# kb

id: funding-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Research funding is a term that generally encompasses any funding for scientific research in the areas of natural science, technology, and social science. While different methods can be used to disburse funding, the term generally connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated, with only the most promising and economically viable receiving funding. Usually, it is measured through gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). GERD includes R&D performed within a country and funded from abroad but excludes payments for R&D performed abroad. The largest share of research funding comes from two major sources: corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies, often known as research councils). A smaller amount of scientific research is funded by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria, and AIDS. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), more than 60% of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. Comparatively, in countries with a relatively lower national GDP, such as Portugal and Mexico, the industry


id: funding-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Methodology to measure science funding == The guidelines for R&D data collections are laid down in the Frascati Manual published by the OECD. In the publication, R&D denotes three types of activities: basic research, applied research, and experimental development. This definition does not cover innovation, but it may feed into the innovative process. Additionally, the business sector innovation has a dedicated OECD manual. The most frequently used measurement for R&D is gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). GERD is often represented in GERD-to-GDP ratios, as it allows for easier comparisons between countries. The data collection for GERD is based on reporting by performers. GERD differentiates according to the funding sector (business, enterprise, government, higher education, private non-profit, rest of the world) and the sector of performance (all funding sectors with the exception of rest of the world, as GERD only measures activity within the territory of a country). The two may coincide, for example, when the government funds government-performed R&D. Government funded science may also be measured by the Government budget appropriations and outlays for R&D (GBAORD/ GBARD). GBARD is a funder-based method, it denotes what governments committed to R&D (even if final payment might be different).


id: funding-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Conditionality ==== In addition to project deliverables, funders also increasingly introduce new eligibility requirements alongside traditional ones such as research integrity/ethics. The 2016 Open Science movement, tied funding increasingly tied to data management plans and making data FAIR. The Open Science requirement complements Open Access mandates which in 2025 are widespread. The gender dimension also gained ground in recent years. The European Commission mandates research applicants to adopt gender equality plans across their organization. The UK Research and Innovation Global Challenges Research Fund mandates a gender equality statement. As of 2022, the European Commission also introduced a "Do No Significant Harm" principle to the Framework Program which aims to curb the environmental footprint of scientific projects. "Do No Significant Harm" has been criticized as coupled with other eligibility requirements it is often characterized as red-tape. Since 2020, European Commission has been trying to simplify the Framework Program with limited success. Simplification attempts were also taken by the UK Research and Innovation. ==== Process ==== Often scientists apply for research funding which a granting agency may (or may not) approve to financially support. These grants require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher(s)'s background, the


id: funding-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest (COIs) is used by journals to guarantee credibility and transparency of the scientific process. Conflict of interest disclosure, however, is not systematically nor consistently dealt with by journals that publish scientific research results. When research is funded by the same agency that can be expected to gain from a favorable outcome there is a potential for biased results and research shows that results are indeed more favorable than would be expected from a more objective view of the evidence. A 2003 systematic review studied the scope and impact of industry sponsorship in biomedical research. The researchers found financial relationships among industry, scientific investigators, and academic institutions widespread. Results showed a statistically significant association between industry sponsorship and pro-industry conclusions and concluded that "Conflicts of interest arising from these ties can influence biomedical research in important ways." A British study found that a majority of the members on national and food policy committees receive funding from food companies. In an effort to cut costs, the pharmaceutical industry has turned to the use of private, nonacademic research groups (i.e., contract research organizations [CROs]) which can do the work for less money than academic investigators. In 2001


id: funding-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== By country === Different countries spend vastly different amounts on research, in both absolute and relative terms. For instance, South Korea and Israel dedicate more than 4% of their national GDP to research and development, while numerous less developed countries allocate less than 1% of their national GDP to R&D. In developed economies, GERD is financed mainly by the business sector, whereas the government and the university sector dominate in less-developed economies. In some countries, funding from the major part of the international community represents up to 20-30% of total GERD, which is likely due to FDI and foreign aid; however, only in the case of Mali it is the main source of funding. Private non-profit is not the main source of funds in any country, but it reaches 10% of total GERD in Colombia and Honduras. When comparing annual GERD and GDP Growth, it can be seen that countries with lower GERD are often growing faster. However, as most of these countries are developing, their growth is probably driven by other factors of production. On the other hand, developed countries with a higher share of GERD are usually also the ones that produce positive growth rates. GERD in


id: google-science-fair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-0.md
category: reference
title: Google Science Fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:32.933261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: google-science-fair-20260505-0
summary:
The Google Science Fair was a worldwide (excluding Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, Myanmar/Burma, Syria, Zimbabwe and any other U.S. sanctioned country) online science competition sponsored by Google, Lego, Virgin Galactic, National Geographic and Scientific American. It was an annual event from 2011 to 2018. The first Google Science Fair was announced in January 2011; entries were due on April 7, 2011, and judging occurred in July 2011. The competition is open to 13- to 18-year-old students around the globe, who formulate a hypothesis, perform an experiment, and present their results. All students had to have an internet connection and a Google Account to participate, and the projects had to be in English, German, Italian, Spanish, or French. The final submission had to include ten sections, which were the summary, an "About Me" page, the steps of the project, and a works cited page. Entries were judged on the student's presentation, question, hypothesis, research, experiment, data, observations, and conclusion. Prizes were awarded to three finalists. The grand prize included a National Geographic trip to the Galapagos Islands, and a US$50,000 scholarship; finalists received a US$15,000 scholarship and assorted packages from sponsoring organizations. == Guest interviews == The on-line site also


id: google-science-fair-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-1.md
category: reference
title: Google Science Fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:32.933261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: google-science-fair-20260505-0
summary:
== 2015 Winners == The 2015 Google Science Fair closed for entries on May 18, 2015, with regional finalists announced in London on July 7, 2015. These included Lauren McKenzie (14) who built an automatic soil watering system, Shadab Karnachi (14) who designed a low-cost gaming device for people with visual impairments, Nishanth Kumar (16) who designed a low-cost 'hands-free' mouse for use by people with developmental disabilities, and Peter He (14) who developed an innovative wireless virtual reality system. The global finalists representing 10 countries were announced on August 4, 2015, and were as follows: Bosnia-Herzegovina Anela Arifi and Ilda Ismaili – A system for alternative fuel production and storage using chicken feathers Canada Isabella O'Brien – Trouble in Paradise: Recycling shell waste to reduce ocean acidification Calvin Rieder – Extracting clean water from air: solar-powered solution for providing potable water France Eliott Sarrey – Bot2Karot: gardening through a smartphone-activated robot India Lalita Prasida Sripada Srisai – Absorbing water pollutants with corn cobs Lithuania Laura Steponavičiūtė – Detecting the environmental dangers of nanomaterials Russia Alexey Tarasov - Using ternary logic on current electronics Singapore Girish Kumar – RevUp: improving learning through auto-generated study questions Zhilin Wang – Zinc air


id: gpugrid-net-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net-0.md
category: reference
title: GPUGRID.net
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:34.200411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gpugrid-net-20260505-0
summary:
GPUGRID is a volunteer computing project hosted by Pompeu Fabra University and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It performs full-atom molecular biology simulations that are designed to run on Nvidia's CUDA-compatible graphics processing units. == Former support for PS3s == Support for the PS3's Cell microprocessor and the subsequent PS3GRID project was dropped in 2009 due to updated firmware preventing the installation of required third-party software. This included Linux distributions that are required to run BOINC. The massive throughput of Nvidia GPUs has also made the PS3 client largely redundant. As of September 2009, a mid-range Nvidia GPU ran GPUGRID applications approximately five times faster than the Cell microprocessor. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects Molecular dynamics GPGPU == References == == Further reading == Research topics in GPUGRID website's science sections GPUGRID's about us Archived 2016-11-04 at the Wayback Machine section == External links == Official website Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC)


id: gridrepublic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic-0.md
category: reference
title: GridRepublic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:35.375240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gridrepublic-20260505-0
summary:
GridRepublic is a BOINC Account Manager. It focuses on creating a clean and simple way to join and interact with BOINC. GridRepublic was started with a mission to raise public awareness and participation in volunteer computing with BOINC. GridRepublic was formed in 2004 by Matthew Blumberg as a mechanism to control the multiple projects from one place. The code for the BOINC software had to be redesigned to allow for the Account Manager system to be implemented. GridRepublic's website has won numerous awards including being named finalist at the 2007 SXSW Interactive Festival and the 2008 Stockholm Challenge. GridRepublic has also been the recipients of a Google Grant allowing for advertising through Google. == Projects == GridRepublic supports a wide range of the BOINC projects. The list of supported projects and the development status of projects are periodically updated. Some of its popular projects include: Climateprediction.net Climate change modeling on personal computers Einstein@home Pulsar stars from LIGO and GEO data Rosetta@home Protein folding research SETI@home Searching radio and light data for signs of intelligent life == Software == GridRepublic is a non-profit organisation, an online application, and software. The software is open source and a customized version of BOINC. ==


id: hashclash-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash-0.md
category: reference
title: HashClash
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:36.616095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hashclash-20260505-0
summary:
HashClash was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform to find collisions in the MD5 hash algorithm. It was based at Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at the Eindhoven University of Technology, and Marc Stevens initiated the project as part of his master's degree thesis. The project ended after Stevens defended his M.Sc. thesis in June 2007. However, SHA1 was added later, and the code repository was ported to git in 2017. The project was used to create a rogue certificate authority certificate in 2009. == See also == Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == HashClash HashClash at Stevens' home page Create your own MD5 collisions on AWS, Nat McHugh's blog


id: help-conquer-cancer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer-0.md
category: reference
title: Help Conquer Cancer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:37.822452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: help-conquer-cancer-20260505-0
summary:
Help Conquer Cancer is a volunteer computing project that runs on the BOINC platform. It is a joint project of the Ontario Cancer Institute and the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute. It is also the first project under World Community Grid to run with a GPU counterpart. == Project Purpose == The goal is to enhance the efficiency of protein X-ray crystallography, which will enable researchers to determine the structure of many cancer-related proteins faster. This will lead to improving the understanding of the function of these proteins, and accelerate the development of new pharmaceutical drugs. == See also == BOINC List of volunteer computing projects World Community Grid == References == == External links == Help Conquer Cancer Archived 2010-01-17 at the Wayback Machine


id: help-cure-muscular-dystrophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:42.553225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: help-cure-muscular-dystrophy-20260505-0
summary:
Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy is a volunteer computing project that runs on the BOINC platform. It is a joint effort of the French muscular dystrophy charity, L'Association française contre les myopathies; and L'Institut de biologie moléculaire et cellulaire (Molecular and Cellular Biology Institute). == Project purpose == Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy studies the function of various proteins that are produced by the two hundred genes known to be involved in the production of neuromuscular proteins by modelling the protein-protein interactions of the forty thousand relevant proteins that are listed in the Protein Data Bank. More specifically, it models how a protein would be affected when another protein or a ligand docks with it. == Scientific publications == Decrypting protein surfaces by combining evolution, geometry, and molecular docking. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2019). Hidden partners: Using cross-docking calculations to predict binding sites for proteins with multiple interactions. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2018). Protein social behavior makes a stronger signal for partner identification than surface geometry. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2017). Great interactions: How binding incorrect partners can teach us about protein recognition and function. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2016). Protein-Protein Interactions in a Crowded Environment: An Analysis


id: helsinki-challenge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge-0.md
category: reference
title: Helsinki Challenge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:43.734983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helsinki-challenge-20260505-0
summary:
Helsinki Challenge is a science-based competition and idea accelerator which brings together the academic community and society at large to solve the world's grand challenges in cooperation. The competition goal is not only to create new scientific information, but to influence society. Multidisciplinary teams consisting of experts from the academic and artistic communities, the business world, the public and third sectors, media and other actors of the society are welcome to take part in the competition. Participating teams are evaluated by the jury using the following criteria: originality, creativity, impact, focus on solutions and use of science-based methods. The competition prize is 375,000 euros and it is meant for the implementation of the solution. Helsinki Challenge was held for the first time in 2015. In 2017, the competition is organised by the University of Helsinki in collaboration with Aalto University, Hanken School of Economics, University of Eastern Finland, University of Jyväskylä, University of Oulu, University of the Arts Helsinki, University of Turku, University of Vaasa and Åbo Akademi University. == Helsinki Challenge 2014–2015 == The first ever Helsinki Challenge was organised by the University of Helsinki and celebrated the University's 375th anniversary in 2015. The first Helsinki Challenge competition themes


id: ibercivis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ibercivis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:44.935224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ibercivis-20260505-0
summary:
Ibercivis was a volunteer computing platform which allows internet users to participate in scientific research by donating unused computer cycles to run scientific simulations and other tasks. The original project, which became operational in 2008, was a scientific collaboration between the Portuguese and Spanish governments, but it is open to the general public and scientific community, both within and beyond the Iberian Peninsula. The project's name is a portmanteau of Iberia and the Latin word civis, meaning 'citizen'. In April 2020, the volunteer computing platform was restarted by the Ibercivis Foundation and the Spanish National Research Council in order to screen existing drugs for antiviral activity against Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. == History == Ibercivis was developed in Spain with the cooperation of the Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems at the University of Zaragoza, CIEMAT, CETA-CIEMAT, the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and RedIris. The project tasks are issued by different scientific and technological centers in Spain with the aim of creating a functional platform for volunteer-based scientific computing. The project is a European counterpart to the successful United States-based SETI@home and Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing


id: ibercivis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-1.md
category: reference
title: Ibercivis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:44.935224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ibercivis-20260505-0
summary:
Fusion: a star on your screen: this application helped scientists at the Research Center for Energy Environment and Technology (CIEMAT) and at the Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI) perform simulations of the plasmas that will be produced in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The ITER project, which will begin operation in 2018, seeks to make nuclear fusion power a reality, replicating on Earth conditions typically found inside stars. Docking: looking for anti-cancer drugs: the Docking application assisted the search for new medicines through the simulation of protein docking. The Bioinformatics Unit of the Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM) developed a platform to allow the automatic simulation of interactions of proteins and small molecules. Its purpose was to find effective drugs to treat serious illnesses, such as cancer. Materials: simulation of magnetic systems: the Materials application aided physicists from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Universidad de Extremadura and the Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems in discovering how non-magnetic impurities in magnetic materials modify the properties of their transition from a magnetic state to a non-magnetic one. The knowledge of these transitions is important not only from a theoretical point of view


id: industry-funding-of-academic-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Industry funding of academic research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:46.161929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: industry-funding-of-academic-research-20260505-0
summary:
Industry funding of academic research in the United States is one of the two major sources of research funding in academia along with government support. Currently, private funding of research accounts for the majority of all research and development funding in the United States as of 2007 overall. Overall, Federal and Industrial sources contribute similar amounts to research, while industry funds the vast majority of development work. While the majority of industry research is performed in-house, a major portion of this private research funding is directed to research in non-profit academic centers. As of 1999, industrial sources accounted for an estimated $2.2 billion of academic research funding in the US. However, there is little governmental oversight or tracking of industry funding on academic science and figures of the scale of industry research are often estimated by self-reporting and surveys which can be somewhat unreliable. Much of this industry funding of academic research is directed toward applied research. However, by some accounts, industry may even fund up to 40% of basic research in the United States, with Federal funding of basic research falling below 50%, although this figure does not consider where this research is conducted. The role for funding of


id: industry-funding-of-academic-research-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-1.md
category: reference
title: Industry funding of academic research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:46.161929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: industry-funding-of-academic-research-20260505-0
summary:
=== University Industry Research Centers (UIRCs) === On a larger scale, there have been numerous attempts to create collaborative University-Industry Research Centers (UIRCs) to jointly host academic and industry researchers to address industry problems with direct, large scale collaborative centers. Early forms of UIRCS started in the 1950s and 1960s with the formation of research parks with industry sponsors. In the 1970s, there were multiple proposals at the federal level in the US to help fund and expand early UIRCs. However, funding fell through at multiple points. The first UIRCs experienced difficulties in bridging the differences between academic and industrial culture. One such attempt occurred at Caltech where Caltech researchers partnered with Xerox and IBM through the Silicon Structures Project. Both industry and academic partners were concerned about the cultures of the other and found the structure ineffective. With such frustrations, it was difficult to secure partners to continue expanding UIRCs. In the late 1970s, RPI created two three new UIRCs: 1) the Center for Integrated Computer Graphics, which received both NSF and industry support 2) the Center for Manufacturing Productivity and Technology Transfer, which was funded entirely by industry support and 3) the Center for Integrated Electronics, which received


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
The Insect Fear Film Festival or IFFF is an annual free event held every spring since 1984, and is the first university-sponsored event of its kind in the U.S., typically taking place on a Saturday in February. Organized by the Entomology Graduate Students Association at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, the festival blends education with entertainment. It showcases films, shorts, and TV episodes that highlight insect biology and celebrate the role of insects in popular culture. The purpose of the event is to dispel fears of insects by providing relative knowledge while various insect-themed monster movies are shown. Before the films begin, May Berenbaum, the festival organizer, the UI Entomology department head and professor, typically introduces each film, providing scientific context, debunking inaccuracies, and exploring why we fear insects. She also points out "biological improbabilities" and filmmaking flaws, often noting that some films are "so bad they’re actually entertaining." (However, the organisers often have to watch the films several times in order to identify a theme and select the best films. "It’s really excruciating sometimes," Berenbaum said.) The festival typically includes several animated shorts and two or three feature-length films. The evening usually starts with a family-friendly film, as parents and


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-1.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== Insect art contest === Since 1993, the lFFF also features an Insect Art Contest for K–12 students, since 1993, inviting them to explore their creativity while learning about insects. Students (K–12) are encouraged to submit artwork that depicts insects and arthropods in any medium. The contest aims to inspire young minds to appreciate the beauty and complexity of these creatures, fostering a deeper understanding of the insect world. Winning entries are often displayed at the festival, providing an opportunity for students to showcase their work to the community. In 1990s, the contest was held with the Natural History Museum, where the winning drawings were displayed for two weeks. Due to the pandemic, the 2021 and 2022 Insect Art Contests were held online with a virtual art gallery to showcase students' artwork. In 2023, the contest returned to an in-person format. The insect-themed artwork contest is usually due by mid-February annually. Please submit your artwork to the Entomology Graduate Student Association (EGSA), UIUC, or contact the IFFF coordinators, typically the EGSA presidents, for details. === Bugscope === At the Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), attendees will have the opportunity to experience a $600,000 high-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) firsthand, gaining


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-2.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 39th annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2022) === The 39th IFFF, themed "Venomous," took place online via Zoom on February 26, 2022. This year's festival featured a variety of engaging and educational activities, including a special presentation by Justin Schmidt, creator of the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, which rates the pain caused by insect stings. Attendees could explore a virtual insect petting zoo, learn about venomous insects through the Bugscope, and take a virtual tour of the Illinois Natural History Survey's insect collection. The event also included fun and interactive elements such as bee ventriloquism, insect-themed crafts, and an art contest featuring insect-themed artwork created by local K-12 students. The film program consisted of a mix of animated and live short films divided into three segments: first, exaggerated comic depictions of insect stings; second, dramatic or humorous reactions to stings, including severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis; and third, scientific insights into the world of venomous arthropods, showcasing their various venom delivery methods and potential beneficial uses. A highlight was a live stinging demonstration to provide a first-hand look at the process of venom delivery. The festival highlighted the fascinating diversity of venomous insects, from honeybee stings used for


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-3.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 33rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2016) === The 33rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) took place on Saturday, February 27, at 6 p.m. in Foellinger Auditorium, with the theme "Exploding Arthropods." The event, hosted by the Entomology Graduate Student Association, highlighted real-life explosive insects, such as bombardier beetles, which spray hot chemicals as a defense, and exploding carpenter ants, which sacrifice themselves to protect their colonies. Parasitoid wasps, whose larvae chew their way out of their hosts, also contributed to the theme. These natural "explosions" were mirrored in the festival's films, featuring mutant cockroaches and giant, lava-breathing tarantulas. The evening featured three films: Palm Rot (2015; 7.5 minutes), Bug (1975), and Lavalantula (2015). The event began with Palm Rot (2015; 7.5 minutes), a short animated film introduced by the event special guest and its creator, Ryan Gillis. Following that, Bug (1975) told the story of a scientist who unintentionally created a breed of intelligent, combustible cockroaches. The evening concluded with Lavalantula (2015), in which giant, lava-spewing tarantulas wreaked havoc in Los Angeles after a volcanic eruption. === 32nd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2015) === The 32nd IFFF was held on February 28, 2015, at 6 p.m.


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-4.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 27th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2010) === The 27th IFFF, held on February 27, 2010, centered on the theme of prehistoric insects. The event offered an intriguing look into the origins of today's insects, with highlights including fossils like Meganeura, a dragonfly-like creature with a wingspan of nearly 30 inches that lived around 300 million years ago, and trilobites—ancient arthropods that once inhabited the seas. The evening featured animated shorts The Deadly Mantis (1957), where a giant mantis is freed by nuclear testing, and Monster on the Campus (1958), in which a dragonfly's blood contamination turns a scientist into a Neanderthal. The evening also featured screenings of Black Scorpion (1957), in which volcanic activity unleashes giant scorpions in Mexico, followed by Deep Freeze (2001, also known as Ice Crawlers), which depicts the reappearance of grad-student-eating trilobites in the Antarctic. === 26th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2009) === The 26th IFFF, themed "Centipede Cinema," took place on February 28, 2009. The event focused on myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), which, despite their many legs, are arthropods, not insects. Centipedes, known for their predatory habits, and millipedes, which feed on decaying matter, were featured for their unique characteristics. The festival


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-5.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 21st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2004) === The 21st IFFF, held on February 28, 2004, focused on "genetically engineered insects." This year's theme traced the evolution of insect horror films, from radiation fears in the 1950s to insect mutations in the 1970s. With the rise of gene manipulation in the early 1980s, genetically modified insects became a new horror movie trope, reflecting public fears about the potential risks of emerging technologies. The short films included Bus of the Undead (2001)from Aqua Teen Hunger Force and Insect Inside (1998) from The Powerpuff Girls. This year showcased three featured films: The Tuxedo (2002), in which Jackie Chan stars in a story where genetically engineered water striders grow to enormous size and threaten freshwater supplies. The film inaccurately suggests water striders have queens, which they do not. Mimic (1997), suggested by movie critic Roger Ebert, follows an entomologist who creates genetically modified "Judas Breed" cockroaches to combat a deadly disease, only for the bugs to evolve into human-like creatures that prey on people in New York City's subways. Despite the absurd use of litmus paper to identify the "Judas breed" of cockroaches, the film effectively highlights the dangers of genetic experimentation


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-6.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 15th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1998) === The 15th Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), held in February 1998, focused on "Roaches Redux." Dr. Berenbaum, the organizer, remarked on the irony that, in 1997, Americans spent approximately $250 million on cockroach poisons, only to spend nearly the same amount watching movies about them. Short films of this year included animated Raid commercials from the 1960s, Warner Brothers' Bingo Crosbyana, episodes of Santa Bugito, and the trailer for Twilight of the Cockroaches. Feature-length highlights included War of the Coprophages (1996), an X-Files episode where Agent Mulder teams up with entomologist Dr. Bambi Berenbaum to battle possible alien cockroaches; Joe’s Apartment (1996), a comedy about a young man befriending singing, dancing cockroaches in New York, with special effects by UIUC alumnus Chris Trimble; and Men in Black (1997), featuring a cockroach-like alien. === 14th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1997) === The 15th IFFF, held in February 1997, embraced an "all ants, all the time!" theme and marked the first year the festival was held in Foellinger Auditorium. AN(T)imated shorts of this year included Dance of the Ants, Gay Anties, Ant Pasted, Ants in the Plants, One Less Ant, and Porky’s


id: international-network-of-engineers-and-scientists-for-global-responsibility-20260505-0
category: reference
title: International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:48.680137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-network-of-engineers-and-scientists-for-global-responsibility-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md

summary:
The International Network of Engineers and Scientists for global responsibility (INES) is an independent non-profit-organization concerned about the impact of science and technology on society. INES efforts focus on disarmament and international peace, ethics in science, responsibilities of scientists and the responsible use of science and technology, just and sustainable development. INES was founded in 1991 in Berlin at the international congress Challenges - Science and Peace in a Rapidly Changing Environment and has become a network of over 200 organisations and individual members. == Challenges for Scientists and Engineers == Rapid changes in our environment and our societies are forcing us to become more conscious of our role in the world. Science and technology are employed in a worldwide competition for military and economic power. The impacts of this competition have global implications. We have entered a phase in which global developments are in conflict with basic requirements for human survival. Large stocks of weapons of mass destruction, the overexploitation of limited common resources, and a heavily unbalanced world economy provide fundamental challenges to human civilisation and may even threaten its existence. Engineers and scientists play a key role, both in developing new knowledge that might threaten international security

