles outbreak around Coburg, Germany, identified a Waldorf school as the origin. At the time, the town's mayor had condemned homeopathic doctors who had discouraged vaccination, saying, "Their stronghold is the Waldorf School, which actively encourages people not to have their children vaccinated. Now we have an epidemic." Paul Offit wrote that Steiner believed vaccination "interferes with karmic development and the cycles of reincarnation", and that adherence to this belief led to a 2008 pertussis outbreak in a Californian Waldorf school, causing its temporary closure. == See also == Alternative cancer treatments Herbalism Holistic health == References == == Further reading == === Books and journal articles === Ernst, Edzard (2004). "Anthroposophical medicine: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials". Wiener klinische Wochenschrift. 116 (4): 128–30. doi:10.1007/bf03040749. PMID 15038403. S2CID 7435250. Kienle, GS; Kiene, H


id: anti-gravity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-gravity-0.md
category: reference
title: Anti-gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:54.702608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Anti-gravity is the concept of a force that would exactly oppose the force of gravity. Under the known laws of physics, anti-gravity is not possible. Experimental measurements rule out repulsion between antihydrogen and the mass of the Earth. Anti-gravity does not refer to either the lack of weight under gravity experienced in free fall or orbit, or to balancing the force of gravity with some other force, such as electromagnetism, aerodynamic lift, or ion-propelled "lifters", which fly in the air by moving air with electromagnetic fields. Historically, anti-gravity was considered a possibilty after the discovery of antimatter. Once the nature of antimatter was more clearly established, it was clear that gravity works the same for both matter and antimatter. Anti-gravity is a recurring concept in science fiction. == Theoretical probability == Under the laws of general relativity, anti-gravity is impossible except under contrived circumstances. Under that theory, and particle physics, gravity is mass-energy, a quantity believed to always be positive. It is always attractive and never repulsive. During the close of the twentieth century NASA provided funding for the Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program (BPP) from 1996 through 2002. This program studied a number of "far out" designs for space propulsion


id: anti-gravity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-gravity-1.md
category: reference
title: Anti-gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:54.702608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
In 1921, while still in high school, Thomas Townsend Brown found that a high-voltage Coolidge tube seemed to change mass depending on its orientation on a balance scale. Through the 1920s Brown developed this into devices that combined high voltages with materials with high dielectric constants (essentially large capacitors); he called such a device a "gravitator". Brown made the claim to observers and in the media that his experiments were showing anti-gravity effects. Brown would continue his work and produced a series of high-voltage devices in the following years in attempts to sell his ideas to aircraft companies and the military. He coined the names Biefeld–Brown effect and electrogravitics in conjunction with his devices. Brown tested his asymmetrical capacitor devices in a vacuum, supposedly showing it was not a more down-to-earth electrohydrodynamic effect generated by high voltage ion flow in air. Electrogravitics is a popular topic in ufology, anti-gravity, free energy, with government conspiracy theorists and related websites, in books and publications with claims that the technology became highly classified in the early 1960s and that it is used to power UFOs and the B-2 bomber. There is also research and videos on the internet purported to show lifter-style capacitor


id: anti-gravity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-gravity-2.md
category: reference
title: Anti-gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:54.702608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
== In fiction == The existence of anti-gravity is a common theme in science fiction. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction lists Francis Godwin's posthumously published 1638 novel The Man in the Moone, where a "semi-magical" stone has the power to make gravity stronger or weaker, as the earliest variation of the theme. The first story to use anti-gravity for the purpose of space travel, as well as the first to treat the subject from a scientific rather than supernatural angle, was George Tucker's 1827 novel A Voyage to the Moon. === Apergy === Apergy is a term invented by Percy Greg for a imaginary anti-gravitational force used in his 1880 sword and planet novel Across the Zodiac. The term was later adopted by other fiction authors such as John Jacob Astor IV in his 1894 science fiction novel A Journey in Other Worlds. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Bly, Robert W. (2005). "Antigravity". The Science in Science Fiction: 83 SF Predictions That Became Scientific Reality. Consulting Editor: James Gunn. BenBella Books. pp. 21–26. ISBN 978-1-932100-48-8. Cady, W. M. (15 September 1952). "Thomas Townsend Brown: Electro-Gravity Device" (File 24–185). Pasadena, CA: Office of Naval Research.


id: anti-sunscreen-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Sunscreen_Movement-0.md
category: reference
title: Anti-Sunscreen Movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Sunscreen_Movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:55.931142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-sunscreen-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The anti-sunscreen movement is a loosely organized online trend that promotes skepticism about the safety and effectiveness of sunscreen. Adherents commonly claim that commercial sunscreens are toxic, that avoiding sunscreen is healthier for vitamin D status, that dietary changes (such as avoiding so-called "seed oils") can prevent sunburn, or that homemade products offer adequate protection. These claims have been amplified on TikTok, Instagram and other platforms, and have been criticized by dermatologists and public-health organizations as misinforming the public about the prevention of skin cancer. == Background == Sunscreens are over-the-counter drugs in the United States that reduce exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, a known human carcinogen. Dermatology organizations recommend daily use of a broad-spectrum, water-resistant sunscreen with an SPF of 30 or higher, applied in sufficient quantity and reapplied regularly when outdoors. Concerns about ingredient absorption were heightened by U.S. FDA–sponsored randomized trials in 2019 and 2020 showing that several organic (chemical) UV filters can be detected in blood after maximal-use application. Regulators and investigators emphasized that absorption does not imply harm and that further toxicology data are needed, while continuing to recommend sun protection. In 2021, several aerosol sunscreens were voluntarily recalled in the U.S. after testing found


id: applied-kinesiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_kinesiology-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied kinesiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_kinesiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:57.083838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-kinesiology-20260505-0
summary:
Applied kinesiology (AK), also known as muscle testing, is a pseudoscience-based technique in alternative medicine claimed to be able to diagnose illness or choose treatment by testing muscles for strength and weakness. According to their guidelines on allergy diagnostic testing, the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology stated there is "no evidence of diagnostic validity" of applied kinesiology. Another study indicated that the use of applied kinesiology to evaluate nutrient status is "no more useful than random guessing." The American Cancer Society has said that "scientific evidence does not support the claim that applied kinesiology can diagnose or treat cancer or other illness". == History and current use == George J. Goodheart, a chiropractor, originated applied kinesiology in 1964 and began teaching it to other chiropractors. An organization of Goodheart Study Group Leaders began meeting in 1973, selected the name "The International College of Applied Kinesiology" (ICAK) in 1974, adopted bylaws in 1975, elected officers in 1975, and "certified" its charter members (called "diplomates") in 1976. ICAK now considers 1976 to be the date it was founded and 1973 to be the date that its first chairman took office. AK grew in popularity among Mormon alternative medicine culture. In


id: applied-kinesiology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_kinesiology-1.md
category: reference
title: Applied kinesiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_kinesiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:57.083838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-kinesiology-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific research == In 2015 the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; applied kinesiology was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support the claim that applied kinesiology can diagnose or treat cancer or other illness". A review of several scientific studies of AK-specific procedures and diagnostic tests concluded: "When AK is disentangled from standard orthopedic muscle testing, the few studies evaluating unique AK procedures either refute or cannot support the validity of AK procedures as diagnostic tests. The evidence to date does not support the use of manual muscle testing for the diagnosis of organic disease or pre/subclinical conditions." Another concluded that "There is little or no scientific rationale for these methods. Results are not reproducible when subject to rigorous testing and do not correlate with clinical evidence of allergy." A double-blind study was conducted by the ALTA Foundation for Sports Medicine Research in Santa Monica, California, and published in the June 1988 Journal of the American Dietetic


id: artificial-intelligence-in-spirituality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_spirituality-0.md
category: reference
title: Artificial intelligence in spirituality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_spirituality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:16:59.492126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-intelligence-in-spirituality-20260505-0
summary:
Some users of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, especially chatbots, may develop beliefs that AI has or can attain supernatural or spiritual powers. AI models such as ChatGPT are turned to for fortune telling, mysticism and remote viewing. Recent and sudden advances in large language models have led to folk myths about their origin or capabilities, as well as their deification or worship by some users. Tucker Carlson has made similar claims, including directly to Sam Altman. Pope Leo XIV advised priests against using LLM models when it came to the creation of sermons. == See also == AI slop Cargo cult Chatbot psychosis Quantum mysticism Artificial intimacy Roko's basilisk Superintelligence TempleOS Theta Noir Way of the Future == References ==


id: aryan-race-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race-0.md
category: reference
title: Aryan race
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:00.861442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aryan-race-20260505-0
summary:
The Aryan race is a pseudoscientific historical race concept that emerged in the late-19th century to describe people who descend from the Proto-Indo-Europeans as a racial grouping. The terminology derives from the historical usage of Aryan, used by modern Indo-Iranians as an epithet of "noble". Anthropological, historical, and archaeological evidence does not support the validity of the racial concept. The concept derives from the notion that the original speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language were distinct progenitors of a superior specimen of humankind, and that their descendants up to the present day constitute either a distinctive race or a sub-race of the Caucasian race, alongside the Semitic race and the Hamitic race. This taxonomic approach to categorizing human population groups is now considered to be misguided and biologically meaningless due to the close genetic similarity and complex interrelationships between these groups. The term was adopted by various racist and antisemitic writers during the 19th century, including Arthur de Gobineau, Richard Wagner, and Houston Stewart Chamberlain, whose scientific racism influenced later Nazi racial ideology. By the 1930s, the concept had been associated with both Nazism and Nordicism, and used to support the white supremacist ideology of Aryanism that portrayed the Aryan race


id: aryan-race-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race-1.md
category: reference
title: Aryan race
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:00.861442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aryan-race-20260505-0
summary:
The term "Aryan" was originally used as an ethnocultural self-designative identity and epithet of "noble" by Indo-Iranians and the authors of the oldest known religious texts of Rig Veda and Avesta within the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European language family—Sanskrit and Iranian, who lived in ancient India and Iran. Although the Sanskrit ā́rya- and Iranian *arya- descended from a form *ā̆rya-, it was only attested to the Indo-Iranian tribes. Benjamin W. Fortson states that there may have been no term for self-designation of Proto-Indo-Europeans, and no such morphemes has survived. J. P. Mallory et al. states although the term "Aryan" takes on an ethnic meaning attesting to Indo-Iranians, there is no grounds for ascribing this semantic use to the Proto-Indo-European reconstruction of lexicon *h₂eryós i.e. there is no evidence that the speakers of proto-language referred to themselves as "Aryans". However, in the 19th century, it was proposed that ā́rya- was not only the tribal self-designation of Indo-Iranians, but self-designation of Proto-Indo-Europeans themselves, a theory rejected by modern scholarships. "Aryan" then came to be used by scholars of the 19th century to refer to Indo-Europeans. The now-discredited and chronologically reconstructed North European hypothesis was endorsed by such scholars who situated the PIE


