# kb

id: natural-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:09.374916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Planetary science, or planetology, is the scientific study of planets, which include terrestrial planets like the Earth, and other types of planets, such as gas giants and ice giants. Planetary science also concerns other celestial bodies, such as dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. This largely includes the Solar System, but recently has started to expand to exoplanets, particularly terrestrial exoplanets. It explores various objects, spanning from micrometeoroids to gas giants, to establish their composition, movements, genesis, interrelation, and past. Planetary science is an interdisciplinary domain, having originated from astronomy and Earth science, and currently encompassing a multitude of areas, such as planetary geology, cosmochemistry, atmospheric science, physics, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetology, glaciology, and exoplanetology. Related fields encompass space physics, which delves into the impact of the Sun on the bodies in the Solar System, and astrobiology. Planetary science comprises interconnected observational and theoretical branches. Observational research entails a combination of space exploration, primarily through robotic spacecraft missions utilizing remote sensing, and comparative experimental work conducted in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical aspect involves extensive mathematical modelling and computer simulation. Typically, planetary scientists are situated within astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments in universities or research centers. However, there are


id: natural-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:09.374916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, geology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe. Astronomy includes examining, studying, and modeling stars, planets, and comets. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation. However, some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium). There is considerable overlap with physics and in some areas of earth science. There are also interdisciplinary fields such as astrophysics, planetary sciences, and cosmology, along with allied disciplines such as space physics and astrochemistry. While the study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail. The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation. However, it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed


id: natural-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:09.374916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Some scholars trace the origins of natural science as far back as pre-literate human societies, where understanding the natural world was necessary for survival. People observed and built up knowledge about the behaviour of animals and the usefulness of plants as food and medicine, which was passed down from generation to generation. These primitive understandings gave way to more formalized inquiry around 3500 to 3000 BC in the Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian cultures, which produced the first known written evidence of natural philosophy, the precursor of natural science. While the writings show an interest in astronomy, mathematics, and other aspects of the physical world, the ultimate aim of inquiry about nature's workings was, in all cases, religious or mythological, not scientific. A tradition of scientific inquiry also emerged in Ancient China, where Taoist alchemists and philosophers experimented with elixirs to extend life and cure ailments. They focused on the yin and yang, or contrasting elements in nature; the yin was associated with femininity and coldness, while yang was associated with masculinity and warmth. The five phases – fire, earth, metal, wood, and water – described a cycle of transformations in nature. The water turned into wood, which turned into the


id: natural-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:09.374916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aristotle's works and other Greek natural philosophy did not reach the West until about the middle of the 12th century, when works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin. The development of European civilization later in the Middle Ages brought with it further advances in natural philosophy. European inventions such as the horseshoe, horse collar and crop rotation allowed for rapid population growth, eventually giving way to urbanization and the foundation of schools connected to monasteries and cathedrals in modern-day France and England. Aided by the schools, an approach to Christian theology developed that sought to answer questions about nature and other subjects using logic. This approach, however, was seen by some detractors as heresy. By the 12th century, Western European scholars and philosophers came into contact with a body of knowledge of which they had previously been ignorant: a large corpus of works in Greek and Arabic that were preserved by Islamic scholars. Through translation into Latin, Western Europe was introduced to Aristotle and his natural philosophy. These works were taught at new universities in Paris and Oxford by the early 13th century, although the practice was frowned upon by the Catholic church. A 1210 decree from the


id: natural-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:09.374916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
The titles of Galileo's work Two New Sciences and Johannes Kepler's New Astronomy underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favour of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world. Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he argued that people should use the arts and sciences to gain dominion over nature. To achieve this, he wrote that "human life [must] be endowed with discoveries and powers." He defined natural philosophy as "the knowledge of Causes and secret motions of things; and enlarging the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible." Bacon proposed that scientific inquiry be supported by the state and fed by the collaborative research of scientists, a vision that was unprecedented in its scope, ambition, and forms at the time. Natural philosophers came to view nature increasingly as a mechanism that could be taken apart and understood, much like a complex clock. Natural philosophers including Isaac Newton, Evangelista Torricelli and Francesco Redi, Edme Mariotte, Jean-Baptiste Denis and Jacques Rohault conducted experiments focusing on the flow of water, measuring atmospheric pressure using a barometer and disproving spontaneous generation. Scientific societies and scientific journals emerged


id: natural-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:09.374916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of natural science which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of primary postulates — they are mechanics, electrodynamics, and thermodynamics. Today, natural sciences are more commonly divided into life sciences, such as botany and zoology, and physical sciences, which include physics, chemistry, astronomy, and Earth sciences. == See also == Branches of science Empiricism List of academic disciplines and sub-disciplines Natural history Natural Sciences (Cambridge), for the Tripos at the University of Cambridge == References == === Bibliography === == Further reading == Defining Natural Sciences Ledoux, S. F., 2002: Defining Natural Sciences, Behaviourology Today, 5(1), 34–36. Stokes, Donald E. (1997). Pasteur's Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation. Revised and translated by Albert V. Carozzi and Marguerite Carozzi. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-8177-6. The History of Recent Science and Technology Natural Sciences Contains updated information on research in the Natural Sciences including biology, geography and the applied life and earth sciences. Reviews of Books About Natural Science This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to natural science: Natural science – a major branch of science that tries to explain, and predict, nature's phenomena based on empirical evidence. In natural science, hypothesis must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into 2 main branches: life science, and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences. == Overview == Natural science can be described as all of the following: Branch of science – systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Major category of academic disciplines – an academic discipline is focused study in one academic field or profession. A discipline incorporates expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies, inquiry, and research areas that are strongly associated with academic areas of study or areas of professional practice. For example, the branches of science are commonly referred to as the scientific disciplines. For instance,


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Physics ==== Physics – physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force. Acoustics – study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound) Agrophysics – study of physics applied to agroecosystems Soil physics – study of soil physical properties and processes. Atmospheric physics – study of the application of physics to the atmosphere Atomic, molecular, and optical physics – study of how matter and light interact Biophysics – study of physical processes relating to biology Medical physics – application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine. Neurophysics – branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system. Chemical physics – branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. Computational physics – study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. Condensed matter physics – study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter. Cryogenics – cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. Dynamics – study of the causes of


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Chemistry ==== Chemistry – physical science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions Analytical chemistry – study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions Atmospheric chemistry – branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines Biochemistry – study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. Agrochemistry – study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. Bioinorganic chemistry – examines the


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Materials science – interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. Nanotechnology – study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale Oenology – science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. Spectroscopy – study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy Surface science – Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces.


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Earth science ==== Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical science. Atmospheric sciences – umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. Biogeography – study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Cartography – study and practice of making maps or globes. Climatology – study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time Coastal geography – study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. Environmental science – an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. Ecology – scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. Freshwater biology – scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of Limnology Marine biology


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Biology ==== Biology – study of living organisms. Aerobiology – study of airborne organic particles Agriculture – study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans Human anatomy – scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology Biogeography – study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally Bioinformatics – use of information technology and statistics for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data Biomathematics or mathematical biology – quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling Biomechanics – often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics Biomedical sciences Biomedical research – study of the human body in health and disease Clinical research Biophysics – study of biological processes through physics,


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== History of the branches of natural science === Natural philosophy History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example). History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force History of acoustics – history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound) History of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied to agroecosystems History of soil physics – history of the study of soil physical properties and processes. History of astrophysics – history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects History of astronomy – history of the studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
History of solid state physics – history of the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. History of vehicle dynamics – history of the dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles. History of chemistry – history of the physical science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography,


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
History of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. History of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. History of thermochemistry – history of the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. History of phytochemistry – history of the strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals. History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
History of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean History of paleoclimatology – history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth History of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life History of petrology – history of the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks. History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters History of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies History of soil science – history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils. History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. History of volcanology – history of the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena. History of biology –


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
History of mycology – history of the study of fungi History of oceanography – history of the study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean History of oncology – history of the study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings History of population biology – history of the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including History of population ecology – history of the study of how population dynamics and extinction History of population genetics – history of the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms Pathobiology or pathology – history of the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease History of parasitology – history of the study of parasites and parasitism History of pharmacology – history of the study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines History of physiology – history of the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms History of immunology – History of kinesiology – history of the Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement History


id: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Outline of natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
== General natural science concepts == Discovery science Empirical evidence Experiment Hypothesis Laboratory Nature Occam's razor Peer review Physical law Reproducibility Scientific evidence Scientific method Scientific theory Testability Universe Validity == Natural science organizations == == Natural science publications == Physical science journals List of astronomy journals List of chemistry journals List of earth and atmospheric sciences journals List of physics journals List of biology journals List of botany journals List of zoology journals == Persons influential in natural science == List of physicists List of biophysicists List of geophysicists List of astronomers List of cosmologists List of chemists List of biochemists List of neurochemists List of electrochemists List of earth scientists List of Russian earth scientists List of cartographers List of climatologists List of geographers List of geologists List of geophysicists List of glaciologists List of mineralogists List of meteorologists List of paleontologists List of soil scientists List of biologists List of botanists by author abbreviation List of carcinologists List of coleopterists List of ecologists List of malacologists List of mammalogists List of mycologists List of ornithologists List of pathologists List of zoologists by author abbreviation List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine == See also ==


id: anthropocene-working-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene_Working_Group-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropocene Working Group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene_Working_Group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:13.545922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropocene-working-group-20260505-0
summary:
The Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) is an interdisciplinary research group dedicated to the study of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit. It was established in 2009 as part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS), a constituent body of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). As of 2021, the research group features 37 members, with the physical geographer Simon Turner as Secretary and the geologist Colin Neil Waters as chair of the group. The late Nobel Prize-winning Paul Crutzen, who popularized the word 'Anthropocene' in 2000, had also been a member of the group until he died on January 28, 2021. The main goal of the AWG is providing scientific evidence robust enough for the Anthropocene to be formally ratified by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) as an epoch within the Geologic time scale. == History == Prior to the establishment of the Anthropocene Working Group in 2009, no research program dedicated to the formalization of the Anthropocene in the geologic time scale existed. The idea of naming the current epoch 'Anthropocene' rather than using its formal time unit, the Holocene, became popular after Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer published in May 2000 an article on the


id: anthropocene-working-group-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene_Working_Group-1.md
category: reference
title: Anthropocene Working Group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene_Working_Group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:13.545922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropocene-working-group-20260505-0
summary:
== Research == The Anthropocene Working Group is one of four workings groups part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (the other three being the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary working group, Middle/Late Pleistocene boundary working group, and Early/Middle Pleistocene boundary working group). The AWG members (including Paul Crutzen, who was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1995 for his researcher on ozone depletion; John McNeill, a pioneering researcher in the field of environmental history; and Naomi Oreskes, author of the book Merchants of Doubt) have diverse disciplinary backgrounds, ranging from international law, archaeology, and history to philosophy, natural science, and geography. Since no direct funding supports the research program, communication among members happens mostly through email, whereas meetings are usually founded by hosting institutions. As for most of the epochs in the Phanerozoic (the current Eon, starting 539 million years ago), determining the beginning of the Anthropocene by locating and agreeing upon its lower boundary is a necessary step in its process of formal recognition as a geochronological/chronostratigraphic unit. A lower boundary is defined by locating a GSSP (informally known as 'golden spike') in the stratigraphic section of a stage, the chronostratigraphic taxonomic equivalent of an epoch. Alternatively, if a 'golden