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility


id: international-science-festival-in-gothenburg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg-0.md
category: reference
title: International Science Festival in Gothenburg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:49.829764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-science-festival-in-gothenburg-20260505-0
summary:
The International Science Festival in Gothenburg (Swedish: Vetenskapsfestivalen) is an annual festival in Gothenburg with science activities. == About the festival == The International Science Festival in Gothenburg took place for the first time in April 1997 and is since then an annual recurrent event. The purpose is to communicate science to the public and schools in an easy accessible and in a thought provoking manner. Another objective is to create a positive attitude to research and science which is intended to encourage higher education. About 100 000 visitors come each year. This makes it the largest popular science event in Sweden and one of the largest popular science events in Europe. University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology contributes with the knowledge. The International Science Festival in Gothenburg is a member of the European Science Events Association, EUSCEA. == Theme == Each year a special theme that the festival focuses on is chosen: (translated) 2001: Food and eatables 2002: Travel and science expeditions, Life and Medicine 2003: Love and energy 2004: The meaning of life and sustainable development 2005: Design, physics, Finland 2006: Athletics & health 2007: Passion, pistil and personality 2008: Let's play 2009: Civilization in all


id: italian-union-of-scientists-for-disarmament-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Union_of_Scientists_for_Disarmament-0.md
category: reference
title: Italian Union of Scientists for Disarmament
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Union_of_Scientists_for_Disarmament
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:51.051160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: italian-union-of-scientists-for-disarmament-20260505-0
summary:
The Italian Union of Scientists for Disarmament (Italian: Unione Scienziati per il Disarmo) is an association established in 1982 with the purpose of providing information and analysis of arms control and disarmament. Members of the association believe that this task is part of the social responsibility of scientists. The issues it addresses include nuclear arms control and disarmament, nuclear proliferation, consequences of nuclear explosions, control of fissile material, developments of military technology, conventional disarmament, chemical and biological disarmament, and general problems of conflict and conflict resolution. Members share their views with Italian policy-makers and opinion-makers. It organizes conferences and meetings, including the biennial Castiglioncello conference, courses and seminars at Italian universities, and courses for high-school teachers. It promotes the establishment of inter-departmental centers of research affiliated to Italian Universities, and has actively collaborated for many years with the CIRP-UniBa (Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerche sulla Pace, University of Bari). It collaborates with international organizations of scientists and other Italian institutions, such as Archivio Disarmo (Roma) and Forum per i Problemi della Pace e della Guerra (Firenze). Members of USPID participate in Pugwash and ISODARCO meetings. In 1995 it began a standing collaboration with Landau Network-Centro Volta, in Como. This institution organizes,


id: the-lattice-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lattice_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: The Lattice Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lattice_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:52.459383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lattice-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Lattice Project was a volunteer computing project that combined computing resources, Grid middleware, specialized scientific application software and web services into a comprehensive Grid computing system for scientific analysis. It ran the Genetic Algorithm for Rapid Likelihood Inference (GARLI) software to determine the relationships between different genetic samples. A major aspect of the project makes use of the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. The Lattice Project maintained a separate BOINC web site, but the site is dead as of this writing, causing this project to shut down because BOINC depends on this website to get setup information to set this project up on its clients. == References == == External links == The Lattice Project website archive


id: leiden-classical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Classical-0.md
category: reference
title: Leiden Classical
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Classical
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:53.605084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leiden-classical-20260505-0
summary:
Leiden Classical was a volunteer computing project run by the Theoretical Chemistry Department of the Leiden Institute of Chemistry at Leiden University. Leiden Classical used the BOINC system, and enabled scientists or science students to submit their own test simulations of various molecules and atoms in a classical mechanics environment. ClassicalDynamics is a program (and with it a library) completely written in C++. The library is covered by the LGPL license and the main program is covered by the GPL. The project shut down on June 5, 2018. == Joining the project == Participation was possible via the BOINC manager. Using this software one was once able to create an account in the project. Then someone can make a model of a dynamic system and simulation participating run. There are several models possible, to interactions between molecules or planets. == User Submitted Calculations == To create a personal calculation, a user's model had to have six defined variables: Colors of the molecules Box in which the model is run Number of particles in the simulation Interaction between the particles Gravity Coulomb force Lennard-Jones interaction Morse interaction Rydberg interaction Harmonic spirit Harmonic bending Recurrent torsion interactions Distance conditions Confirmation parameter(s) ==


id: leo-szilard-lectureship-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Leo Szilard Lectureship Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:58.603863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leo-szilard-lectureship-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Leo Szilard Lectureship Award (originally called the Leo Szilard Award) is given annually by the American Physical Society (APS) for "outstanding accomplishments by physicists in promoting the use of physics for the benefit of society". It is given internationally in commemoration of physicist Leo Szilard. "In the year's of Szilard's life and activity it became clearer than ever before how great the responsibility of scientists is to the society. And, to a large extent, it is due to Szilard that this awareness began to spread in the scientific community." - Andrei Sakharov It is often awarded to physicists early in their careers who are active in areas such as environmental issues, arms control, or science policy. As of 2015 the recipient is given $3,000 plus $2,000 travel expenses and is expected to lecture at an APS meeting and at educational or research laboratories, to promote awareness of their activities. == Recipients == The award is given yearly and was first presented in 1974. 1974 David R. Inglis 1975 Bernard T. Feld 1976 Richard Garwin 1977 not awarded 1978 Matthew Meselson 1979 Sherwood Rowland 1980 Sidney Drell 1981 Henry Way Kendall, Hans Bethe 1982 Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky 1983 Andrei


id: lhc-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC@home-0.md
category: reference
title: LHC@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:59.785328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lhc-home-20260505-0
summary:
LHC@home is a volunteer computing project researching particle physics that uses the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. The project's computing power is utilized by physicists at CERN in support of the Large Hadron Collider and other experimental particle accelerators. The project is run with the help of over 1,260 active volunteer users contributing more than 3,000 computers processing at a combined 52 teraFLOPS as of September 2024. The project is cross-platform, and runs on a variety of computer hardware configurations. == Applications == The LHC@home project currently runs four applications—Atlas, CMS, SixTrack, and Test4Theory—which deal with different aspects of research conducted in LHC such as calculating particle beam stability and simulating proton collisions. Atlas, CMS, and Test4Theory use VirtualBox, an x86 virtualization software package. === Atlas === Atlas uses volunteer computing power to run simulations of the ATLAS experiment. It can be run in VirtualBox or natively on Linux. === Beauty === Beauty (LHCb) compared the decay of bottom quarks (b) and bottom antiquarks (b), which also known as beauty quarks. The participation of volunteers in the application was suspended indefinitely on 19 November 2018. === CMS === The CMS application (formerly a standalone project called CMS@Home)


id: lincoln-s-birthday-committee-for-democracy-and-intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln's_Birthday_Committee_for_Democracy_and_Intellectual_Freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Lincoln's Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln's_Birthday_Committee_for_Democracy_and_Intellectual_Freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:01.014505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lincoln-s-birthday-committee-for-democracy-and-intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
The Lincoln's Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (LBCDIF) was an antifascist organization of scientists founded by Franz Boas in 1938 to discredit the theories of race being forwarded by the Nazis in Germany. In the 1930s Franz Boas was one of the first scientists to become aware of the immense prestige and influence of scientists in that era. Even at his advanced age Boas wanted to find a way to use the influence of scientists to promote human welfare. At Columbia University he collaborated with Ruth Benedict, Leslie Dunn, Robert Lynd, Walter Rautenstrauch, Harold Urey and other members of the University Federation for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom to find a unifying political position that would bring scientists of all disciplines together on a common front. He decided antifascism was such a position, and based on his collaborations wrote the Manifesto on Freedom in Science. In 1938 the Manifesto was released with 1,284 signatures of prominent scientists, including Roger Adams, Robert Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein (see: Einstein Letter to LBCDIF). Boas used the excitement generated by the Manifesto to launch the LBCDIF. Twenty-six meetings were organized to uphold the principles of the Manifesto, and the success of these meetings


id: list-of-astronomy-outreach-resources-in-europe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Astronomy_Outreach_Resources_in_Europe-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Astronomy_Outreach_Resources_in_Europe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:02.248425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomy-outreach-resources-in-europe-20260505-0
summary:
This is a List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe originally started as an initiative within the framework of the Astronet EU FP7 project. == Scientific Institutions, Observatories, and National Scientific Societies == === Scientific institutions and Observatories === List of astronomical observatories (not only outreach) IAU Office for Astronomy Outreach European Southern Observatory (ESO) ESO Science Outreach Network (ESON) European Space Agency (ESA) CERN outreach Archived 2009-08-03 at the Wayback Machine Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC, Spain) Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (IAA-CSIC, Spain) Spanish National Observatory Centre of AstroBiology (CAB-CSIC, Spain) University of La Rioja (Spain) Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (Ireland) Queen Mary Astronomical Observatory (UK) University of Oxford Dept of Physics (UK) Nottingham Trend University Observatory (UK) University of Glasgow A&A group (UK) Observatoire de Paris Observatoire de Bordeaux Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM) GLObal Robotic-telescopes Intelligent Array (GLORIA Project) EU-HOU network of demonstration radio telescopes Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) Educational resources of INAF (work in progress) Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari (Italy) Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden) === National Astronomical Societies === List of astronomical societies AstroWeb Sociedad Española de Astronomía (SEA) Royal Astronomical Society (UK) Swedish Astronomical Society (Sweden) == Science Museums and


id: malaria-control-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_Control_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Malaria Control Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_Control_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:03.446149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malaria-control-project-20260505-0
summary:
malariacontrol.net was a volunteer computing project to simulate the transmission dynamics and health effects of malaria. It was part of the Africa@home project. The project was terminated on 21 June 2016. == History == The malariacontrol.net domain name was first registered on 19 May 2005 under Swiss Tropical Institute. This project was under Africa@home where the latter was conceived and developed by European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). malariacontrol.net was the first to use volunteer computing to model diseases. The model simulates malaria infection in 50,000 to 100,000 people. Each work unit lasted for an hour in average personal computers and the results were returned to University of Geneva for evaluation by researchers. malariacontrol.net ran all the simulations by using stochastic simulation model. Since 4 November 2010, using the financial support from Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Malariacontrol.net developed an open-source software named "Open Malaria" which can be used to simulate outcomes in various types of malaria transmission settings. On 21 June 2016, malariacontrol.net announced that the project has been terminated due to financial constraints in upgrading their servers for further volunteer computing operations. == Impact == Over 10 years, malariacontrol.net has produced 30 peer-reviewed articles. In 2008, among the


id: march-of-progress-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-0.md
category: reference
title: March of Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:04.775139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-of-progress-20260505-0
summary:
The March of Progress, originally titled The Road to Homo Sapiens, is an illustration that presents 25 million years of human evolution. It was created for the Early Man volume of the Life Nature Library, published in 1965, and drawn by the artist Rudolph Zallinger. It has been widely parodied and imitated to create images of progress of other kinds. == Illustration == === Context === The illustration is part of a section of text and images commissioned by Time-Life Books for the Early Man volume (1965) of the Life Nature Library, by F. Clark Howell. The illustration is a foldout entitled "The Road to Homo Sapiens". It shows a sequence of figures, drawn by natural history painter and muralist Rudolph Zallinger (1919–1995). The 15 human evolutionary forebears are lined up as if they were marching in a parade from left to right. The first two sentences of the caption read "What were the stages of man's long march from apelike ancestors to sapiens? Beginning at right and progressing across four more pages are milestones of primate and human evolution as scientists know them today, pieced together from the fragmentary fossil evidence." === Sequence of species === The 15 primate


id: march-of-progress-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-1.md
category: reference
title: March of Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:04.775139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-of-progress-20260505-0
summary:
== Parodies and adaptations == The March of Progress has often been imitated, parodied, or adapted for commercial or political purposes. The cover of the 1972 Doors album Full Circle references the March of Progress, as does the 1985 Supertramp album Brother Where You Bound, while the poster for the 1992 comedy film Encino Man shows an ape evolving into a skateboarder. The December 2005 issue of The Economist depicts hominids progressing up a flight of stairs to transform into a woman in a black dress holding a glass of champagne to illustrate "The Story of Man". == Predecessors == Thomas Henry Huxley's frontispiece to his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature was intended simply to compare the skeletons of apes and humans, but its unintentional left-to-right progressionist sequence has according to the historian Jennifer Tucker "become an iconic and instantly recognizable visual shorthand for evolution". An illustration, with the caption "Evolution", showing two sequences of four images, each illustrating a gradual transformation of an animal into a human, appeared in the 1889 edition of Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. == References == == External links == Media related to March of Progress


id: material-world-radio-programme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_World_(radio_programme)-0.md
category: reference
title: Material World (radio programme)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_World_(radio_programme)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:06.026030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: material-world-radio-programme-20260505-0
summary:
Material World was a weekly science magazine programme broadcast on Thursday afternoons on BBC Radio 4. Its regular presenter was Quentin Cooper, with contributions from scientists who were researching areas discussed in each programme. == History == The programme began in April 1998 as The Material World, presented by Trevor Phillips. Phillips was a chemistry graduate of Imperial College, and also one of the few regular black broadcasters on Radio 4. In September 2000, Phillips was told that his close links with the Labour Party conflicted with BBC impartiality rules and meant he could no longer present BBC programmes. He was replaced with Quentin Cooper, who presented the programme until its end in 2013. From 5 April 2010 the programme was repeated on Monday evenings at 21.00, the former slot of Costing the Earth. For a short time, when programmes on 5 Live began webstreaming with video, Material World was also webcast. On 14 June 2013 it was announced that the show was to be cancelled and replaced by a new show, Inside Science. The last programme presented by Quentin Cooper was broadcast on 20 June 2013 with the final episode airing a week later on 27 June 2013, presented


id: milkyway-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-0.md
category: reference
title: MilkyWay@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:07.293579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: milkyway-home-20260505-0
summary:
MilkyWay@home is a volunteer computing project in the astrophysics category, running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. Using spare computing power from over 38,000 computers run by over 27,000 active volunteers as of November 2011, the MilkyWay@home project aims to generate accurate three-dimensional dynamic models of stellar streams in the immediate vicinity of the Milky Way. With SETI@home and Einstein@home, it is the third computing project of this type that has the investigation of phenomena in interstellar space as its primary purpose. Its secondary objective is to develop and optimize algorithms for volunteer computing. == Purpose and design == MilkyWay@home is a collaboration between the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's departments of Computer Science and Physics, Applied Physics and Astronomy and is supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation. It is operated by a team that includes astrophysicist Heidi Jo Newberg and computer scientists Malik Magdon-Ismail, Bolesław Szymański and Carlos A. Varela. By mid-2009 the project's main astrophysical interest is in the Sagittarius Stream, an immense stellar stream emanating from the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy that wraps around the Milky Way. Mapping such interstellar streams and their dynamics with high accuracy may provide crucial clues for understanding the


id: milkyway-home-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-1.md
category: reference
title: MilkyWay@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:07.293579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: milkyway-home-20260505-0
summary:
Mendelsohn, Eric J.; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Shelton, Siddhartha; Widrow, Lawrence M.; Thompson, Jeffery M.; Grillmair, Carl J. (1 February 2022). "Estimate of the Mass and Radial Profile of the Orphan–Chenab Stream's Dwarf-galaxy Progenitor Using MilkyWay@home". The Astrophysical Journal. 926 (2): 106. arXiv:2201.03637. Bibcode:2022ApJ...926..106M. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac498a. S2CID 245853837. Donlon, T.; Newberg, H.; Weiss, J.; Guffey, A.; Thompson, J. (2021-06-01). "A Trifurcated Sagittarius Stream in the South". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 53 (5): 403.03. Bibcode:2021DDA....5240303D. Mendelsohn, E. J.; Newberg, H. J.; Shelton, S.; Widrow, L.; Thompson, J.; Grillmair, C. (2021-06-01). "Estimate of the Mass and Radial Profile of the Orphan Stream's Dwarf Galaxy Progenitor Using MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 53 (5): 403.01. Bibcode:2021DDA....5240301M. Mendelsohn, E. J.; Newberg, H. J.; Donlon, T.; Thompson, J. M. (2020-08-01). "N-Body Simulations with MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 52 (4): 200.01. Bibcode:2020DDA....5120001M. Donlon, Thomas; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Sanderson, Robyn; Widrow, Lawrence M. (2020-10-01). "The Milky Way's Shell Structure Reveals the Time of a Radial Collision". The Astrophysical Journal. 902 (2): 119. arXiv:2006.08764. Bibcode:2020ApJ...902..119D. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb5f6. S2CID 219708644. Shelton, Siddhartha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Weiss, Jake; Bauer, Jacob S.; Arsenault, Matthew; Widrow, Larry; Rayment, Clayton; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Mendelsohn, Eric; Newby, Matthew; Rice, Colin;


id: milkyway-home-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-2.md
category: reference
title: MilkyWay@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:07.293579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: milkyway-home-20260505-0
summary:
Desell, Travis; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2008). "An asynchronous hybrid genetic-simplex search for modeling the Milky Way galaxy using volunteer computing". Proceedings of the 10th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation. pp. 921–928. doi:10.1145/1389095.1389273. ISBN 9781605581309. S2CID 10952453. Cole, Nathan; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Desell, Travis; Dawsey, Kristopher; Hayashi, Warren; Liu, Xinyang Fred; Purnell, Jonathan; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos; Willett, Benjamin; Wisniewski, James (20 August 2008). "Maximum Likelihood Fitting of Tidal Streams with Application to the Sagittarius Dwarf Tidal Tails". The Astrophysical Journal. 683 (2): 750–766. arXiv:0805.2121. Bibcode:2008ApJ...683..750C. doi:10.1086/589681. S2CID 1660060. Desell, Travis; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2008). "Asynchronous genetic search for scientific modeling on large-scale heterogeneous environments". 2008 IEEE International Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Processing. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1109/IPDPS.2008.4536169. ISBN 978-1-4244-1693-6. S2CID 1107218. Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Desell, Travis; Varela, Carlos (2008). "The Effects of Heterogeneity on Asynchronous Panmictic Genetic Search". Parallel Processing and Applied Mathematics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4967. pp. 457–468. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.78.2043. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-68111-3_48. ISBN 978-3-540-68105-2. Desell, Travis; Cole, Nathan; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Heidi; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2007). "Distributed and Generic Maximum Likelihood Evaluation". Third IEEE International Conference on e-Science and Grid Computing (E-Science 2007). pp. 337–344. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.65.4065. doi:10.1109/E-SCIENCE.2007.30. ISBN 978-0-7695-3064-2. S2CID


id: mindmodeling-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindModeling@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: MindModeling@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindModeling@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:08.583549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mindmodeling-home-20260505-0
summary:
MindModeling@Home is an inactive non-profit, volunteer computing research project for the advancement of cognitive science. MindModeling@Home is hosted by Wright State University and the University of Dayton in Dayton, Ohio. In BOINC, it is in the area of Cognitive Science and category called Cognitive science and artificial intelligence. It can only operate on a 64-bit operating system, preferably on a computer with multiple cores, running a Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, or Linux operating system. This project is not compatible with mobile devices, unlike other projects on BOINC. == Research focus == N-2 Repetition: understanding how people have a harder time returning to a task from another one Observing how people read through their eye movement for the purpose of helping people reduce eye strain and processing what they read better and faster. Modeling decision-making: resolving around decisions made from visual processing (focus and filtering) Integrated Learning Models (ILM) to create algorithms based on how people learn and make decisions How the brain performs tasks sequentially and simultaneously by measuring its blood flow == Problems == Its status is inactive. However, it is "not down or closed," as its servers are still running. The projects are long; prolonged amounts of


id: neo-colonial-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Neo-colonial science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:09.797369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neo-colonial-science-20260505-0
summary:
Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science, frequently described as helicopter research, parachute science or research, parasitic research, or safari study, is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country, collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with little or no involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-author. Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research. Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as funded research centers) and the careers of local scientists. This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance colonialism—and critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to decolonize knowledge. This kind of research approach reduces the quality


id: neo-colonial-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Neo-colonial science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:09.797369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neo-colonial-science-20260505-0
summary:
An analysis of research money from 1990 to 2020 for climate change, found that 78% of research money for research on Climate change in Africa, was spent in European and North American institutions and more was spent for former British colonies than other countries. This in turn both prevents local researchers from doing groundbreaking work, because they don't have the funding for experimental activities and reduces investment in local researchers ideas and in topics important to the Global South, such as climate change adaptation. === Soil science === Soil scientists have qualified helicopter research as a perpetuation of "colonial" science. Typically researchers from rich countries would come to establish soil profile pits or collect soil and peat samples, which is often more easily done in poor countries given the availability of cheap labour and goodwill of villagers to dig a pit on their land against small payment. The profile will be described and samples taken with the help of local people, possibly also university staff. In case of helicopter research, the outcomes are then published such as discovery in tropical peatlands, sometimes in high-level journals without the involvement of local colleagues. "Overall, helicopter research tends to produce academic papers that


id: oproject-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OProject@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: OProject@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OProject@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:14.865038+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oproject-home-20260505-0
summary:
OProject@Home was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) and was based on a dedicated library OLib. The project was directed by Lukasz Swierczewski, an IT student at the College of Computer Science and Business Administration in Łomża, Computer Science and Automation Institute. As of 2016 it seems to have been abandoned. == Subprojects == Shor's Algorithm Shor's Algorithm DP GSCE-SV ALX Weird Engine Shor's Algorithm and Shor's Algorithm DP were the main subprojects of OProject@Home. The objective was to test quantum algorithms (e.g. Shor's algorithm) of quantum computing. GSCE-SV verifies the correctness of Goldbach's conjecture, while ALX is a Non-CPU-intensive (nci) subproject capable of running on ARM-based CPUs running Android or Linux. It is used to research and develop artificial intelligence and computer networks. The project supports the PlayStation 3. The Weird Engine subproject calculates the weird numbers (sequence A006037 in the OEIS). Numbers are available in the project database. According to the OEIS it is the largest publicly available database of such numbers. These ongoing work on the application analyzing status of water on Earth. OProject@Home uses data from NASA and NOAA satellites. Analyzed data are taken from devices AVHRR and


id: orbit-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Orbit@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:16.089739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orbit-home-20260505-0
summary:
orbit@home was a BOINC-based volunteer computing project of the Planetary Science Institute. It uses the "Orbit Reconstruction, Simulation and Analysis" framework to optimize the search strategies that are used to find near-Earth objects. On March 4, 2008, orbit@home completed the installation of its new server and officially opened to new members. On April 11, orbit@home launched a Windows version of their client. On February 16, 2013, the project was halted due to lack of grant funding. However, on July 23, 2013, the Orbit@home project was selected for funding by NASA's Near Earth Object Observation program. It was announced that orbit@home is to resume operations sometime in 2014 or 2015. As of July 13, 2018, orbit@home is offline according to its website, and the upgrade announcement has been removed. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == Official website


id: people-s-science-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_science_movement-0.md
category: reference
title: People's science movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_science_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:17.316483+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: people-s-science-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The people's science movement (PSM) aims to popularise science and scientific outlook among common people. Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad, Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti, Assam Science Society, Bigyan Prachar Samiti (Orissa), We the Sapiens and the All India Peoples Science Network are some popular people's science movements in India. == People's science movements in India == Bangiya Bijnan Parishad (1948) Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad (1962) Pondicherry Science Forum (1985) Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Tamil Nadu Science Forum (1980) Jan Vignana Vedika Delhi Science Forum (1978) Assam Science Society (1956) Tripura Science Forum Bigyan Prachar Samiti, Odisha Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Uttar Pradesh Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Haryana Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Utharkhand We, the Sapiens All India Peoples Science Network (1988) == References == "Secularism and People's Science Movement in India" and "Towards a People's Science Movement" from Economic and Political Weekly "People's Science Movement" from Science, technology, imperialism, and war "The People's Science Movements" from Knowing Nature "Science for social change"


id: physics-outreach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:18.526421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
Physics outreach encompasses facets of science outreach and physics education, and a variety of activities by schools, research institutes, universities, clubs and institutions such as science museums aimed at broadening the audience for and awareness and understanding of physics, including through trust-building with non-expert audiences. While the general public may sometimes be the focus of such activities, physics outreach often centers on developing and providing resources and making presentations to students, educators in other disciplines, and in some cases researchers within different areas of physics. == History == Ongoing efforts to expand the understanding of physics to a wider audience have been undertaken by individuals and institutions since the early 19th century. Historic works, such as the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, and Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei, sought to present revolutionary knowledge in astronomy, frames of reference, and kinematics in a manner that a general audience could understand with great effect. In the mid-1800s, English physicist and chemist, Michael Faraday gave a series of nineteen lectures aimed towards young adults with the hopes of conveying scientific phenomena. His intentions were to raise awareness, inspire them and generate revenue of the Royal Institution. This series became known


id: physics-outreach-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-1.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:18.526421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (Paris) is the largest French science museum, and contains permanent exhibits and hands-on experiments. Palais de la Découverte (Paris) contains permanent exhibits and interactive experiments with commentaries by lecturers. It includes a Zeiss planetarium with 15-metre dome. It was created in 1937 by the French Nobel Prize physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin. Musée des Arts et Métiers (Paris) focuses on the preservation of scientific instruments and inventions. Other science museums that are part of the Cultural Center of Science, Technology and Industry (CCSTI) exist all across France : Espace des Sciences (Rennes), La Casemate (Grenoble), the Cité de l'espace (Toulouse). === Germany === Deutsches Museum (Munich) is the world's largest science museum. One of the most popular events is the high voltage demonstration of a Faraday cage as part of their series on electric power. === Islamic Republic of Iran === Iran Science and Technology Museum (Tehran) is the largest science museum in Iran. This museum, by holding varied scientific and educational programs, provides the required situation for creation and propagation of scientific thought in the society. One of these programs is the "Physics Show". === Netherlands === NEMO (Amsterdam) is the


id: physics-outreach-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-2.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:18.526421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet === MinutePhysics is a series of educational videos created by Henry Reich and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about various physics phenomena and theories. Physics World publication, run by the Institute of Physics, started explaining scientific concepts through its YouTube channel. Palais de la Découverte in Paris hosts online videos that display various interviews about science, including physics. Unisciel, a French online university, hosts educational videos through its YouTube channel. Veritasium is a series of educational videos created by Derek Muller and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about science, including physics. Saint Mary's Physics Demonstrations is an online repository for physics classroom demonstrations. It shows teachers the experiments they can do in class while also hosting videos of said experiments. Periodic Videos is a portal of educational videos explaining the characteristics of each element and supporting topics such as nuclear reactions. The project is sponsored by the University of Nottingham and hosted by Prof. Sir Martyn Poliakoff. == Prominent individuals == === Austria === Fritjof Capra is an Austrian-born American physicist, who attended the University of Vienna, where he earned his Ph.D.