id: aryan-race-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race-2.md
category: reference
title: Aryan race
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:00.861442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aryan-race-20260505-0
summary:
Max Müller popularized the term Aryan in his writings on comparative linguistics, and is often identified as the first writer to mention an Aryan race in English. He began the racial interpretation of the Vedic passages based upon his editing of the Rigveda from 1849 to 1874. He postulated a small Aryan clan living on a high elevation in central Asia, speaking a proto-language ancestral to later Indo-European languages, which later branched off in two directions: one moved towards Europe and the other migrated to Iran, eventually splitting again with one group invading north-western India and conquering the dark-skinned dasas of Scythian origin who lived there. The northern Aryans of Europe became energetic and combative, and they invented the idea of a nation, while the southern Aryans of Iran and India were passive and meditative and focussed on religion and philosophy. Though he occasionally used the term "Aryan race" afterward, Müller later objected to the mixing of the linguistic and racial categories, and was "deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms". In his 1888 lecture at Oxford, he stated, "[the] science of Language and the science of Man cannot be kept


id: aryan-race-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race-3.md
category: reference
title: Aryan race
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:00.861442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aryan-race-20260505-0
summary:
A definition of Aryan that included all non-Jewish Europeans was deemed unacceptable, and the Expert Committee on Questions of Population and Racial Policy of 1933 brought together important Nazi intellectuals Alfred Ploetz, Fritz Thyssen, and Ernst Rüdin to plan the course of Nazi racial policy, defining an Aryan as one who was "tribally related to the German blood and descendant of a Volk". The term "Volksdeutsche" was used by Nazis to indicate "ethnic Germans" who did not hold German Reich citizenship; Volksdeutsche further consist of "racial groups"—minorities within a state—who are descendants of a Volk domiciled in Europe in a closed tribal settlement and are closely related to German racial community. The Nazi concept of "Volksgemeinschaft" racially unified ethnic Germans, including those living outside the German Reich, propounding only the members of the racial community be considered Aryan. Members of the SS deemed Aryans not to be of a single ethnic group, and did not have to be exclusively German, but could be selected from populations across Europe to create "master race". Nazi Party established the organization NSDAP/AO to disseminate Nazi propaganda among the ethnic German minorities considered Volksdeutsche in central and eastern Europe. Nazi racial theories considered the "purest


id: aryan-race-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race-4.md
category: reference
title: Aryan race
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryan_race
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:00.861442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aryan-race-20260505-0
summary:
Indo-European history, real and feigned, plays a significant role in various neo-pagan movements. === Russian neo-paganism === The Russian Slavophile movements borrowed various discrete ideas of a presumed "prestigious Aryan origin" of Europeans from Nazi Germany. Although Russian Orthodoxy was the primary religious influence on Russian nationalists, the primacy of Christianity was treated skeptically by these groups, who later began searching for an ancient text to rationalize a "return to the origins". Various writers in the newspaper Zhar-Ptitsa showed interest in a purported manuscript—the Book of Veles—which supposedly dated to the first century BCE. F. A. Izenbek, a White Army officer, alleged the discovery of this manuscript during the Russian Civil War. However one of Izenbek's friends, Iurii Miroliubov, had forged the manuscript, and used the term "Vedism" to describe Russian neo-paganism; he later appropriated the Indian religious scripture, the Vedas, to aggrandize the manuscript. Nationalistic white Russian émigrés and neo-Pagans consider the manuscript to be an authentic historical source of Slavic antiquity, who claim a direct link between "ancient Aryans" and themselves as Slavs. However, the manuscript is declared literary forgery by scholars. Alexey Dobrovolsky, a Russian neo-Nazi, is considered the founding Nazi ideologue of Slavic Neopaganism. === Goddess


id: astral-projection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_projection-0.md
category: reference
title: Astral projection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_projection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:02.127693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astral-projection-20260505-0
summary:
In esotericism, astral projection (also known as astral travel, soul journey, soul wandering, spiritual journey, spiritual travel) is an intentional out-of-body experience (OBE) in which a subtle body, known as the astral body or body of light which consciousness functions separately through from the physical body, travels throughout the astral plane. The idea of astral travel is ancient and occurs in multiple cultures. The term "astral projection" was coined and promoted by 19th-century Theosophists. It is sometimes associated with dreams and forms of meditation. Some individuals have reported perceptions similar to descriptions of astral projection that were induced through various hallucinogenic and hypnotic means (including self-hypnosis). There is no scientific evidence that there is a consciousness whose embodied functions are separate from normal neural activity, or that one can consciously leave the body and make observations of the physical universe. As a result, astral projection has been characterized as pseudoscience. == Accounts == === Ancient Egyptian === Similar concepts of soul travel appear in various other religious traditions. For example, ancient Egyptian teachings present the soul (ba) as having the ability to hover outside the physical body via the ka, or subtle body. === Amazon === The yaskomo of the


id: astral-projection-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_projection-1.md
category: reference
title: Astral projection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_projection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:02.127693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astral-projection-20260505-0
summary:
=== Judaic and Christian === Carrington, Muldoon, Peterson, and Williams say that the subtle body is attached to the physical body by means of a psychic silver cord. Ecclesiastes 12:6 is often cited in this respect: "Remember him—before the silver cord is severed, and the golden bowl is broken; before the pitcher is shattered at the spring, and the wheel broken at the well". Rabbi Nosson Scherman, however, contends that the context points to this being merely a metaphor, comparing the body to a machine, with the silver cord referring to the spine. James Hankins argues that 2 Corinthians 12:2, "I know a man in Christ who fourteen years ago was caught up to the third heaven. Whether it was in the body or out of the body I do not know—God knows", refers to the astral planes. === Western esotericism === According to the classical, medieval, renaissance Hermeticism, Neoplatonism, and later Theosophist and Rosicrucian thought, the 'astral body' is an intermediate body of light linking the rational soul to the physical body while the astral plane is an intermediate world of light between Heaven and Earth, composed of the spheres of the planets and stars. These astral spheres were


id: astral-projection-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_projection-2.md
category: reference
title: Astral projection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_projection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:02.127693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astral-projection-20260505-0
summary:
== Notable practitioners == Emanuel Swedenborg was one of the first practitioners to write extensively about the out-of-body experience, in his Spiritual Diary (1747–1765). In her book, My Religion, Helen Keller tells of her beliefs in Swedenborgianism and how she once traveled astrally to Athens: I have been far away all this time, and I haven't left the room...It was clear to me that it was because I was a spirit that I had so vividly 'seen' and felt a place a thousand miles away. Space was nothing to spirit! In occult traditions, practices range from inducing trance states to the mental construction of a second body, called the "body of light" by Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), through visualization and controlled breathing, followed by the transfer of consciousness to the secondary body by a mental act of will. There are many 20th-century publications on astral projection, although only a few writers continue to be cited. These include Edgar Cayce (1877–1945), Hereward Carrington (1880–1958), Oliver Fox (1885–1949), Sylvan Muldoon (1903–1969), and Robert Monroe (1915–1995). Robert Monroe's accounts of journeys to other realms (1971–1994) popularized the term "OBE" and were translated into a large number of languages. Though his books themselves only placed


id: astrological-sign-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign-0.md
category: reference
title: Astrological sign
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:03.283862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrological-sign-20260505-0
summary:
In Western astrology, astrological signs are the zodiac, twelve 30-degree sectors that are crossed by the Sun's 360-degree orbital path as viewed from Earth in its sky. The signs enumerate from the first day of spring, known as the First Point of Aries, which is the vernal equinox. The astrological signs are Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces. The Western zodiac originated in Babylonian astrology, and was later influenced by the Hellenistic culture. Each sign was named after a constellation the sun annually moved through while crossing the sky. This observation is emphasized in the simplified and popular sun sign astrology. Over the centuries, Western astrology's zodiacal divisions have shifted out of alignment with the constellations they were named after by axial precession of the Earth while Hindu astrology measurements correct for this shifting. Astrology (i.e. a system of omina based on celestial appearances) was developed in Chinese and Tibetan cultures as well but these astrologies are not based upon the zodiac but deal with the whole sky. Astrology is a pseudoscience. Scientific investigations of the theoretical basis and experimental verification of claims have shown it to have no scientific validity or explanatory


id: astrological-sign-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign-1.md
category: reference
title: Astrological sign
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:03.283862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrological-sign-20260505-0
summary:
===== Planets ===== Polarity can also be extended to planets, referring to the orientation of their symbolic energy as either masculine (active, expressive, outward-directed) or feminine (receptive, inward-directed, containing). This classification complements the traditional division of the zodiac signs and provides an additional interpretative layer in astrological analysis. Masculine polarity planets are generally associated with projection, initiative, and outward activity. These include the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Mercury, and Eris. Although Mercury is traditionally considered neutral, most modern approaches emphasize its masculine quality due to its volatility, speed, adaptability, and primarily centrifugal communicative function. Feminine polarity planets are associated with receptivity, consolidation, containment, and inner processes. These include the Moon, Venus, Ceres, Saturn, Neptune, and Pluto. In this framework, all main-belt asteroids are generally considered to have feminine polarity, reflecting their symbolic association with internal processes, cycles, and forms of containment or gestation. It is also noteworthy that planetary polarity does not necessarily correspond to mythological gender. Some planets with masculine names, such as Saturn, Neptune, and Pluto, are classified as feminine in polarity, whereas Eris, despite having a feminine name, is considered masculine in polarity due to its outward-activating, and catalytic nature. ==== The three modalities ==== The modality


id: astrological-sign-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign-2.md
category: reference
title: Astrological sign
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:03.283862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrological-sign-20260505-0
summary:
In addition to essential dignity, the traditional astrologer considers Accidental dignity of planets. This is placement by house in the chart under examination. Accidental dignity is the planet's "ability to act". So we might have, for example, Moon in Cancer, dignified by rulership, is placed in the 12th house it would have little scope to express its good nature. The twelfth is a cadent house as are the third, sixth and ninth and planets in these houses are considered weak or afflicted. On the other hand, Moon in the first, fourth, seventh, or 10th would be more able to act as these are Angular houses. Planets in Succedent houses of the chart (second, fifth, eighth, eleventh) are generally considered to be of medium ability to act. Besides Accidental Dignity, there are a range of Accidental Debilities, such as retrogradation, Under the Sun's Beams, Combust, and so forth. ==== Additional classifications ==== Each sign can be divided into three 10° sectors known as decans or decanates, though these have fallen into disuse. The first decanate is said to be most emphatically of its own nature and is ruled by the sign ruler. The next decanate is sub-ruled by the planet ruling


id: astrological-sign-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign-3.md
category: reference
title: Astrological sign
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:03.283862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrological-sign-20260505-0
summary:
子 Rat (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Water): Rat years include 1900, 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008, 2020, 2032. The Rat also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Rat are 11pm – 1am. 丑 Ox (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Earth: Ox years include 1901, 1913, 1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009, 2021, 2033. The Ox also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Ox are 1am – 3am. 寅 Tiger (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Tiger years include 1902, 1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010, 2022, 2034. The Tiger also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Tiger are 3am – 5am. 卯 Rabbit (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Rabbit Years include 1903, 1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011, 2023, 2035. The Rabbit also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Rabbit are 5am – 7am. 辰 Dragon (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Earth): Dragon years include 1904, 1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000, 2012, 2024, 2036. The Dragon also corresponds to