id: faculty-of-natural-sciences-imperial-college-london-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_of_Natural_Sciences,_Imperial_College_London-0.md
category: reference
title: Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_of_Natural_Sciences,_Imperial_College_London
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:14.768081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: faculty-of-natural-sciences-imperial-college-london-20260505-0
summary:
The Faculty of Natural Sciences is one of four faculties of Imperial College London in London, England. It was formed in 2001 from the former Royal College of Science, a constituent college of Imperial College which dated back to 1848, and the faculty largely consists of the original departments of the college. Undergraduate teaching occurs for all departments at the South Kensington campus, with research being split between South Kensington and the new innovation campus at White City. Students who study at the departments of the Faculty are represented by the Royal College of Science Union, a constituent union of the college union which caters specifically to students on natural science courses. Graduates who obtain an undergraduate degree, either BSc or MSci, from the faculty are awarded the Associateship of the Royal College of Science (ARCS) as an additional degree. == History == The origins of the faculty lie in the Royal College of Chemistry, which, after being founded in 1845, moved to a new site in South Kensington in the early 1870s. Incorporated into the Normal School of Science, the college was later renamed the Royal College of Science in 1890, and in 1907 became a constituent college of


id: natural-sciences-collections-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_Collections_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural Sciences Collections Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_Collections_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:16.058320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-sciences-collections-association-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural Sciences Collections Association (NatSCA) is a United Kingdom based membership organisation and charitable organization (No.1098156) run by volunteers from the membership. NatSCA's mission is "to promote and support natural science collections, the institutions that house them and the people that work with them, in order to improve collections care, understanding, accessibility and enjoyment for all." The subject specialist network promotes research and exchange of ideas, advances in technical and ethical standards, and raises the public profile of the conservation and preservation of natural science collections and objects. The organisation describes their focus as: Community – developing an open, friendly and accessible network for sharing information, experience and skills. Support – facilitating the professional development of stakeholders in natural science collections. Standards – identifying and promoting good quality practice in the care and use of natural science collections. Promoting collections – increasing awareness of the scientific and cultural value of natural science collections. Advocacy – challenging neglect of collections and lobbying for the appropriate resourcing of collections for their care and sustainable use. == History == The Natural Sciences Collections Association was founded in April 2003 from the merger of Natural Sciences Conservation Group (NCSG) and Biological Curator's Group


id: nature-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:17.381596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-journal-20260505-0
summary:
Nature is a British weekly international scientific journal publishing peer-reviewed research across the natural sciences, including biology, physics, chemistry, the earth sciences, and related interdisciplinary fields. It operates editorial offices in London, the United States, continental Europe, and Asia under the international scientific publishing company Springer Nature. According to the 2022 Journal Citation Reports, Nature had one of the highest impact factors among multidisciplinary science journals (50.5), reflecting its strong citation influence within the scientific literature; some commentators also regard it as among the most influential scientific journals worldwide. In 2007, Nature (together with Science) received the Prince of Asturias Award for Communications and Humanity. As of 2012, it claimed an online readership of about three million unique readers per month. Founded in the autumn of 1869, Nature was first circulated by Norman Lockyer and Alexander MacMillan as a public forum for scientific innovations. The mid-20th century facilitated an editorial expansion for the journal; Nature redoubled its efforts in explanatory and scientific journalism. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the creation of a network of editorial offices outside of Britain and the establishment of ten new supplementary, specialty publications (e.g. Nature Materials). Since the late 2000s, dedicated editorial and


id: nature-journal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)-1.md
category: reference
title: Nature (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:17.381596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-journal-20260505-0
summary:
Not long after the conclusion of The Reader, a former editor, Norman Lockyer, decided to create a new scientific journal titled Nature, taking its name from a line by William Wordsworth: "To the solid ground of nature trusts the Mind that builds for aye". First owned and published by Alexander Macmillan, Nature was similar to its predecessors in its attempt to "provide cultivated readers with an accessible forum for reading about advances in scientific knowledge." Janet Browne has proposed that "far more than any other science journal of the period, Nature was conceived, born, and raised to serve polemic purpose." Many of the early editions of Nature consisted of articles written by members of a group that called itself the X Club, a group of scientists known for having liberal, progressive, and somewhat controversial scientific beliefs for their time. Initiated by Thomas Henry Huxley, the group consisted of such important scientists as Joseph Dalton Hooker, Herbert Spencer, and John Tyndall, along with another five scientists and mathematicians; these scientists were all avid supporters of Darwin's theory of evolution as common descent, a theory which, during the latter half of the 19th century, received a great deal of criticism among more


id: nature-journal-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)-2.md
category: reference
title: Nature (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:17.381596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-journal-20260505-0
summary:
According to Science, another academic journal, being published in Nature has been known to carry a certain level of prestige in academia. In particular, empirical papers are often highly cited, which can lead to promotions, grant funding, and attention from the mainstream media. Because of these positive feedback effects, competition among scientists to publish in high-level journals like Nature and its closest competitor, Science, can be very fierce. Nature's impact factor, a measure of how many citations a journal generates in other works, was 42.778 in 2019 (as measured by Thomson ISI). However, as with many journals, most papers receive far fewer citations than the impact factor would indicate. Nature's journal impact factor carries a long tail. Studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that some high-prestige journals, including Nature, "publish significantly substandard structures", and overall "reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank". As with most other professional scientific journals, papers undergo an initial screening by the editor, followed by peer review. In this process, the editor selects several other scientists to read and critique articles, based on their expertise with the subject matter but who have no connection to the


id: nature-journal-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)-3.md
category: reference
title: Nature (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:17.381596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-journal-20260505-0
summary:
In a 2003 editorial, "Coping with Peer Rejection", Nature acknowledged several other rejection missteps:[T]here are unarguable faux pas in our history. These include the rejection of Cherenkov radiation, Hideki Yukawa's meson, work on photosynthesis by Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber and Hartmut Michel, and the initial rejection (but eventual acceptance) of Stephen Hawking's black-hole radiation. The journal has also faced scrutiny for not following editorial procedure. For example, before publishing Watson and Crick's 1953 paper on the structure of DNA, Nature did not send the paper to peer review. John Maddox, Nature's editor, stated: "The Watson and Crick paper was not peer-reviewed by Nature ... the paper could not have been refereed: its correctness is self-evident. No referee working in the field ... could have kept his mouth shut once he saw the structure." In June 1988, Nature published a controversial and seemingly anomalous paper detailing Jacques Benveniste and his team's work studying water memory. The paper concluded that less than a single molecule of antibody diluted in water could trigger an immune response in human basophils, defying the physical law of mass action. The paper gained substantial media attention in Paris, France, chiefly because their research sought funding from homeopathic


id: prodromus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus-0.md
category: reference
title: Prodromus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:18.623670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prodromus-20260505-0
summary:
A prodromus ('forerunner' or 'precursor') aka prodrome is a term used in the natural sciences to describe a preliminary publication intended as the basis for a later, more comprehensive work. It is also a medical term used for a premonitory symptom, that is, a symptom indicating the onset of a disease. The origin of the word is from the 19th century: via French from New Latin prodromus, from Greek prodromos, meaning forerunner. Nicolas Steno's De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus, one of the early treatises attempting to explain the occurrence of fossils in solid rock. Ludovico Marracci's Arabic edition and Latin translation of the Qur’an was published in 1698. His ‘Introduction’ (Prodromus) had been published seven years earlier. Other notable prodromi include Prodromus Entomology, Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. == See also == White paper == References ==


id: rangeland-management-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangeland_management-0.md
category: reference
title: Rangeland management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangeland_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:23.957141+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rangeland-management-20260505-0
summary:
Rangeland management (also range management, range science, or arid-land management) is a natural science that centers around the study of rangelands and the "conservation and sustainable management [of Arid-Lands] for the benefit of current societies and future generations". Range management is defined by Holechek et al. as the "manipulation of rangeland components to obtain optimum combination of goods and services for society on a sustained basis". The United Nations (UN) has declared 2026 the International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists, with the Food and Agriculture Organization leading the initiative. == History == The earliest form of Rangeland Management is not formally deemed part of the natural science studied today, although its roots can be traced to nomadic grazing practices of the Neolithic Revolution when humans domesticated plants and animals under pressures from population growth and environmental change. Humans might even have altered the environment in times preceding the Neolithic through hunting of large-game, whereby large losses of grazing herbivores could have resulted in altered ecological states; meaning humans have been inadvertently managing land throughout prehistory. Rangeland management was developed in the United States in response to rangeland deterioration and in some cases, denudation, due to overgrazing and other misuse of


id: uprrp-college-of-natural-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPRRP_College_of_Natural_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: UPRRP College of Natural Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPRRP_College_of_Natural_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:25.171081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uprrp-college-of-natural-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The College of Natural Sciences of the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras (Spanish: Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto de Río Piedras), was established in 1943. It is one of several colleges that make up the University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras campus. Facundo Bueso Sanllehí was its first dean. It is located in the city of San Juan, the capital of Puerto Rico. == Centers == Center for Applied Tropical Ecology and Conservation (CREST-CATEC) Center for Nanoscale Materials == Facilities == Animal House Botanical Garden Center for Educational Production Services Computing Center Department of Chemistry Support Facilities Electronics Workshop Field House at El Yunque (El Verde) Greenhouse Herbarium Instrumentation Workshop Machining Workshop Natural Sciences Library Zoology Museum == References == == External links == Official website


id: social-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Social science (or the social sciences) is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among members within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 18th century. It now encompasses a wide array of additional academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, linguistics, management, communication studies, psychology, sociology, culturology, and political science. The majority of positivist social scientists use methods resembling those used in the natural sciences as tools for understanding societies, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Speculative social scientists, otherwise known as interpretivist scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (combining both quantitative and qualitative research). To gain a deeper understanding of complex human behavior in digital environments, social science disciplines have increasingly integrated interdisciplinary approaches, big data, and computational tools. The term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share similar goals and methods. == History


id: social-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Social science and humanities have a mutual contempt for one another, the former looking down on the latter as unscientific, the latter regarding the former as philistine. [...] The difference comes down to the fact that social science really wants to be predictive, meaning that man is predictable, while the humanities say that he is not. == Branches == The social science disciplines are branches of knowledge taught and researched at the college or university level. Social science disciplines are defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned social science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. The following are widely-considered to be social sciences: === Anthropology === Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences, humanities, and human biology. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. Firstly, the natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible


id: social-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics, where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household or firm, and macroeconomics, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes positive economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from normative economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve subjective value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the physiocratic school. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as politics, law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family life, and other social interactions. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. === Education === Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization). To educate means 'to draw out', from the Latin


id: social-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study of the structure of words), phonetics (the study of speech sounds) and phonology (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions. The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of Noam Chomsky—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus


id: social-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Sociology is the systematic study of society, individuals' relationship to their societies, the consequences of difference, and other aspects of human social action. The meaning of the word comes from the suffix -logy, which means "study of", derived from Ancient Greek, and the stem soci-, which is from the Latin word socius, meaning "companion", or society in general. Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term sociology to describe a way to apply natural science principles and techniques to the social world in 1838. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842] and A General View of Positivism (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année sociologique. Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide


id: social-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeology, a science that is focused on the study of human cultures by means of the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, and landscapes. Area studies, interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions. Behavioural science, which encompasses disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world. Computational social science, an umbrella field encompassing computational approaches within the social sciences. Demography, the statistical study of human populations. Development studies, a branch of social science that addresses issues of concern to developing countries. Environmental social science, the broad study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment. Environmental studies, which integrates social, humanistic, and natural science perspectives on the relation between humans and the natural environment. Gender studies, which is focused on the study of gender identity, masculinity, femininity, transgender issues, and sexuality. Information science, an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. International studies, which covers both international relations (the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system) and international education. Legal management, a social sciences discipline


id: social-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims. Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality. Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or statistical hypothesis testing. A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). A mathematical model is "a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) that presents knowledge of that system in usable form". Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving


id: social-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Michie, Jonathan, ed. Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences (2 vol. 2001) 1970 pages annotating the major topics in the late 20th century in all the social sciences. === 20th and 21st centuries sources === Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (2001). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Amsterdam: Elsevier. Byrne, D.S. (1998). Complexity theory and the social sciences: an introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16296-8 Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). The Social Science Encyclopedia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (ed., a limited preview of the 1996 version is available) Lave, C.A., and March, J.G. (1993). An introduction to models in the social sciences. Lanham, Md: University Press of America. Perry, John and Erna Perry. Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science (12th Edition, 2008), college textbook Potter, D. (1988). Society and the social sciences: An introduction. London: Routledge [u.a.]. David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton (1968). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Seligman, Edwin R.A. and Alvin Johnson (1934). Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. (13 vol.) Ward, L.F. (1924). Dynamic sociology, or applied social science: As based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences. New York: D. Appleton. Leavitt, F.M., and Brown,


id: outline-of-social-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:28.365284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to social science: Social science – main branch of science comprising scientific fields concerned with societies, human behaviour, and social relationships. == Definition == Social science can be described as all of the following: A science – systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Major category of academic disciplines – an academic discipline is focused study in one academic field or profession. A discipline incorporates expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies, inquiry, and research areas that are strongly associated with academic areas of study or areas of professional practice. For example, the branches of science are commonly referred to as the scientific disciplines. For instance, gravitation is strongly associated with the discipline of physics, and is considered to be part of that disciplinary knowledge.


id: outline-of-social-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:28.365284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Branches of social science == Anthropology - the study of humans, past and present, that draws and builds upon knowledge from the social sciences and biological sciences, as well as the humanities and the natural sciences. Anthropology of religion – the study of religious institutions about other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures Applied anthropology – application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. Archaeology – the study of cultures via material remains and environmental data (Outline of archaeology) Experimental archaeology – Experimental archaeology employs several different methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches to generate and test hypotheses, based upon the archaeological source material, like ancient structures or artifacts. Historical archaeology – a form of archaeology dealing with topics that are already attested in written records. Zooarchaeology – study of faunal remains. Cultural anthropology – a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans, collecting data about the effect of global economic and political processes on local cultural realities. Ethnobiology – the scientific study of dynamic relationships between peoples, biota, and environments, from the distant past to the immediate present. Ethnobotany –


id: outline-of-social-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:28.365284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Cultural studies – academic field grounded in critical theory and literary criticism. Development studies – a multidisciplinary branch of social science that addresses issues of concern to developing countries. Education – in the general sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to another. Environmental studies – the interdisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. Gender and sexuality studies – field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted to gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis. Geography – the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Physical geography – a branch of the science that studies physical features on the Earth's surface, water, the atmosphere and biodiversity on the Earth (is also listed in Earth Science). Geomorphology – branch of physical geography that studies the Earth and its landforms. Hydrology – study of water on the Earth's surface and in its atmosphere. Glaciology – study of ice sheets and glaciers on the Earth's surface. Biogeography


id: outline-of-social-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:28.365284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Etymology – the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time. Evolutionary linguistics – the scientific study of both the origins and development of language as well as the cultural evolution of languages. Forensic linguistics – application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. Geolinguistics – branch of human geography that studies the geographic distribution of language or its constituent elements. Historical linguistics – the study of language change. Language – is a structured means of communication Lexis – total vocabulary or lexicon having items of lexical, rather than grammatical, meaning. Linguistic typology – subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features. Literature – refers to writing considered to be an art form or any single writing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that differ from ordinary usage. Mathematical linguistics – Mathematics has been applied in linguistics for analysis, grammar logic and other theoretical aspects in linguistics. Morphology – identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units,


id: outline-of-social-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:28.365284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Educational psychology – the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Forensic psychology – the intersection between psychology and the courtroom—criminal, civil, family and Federal. Health psychology – concerned with understanding how biological, psychological, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and illness. Industrial and organizational psychology – the scientific study of employees, workplaces, and organizations. Legal psychology – involves empirical, psychological research of the law, legal institutions, and people who come into contact with the law. Media psychology – seeks an understanding of how people perceive, interpret, use, and respond to a media-rich world. Military psychology – research, design and application of psychological theories and experimentation data towards understanding, predicting and countering behaviours either in friendly or enemy forces or civilian population that may be undesirable, threatening or potentially dangerous to the conduct of military operations. Occupational health psychology – concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that contribute to the development of health-related problems in people who work. Political psychology – an interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to understanding political science, politicians and political behaviour through the use of


id: outline-of-social-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Outline of social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:28.365284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
== History of social science == History of the social sciences History of anthropology History of archaeology History of area studies History of communication studies History of cultural studies History of development studies History of economics History of education History of environmental studies History of gender studies History of geography History of human geography History of history History of information science History of journalism History of law History of library science History of linguistics History of management History of political science History of international studies History of international relations History of political economy History of public administration History of psychology History of social psychology History of social work History of sociology History of criminal justice History of demography History of sustainability == Education and degrees == Bachelor of Social Science Bachelor of Science Bachelor of Arts Bachelor of Economics == General social science concepts == Ethical research in social science Open and closed systems in social science == Social science organizations == == Social science publications == List of social science journals == Social scientists == List of anthropologists List of business theorists List of economists List of socialist economists List of geographers List of political scientists List of psychologists


id: administrative-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Administrative history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:29.637085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: administrative-history-20260505-0
summary:
Administrative history is a historiographic field which looks at the history of state administrations and bureaucracies. Originally considered a sub-field of Administrative Sciences that was intended to improve contemporary governance, administrative history has become an increasingly separate field. Administrative historians study the changes in administrative ideologies and administrative law while also looking at civil servants and the relationship between government and society. It is related to political and constitutional history. The discipline is most common in France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Italy. In 1965, when fields like social history were becoming ever more popular, G. R. Elton (then a fellow of Clare College, Cambridge) defended administrative history as the only field which can explain how the machinery of government actually worked in the past. == Journals == Academic journals which specialise in administrative history include: Jahrbuch für europäische Verwaltungsgeschichte (JEV) == The New Administrative History == Historians researching the medieval and early modern periods have begun to reexplore the possibilities of administrative history. This movement has been described as the "New Administrative History". It embraces a broad range of approaches, including interdisciplinary and theoretical work – as exemplified by John Sabapathy – and also more traditional institutional approaches, revisiting


id: animal-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Animal studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:30.835346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: animal-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Animal studies is a recently recognised field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways. Scholars who engage in animal studies may be formally trained in a number of diverse fields, including art history, anthropology, biology, film studies, geography, history, psychology, literary studies, museology, philosophy, communication, and sociology. They engage with questions about notions of "animality," "animalization," or "becoming animal," to understand human-made representations of and cultural ideas about "the animal" and what it is to be human by employing various theoretical perspectives. Using these perspectives, those who engage in animal studies seek to understand both human-animal relations now and in the past as defined by present knowledge. Because the field is still developing, scholars and others have some freedom to define their own criteria about what issues may structure the field. == History == Animal studies became popular in the 1970s as an interdisciplinary subject, animal studies exists at the intersection of a number of different fields of study such as journals and books series, etc. Different fields began to turn to animals as an important topic at different times and for various reasons, and these separate disciplinary histories shape how scholars approach animal studies. Historically,


id: animal-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Animal studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:30.835346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: animal-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Research topics and methodologies == Researchers in animal studies examine the questions and issues that arise when traditional modes of humanistic and scientific inquiry begin to take animals seriously as subjects of thought and activity. Students of animal studies may examine how humanity is defined in relation to animals, or how representations of animals create understandings (and misunderstandings) of other species. In fact, animals often elicit fear in humans. A well-known animal phobia is ophidiophobia, the fear of snakes. People with animal phobias tend to negatively generalize animals, even species that are harmless. In most movies, predatory animals such as sharks and wolves are usually the antagonists, but this only causes significant damage to their reputation and makes people fear what they think their true nature is. In order to do so, animal studies pays close attention to the ways that humans anthropomorphize animals, and asks how humans might avoid bias in observing other creatures. Anthropomorphized animals are frequently found in children's books and films. Researchers are analyzing the positive and negative effects of anthropomorphized animals on a child's view of the non-human species. In addition, Donna Haraway's book, Primate Visions, examines how dioramas created for the American Museum


id: the-arts-and-politics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts_and_politics-0.md
category: reference
title: The arts and politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts_and_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:32.078754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-arts-and-politics-20260505-0
summary:
A strong relationship between the arts and politics, particularly between various kinds of art and power, occurs across historical epochs and cultures. As they respond to contemporaneous events and politics, the arts take on political as well as social dimensions, becoming themselves a focus of controversy and even a force of political as well as social change. A widespread observation is that a great talent has a free spirit. For instance Pushkin, who some scholars regard as Russia's first great writer, is said to have attracted the irritation of the Russian officialdom and particularly of the Tsar, since he "instead of being a good servant of the state in the rank and file of the administration and extolling conventional virtues in his vocational writings (if write he must), composed extremely arrogant and extremely independent and extremely wicked verse in which a dangerous freedom of thought was evident in the novelty of his versification, in the audacity of his sensual fancy, and in his propensity for making fun of major and minor tyrants." == History of art == According to Groys, "Art has its own power in the world, and is as much a force in the power play of global