id: physics-outreach-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-3.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:18.526421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
== Funding sources == American Physical Society awards grants up to $10,000 to help APS members develop new physics outreach activities. Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter (ICAM) provides grants and fellowships for physics outreach. Wellcome Trust, while mostly focused on biological sciences, the Wellcome Trust also touches on physics and encourages physics outreach. They aim to improve biology, chemistry, and physics A levels in the UK. Institute of Physics (IoP) The IoP aims to provide positive and compelling experiences of physics for public audiences through engaging and entertaining activities and events. The public engagement grant scheme is designed to give financial support of up to £1500 to individuals and organisations running physics-based events and activities in the UK and Ireland. == Awards == Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science is an award given by UNESCO for exceptional skill in presenting scientific ideas to lay people Klopsteg Memorial Award is presented by the American Association of Physics Teachers and given in memory of the physicist Paul E. Klopsteg Kelvin Prize is awarded by the Institute of Physics to acknowledge outstanding contributions to the public understanding of physics. The Michael Faraday Prize for communicating science to a UK audience is awarded


id: poem-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POEM@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: POEM@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POEM@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:19.840258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: poem-home-20260505-0
summary:
POEM@Home was a volunteer computing project hosted by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It modeled protein folding using Anfinsen's dogma. POEM@Home was started in 2007 and, due to advances using GPUs that rendered the BOINC program redundant, concluded in October 2016. The POEM@home applications were proprietary. == Scientific objectives == The project studied how protein structure determined protein function, predict a protein's structure from its amino acid sequence, investigated how proteins interact with each other, and understand how malfunctioning proteins can cause functional disorders. The resulting knowledge could then be used in the development of medical treatments. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == POEM@Home website Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC)


id: policy-advocacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_advocacy-0.md
category: reference
title: Policy advocacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_advocacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:21.048992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: policy-advocacy-20260505-0
summary:
Policy advocacy is defined as active, covert, or inadvertent support of a particular policy or class of policies. Advocacy can include a variety of activities including, lobbying, litigation, public education, and capacity building (the forming relationships with parties of interest). Advocating for policy can take place from a local level to a state or federal government. For example, a local advocacy group in Brunswick, Georgia, Defenders of Wildlife, advocated for the passage of the H.R. 5552 Migratory Bird Protection Act during 2020 when rollbacks to the bill were introduced from the Trump Administration. At the state level, advocacy for policy can be a joint effort between advocacy groups. In the United States, advocacy groups around the nation planned joint efforts to get the Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act (UPHPA) signed into law in each of their respective states and in 2018, the bill was signed into law by Texas Governor Greg Abbott making it the tenth state to enforce this law. == Scientists as policy advocates == One controversial area of advocacy is when scientists shift out of the role of scientist and into the role of policy advocate. Scientists, engineers, and other technical experts sometimes also act as


id: polish-transhumanist-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Transhumanist_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: Polish Transhumanist Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Transhumanist_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:22.328419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polish-transhumanist-association-20260505-0
summary:
Polish Transhumanist Association (Polskie Stowarzyszenie Transhumanistyczne, PSTH) is a Warsaw-based nonprofit organization established in 2017 that promotes research and public discussion on human enhancement and the ethical, social, and technological implications of emerging technologies. Its activities include organizing interdisciplinary conferences, lectures, and workshops in collaboration with academic and cultural institutions across Poland. == History == PSTH was founded in 2017 by a group of scientists, entrepreneurs, medical professionals, programmers, and technology enthusiasts. From its inception, the association has aimed to foster critical reflection on the future of humanity by convening experts from diverse fields to debate topics such as biohacking, artificial intelligence, and cybernetic augmentation. == Activities == Academic conferences: Academic conferences: Since 2017, PSTH has organized the annual national scientific conference “Transhumanizm: Idee, Strategie, Wątpliwości.” The first edition took place on December 9, 2017, at the Institute of Philosophy, University of Warsaw, featuring 15 speakers across six thematic panels. The fourth edition was held in 2022 at the State Ethnographic Museum in Warsaw. In June 2019, PSTH also co-organized the conference “Ludzkie i nie-ludzkie oblicza transhumanizmu” (Human and Non-Human Faces of Transhumanism) at the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, alongside the Faculty of Philosophy and Sociology and the UMCS


id: positive-computing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing-0.md
category: reference
title: Positive computing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:24.802153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positive-computing-20260505-0
summary:
Positive computing is a technological design perspective that embraces psychological well-being and ethical practice, aiming at building a digital environment to support happier and healthier users. Positive computing develops approaches that incorporates psychology, education, neuroscience, and HCI with technological development, bridging technology with mental health. == Background == The design of a tool impacts the people who use it. Small design implications of technologies can have their effects amplified when used by many people. Technology researchers typically focus primarily on technical aspects, paying less attention to the ethical impact and ethical considerations of their products. However, researchers from other fields such as psychology and philosophy studied these matters extensively and provided a wealth of methodologies to assess users' well-being, with thousands of quality-of-life assessment methods and validating studies. Positive computing draws many ideas from positive psychology, a domain of psychology that focuses on societal well-being and improving quality of life. === Well-being in technology and technology research === The recognition of the impact of technology and inventions on people's lives has moved technology professionals to rethink the technology tools we use and seek a realignment of companies' goals to the social good. Exemplary of this disposition is the famous Google's


id: predictor-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictor@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Predictor@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictor@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:26.106129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predictor-home-20260505-0
summary:
Predictor@home was a volunteer computing project that used BOINC software to predict protein structure from protein sequence in the context of the 6th biannual CASP, or Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction. A major goal of the project was the testing and evaluating of new algorithms to predict both known and unknown protein structures. Predictor@home was complementary to Folding@home. Whereas the latter aims to study the dynamics of protein folding, Predictor@home aimed to specify what the final tertiary structure will be. Also, the two projects differ significantly in the infrastructure they use. The project used BOINC software, whereas Folding@home maintains its own software completely outside of BOINC. However, for a time, Predictor@home competed with other BOINC protein structure prediction projects, such as Rosetta@home. Each uses different methods of rapidly and reliably predicting the final tertiary structure. Predictor@home is currently inactive. == History == Predictor@home holds the distinction of being the first independent BOINC project to be launched. The project was set up and run by Michela Taufer at The Scripps Research Institute. On September 6, 2006, Predictor@home was temporarily taken off line, with no new work units being sent out. In May, 2008, the project reverted to Alpha


id: primegrid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-0.md
category: reference
title: PrimeGrid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:27.443629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primegrid-20260505-0
summary:
PrimeGrid is a volunteer computing project that searches for very large (up to world-record size) prime numbers whilst also aiming to solve long-standing mathematical conjectures. It uses the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. PrimeGrid offers a number of subprojects for prime-number sieving and discovery. Some of these are available through the BOINC client, others through the PRPNet client. Some of the work is manual, i.e. it requires manually starting work units and uploading results. Different subprojects may run on different operating systems, and may have executables for CPUs, GPUs, or both; while running the Lucas–Lehmer–Riesel test, CPUs with Advanced Vector Extensions and Fused Multiply-Add instruction sets will yield the fastest results for non-GPU accelerated workloads. PrimeGrid awards badges to users in recognition of achieving certain defined levels of credit for work done. The badges have no intrinsic value but are valued by many as a sign of achievement. The issuing of badges should also benefit PrimeGrid by evening out the participation in the less popular sub projects. The easiest of the badges can often be obtained in less than a day by a single computer, whereas the most challenging badges will require far more time and computing


id: primegrid-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-1.md
category: reference
title: PrimeGrid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:27.443629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primegrid-20260505-0
summary:
=== Riesel Problem === As of 13 December 2022, PrimeGrid has eliminated 18 values of k from the Riesel problem and is continuing the search to eliminate the 43 remaining numbers. 3 values of k are found by independent searchers. === Twin prime search === Primegrid worked with the Twin Prime Search to search for a record-sized twin prime at approximately 58,700 digits. The new world's largest known twin prime 2003663613 × 2195000 ± 1 was eventually discovered on January 15, 2007 (sieved by Twin Prime Search and tested by PrimeGrid). The search continued for another record twin prime at just above 100,000 digits. It was completed in August 2009 when PrimeGrid found 65516468355 × 2333333 ± 1. Continued testing for twin primes in conjunction with the search for a Sophie Germain prime yielded a new record twin prime in September 2016 upon finding the number 2996863034895 × 21290000 ± 1 composed of 388,342 digits. === Woodall prime search === As of 22 April 2018, the project has discovered the four largest Woodall primes known to date. The largest of these is 17016602 × 217016602 − 1 and was found on 21 March 2018. The search continues for an even


id: project-ceti-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CETI-0.md
category: reference
title: Project CETI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CETI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:32.420970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-ceti-20260505-0
summary:
Project CETI is an international initiative to understand the acoustic communication of sperm whales using advances in artificial intelligence. The project has an interdisciplinary scientific board including marine biologists, artificial intelligence researchers, roboticists, theoretical computer scientists, and linguists. Its name, Cetacean Translation Initiative, is a reference to the SETI Institute. The project has a base on the island of Dominica where recordings are being collected. The organization has been selected as a TED Audacious Project. CETI researchers have identified 156 distinct codas and their basic components, a "sperm whale phonetic alphabet" much like phonemes. == See also == Whale sound Human–animal communication Animal cognition Animal communication Interspecies communication Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence == References ==


id: proteins-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Proteins@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:33.669272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proteins-home-20260505-0
summary:
proteins@home was a volunteer computing project that used the BOINC architecture. The project was run by the Department of Biology at École Polytechnique. The project began on December 28, 2006, and ended in June 2008. == Purpose == proteins@home was a large-scale non-profit protein structure prediction project utilizing volunteer computing to perform intensive computations in a small amount of time. From their website: The amino acid sequence of a protein determines its three-dimensional structure, or 'fold'. Conversely, the three-dimensional structure is compatible with a large, but limited set of amino acid sequences. Enumerating the allowed sequences for a given fold is known as the 'inverse protein folding problem'. We are working to solve this problem for a large number of known protein folds (a representative subset: about 1500 folds). The most expensive step is to build a database of energy functions that describe all these structures. For each structure, we consider all possible sequences of amino acids. Surprisingly, this is computationally tractable, because our energy functions are sums over pairs of interactions. Once this is done, we can explore the space of amino acid sequences in a fast and efficient way, and retain the most favorable sequences. This large-scale mapping


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:34.929290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Public awareness of science (PAS) is a comprehensive concept encompassing all aspects of the awareness, attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and activities that comprise the relations between the general public or lay society as a whole and scientific knowledge and organization. This concept is also known as public understanding of science (PUS), or more recently, public engagement with science and technology (PEST). This approach is a recent development in the field of science communication research, which aims to explore the intricate relationships and interconnections between science, technology, and innovation on the one hand, and the general public on the other. Initially, research in this domain concentrated on enhancing the public's understanding of scientific subjects, adhering to the principles of the information deficit model of science communication. However, this model has since been largely disregarded by researchers in the field of science communication. Instead, there is an increasing emphasis on understanding how the public chooses to use scientific knowledge and on the development of interfaces to mediate between expert and lay understandings of an issue. Newer frameworks of communicating science include the dialogue and the participation models. The dialogue model aims to create spaces for conversations between scientists and non-scientists to occur while


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:34.929290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Civic science model === Some scholars have identified a new era of "post-normal science" (PNS) in which many scientific discoveries carry high stakes if risks are estimated incorrectly within a broader social context that has a high degree of uncertainty. This PNS era requires a new approach to public engagement efforts and requires a reevaluation of the underlying assumptions of "public engagement", especially with emerging science and technology issues, like CRISPR gene editing, that have the potential to become "wicked problems". These "wicked" issues often require regulatory and policy decisions that have no single correct solution and often involve numerous interest groups – none of whom are clearly positioned to decide and resolve the problem. Policy and regulatory decisions around these scientific issues are inherently political and must balance trade-offs between the scientific research, perceptions of risk, societal needs, and ethical values. While scientists can provide factual answers to research questions and mathematical estimates of risk, many considerations surrounding these wicked science and technology issues have no factual answer. The unidirectional deficit model of simply educating the public on theses issues is insufficient to address these complex questions, and some scholars have proposed scientists adopt a culture of civic


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:34.929290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Project example == Government and private-led campaigns and events, such as Dana Foundation's "Brain Awareness Week", are becoming a strong focus of programmes which try to promote public awareness of science. The UK PAWS Foundation dramatically went as far as establishing a Drama Fund with the BBC in 1994. The purpose was to encourage and support the creation of new drama for television, drawing on the world of science and technology. The Vega Science Trust was set up in 1994 to promote science through the media of television and the internet with the aim of giving scientists a platform from which to communicate to the general public. The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science chair at The University of Oxford was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. Mathematician Marcus du Sautoy has held the chair since Dawkins' retirement in 2008. Similar professorships have since been created at other British universities. Professorships in the field have been held by well-known academics including Richard Fortey and Kathy Sykes at the University of Bristol, Brian Cox at Manchester University, Tanya Byron at Edge Hill University, Jim Al-Khalili at the University of Surrey,


id: public-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Public science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:36.202839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-science-20260505-0
summary:
Public science is research that is conducted amongst, or includes, the public. Two traditions of public science have emerged, one based on participatory action research and another based on science outreach. == Participatory action research == The participatory action research approach seeks to develop a critical framework for making systematic inquiry and analysis a public enterprise. It is committed to valuing knowledges that have been historically marginalized and delegitimized (i.e., youth, prisoner, immigrant, farmer) alongside traditionally recognized knowledges (i.e., scholarly). Through the formation of research collectives, it aims to share the various knowledges and resources held by its individual members so members can participate as equally as possible. The choice of appropriate research questions, design, methods and analysis as well as useful research products are decided collectively. Institutions for this form of public science include the Public Science Project. Examples of public science projects in the participatory action research tradition include the Morris Justice Project. == Science outreach == The science outreach approach has some similarities to citizen science but typically describes projects that are conducted outdoors or in another type of public or accessible space such as a public park, metro stop, library, university campus, etc. Similar to public


id: qmc-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QMC@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: QMC@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QMC@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:37.509276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qmc-home-20260505-0
summary:
QMC@Home was a volunteer computing project for the BOINC client aimed at further developing and testing Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) for use in quantum chemistry. It is hosted by the University of Münster with participation by the Cavendish Laboratory. QMC@Home allows volunteers from around the world to donate idle computer cycles to help calculate molecular geometry using Diffusion Monte Carlo. The project is developing a new application using density functional theory. The project began its Beta testing on 23 May 2006. As of February 2010, QMC@Home has about 7,500 active participants from 102 countries, contributing about 5 teraFLOPS of computation power. == Workunits == In order to get results from home computers the work is split into "workunits". The time it takes to complete a workunit depends on the size of the calculated system and the speed of the user's computer. The target time is between 4 and 48 hours on a 2.4 GHz system. This is a list of molecules recently tested: 1a Ammonia; 1 Ammonia dimer; 2a Water; 2 Water dimer; 3a Formic acid; 3 Formic acid dimer; 4a Formamide; 4 Formamide dimer; 5a Uracil; 5 Uracil dimer; 6a 2-pyridoxine; 6b 2-aminopyridine; 6 2-pyridoxine/2-aminopyridine; 7a Adenine; 7b Thymine;


id: quake-catcher-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake-Catcher_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Quake-Catcher Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake-Catcher_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:38.883933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quake-catcher-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Quake-Catcher Network was an initiative run by the University of Southern California that aimed to use computer-based accelerometers to detect earthquakes. It used the BOINC volunteer computing platform (a form of distributed computing, similar to SETI@home). It supported mobile devices (smartphones and some tablets/laptops) that have a built-in accelerometer. It also supported three external USB devices - the codemercs.com JoyWarrior 24F8, the ONavi sensor, and the MotionNode Accel. In 2011, project scientist Elizabeth Cochran was awarded a Presidential Early Career Award from US President Barack Obama in large part due to her founding of the Quake-Catcher Network project. The Quake Catcher Network project started at Stanford University in 2008, then moved to Caltech, and joined the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) and the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) in 2016. The Quake-Catcher Network was discontinued on June 1st 2023 == References == == External links == Interactive world map, showing recent earthquakes (day/week/month) Archived 2018-01-07 at the Wayback Machine – result of QCN


id: list-of-research-funders-by-preprint-licensing-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: List of research funders by preprint licensing policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:40.167202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-research-funders-by-preprint-licensing-policy-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of funders of research by their open licensing policies for preprints. With the exception of some government employees and contractors, the majority of authors keep the copyright to their work. Many funders require their grantees to disseminate the work using licenses with specific reuse rights. Other details of funder open access policies can be found at the Registry of Open Access Repositories and the Open Policy Finder from JISC (formerly SHERPA). == Policies by funder == == Exceptions for government employees and contractors == In some countries, work performed by government employees or contractors is owned by the government and subject to their licensing stipulations. For example, in the US, work performed by government employees, such as employees of the NIH is deemed Public Domain in the US, and the US government holds copyright elsewhere. Government licensing policies may override funder requirements. == See also == List of academic publishers by preprint policy == References ==


id: rosetta-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
Rosetta@home is a volunteer computing project researching protein structure prediction on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, run by the Baker lab. Rosetta@home aims to predict protein–protein docking and design new proteins with the help of about fifty-five thousand active volunteered computers processing at over 487,946 gigaFLOPS on average as of September 19, 2020. Foldit, a Rosetta@home videogame, aims to reach these goals with a crowdsourcing approach. Though much of the project is oriented toward basic research to improve the accuracy and robustness of proteomics methods, Rosetta@home also does applied research on malaria, Alzheimer's disease, and other pathologies. Like all BOINC projects, Rosetta@home uses idle computer processing resources from volunteers' computers to perform calculations on individual workunits. Completed results are sent to a central project server where they are validated and assimilated into project databases. The project is cross-platform, and runs on a wide variety of hardware configurations. Users can view the progress of their individual protein structure prediction on the Rosetta@home screensaver. In addition to disease-related research, the Rosetta@home network serves as a testing framework for new methods in structural bioinformatics. Such methods are then used in other Rosetta-based applications, like RosettaDock or the Human Proteome


id: rosetta-home-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-1.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
A primary feature of the Rosetta@home graphical user interface (GUI) is a screensaver which shows a current workunit's progress during the simulated protein folding process. In the upper-left of the current screensaver, the target protein is shown adopting different shapes (conformations) in its search for the lowest energy structure. Depicted immediately to the right is the structure of the most recently accepted. On the upper right the lowest energy conformation of the current decoy is shown; below that is the true, or native, structure of the protein if it has already been determined. Three graphs are included in the screensaver. Near the middle, a graph for the accepted model's thermodynamic free energy is displayed, which fluctuates as the accepted model changes. A graph of the accepted model's root-mean-square deviation (RMSD), which measures how structurally similar the accepted model is to the native model, is shown far right. On the right of the accepted energy graph and below the RMSD graph, the results from these two functions are used to produce an energy vs. RMSD plot as the model is progressively refined. Like all BOINC projects, Rosetta@home runs in the background of the user's computer, using idle computer power, either at


id: rosetta-home-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-2.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Disease-related research == In addition to basic research in predicting protein structure, docking and design, Rosetta@home is also used in immediate disease-related research. Numerous minor research projects are described in David Baker's Rosetta@home journal. As of February 2014, information on recent publications and a short description of the work are being updated on the forum. The forum thread is no longer used since 2016, and news on the research can be found on the general news section of the project. === Alzheimer's disease === A component of the Rosetta software suite, RosettaDesign, was used to accurately predict which regions of amyloidogenic proteins were most likely to make amyloid-like fibrils. By taking hexapeptides (six amino acid-long fragments) of a protein of interest and selecting the lowest energy match to a structure similar to that of a known fibril forming hexapeptide, RosettaDesign was able to identify peptides twice as likely to form fibrils as are random proteins. Rosetta@home was used in the same study to predict structures for amyloid beta, a fibril-forming protein that has been postulated to cause Alzheimer's disease. Preliminary but as yet unpublished results have been produced on Rosetta-designed proteins that may prevent fibrils from forming, although it


id: rosetta-home-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-3.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Rosetta software == Rosetta is the software responsible for performing structure prediction in Rosetta@home. Besides a BOINC cluster, Rosetta can run on a single local computer, or on a local supercomputer. Similar to other bioinformatic programs, there are online public servers offering to run Rosetta from a web interface. The software is freely licensed to the academic community and available to pharmaceutical companies for a fee. Originally introduced by the Baker laboratory at the University of Washington in 1998 as an ab initio approach to structure prediction, Rosetta has since branched into several development streams and distinct services, providing features such as macromolecular docking and protein design. Many of the graduate students and other researchers involved in Rosetta's initial development have since moved to other universities and research institutions, and subsequently enhanced different parts of the Rosetta project. The Rosetta platform derives its name from the Rosetta Stone, as it attempts to decipher the structural "meaning" of proteins' amino acid sequences. Development of the Rosetta code is done by Rosetta Commons. Rosetta participates in CASP and CAPRI. Rosetta was rewritten in C++ to allow easier development than that allowed by its original version, which was written in Fortran. This


id: rosetta-home-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-4.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
=== Robetta === The Robetta (Rosetta Beta) server is an automated protein structure prediction service offered by the Baker laboratory for non-commercial ab initio and comparative modeling. It has participated as an automated prediction server in the biannual CASP experiments since CASP5 in 2002, performing among the best in the automated server prediction category. Robetta has since competed in CASP6 and 7, where it did better than average among both automated server and human predictor groups. It also participates in the CAMEO3D continuous evaluation. Robetta tasks run on Baker lab servers, Janelia Research Campus machines, and Rosetta@home participant computers. In modeling protein structure as of CASP6, Robetta first searches for structural homologs using BLAST, PSI-BLAST, and 3D-Jury, then parses the target sequence into its individual domains, or independently folding units of proteins, by matching the sequence to structural families in the Pfam database. Domains with structural homologs then follow a "template-based model" (i.e., homology modeling) protocol. Here, the Baker laboratory's in-house alignment program, K*sync, produces a group of sequence homologs, and each of these is modeled by the Rosetta de novo method to produce a decoy (possible structure). The final structure prediction is selected by taking the lowest energy model


id: rosetta-home-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-5.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Volunteer contributions == Rosetta@home depends on computing power donated by individual project members for its research. As of March 28, 2020, about 53,000 users from 150 countries were active members of Rosetta@home, together contributing idle processor time from about 54,800 computers for a combined average performance of over 1.7 PetaFLOPS. Users are granted BOINC credits as a measure of their contribution. The credit granted for each workunit is the number of decoys produced for that workunit multiplied by the average claimed credit for the decoys submitted by all computer hosts for that workunit. This custom system was designed to address significant differences between credit granted to users with the standard BOINC client and an optimized BOINC client, and credit differences between users running Rosetta@home on Windows and Linux operating systems. The amount of credit granted per second of CPU work is lower for Rosetta@home than most other BOINC projects. Rosetta@home is thirteenth out of over 40 BOINC projects in terms of total credit. Rosetta@home users who predict protein structures submitted for the CASP experiment are acknowledged in scientific publications regarding their results. Users who predict the lowest energy structure for a given workunit are featured on the Rosetta@home homepage


id: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-0.md
category: reference
title: Science by press conference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:42.668788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
summary:
Science by press conference or science by press release is the practice by which scientists put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the news media via press conferences or press releases. The term is usually used disparagingly, to suggest that the seekers of publicity are promoting claims of questionable scientific merit, using the media for attention as they are unlikely to win the approval of the scientific community. Premature publicity violates a cultural value of most of the scientific community, which is that findings should be subjected to independent review with a "thorough examination by the scientific community" before they are widely publicized. The standard practice is to publish a paper in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. This idea has many merits, including that the scientific community has a responsibility to conduct itself in a deliberative, non-attention seeking way; and that its members should be oriented more towards the pursuit of insight than fame. Science by press conference in its most egregious forms can be undertaken on behalf of an individual researcher seeking fame, a corporation seeking to sway public opinion or investor perception, or a political or ideological movement. == Etymology == The phrase was coined by


id: science-by-press-conference-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-1.md
category: reference
title: Science by press conference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:42.668788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
summary:
== Responsibility == While the phrase tends to criticize scientists involved in creating the publicity, it has also been used to assert that the media bear responsibility in many instances. Even well-intentioned scientists can sometimes unintentionally create truth-distorting media firestorms because of journalists' difficulty in remaining critical and balanced, the media's interest in controversy, and the general tendency of science reporting to focus on apparent "groundbreaking findings" rather than on the larger context of a research field. Further, when results are released with great fanfare and limited peer review, basic journalism skills require skepticism and further investigation, the frequent lack of which can be seen as a problem with the media as much as with scientists who seek to exploit their power. Common examples of science by press conference are media reports that a certain product or activity affects health or safety. For instance, the media frequently report findings that a certain food causes or prevents a disease. These reports sometimes contradict earlier reports. In some cases, it is later learned that a group interested in influencing opinion had a hand in publicizing a specific report. The phrase also condemns different behavior in different fields. For instance, scientists working in


id: science-in-action-radio-programme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(radio_programme)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in Action (radio programme)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(radio_programme)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:43.943544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-action-radio-programme-20260505-0
summary:
Science in Action was a long-running weekly radio programme produced by the BBC World Service and hosted by British journalists Roland Pease, Marnie Chesterton, and scientist and broadcaster Professor Adam Hart. It was broadcast on Thursdays at 18.32 GMT and repeated twice the following day, at 01.32 and 08.32. A programme with the title Science in Action is believed to have begun life in 1964, when it replaced an earlier series, dating from the 1950s, called Science and Industry. From September 1965 a short-lived series called Science in Action ran on the Home Service; it was broadcast at 19.30 on Thursdays, later 21.30. In December 1965 it was moved to 14.30 on Fridays. The present weekly World Service series, also called Science in Action, began on Saturday 7 July 1979. The last broadcast was on 30 October 2025, as part of a cut of £6 million from the World Service and loss of 130 jobs. The programme was replaced with BBC Radio 4's programme, Inside Science, which took over the former slots of Science in Action. == See also == Inside Science, radio programme on BBC Radio Four == References == == External links == Science in Action at BBC


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:48.936410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific research is concentrated in the developed world, with only a marginal contribution from the rest of the world. Many newly industrialized countries have been trying to establish scientific institutions, but with limited success. There is an insufficient dedicated, inspired and motivated labor pool for science and insufficient investment in science education. == The limited success of Newly Industrialized Countries == The reason that there have been so few scientists, who have made their mark globally, from most NIC's (Newly Industrialized Countries) is partly historical and partly social A true scientist is nurtured from the school upwards to scientific establishments. Only if there are inspired and dedicated school science teachers in abundance, there will be a sufficient number of inspired students who would like to take science as a career option and who may one day become a successful scientist. == The common thread == A common thread can indeed be discerned in the state of science in many NICs. Thus although, most of the science establishments in the major NICs can be said to be doing fairly well, none of them have been as successful as the developed countries. After the Second World War, a small technical elite arose