id: astrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-0.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that propose that information about human affairs and terrestrial events may be discerned by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Different cultures have employed forms of astrology since at least the 2nd millennium BCE, these practices having originated in calendrical systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications. Most, if not all, cultures have attached importance to what they observed in the sky, and some—such as the Hindus, Chinese, and the Maya—developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. Western astrology, one of the oldest astrological systems still in use, can trace its roots to 19th–17th century BCE Mesopotamia, from where it spread to Ancient Greece, Rome, the Islamic world, and eventually Central and Western Europe. Contemporary Western astrology is often associated with systems of horoscopes that purport to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects; the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems. Throughout its history, astrology has had its detractors, competitors and skeptics who opposed it for moral, religious,


id: astrology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-1.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky. Early evidence for humans making conscious attempts to measure, record, and predict seasonal changes by reference to astronomical cycles, appears as markings on bones and cave walls, which show that lunar cycles were being noted as early as 25,000 years ago. This was a first step towards recording the Moon's influence upon tides and rivers, and towards organising a communal calendar. Farmers addressed agricultural needs with increasing knowledge of the constellations that appear in the different seasons—and used the rising of particular star-groups to herald annual floods or seasonal activities. By the 3rd millennium BCE, civilisations had sophisticated awareness of celestial cycles, and may have oriented temples in alignment with heliacal risings of the stars. Scattered evidence suggests that the oldest known astrological references are copies of texts made in the ancient world. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa is thought to have been compiled in Babylon around 1700 BCE. A scroll documenting an early use of electional astrology is doubtfully ascribed to the reign of the Sumerian ruler Gudea of Lagash (c. 2144 – 2124 BCE). This describes how the gods revealed to him in a dream


id: astrology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-2.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
In 525 BCE, Egypt was conquered by the Persians. The 1st century BCE Egyptian Dendera Zodiac shares two signs – the Balance and the Scorpion – with Mesopotamian astrology. With the occupation by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, Egypt became Hellenistic. The city of Alexandria was founded by Alexander after the conquest, becoming the place where Babylonian astrology was mixed with Egyptian Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology. This contained the Babylonian zodiac with its system of planetary exaltations, the triplicities of the signs and the importance of eclipses. It used the Egyptian concept of dividing the zodiac into thirty-six decans of ten degrees each, with an emphasis on the rising decan, and the Greek system of planetary Gods, sign rulership and four elements. 2nd century BCE texts predict positions of planets in zodiac signs at the time of the rising of certain decans, particularly Sothis. The astrologer and astronomer Ptolemy lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's work the Tetrabiblos formed the basis of Western astrology, and, "...enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more." === Greece and Rome === The conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great exposed the Greeks to


id: astrology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-3.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville argued in his Etymologiae that astronomy described the movements of the heavens, while astrology had two parts: one was scientific, describing the movements of the Sun, the Moon and the stars, while the other, making predictions, was theologically erroneous. The first astrological book published in Europe was the Liber Planetis et Mundi Climatibus ("Book of the Planets and Regions of the World"), which appeared between 1010 and 1027 AD, and may have been authored by Gerbert of Aurillac. Ptolemy's second century AD Tetrabiblos was translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli in 1138. The Dominican theologian Thomas Aquinas followed Aristotle in proposing that the stars ruled the imperfect 'sublunary' body, while attempting to reconcile astrology with Christianity by stating that God ruled the soul. The thirteenth century mathematician Campanus of Novara is said to have devised a system of astrological houses that divides the prime vertical into 'houses' of equal 30° arcs, though the system was used earlier in the East. The thirteenth century astronomer Guido Bonatti wrote a textbook, the Liber Astronomicus, a copy of which King Henry VII of England owned at the end of the fifteenth century. In Paradiso, the


id: astrology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-4.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
During the Enlightenment, intellectual sympathy for astrology fell away, leaving only a popular following supported by cheap almanacs. One English almanac compiler, Richard Saunders, followed the spirit of the age by printing a derisive Discourse on the Invalidity of Astrology, while in France Pierre Bayle's Dictionnaire of 1697 stated that the subject was puerile. The Anglo-Irish satirist Jonathan Swift ridiculed the Whig political astrologer John Partridge. In the second half of the 17th century, the Society of Astrologers (1647–1684), a trade, educational, and social organization, sought to unite London's often fractious astrologers in the task of revitalizing astrology. Following the template of the popular "Feasts of Mathematicians" they endeavored to defend their art in the face of growing religious criticism. The Society hosted banquets, exchanged "instruments and manuscripts", proposed research projects, and funded the publication of sermons that depicted astrology as a legitimate biblical pursuit for Christians. They commissioned sermons that argued Astrology was divine, Hebraic, and scripturally supported by Bible passages about the Magi and the sons of Seth. According to historian Michelle Pfeffer, "The society's public relations campaign ultimately failed." Modern historians have mostly neglected the Society of Astrologers in favor of the still extant Royal Society (1660),


id: astrology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-5.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
Chinese astrology has a close relation with Chinese philosophy (theory of the three harmonies: heaven, earth and man) and uses concepts such as yin and yang, the Five phases, the 10 Celestial stems, the 12 Earthly Branches, and shichen (時辰 a form of timekeeping used for religious purposes). The early use of Chinese astrology was mainly confined to political astrology, the observation of unusual phenomena, identification of portents and the selection of auspicious days for events and decisions. The constellations of the Zodiac of western Asia and Europe were not used; instead the sky is divided into Three Enclosures (三垣 sān yuán), and Twenty-Eight Mansions (二十八宿 èrshíbā xiù) in twelve Ci (十二次). The Chinese zodiac of twelve animal signs is said to represent twelve different types of personality. It is based on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (the shichen). The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and the cycle proceeds through 11 other animal signs: the Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. Complex systems of predicting fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, such as ziping and Zi Wei Dou


id: astrology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-6.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
The scientific community rejects astrology as having no explanatory power for describing the universe, and considers it a pseudoscience. Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions. There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict basic and well understood aspects of biology and physics. Those who have faith in astrology have been characterised by scientists including Bart J. Bok as doing so "...in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary". Confirmation bias is a form of cognitive bias, a psychological factor that contributes to belief in astrology. Astrology believers tend to selectively remember predictions that turn out to be true, and do not remember those that turn out false. Another, separate, form of confirmation bias also plays a role, where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not. Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias


id: astrology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-7.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Effectiveness === Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity. Where it has made falsifiable predictions under controlled conditions, they have been falsified. One famous experiment included 28 astrologers who were asked to match over a hundred natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) questionnaire. The double-blind experimental protocol used in this study was agreed upon by a group of physicists and a group of astrologers nominated by the National Council for Geocosmic Research, who advised the experimenters, helped ensure that the test was fair and helped draw the central proposition of natal astrology to be tested. They also chose 26 out of the 28 astrologers for the tests (two more volunteered afterwards). The study, published in Nature in 1985, found that predictions based on natal astrology were no better than chance, and that the testing "...clearly refutes the astrological hypothesis." In 1955, the astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin stated that though he had failed to find evidence that supported indicators like zodiacal signs and planetary aspects in astrology, he did find positive correlations between the diurnal positions of some planets and success in professions that astrology traditionally


id: astrology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-8.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reception in the social sciences === The general consensus of astronomers and other natural scientists is that astrology is a pseudoscience which carries no predictive capability, with many philosophers of science considering it a "paradigm or prime example of pseudoscience." Some scholars in the social sciences have cautioned against categorizing astrology, especially ancient astrology, as "just" a pseudoscience or projecting the distinction backwards into the past. Thagard, while demarcating it as a pseudoscience, notes that astrology "should be judged as not pseudoscientific in classical or Renaissance times...Only when the historical and social aspects of science are neglected does it become plausible that pseudoscience is an unchanging category." Historians of science such as Tamsyn Barton, Roger Beck, Francesca Rochberg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff argue that such a wholesale description is anachronistic when applied to historical contexts, stressing that astrology was not pseudoscience before the 18th century and the importance of the discipline to the development of medieval science. R. J. Hakinson writes in the context of Hellenistic astrology that "the belief in the possibility of [astrology] was, at least some of the time, the result of careful reflection on the nature and structure of the universe." Nicholas Campion, both an


id: astrology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology-9.md
category: reference
title: Astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:04.565712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-20260505-0
summary:
In India, there is a long-established and widespread belief in astrology. It is commonly used for daily life, particularly in matters concerning marriage and career, and makes extensive use of electional, horary and karmic astrology, a vertent who believes in reincarnation and in the idea they can read a person's karma in a Natal chart by studying in particular Lunar nodes and retrograde planets. Indian politics have also been influenced by astrology. It is still considered a branch of the Vedanga. In 2001, Indian scientists and politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to use state money to fund research into astrology, resulting in permission for Indian universities to offer courses in Vedic astrology. In February 2011, the Bombay High Court reaffirmed astrology's standing in India when it dismissed a case that challenged its status as a science. In Japan, strong belief in astrology has led to dramatic changes in the fertility rate and the number of abortions in the years of Fire Horse. Adherents believe that women born in hinoeuma years are unmarriageable and bring bad luck to their father or husband. In 1966, the number of babies born in Japan dropped by over 25% as parents tried to avoid


id: the-atlantic-paranormal-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic_Paranormal_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: The Atlantic Paranormal Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic_Paranormal_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:05.811936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-atlantic-paranormal-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Atlantic Paranormal Society (TAPS) is an organization that investigates reported paranormal activity. Based in Warwick, Rhode Island, TAPS was founded in 1990 by Jason Hawes as Rhode Island Paranormal Society (RIPS). In 1995, Grant Wilson joined, and the team was renamed The Atlantic Paranormal Society (TAPS). In 2004, the organization itself became the subject of Ghost Hunters, a popular weekly American paranormal reality television series on the Syfy channel. The show ran for eleven seasons on Syfy in the US. The show aired in the UK nine months after the US premier on Living It. == History and objectives == In 1990, Hawes began the "Rhode Island Paranormal Society", after having a personal experience with spirits. After RIPS began investigating cases throughout the New England area, Jason met up with Grant Wilson in 1995 and they formed "The Atlantic Paranormal Society" together. Wilson had also had a personal experience. Neither man talks about it in public. The group was originally run out of Jason's basement, and at that time consisted only of Jason and Grant. They pioneered investigative techniques that many other paranormal investigators use. In 2003 they were approached by Pilgrim Films and taped ten episodes of "Ghost


id: the-atlantic-paranormal-society-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic_Paranormal_Society-1.md
category: reference
title: The Atlantic Paranormal Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic_Paranormal_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:05.811936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-atlantic-paranormal-society-20260505-0
summary:
== Non-profit status issues == In 2006, a website called "SAPS" ("Skeptical Analysis of the Paranormal Society") conducted an investigation into the status and legitimacy of the TAPS non-profit status. In several places on their website it stated that they were non-profit and did investigations free of charge, however did accept donations and held a raffle to win various branded merchandise. The site claimed that repeated attempts to clarify the subject was met with negative responses. It broadened its investigation by searching for its status both federally and at the state level and found no evidence that they were a registered non-profit organization. They also found that the raffle was in violation of the state's gambling laws as it allowed those that could be under the age of 18 to participate. In February 2007, TAPS issued a statement regarding the status. It stated that they, "...by no means meant to give the appearance that we had non-profit status. By this, we meant that we do not make any profit at all from investigating. We couldn't simply say 'TAPS makes no money whatsoever' because TAPS does gather meager funds from the occasional donation and membership dues. The money that comes in