id: the-arts-and-politics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts_and_politics-1.md
category: reference
title: The arts and politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts_and_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:32.078754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-arts-and-politics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Classical music === Ludwig van Beethoven did not use the original title "Ode to Freedom" of Friedrich Schiller's lyric, known in English as "Ode to Joy" (1785), in setting it to music in the final movement of his Ninth Symphony (1824), which "Napoleonic censors had forced the poet to change to 'Ode to Joy'." After the fall of the Berlin Wall, on 9 November 1989, that Christmas Day, when Leonard Bernstein conducted a performance of Beethoven's Ninth at the site of the former East German–West German border in Berlin, a concert telecast nationally in the United States, he substituted Freedom for Joy to reflect his own "personal message". === Folk and protest music === In February 1952, the United States Customs Service seized the passport of Paul Robeson, preventing him from leaving the United States to travel to the Fourth Canadian Convention of the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; but, after "The convention heard Robeson sing over the telephone", the union organized "a concert on the US-Canada border". According to the account of the "Paul Robeson Centennial Celebration": "Robeson sang and spoke for 45 minutes. He introduced his first song stating


id: ascribed-characteristics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascribed_characteristics-0.md
category: reference
title: Ascribed characteristics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascribed_characteristics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:33.369422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ascribed-characteristics-20260505-0
summary:
Ascribed characteristics, as used in the social sciences, refers to properties of an individual attained at birth, by inheritance, or through the aging process. The individual has very little, if any, control over these characteristics. Typical examples include race, ethnicity, gender, caste, height, and appearance. The term is apt for describing characteristics chiefly caused by "nature" (e.g. genetics) and for those chiefly caused by "nurture" (e.g. parenting during early childhood), see: Nature versus nurture. == Use within demography == Demography being the statistical study of populations requires the ability to differentiate between populations. Most populations self-ascribe themselves as being different from others by the creation of a country. This allows demographers to draw lines between countries and compare them. However useful, countries have significant complex populations that require more exacting definitions. Commonly seen are uses of race, gender and ethnicity. In the scope of academic demography, all of these are social constructs, ascribed to groups or individuals for stratification. With these theories in place, many new theories can be formed and data collected to either prove or disprove them. Ascribed characteristics can have large by-products, whether perceived or not. Discussed below are race, gender, social status / caste and hiring


id: bioculture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioculture-0.md
category: reference
title: Bioculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioculture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:34.575647+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bioculture-20260505-0
summary:
Bioculture is the combination of biological and cultural factors that affect human behavior. It is an area of study bounded by the medical sciences, social sciences, landscape ecology, cultural anthropology, biotechnology, disability studies, the humanities, and the economic and global environment. Along these lines, one can see the biosphere — the earth as it is affected by the human — as the adaptation of the natural to the human and biocultures as the inter-adaptation of the human to the new technologies and ways of knowing characterized by the 21st century’s attitude toward the body. It assumes that in bioculture there is a diverse way to know the workings of the body and mind, and that these are primarily culturally derived, and an expert's way of knowing produces specific strong results. However, the results do not have an exclusive purview over the body and mind. Plus, it seeks to develop and encourage not only the experts but also parts of people's bodies and minds as the subject of study. == Alternative definitions == An alternative definition of the term bioculture is all the practical aspects of the use of living things in culture, including agriculture, production of food and clothing, forestry,


id: change-and-continuity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_and_continuity-0.md
category: reference
title: Change and continuity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_and_continuity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:35.782936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: change-and-continuity-20260505-0
summary:
Change and continuity is a classic dichotomy within the fields of history, historical sociology, and the social sciences more broadly. The question of change and continuity is considered a classic discussion in the study of historical developments. The dichotomy is used to discuss and evaluate the extent to which a historical development or event represents a decisive historical change or whether a situation remains largely unchanged. A good example of this discussion is the question of how much the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 represents an important change in European history. In a similar vein, historian Richard Kirkendall once questioned whether FDR's New Deal represented "a radical innovation or a continuation of earlier themes in American life?" and posed the question of whether "historical interpretations of the New Deal [should] stress change or emphasize continuity?" The issue here is if the New Deal marks something radically new (change) in US history or if the New Deal can be understood as a continuation (continuity) of tendencies in American history that were in place well before the 1930. The dichotomy is important in relation to constructing, discussing, and evaluating historical periodizations. In terms of creating and discussing periodization (e.g. the Enlightenment or


id: collective-mental-state-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_mental_state-0.md
category: reference
title: Collective mental state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_mental_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:41.294147+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-mental-state-20260505-0
summary:
Collective mental state is generally a literary or legal term, mostly used in sociology and philosophy (in addition to its singular use in psychiatry and psychology), to refer to the condition of someone's state and physical and mental being when in the presence of others. An assessment of a collective mental state includes a description of thought processes, memory, emotions, mood, cognitive state, and energy levels, including the meta overlay of interactions between individuals. == Overview == A collective mental state is both distinct from and contains other mental states of self-aware individuals. The collective mental state forms the basis for individual reflection, juxtaposed with the collective state, that leads to realizations about emotions, states of being, and individuality. The collective mental state is made of conscious minds and may therefore be a more complex version of something like a stampede, which is itself caused by sentinel animals through imitation. Collective mental states may be simulated through the use of a performer and audience; stand-up comedy desires to have a group of people collectively, simultaneously feel one thing: laughter. == Background == When a mental state is shared by a large proportion of the members of a group or society,


id: criminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:42.603938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminology-20260505-0
summary:
Criminology (from Latin crimen, 'accusation', and Ancient Greek -λογία, -logia, from λόγος logos, 'word, reason') is the interdisciplinary study of crime and deviant behaviour. Criminology is a multidisciplinary field in both the behavioural and social sciences, which draws primarily upon the research of sociologists, political scientists, economists, legal sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, psychiatrists, social workers, biologists, social anthropologists, scholars of law and jurisprudence, as well as the processes that define administration of justice and the criminal justice system. The interests of criminologists include the study of the nature of crime and criminals, origins of criminal law, etiology of crime, social reaction to crime, and the functioning of law enforcement agencies and the penal institutions. It can be broadly said that criminology directs its inquiries along three lines: first, it investigates the nature of criminal law and its administration and conditions under which it develops; second, it analyzes the causation of crime and the personality of criminals; and third, it studies the control of crime and the rehabilitation of offenders. Thus, criminology encompasses the activities of legislative bodies, law-enforcement agencies, judicial institutions, correctional institutions, and educational, private, and public social agencies. == History of academic criminology == Modern academic criminology has direct


id: criminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:42.603938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Positivist === The Positivist school argues that criminal behavior stems from internal and external factors beyond the individual's control. Its key method of thought is that criminals are born as criminals and not made into them; this school of thought also supports theory of nature in the debate between nature versus nurture. They also argue that criminal behavior is innate and within a person. Philosophers in this school applied the scientific method to the study of human behavior. Positivism comprises three segments: biological, psychological and social positivism. Psychological positivism is the view that criminal acts, or the people who commit them, are driven by internal factors. Social positivism, often referred to as Sociological Positivism, posits that criminals are produced by society. This school claims that low-income levels, high poverty/unemployment rates, and poor educational systems create and motivate criminals. ==== Criminal personality ==== The notion of a criminal personality is derived from the school of thought known as psychological positivism. It essentially means that parts of an individual's personality exhibit traits commonly associated with criminals, such as neuroticism, antisocial tendencies, aggressive behavior, and other factors. There is evidence of correlation, but not causation, between these personality traits and criminal actions.


id: criminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology-2.md
category: reference
title: Criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:42.603938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Disorganization ==== Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw of the Chicago School. Social disorganization theory postulates that neighborhoods plagued with poverty and economic deprivation tend to experience high rates of population turnover. This theory suggests that crime and deviance are valued within groups in society, 'subcultures' or 'gangs'. These groups have different values from the social norm. These neighborhoods also tend to have high population heterogeneity. With high turnover, informal social structure often fails to develop, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain social order in a community. ==== Social ecology ==== Since the 1950s, social ecology studies have built on the social disorganization theories. Many studies have found that crime rates are associated with poverty, disorder, high numbers of abandoned buildings, and other signs of community deterioration. As working and middle-class people leave deteriorating neighborhoods, the most disadvantaged portions of the population may remain. William Julius Wilson suggested a poverty "concentration effect", which may cause neighborhoods to be isolated from the mainstream of society and become prone to violence. ==== Strain ==== Strain theory, also known as Mertonian Anomie, advanced by American sociologist Robert Merton, suggests that mainstream


id: criminology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology-3.md
category: reference
title: Criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:42.603938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminology-20260505-0
summary:
Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory (and therapy) which regards the unconscious mind, repressed memories, and trauma, as the key drivers of behavior, especially deviant behavior. Sigmund Freud discussed how the unconscious desire for pain relates to psychoanalysis in his essay, Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Freud suggested that unconscious impulses such as 'repetition compulsion' and a 'death drive' can dominate a person's creativity, leading to self-destructive behavior. Phillida Rosnick, in the article Mental Pain and Social Trauma, posits a difference in the thoughts of individuals suffering traumatic unconscious pain, which corresponds to them having thoughts and feelings that are not reflections of their true selves. There is enough correlation between this altered state of mind and criminality to suggest causation. Sander Gilman, in the article Freud and the Making of Psychoanalysis, looks for evidence in the physical mechanisms of the human brain and the nervous system and suggests there is a direct link between an unconscious desire for pain or punishment and the impulse to commit crime or deviant acts. === Symbolic interactionism === Symbolic interactionism draws on the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and George Herbert Mead, as well as subcultural theory and conflict theory. This school of thought focused on


id: criminology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology-4.md
category: reference
title: Criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:42.603938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminology-20260505-0
summary:
Rational choice theory is based on the utilitarian, classical school philosophies of Cesare Beccaria, which were popularized by Jeremy Bentham. They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was a crime deterrent, with the risks outweighing any possible benefits to the offender. In Dei delitti e delle pene (On Crimes and Punishments, 1763–1764), Beccaria advocated a rational penology. Beccaria conceived of punishment as the necessary application of the law for a crime; thus, the judge was to confirm their sentence to the law. Beccaria also distinguished between crime and sin, and advocated against the death penalty, as well as torture and inhumane treatments, as he did not consider them as rational deterrents. This philosophy was replaced by the positivist and Chicago schools and was not revived until the 1970s with the writings of James Q. Wilson, Gary Becker's 1965 article Crime and Punishment and George Stigler's 1970 article The Optimum Enforcement of Laws. Rational choice theory argues that criminals, like other people, weigh costs or risks and benefits when deciding whether to commit crime and think in economic terms. They will also try to minimize risks of crime by considering the time, place, and other situational