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:48.936410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
China was a world leader in science and technology until the early years of the Ming dynasty. Chinese discoveries and Chinese innovations such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions) contributed to the economic development in East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. A question that has been intriguing many historians studying China is the fact that China did not develop a scientific revolution and Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic. has argued that China indeed had a scientific revolution in the 17th century and that we are still far from understanding the scientific revolutions of the West and China in all their political, economic and social ramifications. Some like John K. Fairbank are of the opinion that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. Needham argued, and most scholars agreed, that cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature. More recent historians have questioned political and cultural explanations


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:48.936410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
The earliest applications of science in India took place in the context of medicine, metallurgy, construction technology (such as ship building, manufacture of cement and paints) and in textile production and dyeing. But in the process of understanding chemical processes, led to some theories about physical processes and the forces of nature that are today studied as specific topics within the fields of chemistry and physics. Many mathematical concepts today were contributed by Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata. There was really no place for scientists in the Indian caste system. Thus while there were/are castes for the learned brahmins, the warriors kshatriyas, the traders vaishyas and the menial workers shudras, maybe even the bureaucrats (the kayasths) there was/is hardly any formal place in the social hierarchy for a people who discover new knowledge or invent new devices based on the recently discovered knowledge, even though scientific temper has always been in India, in the form of logic, reasoning and method of acquiring knowledge. Its therefore no wonder that some Indians quickly learned to value science, especially those belonging to the privileged Brahmin caste during the British colonial rule that lasted over two centuries. Some Indians did succeed to achieve notable success


id: science-media-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Media Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:50.164225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-media-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Media Centre is a charitable company, first formed in 2002, two years after the United Kingdom House of Lords select committee on Science and Technology's third report on "Science and Society" in 2000. This report stated that while science was generally reported accurately in the mass media, there was a need for the promotion of more expert information at times when science is under attack in the headlines, mentioning the public reaction to GM crops, in particular. The Science Media Centre's purpose is to connect journalists with reliable and up-to-date sources of scientific information. It has also been criticised for bias and undeclared conflicts of interest. == Functions == In order to promote more informed science in the media, the centre's main function is as a service to journalists, providing background briefings on current scientific issues and facilitating interviews with scientists. Comments are also sourced from scientists about breaking news stories, to provide an independent expert commentary on the news, so that press releases have some peer review. Independence means from the breaking news story, and scientists commenting are asked to declare any competing interests they have with their comment. Its director is Fiona Fox who is a


id: science-media-centre-of-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Media Centre of Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:51.570458+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-media-centre-of-canada-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Media Centre of Canada (SMCC) is a non-profit organization that was formally opened on September 27, 2010. It has virtual offices. The purpose of the Centre is to serve journalists with accurate information on scientific matters. The Centre has a Research Advisory Panel of 20 Canadian scientists who will make their expertise available in a simple and understandable manner. In order to secure objectivity, the Centre has an Editorial Advisory Committee of eight journalists. The Centre is bilingual. == Goal == The ultimate goal of SMCC is an "increased public engagement with science issues through media coverage of science that is more informed, more accurate and more incisive." == Other SMCs == Science Media Centres exist in other countries; UK, Australia, New Zealand, Germany and Japan. The Science Media Centre of Canada is independent with respect to the other centres. == External links == Science Media Centre of Canada


id: the-science-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: The Science Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:52.798741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-science-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Network (TSN) was a non-profit virtual forum dedicated to science and its impact on society. It was initially conceived in 2003 by Roger Bingham and Terry Sejnowski as a cable science TV network modeled on C-SPAN. TSN later became a global digital platform hosting videos of lectures from scientific meetings and long form one-on-one conversations with prominent scientists and communicators of science, including Neil deGrasse Tyson, V.S. Ramachandran, Helen S. Mayberg, and Barbara Landau. TSN has also sponsored and co-sponsored scientific forums, such as Stem cells: science, ethics and politics at the crossroads, held at the Salk Institute in 2004 and the Beyond Belief conference series. == Beyond Belief conference series == TSN's signature series Beyond Belief was conceived to bring together a community of scientists, philosophers, scholars from the humanities, and social commentators. Speakers at these meetings have included Steven Weinberg, Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, Harry Kroto, Neil deGrasse Tyson, and Stuart Kauffman. So far, the following three Beyond Belief conferences were organized: === 2006: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival === Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival, the first of The Science Network's annual Beyond Belief symposia, held from November 5 to November 7, 2006, was


id: science-on-tap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap-0.md
category: reference
title: Science on Tap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:53.990303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-on-tap-20260505-0
summary:
Science on Tap is the social-cultural initiative of Yivsam Azgad, head of the Media Department and art curator of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. The project began in 2010, under the title "Beer, Science, and Fun", as a gesture to the city of Rehovot on its 120th anniversary. In this framework, some 35 scientists and graduate students went to bars and pubs in Rehovot to talk with the patrons about open questions in science and the newest advances on the forefront of global science. On the same night, research students went to the city center and led a “science comics” session for children in which they created their own science comics, inspired by the Nano Comics series put out by the Weizmann Institute of Science and edited by Yivsam Azgad. This initiative was highly successful and was covered by the media in Israel and the world. The scientists, artists, and politicians posed a challenge to the organizers: To reproduce this success in Tel Aviv. In response to the challenge, Azgad decided, with the support of the Weizmann Institute of Science president, Prof. Daniel Zajfman, to organize the event in Tel Aviv under a new name: Science on


id: science-outreach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach-0.md
category: reference
title: Science outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:55.241201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
Science outreach, also called education and public outreach (EPO or E/PO) or simply public outreach, is an umbrella term for a variety of activities by research institutes, universities, and institutions such as science museums, aimed at promoting public awareness (and understanding) of science, including trust-building, and making informal contributions to science education. == Scope and history == While there have always been individual scientists interested in educating the public, science outreach has recently become more organized. For example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) now requires all of its projects to organize suitable outreach activities. Also working to inform the public are organizations such as Communicating Astronomy to the Public and the Washington Declaration on Communicating Astronomy to the Public that organize conferences for the public on science issues and make efforts to put outreach on a more general institutional footing. Recently, an increasing number of projects have hired designated outreach scientists (part-time or full-time) that handle public relations for their project. There are also specialized outreach providers such as the Education branch of the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado and the Education and Public Outreach Group at Sonoma State University which offer to organize a project's outreach


id: science-party-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Party (Australia)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:01.536285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-party-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Party, formerly known as Future Party, is an Australian political party that was established on 2 July 2013. The founding leader, James Jansson, was studying for his doctorate at the Kirby Institute during the party's formation, with a focus on advancing Australian society through technical and long-term solutions. On 22 March 2016, the name was changed to The Science Party after registering with the Australian Electoral Commission. The Science Party has run candidates for the 2013, 2016 and 2019 federal elections, as well as several by-elections in between. The party was de-registered on 12 January 2022 by the Australian Electoral Commission for failing to meet the increased registration requirement of 1,500 members. It later merged with other parties to become the Fusion Party. == Political philosophy == The Science Party believes that technological development is a positive force in human affairs and values the cultural, economic and technological benefits of modernism. It believes in freedom of expression and has a positive view of the power of free markets and the benefits of high density cities. The party seeks to promote high quality science research and education. === Policies === Science Party policies include the following: Opposition to unnecessary


id: science-theatre-michigan-state-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Theatre (Michigan State University)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:02.865375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-theatre-michigan-state-university-20260505-0
summary:
Science Theatre is an undergraduate student-run science outreach organization at Michigan State University's East Lansing campus, performing science theatre. Science Theatre visits schools and events throughout Michigan performing interactive science demonstrations for K-12 students on-stage or up-close. Science Theatre performers are undergraduate and graduate student volunteers and all performances are made free of charge. The group's performances consist of arrangements from its catalog of more than seventy demonstrations in biology, chemistry, and physics. Additionally, Science Theatre performs comprehensive shows in Astronomy, Environmental science, Pressure, the Periodic Table, Quantum Mechanics, and FRIB-related science. Science Theatre was founded in April 1991 under a grant from the National Science Foundation and received the 1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology. Science Theatre is a four-time winner of the Outreach Award from the Michigan State University Department of Physics and Astronomy. == References == MSU Science Theatre Official Webpage 1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology 2 February 2009 State News coverage 10 March 2009 Fox TV coverage 11 March 2009 Daily Press (Michigan) coverage 10 June 2009 Capital Gains Coverage


id: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Week Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:04.093409+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
Science Week Ireland is an annual week-long event in Ireland each November, celebrating science in our everyday lives. Science Week is an initiative of Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) It is the largest science festival in the country, engaging tens of thousands of members of the general public in workshops, science shows, talks, laboratory demonstrations, science walks and other science-related events. Science Week is a collaboration of events involving industry, colleges, schools, libraries, teachers, researchers and students throughout Ireland. Science Week supports Science Foundation Ireland’s mission to catalyse, inspire and guide the best in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) education and public engagement. The ultimate aim of this effort is that Ireland will have the most engaged and scientifically informed public by 2020 as outlined in Science Foundation Ireland’s strategy Agenda 2020. This also aligns to the national science innovation strategy, Innovation 2020. == History == Over the years, Science Week Ireland has grown from a small pilot initiative to a large promotional and event engine to its current identity as a recognised vehicle for regional activity supported by a national promotional campaign. In 1995, a National Science week was organised by the Royal Dublin Society and a number of


id: science-week-ireland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-1.md
category: reference
title: Science Week Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:04.093409+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2015 === 2015 marked the 20th anniversary of Science Week, which took place from 8–15 November. The theme was ‘Science Week 2.0 Design Your Future’. It celebrated how science empowers ‘you’ to ‘Design Your Future’. Numerous events were held in every county, and regional festivals took place in Mayo, Sligo, Galway, Waterford, Cork, Limerick and the midlands. === 2016 === Science Week 2016 took place from 13–20 November. The theme was ‘Science Rising’ which looks at how science is key to our success – it is part of our past, an important part of our present and there is endless potential still to be realised. Science Week 2016 reached more people, all over Ireland, across a wider demographic than had been achieved before. Science Week 2016 saw 10 Regional Festivals across the country. === 2017 === Science Week 2017 ran nationwide from 12–19 November 2017. The theme was ‘Believe in Science’. More than 1180 events took place across Ireland. 12 regional science festivals took place in Cavan/Monaghan, Cork, Carlow, Festival of Farming and Food (Teagasc), Galway, Kerry, Limerick, Mayo, the Midlands, Sligo, Southeast and Tipperary. A number of Science Foundation Ireland-funded Science Week events took place throughout the week,


id: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific celebrity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:05.448670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific celebrity, also known as a celebrity scientist or public scientist, is a scientist who has gained significant public attention, usually through the media. For the general public, scientific celebrities serve to represent science or a field of science. In some instances this can be self-serving in nature or can be at the behest of governmental or corporate interests or to promote the science involved. With new scientific discoveries scientists come to be publicly known for their contributions. Although this type of recognition has become more common in recent times (coincidental with the rise of celebrity culture), the phenomenon is centuries old. Media attention to science became more pervasive beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s as the variety of media outlets increased and they gave greater attention to scientific progress. Scientific celebrities have had a significant role in the popularization of science. == Historical examples == In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Isaac Newton became widely known in the United Kingdom and much of the western world after he published his theories of motion. Others, including Voltaire, promoted Newton's reputation; although Newton did not actively promote himself. Charles Darwin pursued popularity among the general


id: scientific-celebrity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific celebrity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:05.448670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
summary:
== Role of the media == The means of media reporting on science and the amount of science reporting have evolved significantly since science reporting first began, just as it has with journalism on most subjects. Early on, scientists gained the publicity necessary for celebrity status through traditional print media, including newspapers, magazines, pamphlets and mailings. The lecture circuit was another means, especially for self-promotion. By the middle of the 20th century, broadcast media such as television and radio and eventually cable television became important outlets. The rise of digital media enabled scientist to directly address the general public. Many other people have become known to the public as a result of media promotion. Heads of state, heads of governmental units and religious leaders have long received this type of media attention in representing interests other than their own. Scientific celebrity is similar, and C. Everett Koop is an example of a scientific celebrity who gain celebrity status through his work for a governmental agency, as Surgeon General of the United States. A further form of scientific outreach in the digital age is TED Talks. Science is one of the basic themes of Ted Talks, and examples of scientific celebrities


id: scientific-integrity-in-policymaking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific Integrity in Policymaking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:10.645612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-integrity-in-policymaking-20260505-0
summary:
"Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science" is the title of a report published by the Union of Concerned Scientists in February, 2004. The report was the culmination of an investigation of the Bush administration's objectivity in science, and ultimately a criticism thereof. == "Suppression and distortion of research findings" == A central thesis of the report, according to the Executive Summary (on page 2 of the text), was that the Bush administration had behaved in ways considered to be consistent with the following three situations. Epidemic altering and concealing of scientific information by senior officials in various federal agencies Active censorship of scientific information that the administration considered threatening to its own philosophies Restriction of the ability of government-supported scientists to freely communicate scientific ideas related to "sensitive" issues == "An unprecedented pattern of behavior" == In "Part III", the text of the report posits that the aforementioned activities are unprecedented in the history of the United States. The report lists the following persons and organization who had supposedly acted or made statements to support this claim. This list is sorted first by category, then by the order in which the persons or


id: seasonal-attribution-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Seasonal Attribution Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:12.008633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seasonal-attribution-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Seasonal Attribution Project is a climate'prediction.net sub-project, with support from the WWF. It runs a high resolution model in order to try to determine the extent to which extreme weather events are attributable to human-induced global warming. The project did cease giving out more work, however there has been a project extension to try a fourth sea surface temperature pattern. Current work will still be accepted and used for collaborations and possibly revisions of papers during the review process. A further extension will start soon. == The experiments == United Kingdom floods of Autumn 2000 – Current project. Mountain snowpack decline in western North America Developed in collaboration with the Climate Impacts Group at the University of Washington. Heatwave occurrence in South Africa and India The latter two will use the same models. Information has been uploaded but analysis of information generated has not yet started. == See also == Effects of global warming == References == == External links == Seasonal Attribution Website Archived 2011-02-20 at the Wayback Machine


id: sense-about-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sense about Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:13.247082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sense-about-science-20260505-0
summary:
Sense about Science is a United Kingdom charitable organization that promotes the public understanding of science. Sense about Science was founded in 2002 by Lord Taverne, Bridget Ogilvie and others to promote respect for scientific evidence and good science. It was established as a charitable trust in 2003, with 14 trustees, an advisory council and a small office staff. Tracey Brown has been the director since 2002. The organisation works with scientists and journalists to put scientific evidence in public discussions about science, and to correct unscientific misinformation. They encourage and assist scientists to engage in public debates about their area of expertise, to respond to scientifically inaccurate claims in the media, to help people contact scientists with appropriate expertise, and to prepare briefings about the scientific background to issues of public concern. == Projects == Sense about Science publishes guides to different areas of science in partnership with experts. These include: Responsible Handover Framework, Data Science: A Guide for Society, Making Sense of Nuclear, Making Sense of Uncertainty, Making Sense of Allergies, Making Sense of Drug Safety Science, Making Sense of Testing, Making Sense of Crime, Making Sense of Statistics, Making Sense of Screening and Making Sense of GM.


id: seti-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-0.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:14.533285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home ("SETI at home") is a project of the Berkeley SETI Research Center to analyze radio signals with the aim of searching for signs of extraterrestrial intelligence. Until March 2020, it was run as an Internet-based public volunteer computing project that employed the BOINC software platform. It is hosted by the Space Sciences Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, and is one of many activities undertaken as part of the worldwide SETI effort. SETI@home software was released to the public on May 17, 1999, making it the third large-scale use of volunteer computing over the Internet for research purposes, after Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) was launched in 1996 and distributed.net in 1997. Along with MilkyWay@home and Einstein@home, it has the investigation of phenomena in interstellar space as its primary purpose. In March 2020, the project stopped sending out new work to SETI@home users, bringing the crowdsourced computing aspect of the project to a stop. At the time, the team intended to shift focus onto the analysis and interpretation of the 20 years' worth of accumulated data. However, the team left open the possibility of eventually resuming volunteer computing using data from other radio telescopes, such as MeerKAT


id: seti-home-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-1.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:14.533285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Technology == Anybody with an at least intermittently Internet-connected computer was able to participate in SETI@home by running a free program that downloaded and analyzed radio telescope data. Observational data were recorded on 2-terabyte SATA hard disk drives fed from the Arecibo Telescope in Puerto Rico, each holding about 2.5 days of observations, which were then sent to Berkeley. Arecibo does not have a broadband Internet connection, so data must go by postal mail to Berkeley. Once there, it is divided in both time and frequency domains work units of 107 seconds of data, or approximately 0.35 megabytes (350 kilobytes or 350,000 bytes), which overlap in time but not in frequency. These work units are then sent from the SETI@home server over the Internet to personal computers around the world to analyze. Data was merged into a database using SETI@home computers in Berkeley. Interference was rejected, and various pattern-detection algorithms were applied to search for the most interesting signals. The project used CUDA for GPU processing starting in 2015. In 2016 SETI@home began processing data from the Breakthrough Listen project. === Software === The SETI@home volunteer computing software ran either as a screensaver or continuously while a user worked,


id: seti-home-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-2.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:14.533285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Competitive aspect == SETI@home users quickly started to compete with one another to process the maximum number of work units. Teams were formed to combine the efforts of individual users. The competition continued and grew larger with the introduction of BOINC. As with any competition, attempts have been made to "cheat" the system and claim credit for work that has not been performed. To combat cheats, the SETI@home system sends every work unit to multiple computers, a value known as "initial replication" (currently 2). Credit is only granted for each returned work unit once a minimum number of results have been returned and the results agree, a value known as "minimum quorum" (currently 2). If, due to computation errors or cheating by submitting false data, not enough results agree, more identical work units are sent out until the minimum quorum can be reached. The final credit granted to all machines which returned the correct result is the same and is the lowest of the values claimed by each machine. Some users have installed and run SETI@home on computers at their workplaces; an act known as "Borging", after the assimilation-driven Borg of Star Trek. In some cases, SETI@home users have


id: seti-home-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-3.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:14.533285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home is a test bed for further development not only of BOINC but of other hardware and software (database) technology. Under SETI@home processing loads, these experimental technologies can be more challenging than expected, as SETI databases do not have typical accounting and business data or relational structures. The non-traditional database uses often do incur greater processing overheads and risk of database corruption and outright database failure. Hardware, software and database failures can (and do) cause dips in project participation. The project has had to shut down several times to change over to new databases capable of handling more massive datasets. Hardware failure has proven to be a substantial source of project shutdowns, as hardware failure is often coupled with database corruption. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Carrigan, Richard A. Jr. (2003). "The Ultimate Hacker: SETI Signals May Need to Be Decontaminated". Bioastronomy 2002: Life Among the Stars. 213. Astronomical Society of the Pacific: 519. Bibcode:2004IAUS..213..519C. Sample, Ian (November 25, 2005). "Scientists be on guard..." The Guardian. London. Retrieved November 25, 2005. Scoles, Sarah (May 23, 2017). "A Brief History of SETI@Home". The Atlantic. == External links == Official website SETI@home screensaver video on YouTube


id: seti-home-beta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta-0.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home beta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:15.884255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-beta-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home beta, is a hibernating volunteer computing project using the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, as a test environment for future SETI@home projects: AstroPulse is a volunteer computing project searching for primordial black holes, pulsars, and ETI. AstroPulse clients have been tested by this project for nearly 6 years. It is already running on SETI@home, testing new GPU/CPU optimized apps and performing other tasks. SETI Southern Hemisphere Search, which is another SETI@home project that was due to join BOINC. It was expected that this project would use a slightly modified version of the SETI enhanced client, as the Parkes Observatory has a feedhorn with more beams than the Arecibo Observatory. == Applications Testing == 11 Dec 2008, CUDA applications test 3 Jun 2013, SETI@home v7 test 01 Dec 2015 SETI@home v8 test == External links == Official website SETI@home beta screensaver video on YouTube == References ==


id: similarity-matrix-of-proteins-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins-0.md
category: reference
title: Similarity Matrix of Proteins
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:17.287966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: similarity-matrix-of-proteins-20260505-0
summary:
Similarity Matrix of Proteins (SIMAP) is a database of protein similarities created using volunteer computing. It is freely accessible for scientific purposes. SIMAP uses the FASTA algorithm to precalculate protein similarity, while another application uses hidden Markov models to search for protein domains. SIMAP is a joint project of the Technical University of Munich, the Helmholtz Zentrum München, and the University of Vienna. == Project == The project usually got new work units at the beginning of each month. More recently, (2010), inclusion of environmental sequences into the database has required longer periods of activity, several months of continuous work for example. Typically, these updates occurred twice each year. In the fourth quarter of 2010, the project relocated to the University of Vienna due to the failing electrical infrastructure at the Technical University of Munich. Part of this exercise involved the creation of a project specific URL requiring existing volunteers and users to detach/reattach to the project. On May 30, 2014, it was announced by project administrators that after a 10-year history, SIMAP would be leaving BOINC by the end of 2014. SIMAP research, however, will go forward with the use of local hardware consisting of "ordinary multi-core CPUs (some


id: simonyi-professor-for-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Simonyi Professor for the Public Understanding of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:18.553001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simonyi-professor-for-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science is a chair at the University of Oxford. The chair was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. The aim of the Professorship is 'to communicate science to the public without, in doing so, losing those elements of scholarship which constitute the essence of true understanding'. It is a position that had been endowed by Charles Simonyi with the express intention that the holder "be expected to make important contributions to the public understanding of some scientific field", and that its first holder should be Richard Dawkins. == History == Richard Dawkins explained the history of the creation of the chair in a chapter of his memoirs, Brief Candle in the Dark: My Life in Science. In 2008, Dawkins retired and the Oxford mathematician Marcus du Sautoy was elected to the chair. == List of Simonyi Professors == 1995–2008: Richard Dawkins, biological science Since 2008: Marcus du Sautoy, mathematical science == List of Simonyi Lectures == Richard Dawkins established an annual "Charles Simonyi Lecture" at the University of Oxford. He invited the following speakers: Marcus du Sautoy, second Simonyi Professor, invited: == Notes and


id: slinca-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: SLinCA@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:19.892105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slinca-home-20260505-0
summary:
SLinCA@Home (Scaling Laws in Cluster Aggregation) was a research project that uses Internet-connected computers to do research in fields such as physics and materials science. == Introduction == SLinCA@Home was based at the G. V. Kurdyumov Institute for Metal Physics (IMP) of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU) in Kyiv, Ukraine's capital city. It ran on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform, the SZTAKI Desktop Grid platform, and the Distributed Computing API (DC-API) by SZTAKI. SLinCA@Home hosts several scientific applications dedicated to research into scale-invariant dependencies in experimental data in physics and materials science. Statistics at the BOINCstats site (as of 16 March 2011), show over 2,000 volunteers in 39 countries have participated in the project; it is the second most popular BOINC project in Ukraine (after the Magnetism@Home project, which is now inactive). About 700 active users contribute about 0.5–1.5 teraFLOPS of computational power, which would rank SLinCA@Home among the top 20 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers in June 2005. == History == The SLinCA@Home project was previously launched in January 2009 as part of the EGEE project in the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) for the funding of research and


id: slow-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Slow science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:21.178143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slow-science-20260505-0
summary:
Slow science is part of the broader slow movement. It is based on the belief that science should be a slow, steady, methodical process, and that scientists should not be expected to provide "quick fixes" to society's problems. Slow science supports curiosity-driven scientific research and opposes performance targets. Slow science is a continually developing school of thought in the scientific community. Followers of slow science practices are generally opposed to the current model of research which is seen as constrained by the need for continued funding. The slow science perspective attributes the overinflation of scientific publishing, and rise in fraudulent publishing with the requirement for researchers and institutions to create a justification for continued funding. The term slow science was first popularised in “Another Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science” by researcher Isabelle Stengers in 2018. The idea of “publish or perish”, which too links limitations in the quality of research to financial constraints, has been around since the early 20th century. The slow science philosophy has been described as both a way to approach scientific research, and a science led movement which acts as a critique of science's function in neoliberal society. Slow science has developed its


id: slow-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Slow science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:21.178143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slow-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research funding reform === Slow Science proposes a change to the current structure of research funding, especially directed towards the increase in funding sourced from corporate donorship in academic institutions, as well as the rise in private independent research institutes. The slow science movement has called for all government funded research to be for the benefit of broader society, and has also called for an overall system of funding reform. Slow science groups, such as Slow Science Belgium, have called for increased government funding to be a necessity, and for key performance indicator linked targets for results to be removed from grant conditions. Key contributor to the slow science Uta Frith has expressed the idea that as government funding increases, so will risk taking in research, and therefore lead to the potential of greater scientific innovation. === Apolitical driven research === Apolitical research, from a slow science perspective, opposes research which aims to show alternatives to scientific precedent for political benefits. As well as this, the slow science movement extends this to what is described as an inherently political shift in the privatisation of knowledge, that is, scientific research which has moved from publications to private research and development


id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:22.590814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The social effects of evolutionary thought have been considerable. As the scientific explanation of life's diversity has developed, it has often displaced alternative, sometimes very widely held, explanations. Because the theory of evolution includes an explanation of humanity's origins, it has had a profound impact on human societies. Some have vigorously denied acceptance of the scientific explanation due to its perceived religious implications (e.g. its implied rejection of the special creation of humans presumably described in the Bible). This has led to a vigorous conflict between creation and evolution in public education, primarily in the United States. == Evolution and ethics == The theory of evolution by natural selection has also been adopted as a foundation for various ethical and social systems, such as social Darwinism, an idea that preceded the publication of The Origin of Species, popular in the 19th century, which holds that "the survival of the fittest" (a phrase coined in 1851 by Herbert Spencer, 8 years before Darwin published his theory of evolution) explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people. A similar interpretation was one created by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, known as eugenics, which claimed that human civilization was subverting


id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:22.590814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Roman Catholic Church, beginning in 1950 with Pope Pius XII's encyclical Humani Generis, took up a neutral position with regard to evolution. "The Church does not forbid that...research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter." In an October 22, 1996, address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Pope John Paul II updated the Church's position, recognizing that Evolution is "more than a hypothesis" - "In his encyclical Humani Generis, my predecessor Pius XII has already affirmed that there is no conflict between evolution and the doctrine of the faith regarding man and his vocation... Today, more than a half-century after the appearance of that encyclical, some new findings lead us toward the recognition of evolution as more than an hypothesis. In fact it is remarkable that this theory has had progressively greater influence on the spirit of researchers, following a series of discoveries in different scholarly disciplines." === Islamic views on evolution === === Jewish views on evolution === == Evolutionary theory and the political left


id: spinhenge-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: Spinhenge@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:27.760224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spinhenge-home-20260505-0
summary:
Spinhenge@home was a volunteer computing project on the BOINC platform, which performs extensive numerical simulations concerning the physical characteristics of magnetic molecules. It is a project of the Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, in cooperation with the University of Osnabrück and Ames Laboratory. The project began beta testing on September 1, 2006, and used the Metropolis Monte Carlo algorithm to calculate and simulate spin dynamics in nanoscale molecular magnets. On September 28, 2011, a hiatus was announced while the project team reviewed results and upgraded hardware. As of July 10, 2022 the hiatus continues and it is likely that the project has been closed down permanently. == See also == Spintronics BOINC List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == Project Website Spinhenge@home screensaver video on YouTube More Information about Spinhenge@Home Project Statistics at BOINCStats


id: el-sue-o-de-arqu-medes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes-0.md
category: reference
title: El Sueño de Arquímedes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:29.067246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: el-sue-o-de-arqu-medes-20260505-0
summary:
El Sueño de Arquímedes was a Spanish science podcast and radio program which was broadcast by Radio Nacional de España (RNE) from September 2006 until June, 2007. The program was created by Ángel Rodríguez Lozano. A total of 35 programs are still available for download. In addition to El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano also hosted Vanguardia de la Ciencia, which was broadcast weekly without interruption from April 1995 until June 2007. The name of the program means "the dream of Archimedes", and alludes to Archimedes' statement that given a lever and a fixed point, he could move the world. To Ángel Rodríguez Lozano, the dream was moving the world by popularizing and sharing knowledge. == Format == Before the startup of El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano had been hosting Vanguardia de la Ciencia for more than a decade. When RNE asked if he would host a second popular science program, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano realised that the scheduled timing, Sundays between 3 and 4 p.m, meant that it would be sandwiched between sports broadcasts. Therefore, he would have to capture the attention of listeners who were not looking for this type of program. The intention was therefore


id: theskynet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet-0.md
category: reference
title: TheSkyNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:30.235971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theskynet-20260505-0
summary:
theSkyNet was a research project that used volunteer Internet-connected computers to carry out research in astronomy. It was an initiative of the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR), a joint venture of Curtin University and the University of Western Australia. theSkyNet had two projects, Sourcefinder and POGS. Both projects have been completed. theSkyNet Sourcefinder aimed to test and refine automatic radio sourcefinding algorithms in preparation for radio galaxy surveys using the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder and the Square Kilometre Array. theSkyNet POGS used Spectral Energy Distribution fitting to calculate characteristics of many galaxies using images taken by the Pan-STARRS PS1 optical telescope in Hawaii. == History == theSkyNet Sourcefinder project was introduced publicly on 13 September 2011, operating on a Java-based user platform, processing data using new distributed computing software called Nereus. One year later, theSkyNet celebrated its first birthday and at the same time theSkyNet POGS project became the first public Australian based project to participate in the well established volunteer computing platform BOINC. The acronym POGS is a reference to a game played with discs that originated on Maui, Hawaii, in the 1920s, and the fact that the Pan-STARRS PS1 telescope, is situated on Mount Haleakala,