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Attachment therapy (also called "the Evergreen model", "holding time", "rage-reduction", "compression therapy", "rebirthing", "corrective attachment therapy", "coercive restraint therapy", and "holding therapy") is a pseudoscientific mental health intervention intended to treat attachment disorders in children. During the height of its popularity, the practice was found primarily in the United States; much of it was centered in about a dozen locations in Evergreen, Colorado, where Foster Cline, one of its founders, established a clinic in the 1970s. The practice has resulted in adverse outcomes for children, including at least six documented child fatalities. Since the 1990s, there have been a number of prosecutions for deaths or serious maltreatment of children at the hands of "holding therapists" or parents following their instructions. Two of the most well-known cases are those of Candace Newmaker in 2000 and the Gravelles in 2003. Following the associated publicity, some advocates of attachment therapy began to alter views and practices to be less potentially dangerous to children. This change may have been hastened by the publication of a task force report on the subject in January 2006, commissioned by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC), which was largely critical of attachment therapy. In


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-1.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Like Welsh [sic] (1984, 1989), The Center induces rage by physically restraining the child and forcing eye contact with the therapist (the child must lie across the laps of two therapists, looking up at one of them). In a workshop handout prepared by two therapists at The Center, the following sequence of events is described: (1) therapist 'forces control' by holding (which produces child 'rage'); (2) rage leads to child 'capitulation' to the therapist, as indicated by the child breaking down emotionally ('sobbing'); (3) the therapist takes advantage of the child's capitulation by showing nurturance and warmth; (4) this new trust allows the child to accept 'control' by the therapist and eventually the parent. According to The Center's treatment protocol, if the child 'shuts down' (i.e., refuses to comply), he or she may be threatened with detainment for the day at the clinic or forced placement in a temporary foster home; this is explained to the child as a consequence of not choosing to be a 'family boy or girl.' If the child is actually placed in foster care, the child is then required to 'earn the way back to therapy' and a chance to resume living with the adoptive


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-2.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parenting techniques === Therapists often instruct parents to follow programs of treatment at home, for example obedience-training techniques such as "strong sitting" (frequent periods of required silence and immobility) and withholding or limiting food. Earlier authors sometimes referred to this as "German Shepherd training". In some programs children undergoing the two-week intensive stay with "therapeutic foster parents" for the duration or beyond and the adoptive parents are trained in their techniques. According to the APSAC Task Force, because it is believed children with bonding problems resist bonding, fight against it and seek to control others to avoid bonding, the child's character flaws must be broken before bonding can occur. According to proponents, their idea of attachment parenting may include keeping the child at home with no social contacts, home schooling, hard labor or meaningless repetitive chores throughout the day, motionless sitting for prolonged periods of time, and control of all food and water intake and bathroom needs. Children described as attachment-disordered are expected by attachment therapists to comply with parental commands "fast and snappy and right the first time", and to always be "fun to be around" for their parents. Deviation from this standard, such as not finishing chores


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-3.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
== Theoretical principles == Like a number of other alternative mental health treatments for children, attachment therapy is based on some assumptions that differ strongly from the theoretical foundations of other attachment-based therapies. In contrast to traditional attachment theory, the theory of attachment described by attachment therapy proponents is that young children who experience adversity (including maltreatment, loss, separations, adoption, frequent changes in child care, colic or even frequent ear infections) become enraged at a very deep and primitive level. This results in a lack of ability to bond, attach, or to be genuinely affectionate to others. Suppressed or unconscious rage is theorized to prevent the child from forming bonds with caregivers and leads to behavior problems when the rage erupts into unchecked aggression. Such children are said to fail to develop a conscience, to not trust others, to seek control rather than closeness, to resist the authority of caregivers, and to engage in endless power struggles. They are seen as highly manipulative and as trying to avoid true attachments while simultaneously striving to control those around them through manipulation and superficial sociability. Such children are said to be at risk of becoming psychopaths who will go on to engage


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-4.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Diagnosis lists and questionnaires === Both the APSAC Task Force and Prior and Glaser describe the proliferation of alternative "lists" and diagnoses, particularly on the Internet, by proponents of holding therapy, that are not in accord with either DSM or ICD classifications and which are partly based on the unsubstantiated views of Zaslow and Menta and Cline. According to the Task Force, "These types of lists are so nonspecific that high rates of false-positive diagnoses are virtually certain. Posting these types of lists on internet sites that also serve as marketing tools may lead many parents or others to conclude inaccurately that their children have attachment disorders." Prior and Glaser describe the lists as "wildly inclusive" and state that many of the behaviors in the lists are likely to be the consequences of neglect and abuse rather than located within the attachment paradigm. Descriptions of children are frequently highly pejorative and "demonizing". Examples given from lists of attachment disorder symptoms found on the internet include lying, avoiding eye contact except when lying, persistent nonsense questions or incessant chatter, fascination with fire, blood, gore and evil, food related issues (such as gorging or hoarding), cruelty to animals and lack of


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-5.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Within mainstream practice, disorders of attachment are classified in DSM-5 and ICD-10 as reactive attachment disorder (generally known as RAD), and Disinhibited social engagement disorder. Both classification systems warn against automatic diagnosis based on abuse or neglect. Many symptoms are present in a variety of other more common and more easily treatable disorders. There is as yet no other accepted definition of attachment disorders. According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) practice parameter published in 2005, the question of whether attachment disorders can be reliably diagnosed in older children and adults has not been resolved. Attachment behaviors used for the diagnosis of RAD change markedly with development and defining analogous behaviors in older children is difficult. There are no substantially validated measures of attachment in middle childhood or early adolescence. == Prevalence == Holding therapy prospered during the 1980s and 1990s as a consequence of both the influx of older adopted orphans from Eastern European and third world countries and the inclusion of reactive attachment disorder in the 1980 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders which attachment therapists adopted as an alternative name for their existing unvalidated diagnosis of attachment disorder. According to the APSAC


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-6.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
== Developments == The APSAC Task Force stated that proponents of holding therapy correctly point out that most critics have never actually observed any of the treatments they criticize or visited any of the centers where the controversial therapies are practiced. Proponents argue that their therapies present no physical risk if undertaken properly and that critics' concerns are based on unrepresentative occurrences and misapplications of techniques, or misunderstanding by parents. Holding is described as gentle or nurturing and it is maintained that intense, cathartic approaches are necessary to help children with attachment disorders. Their evidence for this is primarily clinical experience and testimonials. According to the APSAC Task Force, there are controversies within the holding therapy community about coercive practices. There has been a move away from coercive and confrontational models towards attunement and emotional regulation amongst some leaders in the field, notably Hughes, Kelly and Popper. A number of therapies are quite different from those that have led to the abuse and deaths of children in much publicized court cases. The Task Force, however, points out that all the therapies, including those using frankly coercive practices, present themselves as humane, respectful and nurturing; therefore caution is advised. Some practitioners


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-7.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
== History == Matthew Speltz of the University of Washington School of Medicine states that the roots of holding therapy are traceable to psychologist Robert Zaslow and his "Z-process" in the 1970s. Zaslow attempted to force attachment in autistic children by creating rage while holding them against their will. He believed this would lead to a breakdown in their defense mechanisms, making them more receptive to others. Zaslow thought attachment arose when an infant experienced feelings of pain, fear and rage, and then made eye contact with the carer who relieved those feelings. If an infant did not experience this cycle of events by having his fear and rage relieved, the infant would not form an attachment and would not make eye contact with other people. Zaslow believed that creating pain and rage and combining them with eye contact would cause attachment to occur, long after the normal age for such developments. Holding therapies derive from these "rage-reduction" techniques applied by Zaslow. The holding is not used for safety purposes but is initiated for the purpose of provoking strong negative emotions such as fear and anger. The child's release typically depends upon his or her compliance with the therapist's clinical


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-8.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
They also considered the lack of available and suitable interventions from mainstream professionals as essential to the popularization of holding therapy as an attachment therapy. In 2003, an issue of Attachment & Human Development was devoted to the subject of attachment therapy with articles by well-known experts in the field of attachment. Attachment researchers and authors condemned holding therapy as empirically unfounded, theoretically flawed and clinically unethical. It has also been described as potentially abusive and a pseudoscientific intervention, not based on attachment theory or research, that has resulted in tragic outcomes for children including at least six documented child fatalities. In 2006, the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC) Task Force reported on the subjects of attachment therapy, reactive attachment disorder, and attachment problems and laid down guidelines for the future diagnosis and treatment of attachment disorders. The APSAC Task Force was largely critical of Attachment Therapy's theoretical base, practices, claims to an evidence base, non-specific symptoms lists published on the internet, claims that traditional treatments do not work and dire predictions for the future of children who do not receive attachment therapy. "Although focused primarily on specific attachment therapy techniques, the controversy also extends to


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-9.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
== Claims == According to the APSAC Task Force, proponents of holding therapy commonly assert that their therapies alone are effective for attachment-disordered children and that traditional treatments are ineffective or harmful. The APSAC Task Force expressed concern over claims by therapies to be "evidence-based", or the only evidence-based therapy, when the Task Force found no credible evidence base for any such therapy so advertised. Nor did it accept more recent claims to evidence base in its November 2006 Reply. Two approaches on which published studies have been undertaken are holding therapy and dyadic developmental psychotherapy. Each of these non-randomized studies concluded that the treatment method studied was effective. Both the APSAC Task Force and Prior and Glaser cite and criticize the one published study on holding therapy undertaken by Myeroff et al., which "purports to be an evaluation of holding therapy". This study covers the "across the lap" approach, described as "not restraint" by Howe and Fearnley but "being held whilst unable to gain release." Prior and Glaser state that although the Myeroff study claims it is based on attachment theory, the theoretical basis for the treatment is in fact Zaslow. Dyadic developmental psychotherapy was developed by psychologist Daniel