id: criminology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology-5.md
category: reference
title: Criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:42.603938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminology-20260505-0
summary:
In 1968, young British sociologists formed the National Deviance Conference (NDC) group. The group, restricted to academics, consisted of 300 members. Ian Taylor, Paul Walton, and Jock Young – members of the NDC – rejected previous explanations of crime and deviance. Thus, they decided to pursue a new Marxist criminological approach. In The New Criminology, they argued against the biological "positivism" perspective represented by Lombroso, Hans Eysenck and Gordon Trasler. According to the Marxist perspective on crime, "defiance is normal – the sense that men are now consciously involved ... in assuring their human diversity." Thus, Marxist criminologists argued for a society in which the facts of human diversity, whether social or personal, would not be criminalized. They further attributed the processes of crime creation not to genetic or psychological facts, but rather to the material basis of a given society. State crime is a distinct category of crimes studied by Marxist criminology, which considers these crimes among the most costly to society in terms of overall harm/injury. In a Marxist framework, genocides, environmental degradation, and war are not crimes that occur out of contempt for one's fellow man, but are crimes of power. They continue systems of control and


id: criminology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology-6.md
category: reference
title: Criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:42.603938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cultural === Cultural criminology views crime and its control within the context of culture. Ferrell believes criminologists can examine the actions of criminals, control agents, media producers, and others to construct the meaning of crime. He discusses these actions as a means to show the dominant role of culture. Kane adds that cultural criminology has three tropes: village, city street, and media, in which males can be geographically influenced by society's views on what is broadcast and accepted as right or wrong. The village is where one engages in available social activities. Linking an individual's history to a location can help determine social dynamics. The city street involves positioning oneself in the cultural area. This is full of those affected by poverty, poor health, and crime, and large buildings that impact the city but not the neighborhoods. Mass media gives an all-around account of the environment and the possible other subcultures that could exist beyond a specific geographical area. It was later that Naegler and Salman introduced feminist theory to cultural criminology and discussed masculinity and femininity, sexual attraction and sexuality, and intersectional themes. Naegler and Salman believed that Ferrell's mold was limited and that they could add to


id: criminology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology-7.md
category: reference
title: Criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:42.603938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminology-20260505-0
summary:
Ultra-realism is a 21st-century theoretical school and research programme that straddles criminology and zemiology. Ultra-realists revisit the fundamental question that underpins both disciplines: why, rather than seeking solidarity and cooperation, do specific individuals, groups, or institutions choose to risk harming others in pursuit of their own interests? Early proponents of the ultra-realist perspective are Steve Hall and Simon Winlow. The original ultra-realist concepts of the pseudo-pacification process, special liberty, and objectless anxiety first emerged from the mid-1990s onwards in a series of articles and books. The ultra-realist framework began to take a clearly defined shape in three later works. Ultra-realist researchers operate in research fields such as deviant leisure and consumer culture; crime, harm and place; crime, harm, work and employment; Covid, lockdown and social harm; riots and far-right politics; violence and masculinity; crime, harm and glocal markets; policing and corruption; homicide and serial murder; crime, harm and mass media; crime, corruption and compliance; history and violence; crime, corruption and sport; hate crime; technology, harm and crime; the crime decline; child abuse; military studies; subjectivity and investment fraud; crime, harm and drugs; the criminology of borders. == Types and definitions of crime == Both the positivist and classical schools take


id: cultural-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Cultural studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:43.870636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cultural-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Cultural studies or cultural theory is an academic field that explores the dynamics of contemporary culture (including the politics of popular culture) and its social and historical foundations. Cultural studies researchers investigate how cultural practices relate to wider systems of power associated with, or operating through, social phenomena. These include ideology, class structures, national formations, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, and generation. Employing cultural analysis, cultural studies views cultures not as fixed, bounded, stable, and discrete entities, but rather as constantly interacting and changing sets of practices and processes. British Marxist academics initially developed cultural studies in the late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, and it has since been taken up and transformed by scholars from many different disciplines around the world. Cultural studies is avowedly, and even radically, interdisciplinary and can sometimes be seen as anti-disciplinary. A key concern for cultural studies practitioners is the examination of the forces within and through which socially organized people conduct and participate in the construction of their everyday lives. Cultural studies combines a variety of politically engaged critical approaches including semiotics, Marxism, feminist theory, ethnography, post-structuralism, postcolonialism, social theory, political theory, history, philosophy, literary theory, media theory, film/video studies, communication studies, political economy, translation


id: cultural-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Cultural studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:43.870636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cultural-studies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Stuart Hall's directorship of CCCS === Beginning in 1964, after the initial appearance of the founding works of British Cultural Studies in the late 1950s, Stuart Hall's pioneering work at CCCS, along with that of his colleagues and postgraduate students, gave shape and substance to the field of cultural studies. This would include such people as Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, David Morley, Charlotte Brunsdon, John Clarke, Richard Dyer, Judith Williamson, Richard Johnson, Iain Chambers, Dorothy Hobson, Chris Weedon, Tony Jefferson, Michael Green, and Angela McRobbie. Many cultural studies scholars employed Marxist methods of analysis, exploring the relationships between cultural forms (i.e., the superstructure) and that of the political economy (i.e., the base). By the 1970s, the work of Louis Althusser had radically rethought the Marxist account of base and superstructure, significantly influencing the "Birmingham School". Much of the work done at CCCS examined youth subcultural expressions of antagonism toward "respectable" middle-class British culture in the post-WWII period. Also during the 1970s, the politically formidable British working classes were in decline. Britain's manufacturing industries, while continuing to grow in output and value, were decreasing in share of GDP and numbers employed, and union rolls were shrinking. Millions of working-class Britons


id: cultural-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Cultural studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:43.870636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cultural-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Developments outside the UK == In the US, before the emergence of British cultural studies, several versions of cultural analysis had emerged largely from pragmatic and liberal-pluralist philosophical traditions. However, in the late 1970s and 1980s, when British Cultural Studies began to spread internationally, and to engage with feminism, post-structuralism, postmodernism, and race, critical cultural studies (i.e., Marxist, feminist, poststructuralist, etc.) expanded tremendously in American universities in fields such as communication studies, education, sociology, and literature. Cultural Studies, the flagship journal of the field, has been based in the US since its founding editor, John Fiske, brought it there from Australia in 1987. A thriving cultural studies scene has existed in Australia since the late 1970s, when several key CS practitioners emigrated there from the UK, bringing British cultural studies with them, after Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister of the UK in 1979. A school of cultural studies known as cultural policy studies is one of the distinctive Australian contributions to the field, though it is not the only one. Australia also gave birth to the world's first professional cultural studies association (now known as the Cultural Studies Association of Australasia) in 1990. Cultural studies journals based in Australia


id: cultural-studies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies-3.md
category: reference
title: Cultural studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:43.870636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cultural-studies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Structure and agency === The development of hegemony theory in cultural studies was, in some ways, consonant with work in other fields exploring agency, a theoretical concept that emphasizes the active, critical capacities of subordinated people (e.g., the working classes, colonized peoples, women). As Stuart Hall famously argued in his 1981 essay, "Notes on Deconstructing 'the Popular'": "ordinary people are not cultural dopes." Insistence on accounting for the agency of subordinated people run counter to the work of traditional structuralists. Some analysts have, however, been critical of certain work in cultural studies that they feel overstates the significance of, or even romanticizes, some forms of popular cultural agency. Cultural studies often concerns itself with agency at the level of everyday practices, and approaches such research from a standpoint of radical contextualism. In other words, cultural studies rejects universal accounts of cultural practices, meanings, and identities. Judith Butler, an American feminist theorist whose work is often associated with cultural studies, wrote that: the move from a structuralist account in which capital is understood to structure social relations in relatively homologous ways to a view of hegemony in which power relations are subject to repetition, convergence, and rearticulation brought the question


id: cultural-studies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies-4.md
category: reference
title: Cultural studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:43.870636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cultural-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Integration of popular culture in CS and education == The integration of popular culture in classrooms has influenced educational practices in cultural studies. By analyzing TV series, movies, memes, and other cultural materials, educators can encourage media literacy, critical thinking, and a deeper understanding of social issues. Incorporating popular culture into education through cultural studies helps students critically engage with the world around them, fostering media literacy and critical thinking. Educators can use cultural texts to discuss societal issues, challenge norms, and prepare students for active participation in a media-dominated world. Popular culture can be an effective tool for critical pedagogy. Evan Faidley explores how TV shows, movies, and memes can be used in the classroom to discuss topics like social justice and identity. Shows like South Park allow students to evaluate societal norms and political issues, using a pedagogy of resistance. Cultural studies encourage students to analyze intertextuality. Patricia Duff discusses how popular culture incorporates with academic discourse to build media literacy, which helps students critically engage with the media they consume daily. Kathy Mills also highlights the importance of multiliteracies, which encourages students to utilize a variety of communication media outside of the standard text, including digital


id: cultural-studies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies-5.md
category: reference
title: Cultural studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:43.870636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cultural-studies-20260505-0
summary:
In 1996, physicist Alan Sokal expressed his opposition to cultural studies by submitting a hoax article to a cultural studies journal, Social Text. The article, crafted as a parody of what Sokal called the "fashionable nonsense" of postmodernism, was accepted by the journal's editors, who at the time did not practice peer review. When the paper appeared in print, Sokal published a second article in a self-described "academic gossip" magazine, Lingua Franca, revealing his hoax on Social Text. Sokal stated that his motivation stemmed from his rejection of contemporary critiques of scientific rationalism: Politically, I'm angered because most (though not all) of this silliness is emanating from the self-proclaimed Left. We're witnessing here a profound historical volte-face. For most of the past two centuries, the Left has been identified with science and against obscurantism; we have believed that rational thought and the fearless analysis of objective reality (both natural and social) are incisive tools for combating the mystifications promoted by the powerful – not to mention being desirable human ends in their own right. The recent turn of many "progressive" or "leftist" academic humanists and social scientists toward one or another form of epistemic relativism betrays this worthy heritage and


id: data-colada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Colada-0.md
category: reference
title: Data Colada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Colada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:45.094692+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-colada-20260505-0
summary:
Data Colada is a blog dedicated to investigative analysis and replication of academic research, focusing in particular on the validity of findings in the social sciences. It is known for its advocacy against problematic research practices such as p-hacking, and for publishing evidence of data manipulation and research misconduct in several prominent cases, including celebrity professors Dan Ariely and Francesca Gino. Data Colada was established in 2013 by three behavioral science researchers: Uri Simonsohn, a professor at ESADE Business School, Barcelona/Spain (as of 2023), Leif Nelson, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and Joe Simmons, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania. == History == Around 2011, Simmons, Nelson and Simonsohn "bonded over the false, ridiculous, and flashy findings that the field [of behavioral sciences] was capable of producing", such as a paper by Cornell psychologist Daryl Bem that had supposedly found evidence for clairvoyance. They reacted by publishing an influential 2011 paper about false positive results in psychology, illustrating the problem with a parody research finding that supposedly showed that listening to the Beatles song "When I’m Sixty-Four" made experimental subjects one and a half years younger. The "Data Colada" blog was launched two years later, in