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-0.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:31.561922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
University technology transfer offices (TTOs), or technology licensing offices (TLOs), are responsible for technology transfer and other aspects of the commercialization of research that takes place in a university. TTOs engage in a variety of commercial activities that are meant to facilitate the process of bringing research developments to market, often acting as a channel between academia and industry. Most major research universities have established TTOs in the past decades in an effort to increase the impact of university research and provide opportunities for financial gain. While TTOs are commonplace, many studies have questioned their financial benefit to the university. == History == The history of technology transfer is intimately linked with the history of the science policy of the United States. The foundation for modern American science policy laid way out in Vannevar Bush's letter in response to President Roosevelt's query about whether the US should maintain the high level of research funding it had been pouring into the Office of Scientific Research and Development, which had coordinated large private-public partnership research projects as part of the war effort, including the Manhattan Project. Bush's answer was Science - the Endless Frontier. In that letter, Bush advocated that the US


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-1.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:31.561922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
== Structure and organization == The structure and organization of TTOs can affect its overall performance and can vary among universities. Since TTOs deal with both academic research and industry, they consist of a diverse set of individuals, including scientists, lawyers, analysts, licensing experts, and business managers. By having individuals (particularly different scientists, engineers, and analysts) with varying sets of expertise in research, TTOs attempt to more effectively assess, protect, and profit from the research developments taking place in multiple disciplines throughout the university. TTOs can by classified into three different types: internal: existing as an integrated part of the university and controlled by university administration external: existing as an independent company that does not operate under the control of university administration mixed: having components of both internal and external TTOs As of 2012 the "internal" type was most common in the US. TTOs of different universities can also collaborate between them to grow, thus originating new organizational structures. Such structures are: Network structure: the existing organizational forms of each TTO are maintained and the single organizations operate together in a virtual manner creating a subset of links between the existing TTOs involved in the consortium Strong Hub structure: a


id: va-public-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)-0.md
category: reference
title: VA (Public & Science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:33.027037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: va-public-science-20260505-0
summary:
VA (Public & Science) (Swedish: "Vetenskap & Allmänhet") is a Sweden-based non-profit association focusing on citizen science, responsible research and innovation, and science communication to the Swedish and European public. Its projects include: web games, books, and festivals for public engagement; studies and surveys to measure public scientific knowledge and engagement; and national and international research policy advocacy. == Projects == VA is currently a partner in three EU-funded Horizon 2020 projects SciShops: ORION, Open Responsible research and Innovation to further Outstanding Knowledge, is aimed at fostering RRI and open science in research performing and research funding organisations. SciShops will expand the ecosystem of Science Shops in Europe and BLOOM is aimed at raising public awareness and interest in the bioeconomy through dialogue and co-creation activities. == Membership == VA's members consist of some 100 organizations, authorities, universities, companies and associations. In addition, it has a number of individual members. The organization is funded through membership fees, project grants and a grant from the Swedish Ministry of Education and Research. VA is a member of EUSEA (European Science Events Association), ECSA (European Citizen Science Association) and the Living Knowledge network. == Board of Representatives == VA's board consists of representatives


id: world-community-grid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-0.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
World Community Grid (WCG) is an effort to create the world's largest volunteer computing platform to perform scientific research that benefits humanity. Launched on November 16, 2004, with proprietary Grid MP client from United Devices and adding support for Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) in 2005, World Community Grid eventually discontinued the Grid MP client and consolidated on the BOINC platform in 2008. In September 2021, it was announced that IBM transferred ownership to the Krembil Research Institute of University Health Network in Toronto, Ontario. World Community Grid uses unused processing power of consumer devices (PCs, Laptops, Android Smartphones, etc.) to analyse data created by the research groups that participate in the grid. WCG projects have analysed data related to the human genome, the human microbiome, HIV, dengue, muscular dystrophy, cancer, influenza, Ebola, Zika virus, virtual screening, rice crop yields, clean energy, water purification and COVID-19, among other research areas. There are currently four active projects and 28 completed projects. Several of these projects have published peer-reviewed papers based on the analysis of the data generated by WCG. These include an OpenZika project paper on the discovery of a compound (FAM 3) that inhibits the NS3 Helicase protein


id: world-community-grid-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-1.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
== Statistics and competition == The contributions of each user are recorded and user contribution statistics are publicly available. Due to the fact that the processing time of each workunit varies from computer to computer, depending on the difficulty of the workunit, the speed of the computer, and the amount of idle resources available, contributions are usually measured in terms of points. Points are awarded for each workunit depending on the effort required to process it. Upon completing a workunit, the BOINC client will request the number of points it thinks it deserves based on software benchmarks (see BOINC Credit System#Cobblestones). Since multiple computers process the same workunit to ensure accuracy, the World Community Grid servers can look at the points claimed by each of those computers. The WCG servers disregard statistical outliers, average the remaining values and award the resulting number of points to each computer. Within the grid, users may join teams that have been created by organizations, groups, or individuals. Teams allow for a heightened sense of community identity and can also inspire competition. As teams compete against each other, more work is done for the grid overall. == Outreach == World Community Grid recognizes companies and


id: world-community-grid-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-2.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
In February 2014, the Help Fight Childhood Cancer project scientists announced the discovery of 7 compounds that destroy neuroblastoma cancer cells without any apparent side effects. This discovery, made with the support of the WCG volunteers, is a positive step towards a new treatment. The project has announced that it is seeking a collaboration with a pharmaceutical company in order to develop the compounds into treatments. Given the success of the project, the scientists have stated that they are already planning a follow-up project which will focus on other pediatric cancers, possibly in collaboration with a newly formed Pan-Asian oncology group, of which they are a founding member. As of July 2012, the Human Proteome Folding Project has published several papers using data from WCG. These include a paper on validation methods and a new database of protein structure and function predictions; a paper on the identification of proteins that regulate human processes; a paper on the analysis of the genomes from five plant families and their proteomes, for which WCG was used in the creation of over 29,000 protein structures; a paper on the proteome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The GO Fight Against Malaria project reported the discovery of several


id: world-community-grid-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-3.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
=== OpenPandemics - COVID-19 === On April 1, 2020, IBM announced OpenPandemics - COVID-19. The project aims to identify possible treatments for the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. WCG will partner with Scripps Research, with whom it has partnered in the past, notably in FightAIDS@Home projects. The project runs on CPUs and GPUs and will also serve to create a "fast-response, open source tool that will help all scientists quickly search for treatments for future pandemics." The project launched on May 14, 2020. === Mapping Cancer Markers === Mapping Cancer Markers (launched November 8, 2013). The project aims to identify the markers associated with various types of cancer, and is analyzing millions of data points collected from thousands of healthy and cancerous patient tissue samples. These include tissues with lung, ovarian, prostate, pancreatic and breast cancers. By comparing these different data points, researchers aim to identify patterns of markers for different cancers and correlate them with different outcomes, including responsiveness to various treatment options. The project is focusing on 4 types of cancer, with the first focus being on lung cancer, and will move on to ovarian cancer, prostate cancer and


id: world-community-grid-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-4.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
=== AfricanClimate@Home === The mission of AfricanClimate@Home was to develop more accurate climate models of specific regions in Africa. It was intended to serve as a basis for understanding how the climate will change in the future so that measures designed to alleviate the adverse effects of climate change could be implemented. World Community Grid's tremendous computing power was used to understand and reduce the uncertainty with which climate processes were simulated over Africa. Phase 1 of African Climate@Home launched on September 3, 2007, and ended in July 2008. === Help Conquer Cancer === Help Conquer Cancer project (launched November 1, 2007) is sponsored by the Ontario Cancer Institute (OCI), Princess Margaret Hospital and University Health Network of Toronto, Canada. The project involves X-ray crystallography. The mission of Help Conquer Cancer is to improve the results of protein X-ray crystallography, which helps researchers not only annotate unknown parts of the human proteome, but importantly improves their understanding of cancer initiation, progression and treatment. The HCC project was the first WCG project benefiting from graphics processing units (GPU)s which helped finish it a lot earlier than initially projected due to the massive power of GPUs. In the April 2013 status report


id: world-community-grid-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-5.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
World Community Grid and researchers supported by Decrypthon, a partnership between AFM (French Muscular Dystrophy Association), CNRS (French National Center for Scientific Research), Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, and IBM were investigating protein–protein interactions for more than 2,200 proteins whose structures are known, with particular focus on those proteins that play a role in neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 was launched on May 12, 2009, and completed on September 26, 2012. The database of information produced will help researchers design molecules to inhibit or enhance binding of particular macromolecules, hopefully leading to better treatments for muscular dystrophy and other neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 of the Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy project began once the results from the first phase had been analyzed. Phase 2 ran on the BOINC platform. === Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 === Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 (launched February 17, 2010) is sponsored by The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston, Texas, United States and the University of Chicago in Illinois, USA. The mission is to identify promising drug candidates to combat the Dengue, Hepatitis C, West Nile, Yellow Fever, and other related viruses. The extensive computing power of World


id: world-community-grid-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-6.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
FightAIDS@Home (launched November 19, 2005) was World Community Grid's second project and its first to target a single disease. Each individual computer processes one potential drug molecule and tests how well it would dock with HIV protease, acting as a protease inhibitor. Scripps Research Institute published its first peer-reviewed scientific paper about the results of FightAIDS@Home on April 21, 2007. This paper explains that the results up to that point will primarily be used to improve the efficiency of future FightAIDS@Home calculations. === FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 === FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 (launched September 30, 2015) is looking more closely at the results of Phase 1. The project has two goals in the early experiments; the simulation architecture is functioning correctly and giving reliable results, and using BEDAM and AutoDock together provides better results than using just BEDAM or AutoDock. === Microbiome Immunity Project === Microbiome Immunity Project (launched August 2017) is a study of proteins in bacteria located in and on the human body; the human microbiome, which comprises around 3 million separate bacterial genes. By studying bacterial genes, researchers can determine their individual shapes, which in turn dictate the function of the bacteria. Collaborative institutions includes the University of California


id: ufluids-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: UFluids@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:37.026183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufluids-home-20260505-0
summary:
μFluids@Home is a computer simulation of two-phase flow behavior in microgravity and microfluidics problems at Purdue University, using the Surface Evolver program. == About == The project's purpose is to develop better methods for the management of liquid rocket propellants in microgravity, and to investigate two-phase flow in microelectromechanical systems, taking into account factors like surface tension. Systems using electrowetting, channel geometry, and hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings to allow the smooth passage of fluids can then be designed. Such systems include compact medical devices, biosensors, and fuel cells. == Computing platform == μFluids@Home uses the BOINC volunteer computing platform. Application notes There is no screensaver. Work unit CPU times are generally less than 20 hours. Work units average in size around 500 kB. You must run many work units to get levels of credit comparable to SETI@home or climateprediction.net BOINC projects. == References == == External links == Website archive


id: geographic-information-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographic information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:38.718052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographic-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
Geographic information science (GIScience, GISc) or geoinformation science is a scientific discipline at the crossroads of computational science, social science, and natural science that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans understand the world, and how it can be captured, organized, and analyzed. It is a sub-field of geography, specifically part of technical geography. It has applications to both physical geography and human geography, although its techniques can be applied to many other fields of study as well as many different industries. As a field of study or profession, it can be contrasted with geographic information systems (GIS), which are the actual repositories of geospatial data, the software tools for carrying out relevant tasks, and the profession of GIS users. That said, one of the major goals of GIScience is to find practical ways to improve GIS data, software, and professional practice; it is more focused on how GIS is applied in real life as opposed to being a geographic information system tool in and of itself. The field is also sometimes called geographical information science. British geographer Michael Goodchild defined this area in the 1990s and summarized its


id: geomatics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-0.md
category: reference
title: Geomatics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:40.068770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geomatics-20260505-0
summary:
Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. Surveying engineering was the common name used for geomatics engineering in the past. The term was placed by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under the branch of technical geography, which is geared towards interpreting and communicating spatial data. In Germany, "geodesy and geoinformatics" or "geodesy and geoinformation" is commonly used for describing this discipline. In addition, geospatial engineering is an alternative term to geomatic(s) engineering. == History and etymology == The term was proposed in French ("géomatique") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. On June 1, 1971, 'geomatics' was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum instituting a "standing committee of geomatics" in the government. At the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982, the new


id: geomatics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-1.md
category: reference
title: Geomatics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:40.068770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geomatics-20260505-0
summary:
Global navigation satellite systems are a collection of geospatial systems that provide global coverage. The technology has a variety of purposes from communications to mobile navigation. The six GNSS constellations in operation are the U.S. GPS Operational Constellation, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) stemming from Russia, the European Galileo, China's BeiDou/Compass, Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), and The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). == Geomatics engineering == Geomatics engineering is a rapidly developing engineering discipline which focuses on spatial information (i.e. information that has a location). The location is the primary factor used to integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization. Geomatics engineers design, develop, and operate systems for collecting and analyzing spatial information about the land, the oceans, natural resources, and manmade features. Geomatics engineers or geomatician apply engineering principles to spatial information and implement relational data structures involving measurement sciences, thus using geomatics and acting as spatial information engineers. They sit at the nexus of geography and computer science. A geomatician practices geomatics, by combining "geo", (the earth) with information and automation. Geomatics engineers manage local, regional, national and global spatial data infrastructures. Geomatics engineering also involves aspects of Computer Engineering, Software


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:44.901095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Theories of technological change and innovation attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture. Some of the most contemporary theories of technological change reject two of the previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and other, the technological determinism. To challenge the linear model, some of today's theories of technological change and innovation point to the history of technology, where they find evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in creating and shaping technological artifacts. To challenge the so-called "technological determinism", today's theories of technological change emphasize the scope of the need of technical choice, which they find to be greater than most laypeople can realize; as scientists in philosophy of science, and further science and technology often like to say about this "It could have been different." For this reason, theorists who take these positions often argue that a greater public involvement in technological decision-making is desired. == Sociological theories == Sociological theories and researches of the Society and the Social focus on how human and technology actually interact and


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:44.901095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approaches of the critical theory === Critical theory attempts, according to some, to go beyond the descriptiveness of one account that may show of how things are, the exam and question of why they have come to be that way and how they might otherwise be. Critical theory asks whose interests are being served by the questioned status quo and assesses the potentials of a future, that alternates and propose "to better" both the technological service, and even social justice. Here Geuss's definition is given, where "a critical theory, then, is a reflective theory which gives agents a kind of knowledge inherently productive of enlightenment and emancipation" (1964). Thus Marcuse argued that while technology matters and design are often presented as neutral technical choices, in fact, they manifest political or moral values. Critical theory is seen as a "form of archaeology" that attempt to get beneath common-sense understandings in order to reveal the power relationships and interests determining particular technological configuration and use. Perhaps the most developed contemporary critical theory of technology is contained in the works of Andrew Feenberg included in his book 'Transforming Technology' (2002). Values in Design asks how do we ensure a place for values


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:44.901095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other Stances === Additionally, many authors have posed technology so as to critique and or emphasize aspects of technology as addressed by the mainline theories. For example, Steve Woolgar (1991) considers technology as text in order to critique the sociology of scientific knowledge as applied to technology and to distinguish between three responses to that notion: the instrumental response (interpretive flexibility), the interpretivist response (environmental/organizational influences), the reflexive response (a double hermeneutic). Pfaffenberger (1992) treats technology as drama to argue that a recursive structuring of technological artifacts and their social structure discursively regulate the technological construction of political power. A technological drama is a discourse of technological "statements" and "counterstatements" within the processes of technological regularization, adjustment, and reconstitution. An important philosophical approach to technology has been taken by Bernard Stiegler, whose work has been influenced by other philosophers and historians of technology including Gilbert Simondon and André Leroi-Gourhan. In the Schumpeterian and Neo-Schumpeterian theories technologies are critical factors of economic growth (Carlota Perez). == Analytical theories == There are theories of technological change and innovation which are not defined or claimed by a proponent, but are used by authors in describing existing literature, in contrast to their own


id: all-models-are-wrong-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md
category: reference
title: All models are wrong
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:46.672506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: all-models-are-wrong-20260505-0
summary:
"All models are wrong" is a common aphorism in statistics. It is often expanded as "All models are wrong, but some are useful". The aphorism acknowledges that statistical models always fall short of the complexities of reality but can still be useful nonetheless. The aphorism is generally attributed to George E. P. Box, a British statistician, although the underlying concept predates Box's writings. == History == The phrase "all models are wrong" was attributed to George Box who used the phrase in a 1976 paper to refer to the limitations of models, arguing that while no model is ever completely accurate, simpler models can still provide valuable insights if applied judiciously. In their 1983 book on generalized linear models, Peter McCullagh and John Nelder stated that while modeling in science is a creative process, some models are better than others, even though none can claim eternal truth. In 1996, an Applied Statistician's Creed was proposed by M.R. Nester, which incorporated the aphorism as a central tenet. The longer form appears on in a 1987 book by Box and Norman Draper in a section "The Use of Approximating Functions,": "The fact that the polynomial is an approximation does not necessarily detract


id: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md
category: reference
title: And yet it moves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:47.928795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
summary:
E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve] ('And yet it moves' or 'Although it does move') is an Italian phrase commonly attributed to the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). The Catholic Church persecuted Galileo for promoting the Copernican model of the Solar System in which the Earth moves around the Sun, which contradicted Catholic orthodoxy that the Earth remained fixed in the center of the universe. According to popular legend, Galileo muttered this in 1633 after the Roman Inquisition forced him to recant his claims, though this is likely apocryphal. == History == According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri. The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition. The event was first reported in English print in


id: houston-we-have-a-problem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md
category: reference
title: Houston, we have a problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:56.441472+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: houston-we-have-a-problem-20260505-0
summary:
"Houston, we have a problem" is a popular misquote of a phrase spoken during Apollo 13, a NASA mission in the Apollo space program and the third mission intended to land on the Moon. After an explosion occurred on board the spacecraft en route to the Moon around 56 hours into the mission, Jack Swigert, the command module pilot, reported to Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas: "Okay, Houston ... we've had a problem here." After Swigert was prompted to repeat his words by Jack R. Lousma, the capsule communicator at Mission Control, Jim Lovell, the mission commander, responded: "Ah, Houston, we've had a problem." The 1995 film Apollo 13 used the slight misquotation "Houston, we have a problem" in its dramatization of the mission, since it had become the popularly expected phrase. The phrase has been informally used to describe the emergence of an unforeseen problem, often with a sense of ironic understatement. == Background == The Apollo 13 Flight Journal lists the timestamps and dialogue between the astronauts and Mission Control. 055:55:19 Swigert: Okay, Houston ... 055:55:19 Lovell: ... Houston... 055:55:20 Swigert: ... we've had a problem here. [Pause.] 055:55:28 Lousma: This is Houston. Say again, please. 055:55:35


id: information-wants-to-be-free-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md
category: reference
title: Information wants to be free
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:58.783994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-wants-to-be-free-20260505-0
summary:
"Information wants to be free" is an expression that means either that all people should be able to access information freely, or that information (formulated as an actor) naturally strives to become as freely available among people as possible. It is often used by technology activists to criticize laws that limit transparency and general access to information. People who criticize intellectual property law say the system of such government-granted monopolies conflicts with the development of a public domain of information. The expression is often credited to Stewart Brand, who was recorded saying it at a Hackers Conference in 1984. == History == The phrase is attributed to Stewart Brand, who, in the late 1960s, founded the Whole Earth Catalog and argued that technology could be liberating rather than oppressing. What is considered the earliest recorded occurrence of the expression was at the first Hackers Conference in 1984, although the video recording of the conversation shows that what Brand actually said is slightly different. Brand told Steve Wozniak: On the one hand you have—the point you’re making Woz—is that information sort of wants to be expensive because it is so valuable—the right information in the right place just changes your life.


id: knismesis-and-gargalesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Knismesis and gargalesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:00.103754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knismesis-and-gargalesis-20260505-0
summary:
Knismesis and gargalesis are the scientific terms, coined in 1897 by psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin, used to describe the two types of tickling. Knismesis refers to the light, feather-like type of tickling. This type of tickling generally does not induce laughter and is often accompanied by an itching sensation. Gargalesis refers to harder, laughter-inducing tickling, and involves the repeated application of high pressure to sensitive areas. While the two terms are used in academic papers, they do not appear in many dictionaries and their origin is rarely declared. The term knismesis comes from the Ancient Greek κνισμός (knismós) meaning 'itching'. The term gargalesis stems from the Ancient Greek γαργαλίζω (gargalízō) meaning 'to tickle'. The suffix -esis is used to form nouns of action or process. == Knismesis == The knismesis phenomenon requires low levels of stimulation to sensitive parts of the body, and can be triggered by a light touch or by a light electric current. Knismesis can also be triggered by crawling insects or parasites, prompting scratching or rubbing at the ticklish spot, thereby removing the pest. It is possible that this function explains why knismesis produces a similar response in many different kinds of animals.