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-10.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Andrea Swenson, 1990; a 13-year-old adopted girl undergoing attachment therapy at The Attachment Center, Evergreen, Colorado. She was placed with "therapeutic foster parents". When the insurance company refused to continue to pay for her treatment, the adoptive parents were asked to allow the foster parents to adopt Andrea so that a fresh claim could be made. Andrea, having asked her foster parents what would happen if she took an overdose of drugs or slit her wrist, and been told she would die, took an overdose of aspirin. She was violently ill during the night and was incoherent, breathing heavily and still vomiting in the morning. Nevertheless, the foster parents went bowling, leaving her alone. A visitor found her dead in the hallway. The suit was settled out of court. Lucas Ciambrone, 1995; a seven-year-old adopted boy who was starved, beaten, bitten and forced to sleep in a stripped bathroom at his parents home in Sarasota, Florida. At the post-mortem he was found to have 200 bruises and five old broken ribs. The adoptive mother was convicted as the abuser and the adoptive father of being aware but doing nothing to prevent it or seek help. Foster Cline gave evidence for


id: attachment-therapy-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy-11.md
category: reference
title: Attachment therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:08.228014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attachment-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Fairlove, Abigail (26 December 2012). "Importance of Strong Sitting for Reactive Attachment Disorder Treatment". Rad Children- Information on Children with Reactive Attachment Disorder ( RAD ). Abigail Fairlove. Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2014. Mercer J, Sarner L, Rosa L (2003), Attachment Therapy on Trial: The Torture and Death of Candace Newmaker, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-275-97675-0 O'Connor TG, Nilsen WJ (2005), "Models versus Metaphors in Translating Attachment Theory to the Clinic and Community", in Berlin LJ, Ziv Y, Amaya-Jackson L, Greenberg MT (eds.), Enhancing Early Attachments: Theory, Research, Intervention and Policy, Duke series in child development and public policy, Guilford Press, ISBN 978-1-59385-470-6 Prior V, Glaser D (2006), Understanding Attachment and Attachment Disorders: Theory, Evidence and Practice, Child and Adolescent Mental Health Series, London: Jessica Kingsley, ISBN 978-1-84310-245-8, OCLC 70663735 Zeanah, Charles H.; Chesher, Tessa; Boris, Neil W.; Walter, Heather J.; Bukstein, Oscar G.; Bellonci, Christopher; Benson, R. Scott; Bussing, Regina; Chrisman, Allan; Hamilton, John; Hayek, Munya; Keable, Helene; Rockhill, Carol; Siegel, Matthew; Stock, Saundra (November 2016). "Practice Parameter for the Assessment and Treatment of Children and Adolescents With Reactive Attachment Disorder and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder". Journal of the American


id: attunement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attunement-0.md
category: reference
title: Attunement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attunement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:09.472799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attunement-20260505-0
summary:
Attunement was the early term adopted by practitioners of the pseudoscientific discipline of energy medicine, originally developed by Lloyd Arthur Meeker (1907–1954) and his colleagues. Meeker taught and practiced Attunement as a central feature of his spiritual teaching and ministry, Emissaries of Divine Light. Attunement is taught as a personal spiritual practice and as a healing modality offered through the hands. Emissaries of Divine Light believe that Attunement is a pivotal factor in the conscious evolution of humanity. Like qigong, reiki, and therapeutic touch, attunement is a putative practice as defined by the United States National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), lacking published scientific study of its effectiveness. Attunement practitioners and clients rely on personal and anecdotal experience to promote it. == History == === Beginnings === Lloyd Arthur Meeker shared the first Attunement with Rudolph Plagge in Wichita, Kansas, in 1929, and developed the teaching and practice of Attunement with colleagues until his death in 1954. From September 14 to 16, 1932, Meeker had a spiritual awakening experience that he described as a “heavenly ordination.” He marked that experience as the initiation of Emissaries of Divine Light. That same year he instituted a series of energy medicine


id: attunement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attunement-1.md
category: reference
title: Attunement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attunement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:09.472799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attunement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Development === As Emissaries of Divine Light grew in the 1960s, '70s and '80s, so did the teaching and practice of Attunement. Martin Cecil emphasized in his teaching of Attunement that the basis of it was a spiritual practice. While many of the early Attunement practitioners were chiropractors, lay people became increasingly active in the practice. Building on the early work of Lloyd Arthur Meeker, Attunement evolved to include groups of people practicing it together. In 1993, a World Blessing time was established for practitioners to share a time of collective Attunement and healing prayer. In the '80s and '90s, the teaching and practice of long-distance Attunement was developed further. Following Martin Cecil's death in 1988, his son, Michael Cecil, become the Spiritual Leader of the Emissaries. In 1996, Emissaries of Divine Light formed an Attunement Guild, which established standards for the teaching and certification of Attunement practitioners. A group of Attunement practitioners, including Chris Jorgensen and Andrew Shier, formed the International Association of Attunement Practitioners (IAAP) in 1999. IAAP developed and taught the practice of Attunement separate from the organization of Emissaries of Divine Light. Roger de Winton continued his Attunement trainings through Attunement Intensives offered at Sunrise


id: auditing-scientology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Auditing (Scientology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:10.624540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditing-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
Auditing, also called processing, is a central practice in Scientology in which a trained "auditor" asks structured questions intended to help a participant identify and address past experiences and emotional difficulties. Most auditing uses an E-meter, a device the Church of Scientology describes as a spiritual tool for detecting areas of mental or spiritual trauma, though courts and scientists have found it to have no medical or scientific validity. Auditing is presented as the primary method for advancing up Scientology's Bridge to Total Freedom, a graded series of levels involving procedures and rundowns, using concepts such as the reactive mind, engrams, and past‑life incidents and implants. Scholars and critics have variously described auditing as a form of psychological conditioning, hypnosis, or pseudotherapy, and have raised concerns about its methods, the misuse of confidential session records, and its space‑opera cosmology. There have been legal, regulatory, and ethical controversies related to its unproven medical claims, misuse of private information, the use of child labor, and the death of some participants. == Terminology == L. Ron Hubbard assigned special meanings to many ordinary English words when he wrote about Scientology, and Scientologese has become a language in itself. These are some very basic


id: auditing-scientology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Auditing (Scientology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:10.624540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditing-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Preclear === The "preclear" or "PC" is the person who is being audited—the client, formerly called the "patient". At most levels of auditing, there are two people present: the auditor is the one asking questions, and the preclear is the one answering them. In some of the upper levels, a person audits oneself, being both auditor and preclear at the same time. The term was created back when the ultimate goal of auditing was to create a person who had been cleared, ergo the person being audited was pre-Clear. However, even after Hubbard created the upper levels, the term preclear was still used even if the person had surpassed the state of Clear. The term has continued to represent the role in auditing rather than the level the person has attained. During an auditing session, the auditor writes down the questions and the preclear's answers, and the papers are stored in the client's PC folder (preclear folder). === E-meter === Most auditing sessions involve a device called the Hubbard Electropsychometer or E-meter. It consists of two handheld electrodes connected to a galvanometer. It measures changes in electrical resistance in the body (galvanic skin response). Scientology teaches that changes in


id: auditing-scientology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Auditing (Scientology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:10.624540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditing-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
== Rundowns == Hubbard defines a rundown as "a series of steps which are auditing actions and processes designed to handle a specific aspect of a case and which have a known end phenomena". Hubbard devised dozens of rundowns. The main rundowns are the levels of the Bridge to Total Freedom, which are the codified sequential steps to attain Scientology's concept of spiritual freedom. One of the earliest rundowns on the Bridge, which most Scientologists are expected to do, is the Purification Rundown. The "purif" is a sauna-and-sweat detoxification program requiring a high intake of vitamins, allegedly designed to remove toxins from the body that would inhibit one's recall needed for future auditing. Some of the basic levels of the Bridge include rundowns said to alleviate issues with communication, problems, and upsets. The Clear Certainty Rundown is the step where the Church of Scientology verifies that the preclear has correctly attained the State of Clear. There are specialty rundowns such as the three very high-priced "L's Rundowns" available only at Flag which are promoted as executive boosters and promise the ability to be stably exterior—outside of your body. The Super Power Rundown is intended to increase one's perceptions; Hubbard said


id: auditing-scientology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)-3.md
category: reference
title: Auditing (Scientology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:10.624540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditing-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Incidents and implants === "Incidents" are events that happened to a person which continue to have a grip on their mind or spirit, and negatively affects them. It could be an accident or traumatic event that includes pain and subconscious commands, whether from this life or in a past life. Auditing procedures locate incidents in the person and relieve or erase them from the person's mind. "Implants" are an element of some incidents involving externally-imposed memories that contain commands and fictitious events. Hubbard alleges that the person will believe the implanted incident actually existed, and the commands in the implant make the person act strangely. A contemporary analogy would be the installing of a hypnotic command. However, the implants Hubbard presents in his lectures and writings are characterized by past-life incidents set in technologically advanced, space opera scenarios. Typically, these implants involve electronic fields entrapping and zapping a thetan (the being), installing commands, and showing cinema-like moving pictures to install false memories. Such incidents are alleged to have occurred millions or trillions of years ago. However, Hubbard believed that implantation is being performed in contemporary times by psychiatrists and priests. Methods of trapping and implanting a thetan might include


id: auditing-scientology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)-4.md
category: reference
title: Auditing (Scientology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:10.624540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditing-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Claimed benefits === L. Ron Hubbard claimed benefits from auditing including improved IQ, improved ability to communicate, enhanced memory and alleviation of issues such as psychosis, dyslexia and attention deficit disorder. Some people have alleged that auditing amounts to medical treatment without a license, and in the 1950s, some auditors were arrested on the charge. The Church of Scientology disputes that it is practicing medicine, and it has successfully established in United States courts of law that auditing addresses only spiritual relief. According to the Church, the psychotherapist treats mental health and the Church treats the spiritual being. Hubbard clarified the difference between the two: If we processed a specific type of aberration, we of course would be in the field of mental healing, and so forth. But long ago we actually discovered that we must not process specific aberrations, which takes us out of the field of mental healing. It is quite fatal to do this because in the first place it's an evaluation for the case. In the second place, it's a negative type process; you're condemning the individual for hitting girls. Doesn't validate the individual at all. Do you follow? And if carried on very long,


id: aura-paranormal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aura_(paranormal)-0.md
category: reference
title: Aura (paranormal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aura_(paranormal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:11.877987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aura-paranormal-20260505-0
summary:
According to spiritual beliefs, an aura or energy field is a colored emanation said to enclose a human body or any animal or object. In some esoteric positions, the aura is described as a subtle body. Psychics and holistic medicine practitioners often claim to have the ability to see the size, color and type of vibration of an aura. In spiritual alternative medicine, the human aura is seen as part of a hidden anatomy that reflects the state of being and health of a client, often understood to even comprise centers of vital force called chakras. Such claims are not supported by scientific evidence and are thus considered pseudoscience. When tested under scientific controlled experiments, the ability to see auras has not been proven to exist. == Etymology == In Latin and Ancient Greek, aura means wind, breeze or breath. It was used in Middle English to mean "gentle breeze". By the end of the 19th century, the word was used in some spiritualist circles to describe a speculated subtle emanation around the body. == History == The concept of auras was first popularized by Charles Webster Leadbeater, a former priest of the Church of England and a member of