id: distributive-justice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice-0.md
category: reference
title: Distributive justice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:46.338543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distributive-justice-20260505-0
summary:
Distributive justice concerns the socially just allocation of resources, goods, opportunity in a society. It is concerned with how to allocate resources fairly among members of a society, taking into account factors such as wealth, income, and social status. Often contrasted with just process and formal equal opportunity, distributive justice concentrates on outcomes (substantive equality). This subject has been given considerable attention in philosophy and the social sciences. Theorists have developed widely different conceptions of distributive justice. These have contributed to debates around the arrangement of social, political and economic institutions to promote the just distribution of benefits and burdens within a society. Most contemporary theories of distributive justice rest on the precondition of material scarcity. From that precondition arises the need for principles to resolve competing interest and claims concerning a just or at least morally preferable distribution of scarce resources. In social psychology, distributive justice is defined as perceived fairness of how rewards and costs are shared by (distributed across) group members. For example, when some workers work more hours but receive the same pay, group members may feel that distributive justice has not occurred. To determine whether distributive justice has taken place, individuals often turn to the


id: distributive-justice-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice-1.md
category: reference
title: Distributive justice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:46.338543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distributive-justice-20260505-0
summary:
==== Basic principles of a just distribution ==== In this original position, the main concern will be to secure the goods that are most essential for pursuing the goals of each individual, regardless of what this specific goal might be. With this in mind, Rawls theorizes two basic principles of just distribution. The first principle, the liberty principle, is the equal access to basic rights and liberties for all. With this, each person should be able to access the most extensive set of liberties that is compatible with similar schemes of access by other citizens. Thereby, it is not only a question of positive individual access but also of negative restrictions so as to respect others' basic rights and liberties. The second principle, the difference principle, addresses how the arrangement of social and economic inequalities, and thus the just distribution should look. Firstly, Rawls argues that such distribution should be based on a reasonable expectation of advantage for all, but also to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged in society. Secondly, the offices and positions attached to this arrangement should be open to all. These principles of justice are then prioritised according to two additional principles: === Utilitarianism ===


id: distributive-justice-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice-2.md
category: reference
title: Distributive justice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:46.338543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distributive-justice-20260505-0
summary:
=== Outcomes === Recent research has introduced probabilistic models, such as the Boltzmann Fair Division, which apply statistical and thermodynamic principles to the allocation of resources in society. These models provide a flexible and unbiased approach to distributive justice, allowing parameters to be tuned for equality, merit, or need. The Boltzmann fair division framework has been shown to bridge classical theories and practical policy applications, enabling fair and efficient distributions across diverse settings. Distributive justice also affects organizational performance when efficiency and productivity are involved. Improving perceptions of justice increases performance. Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are employee actions in support of the organization that are outside the scope of their job description. Such behaviors depend on the degree to which an organization is perceived to be distributively just. As organizational actions and decisions are perceived as more just, employees are more likely to engage in OCBs. Perceptions of distributive justice are also strongly related to the withdrawal of employees from the organization. === Wealth === Distributive justice considers whether the distribution of goods among the members of society at a given time is subjectively acceptable. Not all advocates of consequentialist theories are concerned with an equitable society. What unites them


id: distributive-justice-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice-3.md
category: reference
title: Distributive justice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_justice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:46.338543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distributive-justice-20260505-0
summary:
=== Friedrich von Hayek === Within the context of Western liberal democracies in the post-WWII decades, Friedrich von Hayek was one of the most famous opposers of the idea of distributive justice. For him, social and distributive justice were meaningless and impossible to attain, on the grounds of being within a system where the outcomes are not determined deliberately by the people but contrarily spontaneity is the norm. Therefore, distributive justice, redistribution of wealth, and the demands for social justice in a society ruled by an impersonal process such as the market are in this sense incompatible with that system. In his book The Road to Serfdom, there can be found considerations about social assistance from the state. There, in talking about the importance of a restrictive kind of security (the one against physical privation) in front of one that necessarily needs to control or abolish the market, Hayek poses that "there can be no doubt that some minimum of food, shelter, and clothing, sufficient to preserve health and the capacity to work, can be assured to everybody". Providing this type of security is for Hayek compatible with individual freedom as it does not involve planning. But already in this


id: doctor-of-social-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Social_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Doctor of Social Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Social_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:47.610389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doctor-of-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Doctor of Social Science (DSocSci, SScD, Dr. rer. soc. or DSS) degree is the highest degree offered by some universities in the field of social sciences, for which other universities confer a Ph.D. Like the PhD, it is recognized as a terminal research degree that requires a substantial original thesis. In North America, the only universities to offer a Doctor of Social Science are Royal Roads University in British Columbia, Canada, and Wilmington University in New Castle, Delaware, United States. == Argentina == Provided by the National University of Luján == Australia == Provided by the University of Queensland Provided by the University of Sydney == Canada == Provided by Royal Roads University == Finland == Provided by the University of Tampere Provided by the University of Helsinki and at which, somewhat infelicitously, the terminal degree in Practical philosophy is awarded as a Doctor of Social Science (DSS), rather than a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). == Germany == Provided e.g. by the University of Mannheim and by the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. == Holy See == Provided by the Pontifical Gregorian University. == Hong Kong == Provided by the University of Hong Kong. == Ireland == The DSocSci is offered as


id: efficient-voter-rule-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_Voter_Rule-0.md
category: reference
title: Efficient Voter Rule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_Voter_Rule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:48.792350+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: efficient-voter-rule-20260505-0
summary:
In the study of voter behavior, the efficient voter rule speaks to the desirability of voter-driven outcomes. It applies to situations involving negative externalities such as pollution and crime, and positive externalities such as education. Related efforts to achieve socially optimal quantities of externalities have long been a focus of microeconomic research, most famously by Ronald Coase and Arthur Pigou. Externality problems persist despite past remedies, which makes newer approaches such as the efficient voter rule important. In the context of negative externalities, the efficient voter rule states that when individuals who receive the same harm from a problem vote on whether to eliminate that problem at a uniform cost per individual, the outcome will be efficient, regardless of each individual’s contribution to the problem. The Rule applies similarly to positive externalities, as exemplified by the solar panel example below. The efficient voter rule indicates that voting on a collective action or policy change should lead to an efficient outcome. Possible applications include policy decisions about clean energy, noise pollution, over-fishing, mandatory immunizations, smoking bans, zoning, septic systems, and fuel economy standards. In the context of crime, recent applications include votes on the strict enforcement of traffic laws. The vote


id: enchantment-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enchantment_(social_sciences)-0.md
category: reference
title: Enchantment (social sciences)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enchantment_(social_sciences)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:50.051192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enchantment-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Enchantment is a term widely used to describe something delightful, possibly magical, that causes a feeling of wonder. It has been adapted by a range of scholars across multiple disciplines, especially anthropology and sociology, and then later urban studies, to describe the ways in which people create moments of wonder in the midst of everyday life. British anthropologist Alfred Gell described art as "the technology of enchantment," permitting us to "see the real world in an enchanted form". American sociologist George Ritzer uses the term enchantment in his analysis of consumerism and McDonaldization, making the argument that "enchantment of the consumer is necessary for the spell to work". == Enchantment engineers == A different strand was developed by Belgian scholar Yves Winkin, who highlighted the element of collusion between "enchantment engineers" (the people who create something requiring the willing suspension of disbelief) and visitors to locations where the illusion or wonder has been created to delight them. Enchantment here is about experiencing a moment of unexpected pleasure or happiness, focusing not on times it occurs randomly, but when it results from someone's deliberate efforts. In these cases, enchantment refers to "places and landscapes created with the intention of inducing a


id: force-field-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force-field_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Force-field analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force-field_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:51.349532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: force-field-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
In social science, force-field analysis provides a framework for looking at the factors ("forces") that influence a situation, originally social situations. It looks at forces that are either driving the movement toward a goal (helping forces) or blocking movement toward a goal (hindering forces). The principle, developed by Kurt Lewin, is a significant contribution to the fields of social science, psychology, social psychology, community psychology, communication, organizational development, process management, and change management. == History == Lewin, a social psychologist, believed the "field" to be a Gestalt psychological environment existing in an individual's (or in the collective group) mind at a certain point in time that can be mathematically described in a topological constellation of constructs. The "field" is very dynamic, changing with time and experience. When fully constructed, an individual's "field" (Lewin used the term "life space") describes that person's motives, values, needs, moods, goals, anxieties, and ideals. Lewin believed that changes of an individual's "life space" depend upon that individual's internalization of external stimuli (from the physical and social world) into the "life space". Although Lewin did not use the word "experiential" (see experiential learning), he nonetheless believed that interaction (experience) of the "life space" with "external stimuli"


id: geography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-0.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
Geography (from Ancient Greek γεωγραφία geōgraphía; combining gê 'Earth' and gráphō 'write', lit. 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of planet Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science. Geography has been called "a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines." The history of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, having been independently developed by multiple groups and cross-pollinated through trade between them. Geography as a discipline dates back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BC in ancient Babylon. Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who may have coined the term "geographia" (c. 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC). The first recorded use of the word γεωγραφία was as the title of a book by Greek scholar


id: geography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-1.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
Place is one of the most complex and important terms in geography. In human geography, place is the synthesis of the coordinates on the Earth's surface, the activity and use that occurs, has occurred, and will occur at the coordinates, and the meaning ascribed to the space by human individuals and groups. This can be extraordinarily complex, as different spaces may have different uses at different times and mean different things to different people. In physical geography, a place encompasses all the physical phenomena occurring in space, including the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Places do not exist in a vacuum and instead have complex spatial relationships with each other, and place is concerned how a location is situated in relation to all other locations. As a discipline then, the term place in geography includes all spatial phenomena occurring at a location, the diverse uses and meanings humans ascribe to that location, and how that location impacts and is impacted by all other locations on Earth. In one of Yi-Fu Tuan's papers, he explains that in his view, geography is the study of Earth as a home for humanity, and thus place and the complex meaning behind the term are


id: geography-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-2.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
In another approach to the abovementioned four traditions, geography is organized into applied branches. The UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems organizes geography into the three categories of human geography, physical geography, and technical geography. Some publications limit the number of branches to physical and human, describing them as the principal branches. Human geography largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space. Physical geography examines the natural environment and how organisms, climate, soil, water, and landforms produce and interact, studying spatial patterns in the natural environment, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. The difference between these approaches led to the development of integrated geography, which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans. Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools and techniques used by geographers, such as remote sensing, cartography, and geographic information system. It is the newest of the branches, and often other terms are used in the literature to describe the emerging category. While human and physical geographers use the techniques employed by technical geographers, technical geography is more concerned with the fundamental spatial concepts and technologies than with the nature of the data. It


id: geography-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-3.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
Cartography is the art, science, and technology of making maps. Cartographers study the Earth's surface representation with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps to present their analyses, the actual making of maps is sufficiently abstract to be regarded as a separate activity. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and behavioural psychology to induce readers of their maps to act on that information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. ==== Geographic information systems ==== Geographic information systems (GIS) store information about the Earth for accurate, automated retrieval by a computer, appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done


id: geography-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-4.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of geography is present in all cultures; therefore, the history of the discipline is a series of competing narratives, with concepts emerging at various points across space and time. The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC. The best known Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC. The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived. In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent. The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610–545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of