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:01.253718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia" or also "scientia potestas est") is a Latin aphorism meaning "knowledge is power", commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon. The expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase "scientia potentia est" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man. The related phrase "sapientia est potentia" is often translated as "wisdom is power". == History == === Origins and parallels === A proverb in practically the same wording is found in Hebrew, in the Biblical Book of Proverbs (24:5): גֶּבֶר-חָכָם בַּעוֹז; וְאִישׁ-דַּעַת, מְאַמֶּץ-כֹּחַ. This was translated in the Latin Vulgata as "vir sapiens fortis est et vir doctus robustus et validus" and in the King James Version as "A wise man is strong, a man of knowledge increaseth strength". The Persian poet Ferdowsi (940–1019/1025) wrote توانا بود هر که دانا بود (tavânâ bûd har ke dânâ bûd) "Mighty is the one who has knowledge." === Thomas Hobbes === The first known reference of the exact phrase appeared in the Latin edition of


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:01.253718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wissen ist Macht in Germany === After the 1871 unification of Germany, "Wissen ist Macht, geographisches Wissen ist Weltmacht" (Knowledge is power, geographical knowledge is world power) was often used in German geopolitics and the public discussion to support efforts for a German colonial empire after 1880. Julius Perthes, for example, used the motto for his publishing house. However, this installation of geographical research followed popular requests and was not imposed by the government. In particular, Count Bismarck was not much interested in German colonial adventures; his envoy Gustav Nachtigal started with the first protectorates, but was more interested in ethnological aspects. After World War I, German geopolitics tried to contribute to efforts to regain world power. Scholars like Karl Haushofer, a former general, and his son Albrecht Haushofer (both in close contact with Rudolf Hess) got worldwide attention with their concept of geopolitics. Associations of German geographers and schoolteachers welcomed the Machtergreifung and hoped to get further influence in the new regime. Germany's postwar geopolitics was much more cautious; concepts of political geography and projection of power had not been widespread scholarly topics in Germany until 1989. Geographical knowledge is however still of importance in Germany. Germans tend


id: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md
category: reference
title: Noli turbare circulos meos!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:04.783858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
summary:
"Nōlī turbāre circulōs meōs!" is a Latin phrase, meaning "Do not disturb my circles!" It is said to have been uttered by Archimedes—in reference to a geometric figure he had outlined on the sand—as he was about to be killed by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse. == Origin == According to Valerius Maximus, the phrase was uttered by the ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Archimedes. When the Romans conquered the city of Syracuse after the siege of 214–212 BC, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus gave the order to retrieve Archimedes. Some soldiers entered the house of Archimedes and one of the soldiers asked Archimedes who he was. But, according to Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7), Archimedes just answered "Noli, obsecro, istum disturbare" ("Do not, I entreat you, disturb that (sand)"), because he was so engrossed in the circles drawn on the sand in front of him. After that, one of the soldiers killed Archimedes, despite the order of Marcus Claudius Marcellus. == Authenticity == Plutarch does not mention the quote in his Parallel Lives. Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7) attests the Latin form "noli ... istum disturbare" ("I ask you


id: one-small-step-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md
category: reference
title: One small step
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:08.419555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-small-step-20260505-0
summary:
On July 21, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the Moon, he said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind". Recordings of Armstrong's Apollo 11 transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", leading to some controversy about whether he said the word or not. After years of Armstrong and NASA insisting that the static obscured it, Armstrong conceded that he must have dropped the "a" after carefully listening to the recording. Several scientific analyses have been conducted with some suggesting that he did say the "a" and others suggesting that he did not. As a result, the "a" is often included in brackets in the quote. == Background == The Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11 in 1969. After Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder. At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a Lunar Module landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now." He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:10.755565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is a metaphor which means "using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress". It is a metaphor of a person who wants to reach higher, standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nani gigantum humeris insidentes) and expresses the meaning of "discovering truth by building on previous discoveries". This concept has been dated to the 12th century and, according to John of Salisbury, is attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Its most familiar and popular expression occurs in a 1675 letter by Isaac Newton: "if I have seen further [than others], it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." == Early references == === Middle Ages === The earliest documented attestation of this aphorism appears in 1123 in William of Conches's Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae. Where Priscian says quanto juniores, tanto perspicaciores (young men simply can see more sharply), William comments: The ancients had only the books which they themselves wrote, but we have all their books and moreover all those which have been written from the beginning until our time.… Hence we are like a dwarf perched on the shoulders of


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:10.755565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
Diego de Estella took up the quotation in his 1578 commentary on Gospel of Luke and by the 17th century it had become commonplace. Robert Burton, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy (1624), quotes Stella thus: I say with Didacus Stella, a dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than a giant himself. Later editors of Burton misattributed the quotation to Lucan; in their hands Burton's attribution Didacus Stella, in luc 10, tom. ii "Didacus on the Gospel of Luke, chapter 10; volume 2" became a reference to Lucan's Pharsalia 2.10. No reference or allusion to the quotation is found there. In 1634, Marin Mersenne quoted the expression in his Questions harmoniques: ... comme l'on dit, il est bien facile, & mesme necessaire de voir plus loin que nos devanciers, lors que nous sommes montez sur leur espaules ...Blaise Pascal, in the "Preface to the Treatise on the Vacuum" expresses the same idea, without talking about shoulders, but rather about the knowledge handed down to us by the ancients as steps that allow us to climb higher and see farther than they could:C'est de cette façon que l'on peut aujourd'hui prendre d'autres sentiments


id: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: Tyranny of numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:33.598080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
The tyranny of numbers was a problem faced in the 1960s by computer engineers. Engineers were unable to increase the performance of their designs due to the huge number of components involved. In theory, every component needed to be wired to every other component (or at least many other components) and were typically strung and soldered by hand. In order to improve performance, more components would be needed, and it seemed that future designs would consist almost entirely of wiring. == History == The first known recorded use of the term in this context was made by the Vice President of Bell Labs in an article celebrating the 10th anniversary of the invention of the transistor, for the "Proceedings of the IRE" (Institute of Radio Engineers), June 1958 [1]. Referring to the problems many designers were having, he wrote: For some time now, electronic man has known how 'in principle' to extend greatly his visual, tactile, and mental abilities through the digital transmission and processing of all kinds of information. However, all these functions suffer from what has been called 'the tyranny of numbers.' Such systems, because of their complex digital nature, require hundreds, thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands


id: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary-0.md
category: reference
title: International scientific vocabulary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:35.496652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
summary:
International scientific vocabulary (ISV) is the set of scientific and specialized words that are in current use in several modern languages. Although the language of origin of ISV may or may not be certain, they are used translingually, whether in naturalized, loanword, or calque forms. The name "international scientific vocabulary" was first used by Philip Gove in Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961). As noted by David Crystal, science is an especially productive field for new coinages. It is also especially predisposed to immediate translingual sharing of words owing to its very nature: scientists working in many countries and languages, reading each other's latest articles in scientific journals (via foreign language skills, translation help, or both), and eager to apply any reported advances to their own context. == Instances == According to Webster's Third, "some ISV words (like haploid) have been created by taking a word with a rather general and simple meaning from one of the languages of antiquity, usually Latin and Greek, and conferring upon it a very specific and complicated meaning for the purposes of modern scientific discourse." An ISV word is typically a classical compound or a derivative which "gets only its raw materials, so to


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific terminology refers to the specialized vocabulary used by scientists and engineers in their professional fields. It encompasses words and expressions created to name newly discovered or invented concepts, materials, methods, and phenomena. In the early modern period, scientific terminology was predominantly Latin, resulting in naming practices that have persisted into the present. In science, "naming a particle [or concept] is not just convenient; it marks a leap forward in our understanding of the world". Thus, new technical terms, neologisms, often arise whenever science advances. For example, the term nanotechnology was coined in 1974 to describe precise engineering at the atomic scale. More generally, neologisms have long been driven by technology and science: "technological advances are among the main drivers of word creation… In many cases, neologisms come about as names for new objects". Likewise, language scholars observe that "science is an especially productive field for new coinages," and scientific terms often spread immediately across languages through research publications. Over time, many such technical terms (e.g. laser, radar, DNA) enter common usage, though at first, they denote concepts known mainly within the field. == New concepts == Scientists frequently introduce new names for novel concepts or discoveries. Every time a


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Classical and non-vernacular terms and expressions == In modern science and its applied fields such as technology and medicine, a knowledge of classical languages is not as rigid a prerequisite as it used to be. However, traces of their influence remain. Firstly, languages such as Greek, Latin and Arabic – either directly or via more recently derived languages such as French – have provided not only most of the technical terms used in Western science, but also a de facto vocabulary of roots, prefixes and suffixes for the construction of new terms as required. Echoes of the consequences sound in remarks such as "Television? The word is half Latin and half Greek. No good can come of it." (referring to it being a hybrid word). A special class of terminology that overwhelmingly is derived from classical sources, is biological classification, in which binomial nomenclature still is most often based on classical origins. The derivations are arbitrary however and can be mixed variously with modernisms, late Latin, and even fictional roots, errors and whims. However, in spite of the chaotic nature of the field, it still is helpful to the biologist to have a good vocabulary of classical roots. Branches


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
A good example is the word laser, an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", and therefore all its letters should be capitalized. However, because of frequent use, this acronym became a neologism, i.e., it has integrated into English and most other languages. Consequently, laser is commonly written in small letters. It has even produced secondary acronyms such as LASIK (Laser-ASsisted in Situ Keratomileusis). A related acronym and neologism maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is much less known. Nevertheless, it is commonly written in small letters. On the contrary, acronym SPASER (Surface Plasmon Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is capitalized. Many scientific acronyms or abbreviations reflect the artistic sense of their creators, e.g., AMANDA – Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array, a neutrino telescope BLAST – Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope COMICS – COoled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer FROG - Frequency-resolved optical gating MARVEL – Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets METATOY – METAmaTerial fOr raYs – a material that changes the direction of transmitted light rays PLANET – Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork, a program to search for microlensing events SCREAM – Single Crystal


id: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md
category: reference
title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:38.201372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
summary:
Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one that is heterogeneous is distinctly nonuniform in at least one of these qualities. == Etymology and spelling == The words homogeneous and heterogeneous come from Medieval Latin homogeneus and heterogeneus, from Ancient Greek ὁμογενής (homogenēs) and ἑτερογενής (heterogenēs), from ὁμός (homos, "same") and ἕτερος (heteros, "other, another, different") respectively, followed by γένος (genos, "kind"); -ous is an adjectival suffix. Alternate spellings omitting the last -e- (and the associated pronunciations) are common, but mistaken: homogenous is strictly a biological/pathological term which has largely been replaced by homologous. But use of homogenous to mean homogeneous has seen a rise since 2000, enough for it to now be considered an "established variant". Similarly, heterogenous is a spelling traditionally reserved to biology and pathology, referring to the property of an object in the body having its origin outside the body. == Scaling == The concepts are the same to every level of complexity. From atoms to galaxies, plants, animals, humans, and other living


id: organic-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)-0.md
category: reference
title: Organic (model)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:40.657010+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organic-model-20260505-0
summary:
Organic describes forms, methods and patterns found in living systems such as the organisation of cells, to populations, communities, and ecosystems. Typically organic models stress the interdependence of the component parts, as well as their differentiation. Other properties of organic models include: the growth, life or development cycle the ability to adapt, learn, and evolve emergent behaviour or emergent properties steady change or growth, as opposed to instant change regulatory feedback composed of heterogeneous (diverse) parts Organic models are used especially in the design of artificial systems, and the description of social systems and constructs. == Uses == In the social sciences, the organic model has been drawn upon for ideas such as mechanical and organic solidarity and organic unity. Carl Ritter advanced the idea of Lebensraum using the metaphor of an organic, growing state. In computer science, organic networks grow in an ad hoc manner, while organic computing is autonomous and able to self-organise and heal. Bionics (biomimicry) is the engineering of technology through the use of systems found in biology. Organic architecture stresses interrelatedness as it combines the site, buildings, furnishings, and surroundings into a unified whole, each adapted to the others. Examples include the use of passive


id: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer-0.md
category: reference
title: Phlegmatizer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:41.899071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
summary:
A phlegmatizer is a compound that minimizes the explosive tendency of another compound or material. The term is derived from the word phlegmatic, meaning 'not easily excited'. Many chemical compounds that are potentially explosive have useful non-explosive applications. One large family of phlegmatizers are phthalate esters, which are used as solvents to minimize the explosive tendency of organic peroxides, such as dibenzoyl peroxide and MEKP, which are widely used initiators for polymerizations. == See also == Phlegmatized explosive == References ==


id: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md
category: reference
title: Photochemical action plots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:43.267480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
summary:
Photochemical action plots are a scientific tool used to understand the effects of different wavelengths of light on photochemical reactions. The methodology involves exposing a reaction solution to the same number of photons at varying monochromatic wavelengths, monitoring the conversion or reaction yield of starting materials and/or reaction products. Such global high-resolution analysis of wavelength-dependent chemical reactivity has revealed that maxima in absorbance and reactivity often do not align. Photochemical action plots are historically connected to (biological) action spectra. == Historical development == The study of biological responses to specific wavelengths dates back to the late 19th century. Research primarily focused on assessing photodamage from solar radiation using broad-band lamps and narrow filters. These studies quantified effects such as cell viability, production of erythema, vitamin D3 degradation, DNA changes, and skin cancer appearance. The first biological action spectrum was recorded by Engelmann, who used a prism to produce different colors of light and then illuminated cladophora in a bacteria suspension. He discovered the effects of different light wavelengths on photosynthesis, marking the first recorded action spectrum of photosynthesis. Critical evaluations of active wavelength regions in these studies helped identify contributing chromophores to processes such as photosynthesis. These chromophores are key


id: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Technology in the Discovery of America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:46.111693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Technology in the Discovery of America (Spanish: La ciencia y la técnica en el descubrimiento de América), is a work by the historian and mathematician Julio Rey Pastor, published in Spanish in 1945, in Buenos Aires, by the Espasa-Calpe publishing. A second, "improved and corrected" edition was published in 1945. A third and fourth edition were published in 1951 and 1970, respectively. == Description == In this book, Rey Pastor analyzes the role of science and technology in the discovery of America, with special attention to the contributions of disciplines such as geography, cartography, nautical science and cosmography, which were decisive for the realization of transoceanic expeditions, such as that of Christopher Columbus, whom Rey Pastor considers a man of science, taking into account what was understood in his time by "man of science". The work reviews the scientific situation prior to the discovery and the evolution of latitude measurement and geographical representation techniques, highlighting how these innovations allowed the navigation challenges of the time to be faced. He insists on the enormous disproportion between the magnificent results of the discoverers and the poverty of the means at their disposal. The book highlights the leading role of Spanish


id: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sonnet to Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:47.355600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Sonnet to Science" (originally "Sonnet — To Science") is an 1829 poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. == Summary == Poe asks why science preys on the poet. Science is peering, destructive and interested only in cold realities. It will not allow the poet to soar in fantasy or even to sit peacefully dreaming beneath a tree. == Publication history == In mid-November 1829, Poe agreed with the Baltimore firm Hatch and Dunning to publish his second volume of poetry, entitled Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. This volume was the first instance in which Poe published his verse under his own name as opposed to his first publication, Tamerlane and Other Poems, which was only attributed to “a Bostonian”. A later published version of this poem includes the following note, “Private reasons—some of which have reference to the sin of plagiarism, and other to the date of Tennyson’s first poems—have induced me, after some hesitation, to re-publish these, the crude compositions of my earliest boyhood. They are printed verbatim—without alteration from the original edition—the date of which is too remote to be judiciously acknowledged.” == References == == External links == An


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:52.718844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities. Each edition is typically released on 10 November, which is World Science Day for Peace and Development. The most recent edition was released on 11 June 2021. == History == In 1987, the General Conference of UNESCO approved the launch of the Organization's first world reports, the World Communication Report, which first appeared two years later. In 1989, the General Conference approved the launch of the World Education Report, which appeared in 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998 and 2000. The launch of these two reports created a momentum to generalize the world reports to all of UNESCO's fields of competence. The World Science Report (as the UNESCO Science Report was originally known) was the next title to appear, in 1993. The first World Information Report followed in 1997 then the World Social Science Report in 1999, as well as two World Culture Reports in 1998 and 2000. Two existing reports were merged to produce


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:52.718844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Geographical coverage == Each edition has added geographic detail. The 2021 edition of the UNESCO Science Report provided data for 193 countries, with contributions from more than 70 authors from 52 countries. Published in June 2021, the seventh report in the series arrived at a crucial juncture, as countries were one-third of the way to the 2030 deadline for achieving their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report revealed that countries of all income levels shared a common agenda at this time for transitioning to digital and 'green' economies. Themes covered in 2021 included our relationship with advanced technologies and the resources and energy they require, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the effect of Brexit on science and technology and the status of women in science and Industry 4.0. For the first time, an analysis of scientific output broke down the broad field of cross-cutting strategic technologies into its sub-fields, such as artificial intelligence and robotics, energy and nanotechnology. The report found that the COVID-19 pandemic had energized knowledge production systems. This dynamic built on the trend towards greater international scientific collaboration, which bodes well for tackling this and other global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. However, sustainability


id: outline-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science: Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. == Study and experimentation == Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable. Design of experiments History of experiments Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments. Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory. Empirical evidence


id: outline-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy is the historical study of what is now associated with chemistry. It was accepted as a science until the end of the 17th century. Astrology is a method used in ancient and medieval times to study the social sciences through physical phenomena. Cosmogony is the study of Earth's origins through divine creation. Natural history is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with biology. Natural philosophy is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with physics and astronomy. == Philosophy of science == Philosophy of science encompasses the questions, assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. Anti-realism is the opposition to scientific realism. Anti-realists believe that scientific theories cannot be objectively true or that they do not correlate to objectively real phenomena. Antiscience is a criticism and rejection of modern science and the scientific community. Denialism is the rejection of scientific facts that conflict with one's previous beliefs. Empiricism is the belief that truth is obtained from sense experience. Empiricists believe that science is a systematic and detailed application of common everyday thought and inquiry. Constructive empiricism is the belief that scientific theories can be true but successful testing does not


id: outline-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Consensus is general agreement among scientists on a conclusion or finding. Demarcation is the division of scientific and non-scientific ideas, and the resulting dispute over how to divide them. Different fields of study may be evaluated on the level of experimental rigor, how much they engage in abstraction, how closely related they are with the humanities, or other qualities. Funding of science can come from governments and donors. Junk science is the presentation of uncertain scientific claims as facts, typically to a legal or political end. List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Meta-analysis is the comparing of several studies on the same topic to draw conclusions. A paradigm is the overall understanding and accepted system of how science functions. Paradigm shifts are historical periods of total change in how science is practiced. The concept was introduced by Thomas Kuhn. Peer review is a process in which an academic provides feedback on scientific writing, often anonymously, before publication. Pseudoscience is unscientific practice or belief that is presented as scientific or uses scientific language to suggest credibility. History of pseudoscience Regulation of science involves the use of policy to limit scientific activity that regulators determine to be dangerous, unethical, or ineffective. Scientific


id: outline-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Agassi, Joseph (1981). Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science. D. Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1244-8. Armstrong, Jon Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2022). The Scientific Method: A Guide to Finding Useful Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-09642-3. Bird, Alexander (2005). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-504-8. Browne, Janet; Porter, Roy; Bynum, William F., eds. (1981). Dictionary of the History of Science. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-29316-4. Collocott, Thomas C., ed. (1971). Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. & R. Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-13202-4. Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth (2010) [1984]. Oxford Dictionary of Science (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. Erickson, Mark (2005). Science, Culture and Society: Understanding Science in the 21st Century. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-2974-2. Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7. Hagstrom, Warren O. (1965). The Scientific Community. Basic Books. LCCN 65-10539. Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. Morris, Christopher G., ed. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1. Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten, eds. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN


id: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of adiabatic concepts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:55.628982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
summary:
Adiabatic (from Gr. ἀ negative + διάβασις passage; transference) refers to any process that occurs without heat transfer. This concept is used in many areas of physics and engineering. Notable examples are listed below. == Automobiles == Engine braking, a feature of some diesel engines, uses adiabatic expansion to diminish the vehicle's forward momentum. == Meteorology == Adiabatic lapse rate, the change in air temperature with changing height, resulting from pressure change. == Quantum chemistry == Adiabatic invariant Born–Oppenheimer approximation == Thermodynamics == Adiabatic process Adiabatic ionization Adiabatic index Adiabatic accessibility == Quantum mechanics == Adiabatic theorem Adiabatic quantum motor == Electronics == Adiabatic circuit Adiabatic logic == References ==


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. == Scientific == In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: A wide variety of interferometric techniques Raman spectroscopy Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy Atmospheric remote sensing Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology applications in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. Three-dimensional structural modifications and writing inside technological materials. Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. === Spectroscopy === Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators. This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies. === Microscopy === Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy. == Military == === Directly as an energy weapon === A laser weapon is directed-energy weapon based on lasers. === Defensive countermeasures === Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles. === Disorientation === Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner. === Guidance === Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing. In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs. A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes: Laser cutting Laser welding Laser drilling Laser


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms. == Architecture == The use of stainless steel in buildings can be both practical and aesthetic. In vogue during the Art Deco period, the most famous use of stainless steel can be seen in the upper portion of the Chrysler Building. Thanks to its durability, many of these buildings have retained their original appearance. Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings, such as the exterior of the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons). The largest stainless steel building in North America is the aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility. La Geode in Paris has a dome composed of 6433 polished stainless steel triangles that form the sphere that reflects the sky. The development of high-strength stainless steel grades, such as "lean duplex" grades, has led to increasing use in structural applications. Thanks to its low reflectivity, stainless steel is used as a roofing material for airports, which prevents pilots from being


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
== Food and beverage == Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, particularly Types 304 and 316, is the material of choice for the food and beverage industry, though martensitic and ferritic (400 series) steels are also used. Stainless steels are advantageous because they do not affect the taste of the product, are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination of the food, and are durable. Within the food and beverage industry, stainless steel is extensively used in cookware, commercial food processing, commercial kitchens, brewing beer, winemaking, and meat processing. Stainless steel's superiority over plastic in preserving flavor is reportedly why McDonald's traditionally procures soft drink syrup for its soda fountains from The Coca-Cola Company in stainless steel tanks, rather than the bag-in-box technology preferred by most fast food restaurant chains. Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soy sauce, may require higher-alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride. == Vehicles == === Automobiles === The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo. Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal-treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. Surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) were also used in some early dental implants. == Energy == Stainless steels are extensively used in all types of power stations, from nuclear to solar. Stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural supports in electrolytic power generation. Stainless steel is used in electrolysers (proton exchange membranes and solid oxide electrolysers being the most


id: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of asteroid-discovering observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:59.427938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
The list of asteroid-discovering observatories contains a section for each observatory which has discovered one or more asteroids, along with a list of those asteroids. For each numbered asteroid, the Minor Planet Center lists one or more discoverers who have been given credit for the discovery. Sometimes these are individuals (by modern rules there can be no more than three co-discoverers), and sometimes the credit is given to an organization (for instance, Purple Mountain Observatory). == Observatories == === Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory === The Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory is a private observatory near Andrushivka in Zhytomyr oblast, Ukraine. The observatory has IAU observatory code A50. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory === The Korean Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory (BOAO), located at Mount Bohyeon near the city of Yeongcheon, is a member of the East-Asian Planet Search Network, an international collaboration between Korea, China and Japan. Each facility, BOAO (Korea), Xinglong Station (NAOC) (China), and Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (Japan), has a 2 m class telescope, a high dispersion echelle spectrograph, and an iodine absorption cell for precise RV measurements, looking for extrasolar planets. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Cerro El Roble Astronomical Station === Between


id: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:00.633352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles. == Geometric optics (ray tracing) == Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications. The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to


id: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric radiative transfer codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:01.956359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
summary:
An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. == Methods == At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation. For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending


id: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md
category: reference
title: Azeotrope tables
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:04.389530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. == Binary azeotropes == == Ternary azeotropes == Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. ‡Saddle azeotrope ‡Saddle azeotrope == References ==


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recipients of the Balzan Prize, one of the world's most prestigious academic awards. The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the humanities, natural sciences, culture, and peace on an international level. The Prizes are awarded in four subject areas: "two in literature, the moral sciences and the arts" and "two in the physical, mathematical and natural sciences and medicine." The special Prize for Humanity, Peace and Fraternity is presented at intervals of every three years or longer. == 1960s–1970s == 1961 Nobel Foundation (Sweden) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1962 Andrey Kolmogorov (Soviet Union) --- Mathematics Karl von Frisch (Austria) --- Biology Paul Hindemith (Germany) --- Music Samuel Eliot Morison (United States) --- History Pope John XXIII (Vatican) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1978 Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1979 Ernest Labrousse (France) and Giuseppe Tucci (Italy) --- History Jean Piaget (Switzerland) --- Social and political sciences Torbjörn Caspersson (Sweden) --- Biology == 1980s == 1980 Enrico Bombieri (Italy) --- Mathematics Hassan Fathy (Egypt) --- Architecture and town planning Jorge Luis


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2000s == 2000 Ilkka Hanski (Finland) --- Ecological sciences Martin Litchfield West (United Kingdom) --- Classical antiquity Michael Stolleis (Germany) --- Legal history since 1500 Michel G.E. Mayor (Switzerland) --- Instrumentation and techniques in astronomy and astrophysics Abdul Sattar Edhi (Pakistan) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2001 Claude Lorius (France) --- Climatology James Sloss Ackerman (United States) --- History of architecture (including town planning and landscape design) Jean-Pierre Changeux (France) --- Cognitive neurosciences Marc Fumaroli (France) --- Literary history and criticism (post 1500) 2002 Anthony Grafton (United States) --- History of the humanities Dominique Schnapper (France) --- Sociology Walter J. Gehring (Switzerland) --- Developmental biology Xavier Le Pichon (France) --- Geology 2003 Eric Hobsbawm (United Kingdom) --- European history since 1900 Reinhard Genzel (Germany) --- Infrared astronomy Serge Moscovici (France) --- Social psychology Wen-Hsiung Li (Taiwan / United States) --- Genetics and evolution 2004 Andrew Colin Renfrew (United Kingdom) --- Prehistoric Archaeology Michael Marmot (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology Nikki R. Keddie (United States) --- The Islamic world from the end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century Pierre Deligne (Belgium) --- Mathematics Community of Sant'Egidio --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2005 Lothar


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2020s == 2020 Susan Trumbore (US / Germany) --- Earth System Dynamics Jean-Marie Tarascon (France) --- Environmental Challenges: Materials Science for Renewable Energy Joan Martinez Alier (Spain) --- Environmental Challenges: Responses from the Social Sciences and the Humanities Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil) --- Human Rights 2021 Saul Friedländer (France / US) --- Holocaust and Genocide Studies Jeffrey I. Gordon (US) --- Microbiome in Health and Disease Alessandra Buonanno (Italy / US) and Thibault Damour (France) --- Gravitation: physical and astrophysical aspects Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (Italy / USA) --- Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Far East 2022 Robert Langer (US) --- Biomaterials for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering Martha Nussbaum (US) --- Moral Philosophy Dorthe Dahl-Jensen (Denmark) and Hans Oerlemans (Netherlands) --- Glaciation and Ice-Sheet Dynamics Philip Bohlman (US) --- Ethnomusicology 2023 David Damrosch (US) --- World Literature Jean-Jacques Hublin (France) --- Evolution of Humankind: Paleoanthropology Eske Willerslev (Denmark) --- Evolution of Humankind: Ancient DNA and Human Evolution Heino Falcke (Germany) --- High resolution images: from planetary to cosmic objects 2024 John Braithwaite (Australia) --- Restorative Justice Lorraine Daston (US / Germany) --- History of Modern and Contemporary Science Michael N. Hall (US / Switzerland) --- Biological


id: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:10.642506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. == Applications of biochemistry == Testing Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science: Links to articles and redirects to sections of articles which provide information on each topic are listed with a short description of the topic. When there is more than one article with information on a topic, the most relevant is usually listed, and it may be cross-linked to further information from the linked page or section. Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The branches of science, also referred to as scientific fields, scientific disciplines, or just sciences, can be arbitrarily divided into three major groups: The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences), which study nature in the broadest sense; The social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics, history) which study people and societies; and The formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts. Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences. == A == Abiology – Life arising from non-living matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of inanimate, inorganic, or lifeless