id: aura-paranormal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aura_(paranormal)-1.md
category: reference
title: Aura (paranormal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aura_(paranormal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:11.877987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aura-paranormal-20260505-0
summary:
Tests of psychic abilities to observe alleged aura emanations have repeatedly been met with failure. One test involved placing people in a dark room and asking the psychic to state how many auras she could observe. Only chance results were obtained. Recognition of auras has occasionally been tested on television. One test involved an aura reader standing on one side of a room with an opaque partition separating her from a number of slots which might contain either actual people or mannequins. The aura reader failed to identify the slots containing people, incorrectly stating that all contained people. In another televised test another aura reader was placed before a partition where five people were standing. He claimed that he could see their auras from behind the partition. As each person moved out, the reader was asked to identify where that person was standing behind the slot. He identified two out of five correctly. Attempts to prove the existence of auras scientifically have repeatedly met with failure; for example people are unable to see auras in complete darkness, and auras have never been successfully used to identify people when their identifying features are otherwise obscured in controlled tests. A 1999 study


id: auriculotherapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auriculotherapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Auriculotherapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auriculotherapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:13.094510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auriculotherapy-20260505-0
summary:
Auriculotherapy (also auricular therapy, ear acupuncture, and auriculoacupuncture) is a form of alternative medicine based on the idea that the ear is a micro system and an external organ, which reflects the entire body, represented on the auricle, the outer portion of the ear. Conditions affecting the person's physical, mental, or emotional health are assumed to be treatable by stimulating the surface of the ear exclusively. Similar mappings are used by several modalities, including the practices of reflexology and iridology. These mappings are not based on or supported by any medical or scientific evidence, and are therefore considered to be pseudoscience. == History and development == French neurologist Paul Nogier invented auriculotherapy in 1957. Nogier developed a phrenological method of projection of a fetal Homunculus on the ear and published what he called the "Vascular Autonomic Signal" which measured a change in the amplitude of the pulse. That mechanism would only produce a signal upon the introduction of new information to the electromagnetic field of the patient. Nogier cited a 'principle of matching resonance' which he could use the vascular autonomic signal to detect the active points of the auricular microsystem. Nogier's Auricular acupuncture was introduced to China in 1958.


id: australo-melanesian-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australo-Melanesian-0.md
category: reference
title: Australo-Melanesian
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australo-Melanesian
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:14.315236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: australo-melanesian-20260505-0
summary:
Australo-Melanesians (also known as Australasians or the Australomelanesoid, Australoid or Australioid race) is an outdated historical grouping of various people indigenous to Melanesia and Australia. Controversially, some groups found in parts of Southeast Asia and South Asia were also sometimes included. While most authors included Papuans, Aboriginal Australians and Melanesians (mainly from Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu), there was controversy about the inclusion of the various Southeast Asian populations grouped as "Negrito", or a number of dark-skinned tribal populations of the Indian subcontinent. The concept of dividing humankind into three, four or five races (often called Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australoid) was introduced in the 18th century and further developed by Western scholars in the context of "racist ideologies" during the age of colonialism. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in “races” as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past." == Terminological history == The term "Australoid" was coined


id: autodynamics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodynamics-0.md
category: reference
title: Autodynamics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodynamics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:15.509623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: autodynamics-20260505-0
summary:
Autodynamics was a physics theory proposed by Ricardo Carezani (1921–2016) in the early 1940s as a replacement for Einstein's theories of special relativity and general relativity. Autodynamics never gained status as a viable alternative model within the physics community, and today is wholly rejected by mainstream science. == Main tenets of autodynamics == The primary claim of autodynamics is that the equations of the Lorentz transformation are incorrectly formulated to describe relativistic effects, which would invalidate special relativity, general relativity, and Maxwell's equations. The effect of the revised equations proposed in autodynamics is to cause particle mass to decrease with particle velocity, being exchanged with kinetic energy (with mass being zero and kinetic energy being equal to the rest mass at c). This exchange between mass and energy is the proposed mechanism underlying most of the derived conclusions of autodynamics. Ancillary predictions of autodynamics include: the nonexistence of the neutrino, the existence of additional particles that have not been observed by mainstream physicists (including the "picograviton" and the "electromuon"), the existence of additional decay modes for muons and interaction modes for energetic atomic nuclei. == Status of autodynamics == Autodynamics is rejected by the mainstream scientific community. A 1999 article


id: ayurveda-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda-0.md
category: reference
title: Ayurveda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:16.698453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ayurveda-20260505-0
summary:
Ayurveda (; IAST: āyurveda) is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. It is heavily practised throughout India and Nepal, where as much as 80% of the population report using ayurveda. Ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by Baba Hari Dass in the 1970s and Maharishi ayurveda in the 1980s. The theory and practice of ayurveda are pseudoscientific, and many ayurvedic preparations, particularly in the rasa shastra tradition, contain toxic levels of lead, mercury, and arsenic. There is no evidence that cancer can be treated or cured through ayurveda. Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia. Therapies include herbal medicines, special diets, meditation, yoga, massage, laxatives, enemas, and medical oils. Early ayurvedic preparations were almost entirely based on complex herbal compounds based on the materia medica of South Asia. Minerals and other metal substances began to enter the traditional pharmacopoeia more pervasively after the eleventh century, under the influence of early Indian alchemy or rasashastra. Ancient ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty, lithotomy, sutures, cataract surgery, and the extraction of foreign objects. Historical evidence for ayurvedic terminology and concepts appear in the Buddhist Canon from the middle of


id: ayurveda-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda-1.md
category: reference
title: Ayurveda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:16.698453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ayurveda-20260505-0
summary:
According to ayurveda, the human body is composed of tissues (dhatus), waste (malas), and humoral fluids (doshas). The seven dhatus are chyle (rasa), blood (rakta), muscles (māmsa), fat (meda), bone (asthi), marrow (majja), and semen (shukra). Like the medicine of classical antiquity, the classic treatises of ayurveda divided bodily substances into five classical elements (panchamahabhuta) viz. earth, water, fire, air and ether. There are also twenty gunas (qualities or characteristics) which are considered to be inherent in all matter. These are organized in ten pairs: heavy/light, cold/hot, unctuous/dry, dull/sharp, stable/mobile, soft/hard, non-slimy/slimy, smooth/coarse, minute/gross, and viscous/liquid. The three postulated elemental bodily humours, the doshas or tridosha, are vata (air, which some modern authors equate with the nervous system), pitta (bile, fire, equated by some with enzymes), and kapha (phlegm, or earth and water, equated by some with mucus). Contemporary critics assert that doshas are not real, but are a fictional concept. The humours (doshas) may also affect mental health. Each dosha has particular attributes and roles within the body and mind; the natural predominance of one or more doshas thus explains a person's physical constitution (prakriti) and personality. Ayurvedic tradition holds that imbalance among the bodily and mental doshas is


id: ayurveda-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda-2.md
category: reference
title: Ayurveda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:16.698453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ayurveda-20260505-0
summary:
Animal products used in ayurveda include milk, bones, and gallstones. In addition, fats are prescribed both for consumption and for external use. Consumption of minerals, including sulfur, arsenic, lead, copper sulfate and gold, are also prescribed. The addition of minerals to herbal medicine is called rasashastra. Ayurveda uses alcoholic beverages called Madya, which are said to adjust the doshas by increasing pitta and reducing vatta and kapha. Madya are classified by the raw material and fermentation process, and the categories include: sugar-based, fruit-based, cereal-based, cereal-based with herbs, fermented with vinegar, and tonic wines. The intended outcomes can include causing purgation, improving digestion or taste, creating dryness, or loosening joints. Ayurvedic texts describe Madya as non-viscid and fast-acting, and say that it enters and cleans minute pores in the body. Purified opium is used in eight ayurvedic preparations and is said to balance the vata and kapha doshas and increase the pitta dosha. It is prescribed for diarrhea and dysentery, for increasing the sexual and muscular ability, and for affecting the brain. The sedative and pain-relieving properties of opium are considered in ayurveda. The use of opium is found in the ancient ayurvedic texts, and is first mentioned in the Sarngadhara


id: ayurveda-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda-3.md
category: reference
title: Ayurveda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:16.698453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ayurveda-20260505-0
summary:
It was reported in 2008 and again in 2018 that around 80 percent of people in India used ayurveda exclusively or combined with conventional Western medicine. A 2014 national health survey found that, in general, forms of the Indian system of medicine or AYUSH (ayurveda, yoga and naturopathy, unani, siddha, and homeopathy) were used by about 3.5% of patients who were seeking outpatient care over a two-week reference period. In 1970, the Indian parliament passed the Indian Medical Central Council Act which aimed to standardise qualifications for ayurveda practitioners and provide accredited institutions for its study and research. In 1971, the Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) was established under the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha medicine and Homoeopathy, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, to monitor higher education in ayurveda in India. The Indian government supports research and teaching in ayurveda through many channels at both the national and state levels, and helps institutionalise traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities. The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) is designed to do research on ayurveda. Many clinics in urban and rural areas are run by professionals who


id: ayurveda-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda-4.md
category: reference
title: Ayurveda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:16.698453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ayurveda-20260505-0
summary:
==== Europe ==== The first ayurvedic clinic in Switzerland was opened in 1987 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. In 2015, the government of Switzerland introduced a federally recognized diploma in ayurveda. == Classification and efficacy == Ayurvedic medicine is considered pseudoscientific because its premises are not based on science. Both the lack of scientific soundness in the theoretical foundations of ayurveda and the quality of research have been criticized. Although laboratory experiments suggest that some herbs and substances in ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves. There is no evidence they can prevent or treat cancer in humans. Ethnologist Johannes Quack writes that although the rationalist movement Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti officially labels ayurveda a pseudoscience akin to astrology, these practices are in fact embraced by many of the movement's members. A review of the use of ayurveda for cardiovascular disease concluded that the evidence is not convincing for the use of any ayurvedic herbal treatment for heart disease or hypertension, but that many herbs used by ayurvedic practitioners could be appropriate for further research. === Promotion === In India, promotion of ayurveda is undertaken by the Ministry of AYUSH through


id: ayurveda-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda-5.md
category: reference
title: Ayurveda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:16.698453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ayurveda-20260505-0
summary:
Some scholars assert that the concepts of traditional ayurvedic medicine have existed since the times of the Indus Valley civilisation but since the Indus script has not been deciphered, such assertions are moot. The Atharvaveda contains hymns and prayers aimed at curing disease. There are various legendary accounts of the origin of ayurveda, such as that it was received by Dhanvantari (or Divodasa) from Brahma. Tradition also holds that the writings of ayurveda were influenced by a lost text by the sage Agnivesha. Ayurveda is one of the few systems of medicine developed in ancient times that is still widely practised in modern times. As such, it is open to the criticism that its conceptual basis is obsolete and that its contemporary practitioners have not taken account of the developments in medicine. Responses to this situation led to an impassioned debate in India during the early decades of the twentieth century, between proponents of unchanging tradition (śuddha "pure" ayurveda) and those who thought ayurveda should modernize and syncretize (aśuddha "impure, tainted" ayurveda). The political debate about the place of ayurveda in contemporary India has continued to the present, both in the public arena and in government. Debate about the place