id: geography-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-5.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered, and accounts by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo, and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. In 1650, the first edition of the Geographia Generalis was published by Bernhardus Varenius, which was later edited and republished by others, including Isaac Newton. This textbook sought to integrate new scientific discoveries and principles into classical geography and approach the discipline like the other sciences emerging, and is seen by some as the division between ancient and modern geography in the West. The Geographia Generalis contained both theoretical background and practical applications related to ship navigation. The remaining problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. While the problem of latitude was solved long ago, the problem of longitude remained; agreeing on which meridian should be zero was only part of the problem. It was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H-4 in 1760, and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian


id: health-survival-paradox-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_survival_paradox-0.md
category: reference
title: Health survival paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_survival_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:59.615345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-survival-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
The male-female health survival paradox, also known as the morbidity-mortality paradox or gender paradox, is the phenomenon in which female humans experience more medical conditions and disability during their lives, but live longer than males. The observation that females experience greater morbidity (diseases) but lower mortality (death) in comparison to males is paradoxical since it is expected that experiencing disease increases the likelihood of death. However, in this case, the part of the population that experiences more disease and disability is the one that lives longer. == Background and history == The male-female health survival paradox has been most reliably reported in literature and documented as far back as the 18th century in European historical records. Some of the last records of European men outliving women are from the Netherlands in 1860 and Italy in 1889. The earliest records of European women outliving men were from Sweden in 1751, Denmark in 1835, and both England and Wales in 1841. While women were documented to outlive men in Europe, data from 1887 through 1930 showed that females between ages 5 and 25 in Massachusetts disproportionately faced mortality due to infectious diseases. With improvements in infectious disease prevention, treatment, and eradication of


id: health-survival-paradox-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_survival_paradox-1.md
category: reference
title: Health survival paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_survival_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:59.615345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-survival-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
==== Genetic factors ==== The female sex has two X chromosomes that can protect against expression of recessive genes and allows a female survival advantage. A research study conducted on flies indicated that the alleles that contribute to male inclusive fitness also harm female health, and thus contribute to the paradox. ==== Physiological factors ==== It is also a possibility that the female hormone, estrogen, contributes to the female survival advantage. In cutaneous melanoma, estrogen was evaluated to determine its effect on a steroid hormone-sensitive cancer. While no difference in survival was concluded between two genders due to limited data, women tend to have better prognosis due to the presence of estrogen receptor beta. However, this is a continued study that may be due to biological factors—such as immune response, inflammation, pharmacokinetics, or hormones—or from social factors—such as women tending to have more ultraviolet protection and frequent medical visits. Although studies have shown the protective effects of estrogen on cardiovascular health (i.e. by lowering LDL and increasing HDL) and brain cell health, there are doubts about the role of hormones due to mixed results in hormone replacement therapy studies on elderly women. For instance, although lower levels of LDL may


id: health-survival-paradox-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_survival_paradox-2.md
category: reference
title: Health survival paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_survival_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:59.615345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-survival-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
Records of the female survival advantage can be traced back to the 18th century, but the phenomenon gained popularity and caught the eyes of researchers in the 19th century. Females outlive males for all age groups and every year for which reliable records exist. Specifically, in "contemporary industrialized countries", female survival is 1.5-2.0 times higher than that of males. A female survival advantage is found in some, but not all species. Various explanations for this have been proposed but none are strongly supported. Most species studied for differences in morbidity and mortality between sexes show conditional sex differences in life span, with both male and females experiencing advantage depending on the species. In humans, females appear to have a consistent survival advantage. Females outlive males in 176 of 178 countries for which records are available, both at age 5 and at age 50. In a study in the UK, males scoring higher "femininity scores", when compared to their more stereotypical "masculine" male counterparts, had lower death rates from heart disease, suggesting that masculine behavior increases the risk of premature mortality. The female survival advantage holds true among humans, but the same can not be said for baboons and birds. In


id: heortology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heortology-0.md
category: reference
title: Heortology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heortology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:00.874394+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heortology-20260505-0
summary:
Heortology or eortology is a science that deals with the origin and development of religious festivals, and more specifically the study of the history and criticism of liturgical calendars and martyrologies. == Etymology == The noun eortology comes from the ancient Greek compound of the term ἑορτή "feast" and the suffix -logia which means "study". Thus, eortology is the study of festivals, especially their history and meaning in the church year. == History == Christian heortology dates back at least to Johann Adam Trummerer's Eortologia Anagrammaike published in 1607. German Lutheran theologian Michael Lilienthal published a German-language heortology in 1724 to show the origin of Christian celebrations. Wilhelm Dibelius published the second eortological study of the Christian rite in German in 1841. In parallel with modern archaeology, studies also examined the question of the rites of Greek and Roman antiquity, following the work of August Mommsen, published in Leipzig in 1864 under the title of Heortologie: Antiquarische Untersuchungen über die städtischen Feste der Athener. Christian heortology particularly developed at the instigation of the Jesuit Nikolaus Nilles and the liturgical movement from the end of the 19th century. Prominent heortologists were the Sulpician Pierre Batiffol who published History of the Roman


id: humanities-arts-and-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Humanities, arts, and social sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:02.111283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humanities-arts-and-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences (HASS) (or Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, AHSS), also known as social studies, is a broad term that groups together the academic disciplines of humanities, arts and social sciences. It is viewed as an academic counterpart to Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in the United States, Canada, India, Australia, and other countries. HASS graduates comprise the majority of the workforce in many developed countries (e.g. 64% in Australia). However, HASS courses often receive lower governmental funding and may have lower reputations within universities. There is a measured relationship between citizens' HASS awareness with more accurate threat perceptions, high community activity, and cultural engagement at the local level. In recent years, a return to a holistic reintegration of HASS and STEM disciplines has been promoted in the U.S. by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Some of the disciplines it covers are philosophy, theology, sociology, communication sciences, social psychology, human geography, demography, anthropology, social work, linguistics, history, archaeology, politics, economics, law, pedagogy, journalism, literature, musicology, administration, accounting, commerce, music, dance, painting, sculpture, graphic design, theater, cinematography, interior design, industrial design, criticism, art history, cultural studies, tourism, gastronomy, among others. In the Philippines, a


id: international-order-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_order-0.md
category: reference
title: International order
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_order
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:03.272779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-order-20260505-0
summary:
In international relations, international order consists of patterned or structured relationships (such as polarity) between actors on the international level. == Definition == David Lake, Lisa Martin and Thomas Risse define "order" as "patterned or structured relationships among units". Michael Barnett defines an international order as "patterns of relating and acting" derived from and maintained by rules, institutions, law and norms. International orders have both a material and social component. Legitimacy (the generalized perception that actions are desirable, proper or appropriate) is essential to political orders. George Lawson has defined an international order as "regularized practices of exchange among discrete political units that recognize each other to be independent." John Mearsheimer defines an international order "an organized group of international institutions that help govern the interactions among the member states." In After Victory (2001), John Ikenberry defines a political order as "the governing arrangements among a group of states, including its fundamental rules, principles and institutions." The United Nations has been characterized as a proxy for how states broadly perceive the international order. Jeff Colgan has characterized international order as entailing multiple subsystems. These subsystems can experience drastic change without fundamentally changing the international order. == Liberal international order ==


id: jurisprudence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence-0.md
category: reference
title: Jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:04.446884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
Jurisprudence, also known as theory of law or philosophy of law, is the examination in a general perspective of what law is and what it ought to be. It investigates issues such as the definition of law; legal validity; legal norms and values; and the relationship between law and other fields of study, including economics, ethics, history, sociology, and political philosophy. Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was based on the first principles of natural law, civil law, and the law of nations. Contemporary philosophy of law addresses problems internal to law and legal systems, as well as problems of law as a social institution that relate to the larger political and social context in which it exists. Jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered: Natural law holds that there are rational, objective limits to the power of rulers, the foundations of law are accessible through reason, and it is from these laws of nature that human laws gain force. Analytic jurisprudence attempts to describe what law is. The two historically dominant


id: jurisprudence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence-1.md
category: reference
title: Jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:04.446884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
Ancient jurisprudence begins with various Dharmaśāstra texts of India. Dharmasutras of Āpastaṃba and Baudhāyana are examples. In Ancient China, the Daoists, Confucians, and Legalists all had competing theories of jurisprudence. Jurisprudence in ancient Rome had its origins with the periti—experts in the jus mos maiorum (traditional law), a body of oral laws and customs. Praetors established a working body of laws by judging whether or not singular cases were capable of being prosecuted either by the edicta, the annual pronunciation of prosecutable offences, or in extraordinary situations, additions made to the edicta. A iudex (originally a magistrate, later a private individual appointed to judge a specific case) would then prescribe a remedy according to the facts of the case. The sentences of the iudex were supposed to be simple interpretations of the traditional customs, but—apart from considering what traditional customs applied in each case—soon developed a more equitable interpretation, coherently adapting the law to newer social exigencies. The law was then adjusted to reflect evolving institutiones (legal concepts) while remaining in the traditional mode. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a laical body of prudentes. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience.


id: jurisprudence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence-2.md
category: reference
title: Jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:04.446884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law. Like his philosophical forefathers Socrates and Plato, Aristotle posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (dikaion physikon, δικαίον φυσικόν, Latin ius naturale). His association with natural law stems largely from his interpretation by Thomas Aquinas. This was based on Aquinas' conflation of natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the Nicomachean Ethics (Book IV of the Eudemian Ethics). Aquinas's influence was such that it affected several early translations of these passages, though more recent translations render them more literally. Aristotle's theory of justice is bound up in his idea of the golden mean. Indeed, his treatment of what he calls "political justice" derives from his discussion of "the just" as a moral virtue derived as the mean between opposing vices, just like every other virtue he describes. The longest discussion of his theory of justice occurs in Nicomachean Ethics and begins by asking what sort of mean a just act is. He argues that the term "justice" actually refers to two different but related ideas: general justice and particular justice. When a person's actions toward others are completely virtuous


id: jurisprudence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence-3.md
category: reference
title: Jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:04.446884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
Writing after World War II, Lon L. Fuller defended a secular and procedural form of natural law. He emphasised that the (natural) law must meet certain formal requirements (such as being impartial and publicly knowable). To the extent that an institutional system of social control falls short of these requirements, Fuller argued, we are less inclined to recognise it as a system of law, or to give it our respect. Thus, the law must have a morality that goes beyond the societal rules under which laws are made. === John Finnis === Sophisticated positivist and natural law theories sometimes resemble each other and may have certain points in common. Identifying a particular theorist as a positivist or a natural law theorist sometimes involves matters of emphasis and degree, as well as the specific influences on the theorist's work. The natural law theorists of the distant past, such as Aquinas and John Locke, made no distinction between analytic and normative jurisprudence. In contrast, modern natural law theorists, such as John Finnis, who identify as positivists, still argue that law is moral by nature. In his book Natural Law and Natural Rights (1980, 2011), John Finnis provides a restatement of natural law