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Bacteriology – Subdiscipline of microbiology that studies bacteria Ballistics – Science of the motion of projectiles Balneology – Method of treating diseases by bathingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the therapeutic use of baths. Barodynamics – science of the support and mechanics of heavy structures Barology – study of gravitational force. Bathymetry – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors Batology – Study of brambles Batrachology – Branch of herpetology that studies amphibians Behavioural genetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour Behavioral neuroscience – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour Bibliology – Organized listing of books and the systematic description of them as objects Bibliotics – study of documents to determine authenticity. Bioecology – Study of interrelations of plants and animals with their environment Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth related to biological activity Biology – Scientific study of life Biochemistry – Study of chemical processes of living organisms Biomechanics – Study of the mechanics of biological systems Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics Bionomics – Term with different meanings in ecology or economics – study of organisms interacting in their environments. Biophysics –


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== D == Dactyliology – study of finger rings. Dactylography – Scientific study of fingerprints Dactylology – Form of communication using one or both handsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sign language. Data science – Field of study to extract knowledge from data – study of analyzing, processing, interpreting and extracting data. Demography – Study of human populations and their structures Demology – study of human populations and behaviour. Dendrochronology – Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings Dendrology – Science and study of woody plants Dermatoglyphics – Scientific study of finger- and toeprints Dermatology – Field of medicine dealing with the hair, nails, skin, and its diseases Desmology – Study of ligaments Dialectology – Scientific study of linguistic dialect Dietetics – Study of diet and nutrition in relation to health and disease Dioptrics – Science of light and lenses Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents – science of deciphering ancient writings and texts. Dosiology – study of dosage of drugs. Dynamics – Study of forces and their effect on motion Dysgenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof. == E == Eccrinology – Sweat


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Garbology – Study of modern refuse Gastroenterology – Branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders Gastronomy – Study of the relationship between food and culture Gemmology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of gems and jewels Gender studies – Interdisciplinary field of study – study of gender Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline – study of descent of families Genesiology – study of reproduction and heredity Genetics – Science of genes, heredity and variation Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems – study of chemistry of the Earth's crust Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils – study of measuring geological time Geography – Study of Earth's spatial information – study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants Geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition – study of the rocks of a planet Geometry – Branch of mathematics – study the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and dimensions of things. Geomorphogeny – study of the characteristics, origins, and development of land forms Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms – study of


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== I == Iamatology – Obsolete synonym for the study of therapies. Iatrology – treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine Ichnography – Architectural drawing showing interior layout of a buildingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan Ichnology – Study of trace fossils Ichthyology – Scientific study of fish Iconography – Branch of art history – study of drawing symbols Iconology – Method of interpretation in cultural history – study of icons; symbols Ideogeny – study of origins of ideas Ideology – Set of beliefs or values – science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour Idiomology – study of idiom, jargon or dialect Idiopsychology – study of the psychology of one's own mind Immunochemistry – Study of the chemistry of the immune system Immunogenetics – Branch of medical genetics – study of genetic characteristics of immunity Immunology – Branch of medicine studying the immune system Immunopathology – Branch of medicine that deals with immune responses associated with disease Information science – Academic field concerned with collection and analysis of information Information technology (IT) – Computer-based technology Insectology – Scientific study ofi insects, or relationships between insects


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Macroeconomics – Study of an economy as a whole – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy Magnetics – Class of physical phenomenaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of magnetism Magnetohydrodynamics – Model of electrically conducting fluids – study of electrically conducting fluids Magnetostatics – Branch of physics about magnetism in systems with steady electric currents – study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady Malacology – Study of molluscs Malariology – Study of the mosquito borne disease, malaria Mammalogy – Study of mammals Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life – study of the ocean's ecosystem Mastology – Study of mammals – study of mammals Mathematics – Field of study – study of magnitude, number, and forms Mazology – mammalogy; study of mammals Mechanics – Science concerned with physical bodies subjected to forces or displacements Meconology – study of or treatise concerning opium Media studies – Field of study that deals with media Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness Melissopalynology – Study of pollen contained in honey Melittology – Scientific study of bees Melology – Scholarly study of musicPages


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Obstetrics – Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean Oceanology – Scientific study of the ocean Odontology – Scientific study of teeth Odonatology – Study of dragonflies and damselflies Oenology – Study of wine and winemaking Oikology – science of housekeeping Olfactology – study of the sense of smell Ombrology – study of rain Oncology – Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer Oneirology – Scientific study of dreams Onomasiology – Branch of linguistics concerned with how to express a given concept – study of nomenclature Onomastics – Study of proper names Ontology – Philosophical study of being – science of pure being; the nature of things Oology – Branch of ornithology studying bird eggs, nests and breeding behavior Ophiology, also known as ophidiology – Branch of herpetology that studies snakes Ophthalmology – Field of medicine treating eye disorders Optics – Branch of physics that studies light Optology – study of sight Optometry – Field of medicine treating eye disorders – science of examining the eyes Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft Orchidology – Scientific study of orchids Ornithology – Scientific study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Paedology – Study of children's behavior and development Paidonosology – study of children's diseases; pediatrics Palaeoanthropology – Study of ancient humans Palaeobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils Palaeoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate Palaeoichthyology – study of ancient fish Palaeolimnology – Scientific study of ancient lakes and streams Palaeontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch Palaeopedology – Discipline studying soils of the past eras Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils Paleo-osteology – study of ancient bones Paleoseismology – Study of earthquakes that happened in the past Palynology – Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material Papyrology – Scientific study of ancient manuscripts Paradoxology – Logically self-contradictory statementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of paradoxes Parapsychology – Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena Parasitology – Study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them Paroemiology – study of proverbs Parthenology – study of virgins Particle physics – Study of subatomic particles and forces Pathology – Study of disease Pedagogics – Theory and practice of educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Pedology – Study of soils in their natural environment Pelology


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Radiobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living tissues – study of the scientific principles, mechanisms, and effects of the interaction of ionizing radiation with living matter Radiochemistry – Chemistry of radioactive materials – study of ordinary chemical reactions under radioactive circumstances Radiology – Medical specialty for imaging procedures Rheology – Study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid state Rheumatology – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases Rhinology – Study of the nose and sinuses Rhochrematics – science of inventory management and the movement of products Robotics – Design, construction, use, and application of robots Rodentology – Study of rodents Runology – Study of Runic alphabets == S == Sarcology – study of fleshy parts of the body Scatology – Study of faeces – study of excrement or obscene literature Schematonics – art of using gesture to express tones Sciagraphy – Study of perspective shadow projection – art of shading Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models – study of application of models to understand a particular problem Scientific programming – Language for controlling a computer – study of programming Scripophily – Study and collection of stock and bond certificates Sedimentology – Study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== T == Taxidermy – Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display – art of curing and stuffing animals Taxonomy – Science of classifying organisms Tectonics – Process of evolution of Earth's crust Teleology – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose – study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose Telmatology – Branch of physical geography concerned with the study of wetlands Tempestology – The study of cyclones, hurricanes and similar extreme weather events Teratology – Study of developmental anomalies Terrestrial ecology – Study of terrestrial ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic things that occupy them. Teuthology – Study of cephalopods Textology – Identification of textual variants – study of the production of texts Thalassography – science of the seas and gulfs Thanatology – Scientific study of death and its aspects Thaumatology – The study of miracles – study of miracles Theology – Study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs - study of religion Theoretical computer science – Subfield of computer science and mathematics Theriogenology – Veterinary specialty concerning reproduction Thermodynamics – Physics of heat, work, and temperature Thermokinematics – study of motion of heat Thermology – study of heat Therology – Study of mammals Thremmatology


id: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cities by scientific output
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:13.426430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
summary:
The following article lists the cities and metropolitan areas with the greatest scientific output, according to the Nature Index. The Nature Index attempts to objectively measure the scientific output of institutions, cities and countries by the amount of scientific articles and papers published in leading journals. Differences in quality are taken into account. Only articles published in 82 selected quality journals are counted. All these journals are in the English language. They were selected by a committee. If authors from several institutions from different cities are involved in a scientific article, it is divided accordingly, assuming that all researchers were equally involved in the article. In 2019, Beijing was the city in the world with the largest scientific output, accounting for 2.8% of the world's total. New York City was second in the world, with about 2% of the world's total. Overall, China has the most cities in the top 100 list with 28, followed by the United States with 27. == List == Listed below are the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals in 2024, according to the Nature Index 2025 Science Cities: == Leading cities in different fields


id: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of citizen science projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:14.711151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
summary:
Citizen science projects are activities sponsored by a wide variety of organizations so non-scientists can meaningfully contribute to scientific research. == Precis == Activities vary widely from transcribing old ship logbooks to digitize the data as part of the Old Weather project to observing and counting birds at home or in the field for eBird. Participation can be as simple as playing a computer game for a project called Eyewire that may help scientists learn more about retinal neurons. It can also be more in depth, such as when citizens collect water quality data over time to assess the health of local waters, or help discover and name new species of insects. An emerging branch of Citizen Science are Community Mapping projects that utilize smartphone and tablet technology. For example, TurtleSAT is a community mapping project that is mapping freshwater turtle deaths throughout Australia. This list of citizen science projects involves projects that engage all age groups. There are projects specifically aimed at the younger age demographic like iTechExplorers which was created by a 14 year old in the UK to assess the effects of bedtime technology on the body's circadian rhythm and can be completed in a classroom setting.


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:16.015297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder. Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder === == Relevant scattering codes == Discrete dipole approximation codes Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres == See also == Computational electromagnetics List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes == References == == External links == SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:17.289566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres. == Solution techniques == Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere === === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere === Algorithmic literature includes several contributions === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres === ==


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md

summary:
Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail. == Astronomy and spaceflight == There is no scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans, and astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no explanatory power in predicting future events. Astronauts in orbit have the sensation of being weightless because they are in free fall around the Earth, not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the International Space Station the Earth's gravity is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects orbiting in space would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and gravitational fields extend even into the depths of intergalactic space. The dark side of the Moon receives about the same amount of light from the Sun as the near side. The far side is called "dark" not because it never receives light but because it had never been seen until humans sent spacecraft around the

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md

summary:
=== Mammals === Bats are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the microbat family, use echolocation to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the megabat or fruit bat family cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision. Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional bullfighters. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the bullfighter that incites it to charge, along with the spearing of the bull and mental agitation and abuse it endures beforehand. Camels do not store water in their humps, but rather fatty tissue which can be used as a reserve source of calories. While they can go long periods without water, the water is stored in the animal's bloodstream, not their humps. Domestic cats' behavioral and personality traits cannot be predicted from their coat color. Rather, these traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Not all cats are attracted and intoxicated by catnip, which affects only about two thirds of them. Alternatives exist, such

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-2
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md

summary:
The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the bald eagle in popular culture is actually that of a red-tailed hawk. Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of gulls. Despite the saying "dumb as a dodo", the dodo's intelligence was above average for an avian, as it was a member of the family Columbidae (pigeons). The perceived stupidity of the dodo, a medium-sized flightless bird that was native to Mauritius, is due to naivety and passivity from living in isolation without significant predators. Many believe that the dodo was hunted to extinction by European settlers due to its high culinary value. However, the dodo's meat was stated to be inedible by historical accounts, as one of its early names given by the Dutch was Walghvoghel (repulsive bird). The dodo's decline was caused more by predation of their eggs from invasive species as opposed to direct predation from humans. A duck's quack actually does echo, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances. Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts was named Duck Quacks Don't Echo. Ostriches do not stick their heads in the sand

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-3
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md

summary:
It is not true that aerodynamic theory predicts that bumblebees should not be able to fly; the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book, and was further popularized in the 2007 film Bee Movie. While certainly critical to the pollination of many plant species, European honey bees are not essential to human food production, despite claims that without their pollination, humanity would starve or die out "within four years". In fact, the most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum, are wind-pollinated or self-pollinating, and only slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops is dependent upon insect pollination. Bees do not always die if they use their sting. This happens for only a very small minority of species, which includes the honey bee, when they sting mammals, as they have thick skin. They are able to survive when they sting other insects. Cockroaches would not be the only organisms capable of surviving in an environment contaminated with nuclear fallout. While cockroaches have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, they


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-4
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md

summary:
The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. Scientific facts and theories are not mutually exclusive, and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation. The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated. The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as abiogenesis, and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the Big Bang model. Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. Evolution through natural selection only causes successive generations of a population of organisms to become more fit for their environment than


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-5
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md

summary:
== Chemistry and materials science == Himalayan salt does not have lower levels of sodium than conventional table salt. Glass does not flow at room temperature as a high-viscosity liquid. Although glass shares some molecular properties with liquids, it is a solid at room temperature and begins to flow only at hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age. Diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. Almost all commercially mined diamonds were formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 150 kilometers (93 mi) below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below 3.2 kilometers (2.0 mi) through geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal. Neither "tin" foil nor "tin" cans still use tin as a primary material. Aluminum foil has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-6
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md

summary:
Contemporary global warming is driven by human activities, despite claims that it is not occurring, lacks strong scientific consensus, or that warming is mostly caused by non-human factors. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete scientific consensus on climate change. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations (like CO2 and methane) via the burning of fossil fuels as well as other human activities such as deforestation, with secondary climate change feedback mechanisms (such as the melting of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight) assisting to perpetuate the change. Global warming is not caused by the hole in the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have been released into the atmosphere. CFCs are strong greenhouse gases; however, the hole in the ozone layer is shrinking and in 2019 was the smallest it had been since 1982, while global warming continues. Cooling towers in power stations and other facilities do not emit smoke, harmful fumes, or radiation; they emit water vapor and do not contribute to climate change. Nuclear power is one of the safest sources of energy, resulting in


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-7
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md

summary:
The total number of people living in extreme absolute poverty globally decreased by two-thirds from 1990 to 2025 (measured using the international poverty line), with other poverty measurements showing similar trends. However, most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same. Although the human population of Earth is increasing, the rate of human population growth is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global human overpopulation scenario unlikely. For any given production set, there is not a set amount of labor input (a "lump of labor") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in Luddite and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and economies of learning can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production. Income is not a direct factor in determining credit score in the United States. Rather, credit score is affected by the amount


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-8
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md

summary:
It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too. Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people. As of 2019, this belief was in decline. Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men, although it is more common among both men and women over 50. Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened. Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue, and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation. Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-9
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md

summary:
It is not true that more people have died from the COVID-19 vaccine than from COVID-19 itself. Severe adverse reactions from the vaccine are rare, and an "exceedingly small" number of deaths have been caused by the vaccine. Meanwhile, the death toll from the disease itself is in the millions. Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body. Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet. The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans. Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-10
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md

summary:
=== Nutrition, food, and drink === Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins. Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces). Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm. Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient temperature and humidity. Water requirements can be met from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables. Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers. Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women; women are


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-11
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md

summary:
=== Sexuality and reproduction === Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active. It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina. An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one. Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are unscientific. Hand size and foot size do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may. While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%.


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-12
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md

summary:
== Inventions == James Watt did not invent the steam engine, nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result. Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favoring beheadings over other forms of execution that led to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine. Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century, and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-13
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md

summary:
The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force. Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way, Bernoulli's principle applies only within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper are in different flow fields. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow. The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-14
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md

summary:
=== Mental disorders === Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated. Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence. Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing. There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Schizophrenia does not involve split or multiple personalities. It is


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-15
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md

summary:
== Toxicology == Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight. Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs. This does not mean gasoline is safe to drink; it is very dangerous when consumed. Inducing vomiting can make it worse. A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person. It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent has been popularized by crime fiction authors. Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:19.880704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science). See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. Topics on computing include: == 0–9 == 1.TR.6 – 100BaseVG – 100VG-AnyLAN – 10BASE-2 – 10BASE-5 – 10BASE-T – 120 reset – 1-bit computing – 16-bit computing – 16550 UART – 1NF – 1TBS – 20-GATE – 20-GATE – 2B1D – 2B1Q – 2D – 2NF – 3-tier (computing) – 32-bit application – 32-bit computing – 320xx microprocessor – 386BSD – 3Com Corporation – 3DO – 3D computer graphics – 3GL – 3NF – 3Station – 4.2BSD – 4-bit computing – 404 error – 431A – 473L system – 486SX – 4GL – 4NF – 51-FORTH – 56 kbit/s line – 5ESS switch – 5NF – 5th Glove – 6.001 – 64-bit computing – 680x0 – 6x86 – 8-bit clean –


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:19.880704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== I == IA-32 – IA-64 – IBM PC – Interactive computation – IBM – iBook – iCab – iCal – Icon – iDVD – IEEE 802.2 – IEEE 802.3 – IEEE floating-point standard – iMac – Image processing – iMovie – Indentation style Inform – Instruction register – Intel 8008 – Intel 80186 – Intel 80188 – Intel 80386 – Intel 80486SX – Intel 80486 – Intel 8048 – Intel 8051 – Intel 8080 – Intel 8086 – Intel 80x86 – Intel – INTERCAL – International Electrotechnical Commission – Internet Explorer – Internet – iPhoto – iPod – iResQ – Irreversible circuit – iSync – iTunes == J == J (programming language) – Java Platform, Enterprise Edition – Java Platform, Micro Edition – Java Platform, Standard Edition – Java API – Java – Java virtual machine (JVM) – JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) – JPEG == K == K&R – KDE – Kilobyte – KL-ONE – Kleene star – Klez – Kotlin == L == LALR parser – Lambda calculus – Lasso – LaTeX – Leet – Legal aspects of computing – Lex – LibreOffice – Limbo – Linked list – Linux – Lisp – List of IBM products –


id: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific constants named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:21.261962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of physical and mathematical constants named after people. Eponymous constants and their influence on scientific citations have been discussed in the literature. Apéry's constant – Roger Apéry Archimedes' constant (π, pi) – Archimedes Avogadro constant – Amedeo Avogadro Balmer's constant – Johann Jakob Balmer Belphegor's prime – Belphegor (demon) Bohr magneton – Niels Bohr Bohr radius – Niels Bohr Boltzmann constant – Ludwig Boltzmann Brun's constant – Viggo Brun Cabibbo angle – Nicola Cabibbo Chaitin's constant – Gregory Chaitin Champernowne constant – D. G. Champernowne Chandrasekhar limit – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Copeland–Erdős constant – Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein Eddington number – Arthur Stanley Eddington Dunbar's number – Robin Dunbar Embree–Trefethen constant Erdős–Borwein constant Euler–Mascheroni constant ( γ {\displaystyle \gamma } ) – Leonhard Euler and Lorenzo Mascheroni Euler's number ( e {\displaystyle e} ) – Leonhard Euler Faraday constant – Michael Faraday Feigenbaum constants – Mitchell Feigenbaum Fermi coupling constant – Enrico Fermi Gauss's constant – Carl Friedrich Gauss Graham's number – Ronald Graham Hartree energy – Douglas Hartree Hubble constant – Edwin Hubble Josephson constant – Brian David Josephson Kaprekar's constant – D. R. Kaprekar Kerr constant – John Kerr Khinchin's constant – Aleksandr Khinchin


id: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md
category: reference
title: List of crew members aboard the first voyage of James Cook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:26.428048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
summary:
The first voyage of James Cook was a discovery expedition to the south Pacific Ocean, with aims of observing the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun and seeking evidence of the alleged southern territories, named by that time as Terra Australis Incognita. The ship chosen for the voyage was HMS Endeavour. The makeup of the crew during the voyage varied due the high mortality, for which contributed mainly malaria and dysentery, that the crew had contracted in Batavia. There was also one occurrence of successful desertion of Patrick Saunders, who after being disrated, escaped the ship. == Personnel == The following is a complete list of initial crew that departed from Plymouth on 26 August 1768 according to ship's journal. == See also == 1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti Personnel of Franklin's lost expedition == Notes and references == === Notes === === References === === Works cited === Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum (UK). ISBN 0-948065-43-5.


id: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cycles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:27.664163+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recurring cycles. See also Index of wave articles, Time, and Pattern. == Planetary cycles == === Astronomical cycles === Astronomy – Axial precession – CNO cycle – Eclipse cycle – Eclipse – Full moon cycle – Galactic year – Great Year – Lunar phase – Mesoamerican calendars – Metonic cycle – Milankovitch cycles – Mira – Moon – Nutation – Orbit – Orbital period – Saros cycle – Sothic cycle – Secularity – Sidereal year – Sunspot – Tide – Tropical year – Year === Climate and weather cycles === Animal migration – Avalanche – Carbon cycle – Climate change – Climate change and agriculture – Climate model – Climate oscillation – Clock of the Long Now – Ecology – El Niño/La Niña – Environmental geography – Global cooling – Global warming – Historical temperature record – Hydrogen cycle – Ice age – Transhumance – Milankovitch cycles – Monsoon – Pleistocene – Season – Sulfur cycle – Sunspot – Tide – Timeline of meteorology – 1500-year climate cycle === Geological cycles === Age of the Earth – Aluminum cycle – Arsenic cycle – Boron cycle – Bromine cycle – Cadmium cycle – Calcium cycle –


id: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md
category: reference
title: List of developers of optical scientific equipment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:29.012236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
summary:
A developer of optical scientific equipment is an individual who makes and adjusts optical aids for scientific purposes, including telescope optics and microscope lenses. == Telescope developers == James Gilbert Baker Denis Albert Bardou John A. Brashear Laurent Cassegrain Henri Chrétien Alvan Clark John Dollond Charles Wesley Elmer and Richard Scott Perkin Galileo Galilei James Gregory John Hadley Chester Moore Hall Robert Hooke Johannes Kepler Frederick James Hargreaves Christiaan Huygens Hans Lippershey Raymond Augustin Mailhat Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov James Henry Marriott Jacob Metius Isaac Newton Georg Simon Plössl Russell W. Porter Jesse Ramsden George Willis Ritchey Christoph Scheiner Bernhard Schmidt James Short See also Timeline of telescope technology and List of astronomical instrument makers == Microscope developers == Ernst Karl Abbe Denis Albert Bardou Christopher Cock Siegfried Czapski Cornelius Drebbel Galileo Galilei Robert Hooke Christiaan Huygens Carl Kellner Anton van Leeuwenhoek Moritz von Rohr See also Timeline of microscope technology == References ==


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:30.212297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Many proposed diseases and diagnoses are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience due to a lack of scientific evidence for their existence, proposed mechanism or action, or manifestation that cannot be explained by something else. == Definition == Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology. Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory. In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate. Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include: Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses. Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction, baldness, jet lag, and halitosis. Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:30.212297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Medical == Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor, may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms. There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community. A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls. Multiple


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:30.212297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Psychological == Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia. Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape. As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure. Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder. Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, arguments based on elegance/simplicity, and numerically/experimentally verified conjectures qualify (as otherwise no scientific discovery before the late 19th century would count). The timeline begins at the Bronze Age, as it is difficult to give even estimates for the timing of events prior to this, such as of the discovery of counting, natural numbers and arithmetic. To avoid overlap with timeline of historic inventions, the timeline does not list examples of documentation for manufactured substances and devices unless they reveal a more fundamental leap in the theoretical ideas in a field. == Bronze Age == Many early innovations of the Bronze Age were prompted by the increase in trade, and this also applies to the scientific advances of this period. For context, the major civilizations of this period are Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley, with Greece rising in importance towards the end of the third millennium BC. The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and there are very little surviving fragments of its writing, thus any inference about scientific discoveries


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
500 BC: Hippasus, a Pythagorean, discovers irrational numbers. 500 BC: Anaxagoras identifies moonlight as reflected sunlight. 5th century BC: The Greeks start experimenting with straightedge-and-compass constructions. 5th century BC: The earliest documented mention of a spherical Earth comes from the Greeks in the 5th century BC. It is known that the Indians modeled the Earth as spherical by 300 BC 460 BC: Empedocles describes thermal expansion. Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit. 4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation. 4th century BC: The first true formal system is constructed by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar. 4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property. 4th century BC: Thaetetus shows that square roots are either integer or irrational. 4th century BC: Thaetetus enumerates the Platonic solids, an early work in graph theory. 4th century BC: Menaechmus discovers conic sections. 4th century BC: Menaechmus develops co-ordinate geometry. 4th century BC: Mozi in China gives a description of the camera obscura phenomenon. 4th century BC: Around the time of Aristotle, a more empirically founded system of anatomy is established, based on animal dissection. In particular, Praxagoras makes the


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
1st to 4th century: A precursor to long division, known as "galley division" is developed at some point. Its discovery is generally believed to have originated in India around the 4th century AD, although Singaporean mathematician Lam Lay Yong claims that the method is found in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, from the 1st century AD. 60 AD: Heron's formula is discovered by Hero of Alexandria. 2nd century: Ptolemy formalises the epicycles of Apollonius. 2nd century: Ptolemy publishes his Optics, discussing colour, reflection, and refraction of light, and including the first known table of refractive angles. 2nd century: Galen studies the anatomy of pigs. 100: Menelaus of Alexandria describes spherical triangles, a precursor to non-Euclidean geometry. 150: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number. However, it was usually used in the fractional part of a numeral, and was not regarded as a true arithmetical number itself. 150: Ptolemy's Almagest contains practical formulae to calculate latitudes and day lengths. 3rd century: Diophantus discusses linear diophantine equations. 3rd century: Diophantus uses a primitive form of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
6th century: Varahamira in the Gupta empire is the first to describe comets as astronomical phenomena, and as periodic in nature. 525: John Philoponus in Byzantine Egypt describes the notion of inertia, and states that the motion of a falling object does not depend on its weight. His radical rejection of Aristotlean orthodoxy lead him to be ignored in his time 628: Brahmagupta states the arithmetic rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero, as well as the multiplication of negative numbers, extending the basic rules for the latter found in the earlier The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. 628: Brahmagupta writes down Brahmagupta's identity, an important lemma in the theory of Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta produces an infinite (but not exhaustive) number of solutions to Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta provides an explicit solution to the quadratic equation. 628: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta's formula, a generalization of Heron's formula to cyclic quadrilaterals. 628: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta's interpolation formula. 628: Brahmagupta invents a symbolic mathematical notation, which is then adopted by mathematicians through India and the Near East, and eventually Europe. 629: Bhāskara I produces the first approximation of a transcendental function with a rational