id: ayurveda-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda-6.md
category: reference
title: Ayurveda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:16.698453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ayurveda-20260505-0
summary:
=== Further development and spread === Ayurveda flourished throughout the Indian Middle Ages. Dalhana (fl. 1200), Sarngadhara (fl. 1300) and Bhavamisra (fl. 1500) compiled works on Indian medicine. The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were also translated into the Chinese language in the 5th century, and during the 8th century, they were translated into the Arabic and Persian language. The 9th-century Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi was familiar with the text. The Arabic works derived from the ayurvedic texts eventually also reached Europe by the 12th century. In Renaissance Italy, the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) were influenced by the Arabic reception of the Sushruta's surgical techniques. British physicians living in India observed rhinoplasty being performed using Indian methods, and reports on their rhinoplasty methods were published in London in the Gentleman's Magazine in 1794. Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in Europe. Joseph Constantine Carpue studied plastic surgery methods in India for 20 years and, in 1815, was able to perform the first major rhinoplasty surgery in the western world, using the "Indian" method of nose reconstruction. In 1840 Brett published an article about this technique. The British had shown


id: baghdad-battery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Battery-0.md
category: reference
title: Baghdad Battery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Battery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:17.899908+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baghdad-battery-20260505-0
summary:
The Baghdad Battery or Parthian Battery Persian: باتری اشکانی ،is the name given to an artifact consisting of a ceramic pot, a tube of copper, and a rod of iron fixed together with bitumen. It was discovered in present-day Khujut Rabu, Iraq in 1936, close to the ancient city of Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian (150 BC – 223 AD) and Sasanian (224–650 AD) empires, and it is believed to date from either of these periods. Its origin and purpose remain unclear. Wilhelm König, at the time director of the laboratory of the National Museum of Iraq, suggested that the object functioned as a galvanic cell, possibly used for electroplating, or some kind of electrotherapy. There is no electroplated object known from this period, and the claims are universally rejected by archaeologists. An alternative explanation is that it functioned as a container for magic spells for protection, defense or curses. Ten similar clay vessels had been found earlier. Four were found in 1930 in Seleucia dating to the Sassanid period. Three were sealed with bitumen and contained a bronze cylinder, again sealed, with a pressed-in papyrus wrapper containing decomposed fiber rolls. They had been held in place with up


id: baghdad-battery-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Battery-1.md
category: reference
title: Baghdad Battery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Battery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:17.899908+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baghdad-battery-20260505-0
summary:
After the publication of a sensationalist article describing the jar in the March 1939 edition of Astounding Science-Fiction, electrical engineer Willard F. M. Gray at the General Electric plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts made a reconstruction. Gray chose to test it with copper (II) sulphate solution as the electrolyte. He reported that this “worked quite well for a short time.” Arne Eggebrecht, a past director of the Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim, claimed to have electroplated silver onto an unspecified surface. Using many replicas of the jar connected together, with grape juice as the electrolyte, Eggebrecht only produced a layer of silver 100 nanometres thick. Speaking to a reporter for BBC News, Bettina Schmitz, a researcher based at the same museum, said, "There does not exist any written documentation of the experiments which took place here in 1978... The experiments weren't even documented by photos, which really is a pity...I have searched through the archives of this museum and I talked to everyone involved in 1978 with no results." In 1993, W. Jansen reported an experiment with an electrolyte of diluted acetic acid with some dissolved benzoquinone in a cell and got "good experimental results". On the 29th episode (23 March 2005)


id: baghdad-battery-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Battery-2.md
category: reference
title: Baghdad Battery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Battery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:17.899908+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baghdad-battery-20260505-0
summary:
=== Alternative hypothesis === Wilhelm König noted the clear similarity of this jar with the 4 found in Seleucia and 6 found in Ctesiphon. In 1932, Kühnel described those found at Ctesiphon as containers for "conjurations, blessings and the like, written perhaps on papyrus". Emmerich Paszthory asserted the Khujut Rabu jar and those from Seleucia and Ctesiphon were clearly magic objects - as all the parts were known to be associated with magic in that time. As the tubes were copper, the spell was probably protective. "Magic nails have been preserved in large numbers." The iron nails were used to nail fast the contents. Brad Hafford of the University of Pennsylvania and Penn Museum agreed with this analysis. The jars found in Seleucia were in the same vicinity as three magical or incantation bowls - made to protect against demons. Two of those bowls were covered with fake writing. Those two were found stacked together, covering a similarly inscribed eggshell. The jar found at Khujut Rabu' (the Baghdad Battery) was itself also found in association with magical bowls. The artifacts are similar to other objects believed to be storage vessels for sacred scrolls from nearby Seleucia on the Tigris. In


id: bates-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Bates method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:19.108469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bates-method-20260505-0
summary:
The Bates method is an ineffective and potentially dangerous alternative therapy aimed at improving eyesight. Eye-care physician William Horatio Bates (1860–1931) held the erroneous belief that the extraocular muscles produced changes in focus and that "mental strain" caused abnormal action of these muscles; hence he believed that relieving such "strain" would cure defective vision. In 1952, optometry professor Elwin Marg wrote of Bates, "Most of his claims and almost all of his theories have been considered false by practically all visual scientists." No type of training has been shown to change the refractive power of the eye. Moreover, certain aspects of the Bates method can put its followers at risk: They may damage their eyes through overexposure to sunlight, not wear their corrective lenses when they need them (e.g., while driving), or neglect conventional eye care, possibly allowing serious conditions to develop. == Early history == In 1891, Bates published an article in the New York Medical Journal claiming to have successfully reversed seven cases of nearsightedness, or myopia. In 1911, Bates published an article claiming to have taught myopic schoolchildren how to correctly focus in the distance. He recommended that schools post a Snellen chart in each classroom and


id: bates-method-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method-1.md
category: reference
title: Bates method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:19.108469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bates-method-20260505-0
summary:
Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation. He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by "palming", or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands, without putting pressure on the eyeballs. If the covered eyes did not strain, he said, they would see "a field so black that it is impossible to remember, imagine, or see anything blacker", since light was excluded by the palms. However, he reported that some of his patients experienced "illusions of lights and colors" sometimes amounting to "kaleidoscopic appearances" as they "palmed", occurrences he attributed to his ubiquitous "strain" and that he claimed disappeared when one truly relaxed. This phenomenon, however, was almost certainly caused by Eigengrau or "dark light". In fact, even in conditions of perfect darkness, as inside a cave, neurons at every level of the visual system produce random background activity that is interpreted by the brain as patterns of light and color. If while palming one ends up applying pressure to the eyes, this may increase the risk of glaucoma. === Visualization === Bates placed importance on mental images, as he felt relaxation was the key to


id: bates-method-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method-2.md
category: reference
title: Bates method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:19.108469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bates-method-20260505-0
summary:
Perhaps the most famous proponent of the Bates method was the British writer Aldous Huxley. At the age of 16, Huxley had an attack of keratitis, which, after an 18-month period of near-blindness, left him with one eye just capable of light perception and the other with an unaided Snellen fraction of 10/200. This was mainly due to opacities in both corneas, complicated by hyperopia and astigmatism. He was able to read only if he wore thick glasses and dilated his better pupil with atropine, to allow that eye to see around an opacity in the center of the cornea. In 1939, at the age of 45 and with eyesight that continued to deteriorate, he happened to hear of the Bates method and sought the help of Margaret Corbett, who gave him regular lessons. Three years later, he wrote The Art of Seeing, in which he related: "Within a couple of months, I was reading without spectacles, and what was better still, without strain and fatigue.... At the present time, my vision, though very far from normal, is about twice as good as it used to be when I wore spectacles." Describing the process, Huxley wrote, "Vision is not won


id: bates-method-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method-3.md
category: reference
title: Bates method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:19.108469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bates-method-20260505-0
summary:
In 2004 the American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) published a review of various research regarding "visual training", which consisted of "eye exercises, muscle relaxation techniques, biofeedback, eye patches, or eye massages", "alone or in combinations". No evidence was found that such techniques could objectively benefit eyesight, though some studies noted changes, both positive and negative, in the visual acuity of nearsighted subjects as measured by a Snellen chart. In some cases noted improvements were maintained at subsequent follow-ups. However, these results were not seen as actual reversals of nearsightedness, and were attributed instead to factors such as "improvements in interpreting blurred images, changes in mood or motivation, creation of an artificial contact lens by tear film changes, or a pinhole effect from miosis of the pupil." In 2005 the Ophthalmology Department of New Zealand's Christchurch Hospital published a review of forty-three studies regarding the use of eye exercises. They found that "As yet there is no clear scientific evidence published in the mainstream literature supporting the use of eye exercises" to improve visual acuity, and concluded that "their use therefore remains controversial." == General criticisms == === Dead-end === A frequent criticism of the Bates method is that it has


id: william-bates-physician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bates_(physician)-0.md
category: reference
title: William Bates (physician)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bates_(physician)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:20.291653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: william-bates-physician-20260505-0
summary:
William Horatio Bates (December 23, 1860 – July 10, 1931) was an American physician who practiced ophthalmology and developed what became known as the Bates method for better eyesight. The method was based in his theory that the eye does not focus by changing the power of the lens, but rather by elongating the eyeball through use of the extraocular oblique muscles; this model contradicted mainstream ophthalmology and optometry then and now. == Career == Bates graduated A.B. from Cornell University in 1881 and received his medical degree at Columbia University's College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1885. He formulated a theory about vision health, and published the book Perfect Sight Without Glasses in 1920, and the magazine Better Eyesight from 1919 to 1930. Parts of Bates' approach to treating vision disorders were based on psychological principles that were contrary to many of the medical theories of the time and remain so. The Bates method still enjoys some limited acceptance as a modality of alternative medicine. Bates treated many patients, who claimed to have been cured of vision defects, especially myopia. This brought him into conflict with his peers. He defended himself by claiming that other physicians were in thrall


id: baunscheidtism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baunscheidtism-0.md
category: reference
title: Baunscheidtism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baunscheidtism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:21.471712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baunscheidtism-20260505-0
summary:
Baunscheidtism is a form of alternative medicine created in the 19th century. The practice, a form of homeopathy, is named for its founder Carl Baunscheidt (1809–1873), a German mechanic and inventor. The legitimacy of baunscheidtism as an effective medical practice was questioned by at least 1880, when a Melbourne practitioner named Samuel Fischer lost a lawsuit he brought against a patient who failed to pay him, based on the objection that Fischer (a bootmaker) was not a qualified medical practitioner. == Lebenswecker == The lebenswecker (lit. 'life awakener' in German) or "artificial leech" was a medical device invented by Baunscheidt to pierce the skin with many fine needles. Billed as being able to cure myriad illnesses, the lebenswecker was used on skin treated with toxic oil. The resulting inflammation was alleged to draw the body's attention away from the patient's illness, thus effecting a cure. The diseases that could allegedly be cured with the lebenswecker included whooping cough, baldness, toothaches, and mental disorders. The device's popularity was great enough to support a market for "counterfeit" versions of the lebenswecker that were produced by Baunscheidt. == References ==