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
16th century: Gerolamo Cardano solves the general cubic equation (by reducing them to the case with zero quadratic term). 16th century: Lodovico Ferrari solves the general quartic equation (by reducing it to the case with zero quartic term). 16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta's formulas. 16th century: François Viète discovers Viète's formula for π.1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation x 3 = p x + q {\displaystyle x^{3}=px+q} . Late 16th century: Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena. 1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham's law: ("Bad money drowns out good"). 1543: Nicolaus Copernicus develops a heliocentric model, rejecting Aristotle's Earth-centric view, would be the first quantitative heliocentric model in history. 1543: Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy. 1545: Gerolamo Cardano discovers complex numbers. 1556: Niccolò Tartaglia introduces parenthesis. 1557: Robert Recorde introduces the equal sign. 1564: Gerolamo Cardano is the first to produce a systematic treatment of probability. 1572: Rafael Bombelli provides rules for complex arithmetic. 1591: François Viète's New algebra shows the modern notational algebraic manipulation. == 17th century == 1600: William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field. 1608: Earliest record of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 1850–1899 == 1856: Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, through the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel. 1858: Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells. 1859: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection. 1861: Louis Pasteur: Germ theory. 1861: John Tyndall: Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse effect. 1864: James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism. 1865: Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics. 1865: Rudolf Clausius: Definition of entropy. 1868: Robert Forester Mushet discovers that alloying steel with tungsten produces a harder, more durable alloy. 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table. 1871: Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue. 1873: Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force. 1873: Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission. 1873: Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity. 1875: William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays. 1876: Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule. 1877: Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy. 1880s: John Hopkinson develops three-phase electrical supplies, mathematically proves how multiple


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 1950–1999 == 1951: George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa 1952: Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine 1952: Stanley Miller: demonstrated that the building blocks of life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early Earth (Miller-Urey experiment) 1952: Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids 1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology 1957: Chien Shiung Wu: demonstrated that parity, and thus charge conjugation and time-reversals, are violated for weak interactions 1962: Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1 1963: Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis). 1964: Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks, leading to the Standard Model 1964: Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang 1965: Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit 1967: Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar 1967: Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst 1970: James H. Ellis proposed the possibility


id: list-of-discoveries-influenced-by-chance-circumstances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances-0.md
category: reference
title: List of discoveries influenced by chance circumstances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:32.782892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-discoveries-influenced-by-chance-circumstances-20260505-0
summary:
Below are discoveries in science that involve chance circumstances in a particularly salient way. This page should not list all chance involved in all discoveries (i.e. it should focus on discoveries reported for their notable circumstances). == Overview == Royston Roberts says that various discoveries required a degree of genius, but also some lucky element for that genius to act on. Richard Gaughan writes that accidental discoveries result from the convergence of preparation, opportunity, and desire. Major everyday discoveries that were helped by luck in some way include products like vulcanized rubber, teflon, nylon, penicillin, cyanoacrylate (Super Glue), the implantable pacemaker, the microwave oven, Scotchgard, Saran wrap, Silly Putty, Slinky, safety glass, propeller, snowmaking, stainless steel, Perkin's mauve, and popsicles. Most artificial sweeteners have been discovered when accidentally tasted, including aspartame and saccharin. Ideas include the theory of the Big Bang, tissue culture, radio astronomy, and the discovery of DNA. Such archeological discoveries as the Rosetta Stone, the Dead Sea Scrolls and the ruins of Pompeii also emerged partly out of serendipity. Many relevant and well known scientific theories were developed by chance at some degree along history. According to a legend, Archimedes realized his principle on hydrostatics when he


id: earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:34.030565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history. == Geology == Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the Earth's crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time. Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands.


id: earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:34.030565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature. == Physical geography == Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment. == Methodology == Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g., Antarctica or hot spot island chains). A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:35.173700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn has many branches. == Earth's spheres == Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the natural environment (the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere. Earth's ecosphere lies it self within the heliosphere (the Sun's astrosphere). Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are: Magnetosphere – The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field Atmosphere, the gases that surround the Earth (its air) By altitude Exosphere – The outermost


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:35.173700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geology === Geology – The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value Engineering geology – The application of the geology to engineering practice. Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. Quaternary geology – The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago Planetary geology – The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects Petroleum geology – The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels Historical geology – The study of the geological history of Earth Hydrogeology – The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater Structural geology – The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust independent of extent Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils Geodesy – The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field Geomicrobiology – Science of


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:35.173700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. History of atmospheric chemistry History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how they are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems


id: list-of-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:36.370706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study. == A == Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy) Accelerator effect (economics) Accordion effect (physics) (waves) Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves) Additive genetic effects (genetics) Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics) Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues) Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre) Allais effect (fringe physics) Allee effect (biology) Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases) Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine) Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation) Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres) Askaryan effect (particle physics) Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics) Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology) Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology) Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics) Autokinetic effect (vision) Avalanche effect (cryptography) Averch–Johnson effect (economics) == B == Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology) Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics) Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection) Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment) Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs) Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques) Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:36.370706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology) False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability) Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics) Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena) Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion) Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors) Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology) Floor effect (statistics) Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology) Flutie effect (student sport) Flux pinning (Physics) Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy) Focusing effect (cognitive biases) Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena) Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories) Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics) Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics) Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception) Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics) Free surface effect (fluid mechanics) Front projection effect (film production) Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices) Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects) == G == Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics) Gauche effect (stereochemistry) Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism) Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories) Geodetic effect (general relativity) Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:36.370706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Magali effect Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics) Magnus effect (fluid dynamics) Malmquist effect (astronomy) Malter effect (physics) Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal) Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena) Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production) Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market) Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis) Massenerhebung effect (trees) Maternal age effect (developmental biology) Maternal effect (developmental biology) Matthew effect (education) (education) Matilda effect (Research) Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge) McClintock effect (menstruation) McCollough effect (optical illusions) McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories) Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity) Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics) Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication) Memory effect (electric batteries) Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding) Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound) Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity) Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics) Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence) Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms) Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:36.370706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography) Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology) Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity) Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics) Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil) Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization) Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory) Schottky effect (diodes) Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics) Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology) Second gas effect (anesthesia) Second-system effect (software development) Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy) Shaft effect (motorcycle) Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation) Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry) Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics) Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science) Side effect (computer science) (computer programming) Side effect (disambiguation) Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology) Silk screen effect (technology) Silo effect (management) (systems theory) Simon effect (psychology) Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) Skin effect (electronics) Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot) Sleeper effect (social psychology) Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics) Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology) Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance) Snowball effect (language) (metaphors) Somogyi effect (diabetes) Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects) Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film


id: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of forms of electricity named after scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:37.609879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of forms of electricity named after scientists. The terms in this list are mostly archaic usages but are found in many 19th and early 20th-century publications. == Adjectives == faradic Of electricity that is alternating, especially when obtained from an induction coil. Named after Michael Faraday who built the first electromagnetic generator. galvanic Of electricity that is not alternating. Named after Luigi Galvani. voltaic Of electricity derived from an electrochemical cell or battery. Named after Alessandro Volta who built the first battery, the voltaic pile. In most contexts it can be considered a synonym of galvanic. == Nouns (applications) == Faradization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with faradic electricity. Coined by Duchenne de Boulogne and named after Michael Faraday. Franklinization Electrotherapy by charging a person to high voltage with static electricity. Named after Benjamin Franklin. d'Arsonvalization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with high frequency electricity. Named after Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval. == Nouns (forms) == Faradism Faradic electricity Franklinism High voltage static electricity as used in Franklinization Galvanism Originally, voltaic electricity, but can also be used to distinguish Galvani's animal electricity from Volta's chemical/metal contact electricity == References == == Bibliography == Borck, Cornelius, Brainwaves: A Cultural History


id: list-of-engineering-blunders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of engineering blunders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:42.208562+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-engineering-blunders-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of engineering blunders, i.e., gross errors or mistakes resulting from grave lack of proper consideration, such as stupidity, confusion, carelessness, or culpable ignorance, which resulted in notable incidents. Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused by a faulty blowout preventer. Fort Montgomery was sometimes referred to as "Fort Blunder", because the first version of the U.S. Army fort was inadvertently built on the Canadian side of Lake Champlain. Millennium Bridge, London, nicknamed "Wobbly Bridge"; it took almost two years to fix the engineering error The NASA Mars Climate Orbiter, launched in 1998, burned up in the Martian atmosphere. A mixup between metric and US Standard measurements in the controlling software caused the spacecraft to miss its intended 140–150 km altitude above Mars during orbit insertion, instead entering the Martian atmosphere at about 57 km. The NASA Genesis mission was an attempt to sample particles from the solar wind. It successfully collected a sample and returned to Earth. However at the last moment the landing parachute failed to open and the return capsule smashed into the ground at high speed, contaminating the samples. The parachute failure was traced to an accelerometer installed backwards. Palace II, Brazil; parts of it


id: lists-of-engineering-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of engineering software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:43.502485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-engineering-software-20260505-0
summary:
These are lists of engineering software tools used for design, analysis, simulation, and management across different engineering disciplines. == Lists of engineering software == Comparison of EDA software and list of electrical engineering software Comparison of electromagnetic simulation software Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software Comparison of optimization software Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling Comparison of system dynamics software List of aerospace engineering software List of automotive engineering software List of bioinformatics software and structural alignment software List of building information modeling software List of chemical engineering software List of chemical process simulators List of civil engineering software List of computational chemistry software and list of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software List of computational fluid dynamics software List of computational materials science software List of computational physics software List of computer-aided engineering software List of computer-aided manufacturing software and list of 3D printing software List of construction software List of data science software List of discrete event simulation software List of finite element analysis software List of gene prediction software List of genetic engineering software List of geotechnical engineering software List of HDL simulators List of hydrology software List of mechanical engineering software List of molecular design


id: eppendorf-science-prize-for-neurobiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology-0.md
category: reference
title: Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:44.861638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eppendorf-science-prize-for-neurobiology-20260505-0
summary:
The Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology is a neurobiology prize that is awarded annually by Science magazine (published by American Association for the Advancement of Science) and underwritten by Eppendorf AG, a laboratory equipment and supply company. Entries are reviewed by editors from Science magazine and the top 10% are forwarded to the judging panel. The judging panel is chaired by the Neuroscience Editor of Science and the remaining judges are nominated from the Society for Neuroscience. The award was established in 2002 to promote the work of promising early-career neurobiologists with $25,000 cash award to support their careers. Each applicant must submit a 1000-word essay explaining the focus and motivation for their last three years of work. The winner is awarded $25,000 and the scientist's winning essay is then published in Science (the winning essay and the other finalists' essays are all published on Science Online). == List (2013–) == == See also == List of neuroscience awards == References ==


id: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific equations named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:45.999113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific equations named after people (eponymous equations). == See also == Eponym List of eponymous laws List of laws in science List of equations Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Scientific laws named after people == References ==


id: list-of-types-of-equilibrium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of equilibrium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:47.323563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-equilibrium-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list presents the various articles at Wikipedia that use the term equilibrium (or an associated prefix or derivative) in their titles or leads. It is not necessarily complete; further examples may be found by using the Wikipedia search function, and this term. == Biology == Equilibrioception, the sense of a balance present in human beings and animals Equilibrium unfolding, the process of unfolding a protein or RNA molecule by gradually changing its environment Genetic equilibrium, theoretical state in which a population is not evolving Homeostasis, the ability of an open system, especially living organisms, to regulate its internal environment Punctuated equilibrium, theory in evolutionary biology Sedimentation equilibrium, analytical ultracentrifugation method for measuring protein molecular masses in solution Equilibrium Theory (Island biogeography), MacArthur-Wilson theory explaining biodiversity character of ecological islands Osmotic equilibrium, balance between solvent flow and pressure across a membrane == Physics == Equilibrant force, which keeps any object motionless and acts on virtually every object in the world that is not moving Equilibrium mode distribution, the state of fiber optic or waveguide transmission in which the propagation mode does not vary with distance along the fiber or changes in the launch mode Hydrostatic equilibrium, the state


id: list-of-members-of-the-european-academy-of-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:48.463962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-members-of-the-european-academy-of-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
summary:
The European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA, Latin: Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea) is a transnational and interdisciplinary network, connecting about 2,000 recommended scientists and artists worldwide, including 38 Nobel Prize laureates. The European Academy of Sciences and Arts is a learned society of scientists and artists, founded by Felix Unger. The academy was founded 1990, is situated in Salzburg and has been supported by the city of Vienna, the government of Austria, and the European Commission. The EASA is now headed by President Klaus Mainzer, TUM Emeritus of Excellence at the Technical University of Munich and Senior Professor at the Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker Center of the University of Tübingen. Below is a list of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (MEASA). == I – Humanities == == II – Medicine == == III – Arts == == IV – Natural sciences == == V – Social sciences, law and economics == == VI – Technical and environmental sciences == == VII – World religions == == References == == External links == Members at European Academy of Sciences and Arts


id: list-of-existing-technologies-predicted-in-science-fiction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction-0.md
category: reference
title: List of existing technologies predicted in science fiction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:49.694720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-existing-technologies-predicted-in-science-fiction-20260505-0
summary:
This list of existing technologies predicted in science fiction includes every medium, mainly literature and film. In 1964 Soviet engineer and writer Genrikh Altshuller made the first attempt to catalogue science fiction technologies of the time. Alongside first prediction of a particular technology, the list may include all subsequent works mentioning it until its invention. The list includes technologies that were first posited in non-fiction works before their appearance in science fiction and subsequent invention, such as ion thruster. To avoid repetitions, the list excludes film adaptations of prior literature containing the same predictions, such as "The Minority Report". The list also excludes emerging technologies that are not widely available. The names of some modern inventions (atomic bomb, robot, space station, oral contraceptive and borazon) exactly match their fictional predecessors. A few works correctly predicted the years when some technologies would emerge, such as the first sustained heavier-than-air aircraft flight in 1903 and the first atomic bomb explosion in 1945. == Literature == == Films and TV series == == Notes == == References == === Sources === Bleiler, E. F.; Bleiler, Richard (1990). Science-Fiction: The Early Years. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-416-4. Gerrold, David (2006). "Predictions". PCMag. Vol.


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:51.012176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of historically important scientific experiments and observations demonstrating something of great scientific interest, typically in an elegant or clever manner. == Astronomy == Ole Rømer makes the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light in 1676 by timing the motions of Jupiter's satellite Io with a telescope Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detect the cosmic microwave background radiation, giving support to the theory of the Big Bang (1964) Kerim Kerimov launches Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 as experiments on automatic docking eventually leading to the development of space stations (1967) The Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team discover, by observing Type Ia supernovae, that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating (1998) Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to observe that the moons of Jupiter appear to circle Jupiter. This evidence supports the heliocentric model, and weakens the geocentric model of the cosmos (1609) == Biology == Robert Hooke, using a microscope, observes cells (1665). Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovers microorganisms (1674–1676). James Lind, publishes 'A Treatise of the Scurvy' which describes a controlled shipboard experiment using two identical populations but with only one variable, the consumption of citrus fruit (1753). Edward Jenner


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-1.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:51.012176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
== Chemistry == Robert Boyle uses an air pump to determine the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. This relationship came to be known as Boyle's law (1660–1662). Joseph Priestley suspends a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery and synthesizes carbonated water (1767). Antoine Lavoisier determines that oxygen combines with materials upon combustion, thus disproving phlogiston theory (1783). Antoine Lavoisier determines that chemical reactions in a closed container do not alter total mass. From these observations he establishes the law of conservation of mass (1789). Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford demonstrates that the heat developed by the friction of boring cannon is nearly inexhaustible. This result was presented in opposition to caloric theory (1798). Humphry Davy uses electrolysis to isolate elemental potassium, sodium, calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, and chlorine (1807–1810). Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac studies reactions among gases and determines that their volumes combine chemically in simple integer ratios (1809). Robert Brown studies very small particles in water under the microscope and observes Brownian motion which was later named in his honor (1827). Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes the organic compound urea using inorganic reactants, disproving the application of vitalism to chemical processes (1828). Thomas Graham


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-2.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:51.012176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
Inclined plane experiment (1602–07): Galileo Galilei uses rolling balls to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion. Atmospheric pressure vs. altitude experiment (1648): Blaise Pascal carries a barometer up a church tower and a mountain to determine that atmospheric pressure is due to a column of air. Magdeburg hemispheres (1654): Otto von Guericke demonstrates atmospheric pressure using a pair of hollow copper hemisphere. Spring of air experiment (1660): Robert Boyle shows that the volume of a given amount of gas is inversely related to the pressure upon it. Kite experiment (1700s): Benjamin Franklin beginning in 1747 describes experiments in letters to Peter Collinson demonstrating electrical principles which were published in a book called Experiments and Observations on Electricity. Voltaic pile (1796): Alessandro Volta constructs a new source of electricity, the electrical battery. Cavendish experiment (1798): Henry Cavendish's torsion bar experiment measures the force of gravity in a laboratory. Double-slit experiment (c.1805): Thomas Young shows that light is a wave in his double-slit experiment. Arago spot (1819): Observation of circular diffraction by François Arago, validated a new wave theory of light by Augustin-Jean Fresnel disproving skeptics like Siméon Denis Poisson. Ørsted experiment (1820): Hans Christian Ørsted demonstrates the connection of electricity and


id: list-of-firefighting-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of firefighting mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:52.113337+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-firefighting-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of mnemonics related to firefighting or rescue. == Mnemonics == Incident priorities LIP Life safety Incident Stabilization Property conservation === Fire scene priorities === RECEO - SV Rescue victims Exposures - stop fire spread Confine - contain the fire Extinguish Overhaul - check for hidden fire spread - targets of opportunity: Salvage Vent Company Officer Checklist For Report On Conditions SLICERS Size up Locate seat of fire Identify flow path Cool from safe distance Extinguish fire Rescue Salvage === First attack response === RACE (General first response to a fire.) Rescue - move people who are in immediate danger. Alarm - raise the alarm and alert persons to the presence of fire. Confine - shut doors and reduce airflow and fuel sources to the fire, to reduce its spread. Extinguish or Evacuate - extinguish the fire if it's safe to do so, or coordinate the evacuation from the area. === Response phases === TRIPOD ( The six different possible primary phases of a fire response.) Transitional - moving from an offensive attack to a defensive position. Rescue - victim rescue Investigating Preparing Offensive Defensive === Wildland firefighting safety === PLACES -Safety checklist PPE Lookouts Awareness Communications


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:53.280047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of fossil primates—extinct primates for which a fossil record exists. Primates are generally thought to have evolved from a small, unspecialized mammal, which probably fed on insects and fruits. However, the precise source of the primates remains controversial and even their arboreal origin has recently been questioned. As it has been suggested, many other mammal orders are arboreal too, but they have not developed the same characteristics as primates. Nowadays, some well known genera, such as Purgatorius and Plesiadapis, thought to be the most ancient primates for a long time, are not usually considered as such by recent authors, who tend to include them in the new order Plesiadapiformes, within superorder Euarchontoglires. Some, to avoid confusions, employ the unranked term Euprimates, which excludes Plesiadapiformes. That denomination is not used here. There is an academic debate on the time the first primates appeared. One of the earliest probable primate fossils is the problematic Altiatlasius koulchii, perhaps an Omomyid, but perhaps a non-Primate Plesiadapiform, which lived in Morocco, during the Paleocene, around 60 Ma. However, other studies, including molecular clock studies, have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 85


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-1.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:53.280047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
Ekgmowechashalidae Szalay, 1976 Bugtilemur Marivaux et al., 2001 Bugtilemur mathesoni Marivaux et al., 2001 Ekgmowechashala Macdonald, 1963 Ekgmowechashala philotau Macdonald, 1963 Ekgmowechashala zancanellai Samuels, Albright & Fremd, 2015 Gatanthropus Ni et al., 2016 Gatanthropus micros Ni et al., 2016 Muangthanhinius Marivaux et al., 2006 Muangthanhinius siami Marivaux et al., 2006 Notharctidae Trouessart, 1879 Notharctinae Trouessart, 1879 Cantius Simons, 1962 Cantius abditus Gingerich & Simmons, 1977 Cantius angulatus Cope, 1875 Cantius antediluvius Kihm, 1992 Cantius eppsi Cooper, 1932 Cantius frugivorus Cope, 1875 Cantius lohseorum Robinson, 2016 Cantius mckennai Gingerich & Simons, 1977 Cantius nuniensis Cope, 1881 Cantius ralstoni Matthew, 1915 Cantius savagei Gingerich, 1977 Cantius torresi Gingerich, 1986 Copelemur Gingerich & Simons, 1977 Copelemur australotutus Beard, 1988 Copelemur praetutus Gazin, 1962 Copelemur tutus Cope, 1877 Hesperolemur Gunnell, 1995 Hesperolemur actius Gunnell, 1995 Megaceralemur Robinson, 2016 Megaceralemur trigonodus (Matthew, 1915) Megaceralemur matthewi Robinson, 2016 Notharctus Leidy, 1870 Notharctus pugnax Granger & Gregory, 1917 Notharctus robustior Leidy, 1870 Notharctus tenebrosus Leidy, 1870 Notharctus venticolus Osborn, 1902 Pelycodus Cope, 1875 Pelycodus danielsae Froehlich & Lucas, 1991 Pelycodus jarrovii Cope, 1874 Pinolophus Robinson, 2016 Pinolophus meikei Robinson, 2016 Smilodectes Wortman, 1903 Smilodectes gingerichi Beard, 1988 Smilodectes gracilis Marsh, 1871 Smilodectes mcgrewi Gingerich, 1979 Cercamoniinae Gingerich,


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-2.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:53.280047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeolemuridae G. Grandier, 1905 Archaeolemur Filhol, 1895 Archaeolemur edwardsi Filhol, 1895 Archaeolemur majori Filhol, 1895 Hadropithecus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 Hadropithecus stenognathus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 Palaeopropithecidae Tattersall, 1973 Mesopropithecus Standing, 1905 Mesopropithecus dolichobrachion Simons et al., 1995 Mesopropithecus globiceps Lamberton, 1936 Mesopropithecus pithecoides Standing, 1905 Babakotia Godfrey et al., 1990 Babakotia radofilai Godfrey et al., 1990 Palaeopropithecus G. Grandidier, 1899 Palaeopropithecus ingens G. Grandidier, 1899 Palaeopropithecus kelyus Gommery et al., 2010 Palaeopropithecus maximus Standing, 1903 Archaeoindris Standing, 1909 Archaeoindris fontoynontii Standing, 1909 Megaladapidae Forsyth-Major, 1894 Megaladapis Forsyth-Major, 1894 Subgenus: Megaladapis Megaladapis (Megaladapis) grandidieri Standing, 1903 Megaladapis (Megaladapis) madagascariensis Forsyth-Major, 1894 Subgenus: Peloriadapis Megaladapis (Peloriadapis) edwardsi Grandidier, 1899 Lemuridae Gray, 1821 Pachylemur Lamberton, 1946 Pachylemur insignis Filhol, 1895 Pachylemur jullyi Lamberton, 1948 === Lorisiformes === Lorisidae Gray, 1821 Karanisia Seiffert et al., 2003 Karanisia clarki Seiffert et al., 2003 Mioeuoticus Leakey, 1962 Mioeuoticus bishopi Leakey, 1962 Mioeuoticus kichotoi Kunimatsu, Tsujikawa, Nakatsukasa, Shimizu, Ogihara, Kikuchi, Nakano, Takano, Morimoto, and Ishida, 2017 Mioeuoticus shipmani Phillips & Walker, 2000 Nycticeboides Jacobs, 1981 Nycticeboides simpsoni Jacobs, 1981 Galagidae Gray, 1825 Galago Geoffroy, 1796 Galago farafraensis Pickford, Wanas & Soliman, 2006 Galago howelli Wesselman, 1984 Galago sadimanensis Walker, 1987 Komba Simpson, 1967 Komba minor Le


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-3.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:53.280047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
==== Omomyoidea ==== Omomyidae Trouessart, 1879 Baataromomys Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 Baataromomys ulaanus Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 Kohatius Russell & Gingerich, 1980 Kohatius coppensi Russell & Gingerich, 1980 Microchoerinae Lydekker, 1887 Melaneremia Hooker, 2007 Melaneremia bryanti Hooker, 2007 Microchoerus Wood, 1846 Microchoerus creechbarrowensis Hooker, 1986 Microchoerus edwardsi Filhol, 1880 Microchoerus erinaceus Wood, 1846 Microchoerus hookeri Minwer-Barakat, Marigó, Femenias-Gual, Costeur, Esteban-Trivigno, and Moyà-Solà, 2017 Microchoerus ornatus Stehlin, 1916 Microchoerus wardi Hooker, 1986 Necrolemur Filhol, 1873 Necrolemur anadoni Minwer-Barakat, Marigó & Moyà-Solà, 2015 Necrolemur antiquus Filhol, 1873 Necrolemur zitteli Schlosser, 1887 Nannopithex Stehlin, 1916 Nannopithex filholi Chantre & Gaillard, 1897 Nannopithex humilidens Thalmann, 1994 Nannopithex quaylei Hooker, 1986 Nannopithex raabi Heller, 1930 Nannopithex zuccolae Godinot et al., 1992 Pseudoloris Stehlin, 1916 Pseudoloris crusafonti Louis & Sudre, 1975 Pseudoloris godinoti Köhler & Moyà-Solà, 1999 Pseudoloris isabenae Crusafont-Pairo, 1967 Pseudoloris parvulus Filhol, 1890 Anaptomorphinae Cope, 1883 Tribe: Anaptomorphini Anaptomorphus Cope, 1872 Anaptomorphus aemulus Cope, 1872 Anaptomorphus westi Szalay, 1976 Tetonius Matthew, 1915 Tetonius homunculus Cope, 1882 Tetonius matthewi Bown & Rose, 1987 Tetonius mckennai Bown & Rose, 1987 Absarokius Matthew, 1915 Absarokius abbotti Loomis, 1906 Absarokius australis Bown & Rose, 1987 Absarokius nocerai Robinson, 1966 Absarokius metoecus Bown