id: bdort-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BDORT-0.md
category: reference
title: BDORT
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BDORT
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:22.642607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bdort-20260505-0
summary:
The Bi-Digital O-Ring Test (BDORT), characterized as a form of applied kinesiology, is a patented alternative medicine diagnostic procedure in which a patient forms an 'O' with his or her fingers, and the diagnostician subjectively evaluates the patient's health according to the patient's finger strength as the diagnostician tries to pry them apart. BDORT has been cited and characterized at length by the American Institute for Technology and Science Education as a specific and noteworthy example of pseudoscientific quackery. BDORT was invented by Yoshiaki Omura, along with several other related alternative medicine techniques. They are featured in Omura's self-published Acupuncture & Electro-Therapeutics Research, The International Journal, of which Omura is founder and editor-in-chief, as well as in seminars presented by Omura and his colleagues. Omura is registered to practice acupuncture in New York State. In the only known full, formal independent evaluation of BDORT or of any other BDORT-related treatment and technique by a mainstream scientific or medical body, the Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Tribunal of New Zealand ruled, in two separate cases brought before it in 2003, that Richard Warwick Gorringe, MB, ChB of Hamilton, New Zealand, who used BDORT (which he also called "Peak Muscle Resistance Testing", or "PMRT")


id: bdort-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BDORT-1.md
category: reference
title: BDORT
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BDORT
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:22.642607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bdort-20260505-0
summary:
=== Solar energy stored papers === Special solar energy: solar energy stored papers (SESP) is a device which Omura claims was developed using BDORT assessment and evaluation, that can capture a special healing power of sunlight. Omura uses index cards or other ordinary paper and he says the sunlight must be "captured" at the ideal times of sunrise and sunset. Omura says the energy can then be preserved in SESP while maintaining appropriate qigong polarity and shielding the papers from electromagnetic fields by carefully wrapping them in aluminum foil. Thus captured and preserved, he claims that special solar energy is effective in the treatment of a number of conditions, including arthritis, cancers, hypertension, and Alzheimer's disease. He has applied for a patent for this process. === Psychic healing === Omura, as published in his journal, has investigated the application of psychic healing and psychic surgery in Brazil, particularly that of Rubens Farias, Jr, who claims to channel the spirit of Dr Fritz. Applying the BDORT as his tool of evaluation, he concluded that the effects of psychic healing and psychic surgery were achieved through the application of qigong energy and the use of acupuncture points. == Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Tribunal


id: biodynamic-agriculture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture-0.md
category: reference
title: Biodynamic agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:23.917461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biodynamic-agriculture-20260505-0
summary:
Biodynamic agriculture is a form of alternative agriculture based on pseudoscientific and esoteric concepts initially developed in 1924 by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925). It was the first of the organic farming movements. It treats soil fertility, plant growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks, emphasising spiritual and mystical perspectives. Biodynamics has much in common with other organic approaches – it emphasizes the use of manures and composts and excludes the use of synthetic (artificial) fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides on soil and plants. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include its treatment of animals, crops, and soil as a single system, an emphasis from its beginnings on local production and distribution systems, its use of traditional and development of new local breeds and varieties. Some methods use an astrological sowing and planting calendar. Biodynamic agriculture uses various herbal and mineral additives for compost additives and field sprays; these are prepared using methods that are more akin to sympathetic magic than agronomy, such as burying ground quartz stuffed into the horn of a cow, which are said to harvest "cosmic forces in the soil". No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and


id: biodynamic-agriculture-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture-1.md
category: reference
title: Biodynamic agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:23.917461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biodynamic-agriculture-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, biodynamic farming dates from 1926. From 1926 through to 1938, 39 farmers and gardeners in the US pursued biodynamic practices. The Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Association was founded in 1938 as a New York state corporation. In Great Britain, biodynamic farming dates from 1927. In 1928 the Anthroposophical Agricultural Foundation was founded in England; this is now called the Biodynamic Agriculture Association. In 1939, Britain's first biodynamic agriculture conference, the Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Agriculture, was held at Lord Northbourne's farm in Kent; Ehrenfried Pfeiffer was the lead presenter. In Australia, the first biodynamic farmer was Ernesto Genoni who in 1928 joined the Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners, followed soon after by his brother Emilio Genoni. Ernesto Genoni's first biodynamic farm was at Dalmore, in Gippsland, Victoria, in 1933. The following year, Ileen Macpherson and Ernesto Genoni founded Demeter Biological Farm at Dandenong, Victoria, in 1934 and it was farmed using biodynamic principles for over two decades. Bob Williams presented the first public lecture in Australia on biodynamic agriculture on 26 June 1938 at the home of the architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin at Castlecrag, Sydney. Since the


id: biodynamic-agriculture-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture-2.md
category: reference
title: Biodynamic agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:23.917461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biodynamic-agriculture-20260505-0
summary:
The field sprays contain substances that stimulate plant growth including cytokinins. Some improvement in nutrient content of compost is evident from the ingredients included, but not necessarily as a result of the practices and exact preparations as Steiner described them. Although the preparations have direct nutrient values, modern biodynamic practitioners believe their benefit is to support the self-regulating capacities of the biota already present in the soil and compost. Critics of the practice have pointed out that no evidence or logic underlies the practices themselves, which instead are dependent on magical thinking and debunked theories of Steiner himself. There is no evidence that biodynamic practices have any benefit beyond the direct nutrients they add as fertilizer, which may itself be of smaller benefit than other traditionally organic or commercial fertilizers. ==== Field preparations ==== Field preparations, for stimulating humus formation: 500: A humus mixture prepared by filling a cow's horn with cow manure and burying it in the ground (40–60 cm below the surface) in the autumn. It is left to decompose during the winter and recovered for use as fertilizer the following spring. 501: Crushed powdered quartz stuffed into a cow's horn and buried in the ground in springtime


id: biodynamic-agriculture-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture-3.md
category: reference
title: Biodynamic agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:23.917461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biodynamic-agriculture-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == In a 2002 newspaper editorial, Peter Treue, agricultural researcher at the University of Kiel, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience and argued that similar or equal results can be obtained using standard organic farming principles. He wrote that some biodynamic preparations more resemble alchemy or magic akin to geomancy. In a 1994 analysis, Holger Kirchmann, a soil researcher with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, concluded that Steiner's instructions were occult and dogmatic, and cannot contribute to the development of alternative or sustainable agriculture. According to Kirchmann, many of Steiner's statements are not provable because scientifically clear hypotheses cannot be made from his descriptions. Kirchmann asserted that when methods of biodynamic agriculture were tested scientifically, the results were unconvincing. Further, in a 2004 overview of biodynamic agriculture, Linda Chalker-Scott, a researcher at Washington State University, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience, writing that Steiner did not use scientific methods to formulate his theory of biodynamics, and that the later addition of valid organic farming techniques has "muddled the discussion" of Steiner's original idea. Based on the scant scientific testing of biodynamics, Chalker-Scott concluded "no evidence exists" that homeopathic preparations improve the soil. In Michael Shermer's The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience, Dan


id: biomesotherapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomesotherapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomesotherapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomesotherapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:25.062777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomesotherapy-20260505-0
summary:
Biomesotherapy is a pseudoscientific therapy that combines homeopathy, mesotherapy, and acupuncture. Saline and/or homeopathic solutions are injected subcutaneously at or along traditional acupuncture sites. Oral administration of homeopathic formulations may also form part of the treatment. Biomesotherapy is marketed as a form of pain management or as a generalised wellness treatment. Biomesotherapy was implicated in a cluster of mycobacterial infections in Australia in 2008. This therapy involves the oral administration of a homeopathic remedy and the injection of a sterile saline solution into certain trigger points in the body with the aim of stimulating the organ systems, which is known as the cutivistic response. Biomesotherapy is claimed designed to relax tense muscles, and primarily aims to help the body heal itself and normalize the nervous system. This therapy is often used to treat pain as a result of joint disease or other musculoskeletal problems. Biomesotherapy is claimed to help the body to treat the root of the pain. Biomesotherapy is not recommended for the treatment of heart disease, high blood pressure, depression, AIDS etc. There is no evidence to the efficacy of the treatment. == References == This article incorporates public domain text from the CDC as cited.


id: biorhythm-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)-0.md
category: reference
title: Biorhythm (pseudoscience)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:27.359615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biorhythm-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The biorhythm theory is the pseudoscientific idea that peoples' daily lives are significantly affected by rhythmic cycles with periods of exactly 23, 28 and 33 days, typically a 23-day physical cycle, a 28-day emotional cycle, and a 33-day intellectual cycle. The idea was developed by German otolaryngologist Wilhelm Fliess in the late 19th century, and was popularized in the United States in the late 1970s. The proposal has been independently tested and, consistently, no validity for it has been found. According to the notion of biorhythms, a person's life is influenced by rhythmic biological cycles that affect their ability in various domains, such as mental, physical, and emotional activity. These cycles begin at birth and oscillate in a steady (sine wave) fashion throughout life, and by modeling them mathematically, it is suggested that a person's level of ability in each of these domains can be predicted from day to day. It is built on the idea that the biofeedback chemical and hormonal secretion functions within the body could show a sinusoidal behavior over time. Most biorhythm models use three cycles: a 23-day physical cycle, a 28-day emotional cycle, and a 33-day intellectual cycle. These cycles are to be adjusted based


id: biorhythm-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)-1.md
category: reference
title: Biorhythm (pseudoscience)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:17:27.359615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biorhythm-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
An examination of some 134 biorhythm studies found that the theory is not valid (Hines, 1998). It is empirically testable and has been shown to be false. Terence Hines believes that this fact implies that biorhythm theory 'can not be properly termed a pseudoscientific theory'. However, when the advocates of an empirically testable theory refuse to give up the theory in the face of overwhelming evidence against it, it seems reasonable to call the theory pseudoscientific. For, in fact, the adherents to such a theory have declared by their behaviour that there is nothing that could falsify it, yet they continue to claim the theory is scientific. (from Carroll's The Skeptic's Dictionary) The physiologist Gordon Stein in the book Encyclopedia of Hoaxes (1993) wrote:Both the theoretical underpinning and the practical scientific verification of biorhythm theory are lacking. Without those, biorhythms became just another pseudoscientific claim that people are willing to accept without required evidence. Those pushing biorhythm calculators and books on a gullible public are guilty of making fraudulent claims. They are hoaxers of the public if they know what they are saying has no factual justification.A 1978 study of the incidence of industrial accidents found neither empirical nor theoretical