id: jurisprudence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence-4.md
category: reference
title: Jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:04.446884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
Legal positivism is the view that the content of law is dependent on social facts and that a legal system's existence is not constrained by morality. Within legal positivism, theorists agree that law's content is a product of social facts, but theorists disagree whether law's validity can be explained by incorporating moral values. Legal positivists who argue against the incorporation of moral values to explain law's validity are labeled exclusive (or hard) legal positivists. Joseph Raz's legal positivism is an example of exclusive legal positivism. Legal positivists who argue that law's validity can be explained by incorporating moral values are labeled inclusive (or soft) legal positivists. The legal positivist theories of H. L. A. Hart and Jules Coleman are examples of inclusive legal positivism. Legal positivism has traditionally been associated with three doctrines: the pedigree thesis, the separability thesis, and the discretion thesis. The pedigree thesis says that the right way to determine whether a directive is law is to look at the directive's source. The thesis claims that the fact that the directive was issued by the proper official within a legitimate government, for example, determines the directive's legal validity—not its moral or practical merits. The separability thesis states


id: jurisprudence-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence-5.md
category: reference
title: Jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:04.446884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
In the English-speaking world, the most influential legal positivist of the twentieth century was H. L. A. Hart, professor of jurisprudence at Oxford University. Hart argued that the law should be understood as a system of social rules. In The Concept of Law, Hart rejected Kelsen's views that sanctions were essential to law and that a normative social phenomenon, like law, cannot be grounded in non-normative social facts. Hart claimed that law is the union of primary rules and secondary rules. Primary rules require individuals to act or not act in certain ways and create duties for the governed to obey. Secondary rules are rules that confer authority to create new primary rules or modify existing ones. Secondary rules are divided into rules of adjudication (how to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (how laws are amended), and the rule of recognition (how laws are identified as valid). The validity of a legal system derives from the "rule of recognition", a customary practice among officials (especially barristers and judges) who identify certain acts and decisions as sources of law. In 1981, Neil MacCormick wrote a pivotal book on Hart (second edition published in 2008), which further refined and offered some


id: jurisprudence-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence-6.md
category: reference
title: Jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:04.446884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Critical legal studies === Critical legal studies is a jurisprudential theory that has developed since the 1970s. In 1977, a group of members of the Law and Society Association struck out on a new theoretical direction. The legal ideas of Peter Gabel, Morton Horwitz, Duncan Kennedy, Karl Klare, Mark Tushnet, and Roberto Unger have now found influence in many law schools. The theory can generally be traced to American legal realism and is considered "the first movement in legal theory and legal scholarship in the United States to have espoused a committed Left political stance and perspective". It holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of a dominant social group. Roberto Mangabeira Unger and other authors in the movement contrast critical legal studies as a method, critical in approach, from the impersonal purposes and principles made necessary in legal reasoning, such as formalism. He writes that it was "consequently also by rejecting judges as the chief addressees of legal analysis, and refusing to take the question—how should judges decide cases?—as the defining problem in jurisprudence." According to Unger the new American legal analysis will unlock the democratic


id: jurisprudence-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence-7.md
category: reference
title: Jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:04.446884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
John Rawls was an American philosopher; a professor of political philosophy at Harvard University; and author of A Theory of Justice (1971), Political Liberalism, Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, and The Law of Peoples. He is widely considered one of the most important English-language political philosophers of the 20th century. His theory of justice uses a method called "original position" to ask us which principles of justice we would choose to regulate the basic institutions of our society if we were behind a "veil of ignorance". Imagine we do not know who we are—our race, sex, wealth, status, class, or any distinguishing feature—so that we would not be biased in our own favour. Rawls argued from this "original position" that we would choose the same political liberties for everyone, like freedom of speech, the right to vote, and so on. Also, we would choose a system with only inequality because it provides sufficient incentives for the economic well-being of all of society, especially the poorest. This is Rawls's famous "difference principle". Justice is fairness, in the sense that the fairness of the original position of choice guarantees the fairness of the principles chosen in that position. There are many other


id: macro-social-work-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro_social_work-0.md
category: reference
title: Macro social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro_social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:05.709384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macro-social-work-20260505-0
summary:
Macro social work is the use of social work skills training and perspective to produce large scale social change or social justice of some kind. Unlike micro or mezzo social work, which deals with individual and small group issues, macro social work aims to address societal problems at their roots; however, it has recently not received the same level of importance. == Professional roles and functions == Macro social workers work in a variety of public institutions, including legislative (as elected officials and advocates), executive (as administrators, managers, researchers and experts) or judicial (as expert witnesses in courts) on federal, state, or local level. Macro social workers are also found in the private sector usually in executive positions in their respective organizations. Historically, social work included both micro and macro practice, but there has been a generational trend towards micro practice, which focuses on therapeutic work with people, families, and groups. == Scope and importance == Macro social work is a branch of social work that focuses on large-scale social processes and systemic issues. It involves interventions and strategies that target communities, organizations, and policy to promote social change, justice, and the well-being of populations. Macro social work encompasses a


id: macro-social-work-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro_social_work-1.md
category: reference
title: Macro social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro_social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:05.709384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macro-social-work-20260505-0
summary:
At the community level, it involves planning and policy development, community organizing, and development strategies such as community economic and social development, focusing on participation, empowerment, and leadership. Organizational level methods include building and managing nonprofit agencies and social enterprises, emphasizing social entrepreneurship and effective social administration, including program planning and organizational change. At the societal level, macro social workers engage in advocacy and social action, using policy advocacy and social movements to drive systemic change and promote social justice. Globally, they address issues through international social work, collaborating with NGOs to tackle poverty, human rights, and refugee crises, and supporting global advocacy efforts for sustainable development. These methods integrate traditional and innovative approaches to empower communities, foster leadership, and achieve equitable social change. Today, macro social work is a dynamic field that adapts to contemporary social issues. Practitioners often employ a variety of strategies to achieve their goals, including community organizing, which involves mobilizing community members to take collective action on issues affecting them. Policy practice is another critical area, where social workers engage in the analysis, development, and implementation of social policies. == Future Directions in macro social work == Macro social work plays a vital role in


id: methodological-nationalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodological_nationalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Methodological nationalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodological_nationalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:07.069824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: methodological-nationalism-20260505-0
summary:
In social science, methodological nationalism is an intellectual orientation and pattern in scholarly research that conceives of the nation-state as the sole unit of analysis or as a container for social processes. This concept has largely been developed by Andreas Wimmer and Nina Glick Schiller, who specifically define it as "the assumption that the nation/state/society is the natural social and political form of the modern world". Methodological nationalism has been identified in many social science subfields, such as anthropology, sociology, and the interdisciplinary field of migration studies. Methodological nationalism, as a practice within social science, has been further critiqued by scholars such as Saskia Sassen, who contends that the nation-state and its borders are an insufficient unit of analysis and that the national is at times the "terrains of the global". == Three types of methodological nationalism == According to Andreas Wimmer and Nina Glick Schiller, there are three types of methodological nationalism in social science scholarship: ignoring or disregarding the importance of nationalism for modern societies, naturalization, and confining studies to geopolitical boundaries of a particular nation-state. These types may co-occur or occur separately. When they co-occur, they may reinforce each other. Speranta Dumitru distinguished between other three different


id: mobilities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilities-0.md
category: reference
title: Mobilities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:08.316784+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mobilities-20260505-0
summary:
Mobilities is a contemporary paradigm in the social sciences that explores the movement of people (human migration, individual mobility, travel, transport), ideas (see e.g. meme) and things (transport), as well as the broader social implications of those movements. Mobility can also be thought as the movement of people through social classes, social mobility or income, income mobility. A mobility "turn" (or transformation) in the social sciences began in the 1990s in response to the increasing realization of the historic and contemporary importance of movement on individuals and society. This turn has been driven by generally increased levels of mobility and new forms of mobility where bodies combine with information and different patterns of mobility. The mobilities paradigm incorporates new ways of theorizing about how these mobilities lie "at the center of constellations of power, the creation of identities and the microgeographies of everyday life." (Cresswell, 2011, 551) The mobility turn arose as a response to the way in which the social sciences had traditionally been static, seeing movement as a black box and ignoring or trivializing "the importance of the systematic movements of people for work and family life, for leisure and pleasure, and for politics and protest" (Sheller and


id: mobilities-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilities-1.md
category: reference
title: Mobilities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:08.316784+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mobilities-20260505-0
summary:
== Origins == Sheller and Urry (2006, 215) place mobilities in the sociological tradition by defining the primordial theorist of mobilities as Georg Simmel (1858–1918). Simmel's essays, "Bridge and Door" (Simmel, 1909 / 1994) and "The Metropolis and Mental Life" (Simmel, 1903 / 2001) identify a uniquely human will to connection, as well as the urban demands of tempo and precision that are satisfied with mobility. The more immediate precursors of contemporary mobilities research emerged in the 1990s (Cresswell 2011, 551). Historian James Clifford (1997) advocated for a shift from deep analysis of particular places to the routes connecting them. Marc Augé (1995) considered the philosophical potential of an anthropology of "non-places" like airports and motorways that are characterized by constant transition and temporality. Sociologist Manuel Castells outlined a "network society" and suggested that the "space of places" is being surpassed by a "space of flows." Feminist scholar Caren Kaplan (1996) explored questions about the gendering of metaphors of travel in social and cultural theory. The contemporary paradigm under the moniker "mobilities" appears to originate with the work of sociologist John Urry. In his book, Sociology Beyond Societies: Mobilities for the Twenty-First Century, Urry (2000, 1) presents a "manifesto for


id: mobilities-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilities-2.md
category: reference
title: Mobilities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:08.316784+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mobilities-20260505-0
summary:
Mobilities often links science and social science to the humanities. Mobilities often links across different scales of movement, while traditional transportation geography tends to focus on particular forms of movement at only one scale (such as local traffic studies or household travel surveys). Mobilities encompasses the movement of people, objects, and ideas, rather than narrowly focusing on areas like passenger modal shift or freight logistics. Mobilities considers both motion and "stopping, stillness and relative immobility." Mobilities incorporates mobile theorization and methodologies to avoid the privileging of "notions of boundedness and the sedentary." Mobilities often embraces the political and differential politics of mobility, as opposed to the apolitical, "objective" stance often sought by researchers associated with engineering disciplines Mobilities can be seen as a postmodern descendant of modernist transportation studies, with the influence of the spatial turn corresponding to a "post-structuralist agnosticism about both naturalistic and universal explanations and about single-voiced historical narratives, and to the concomitant recognition that position and context are centrally and inescapably implicated in all constructions of knowledge" (Cosgrove, 1999, 7; Warf and Arias, 2009). Despite these ontological and epistemological differences, Shaw and Hesse (2010, 207) have argued that mobilities and transport geography represent points on a


id: modern-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Modern Studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:09.666075+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: modern-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Modern Studies is a subject in the Scottish school system, currently taught at National 3 through Advanced Higher. It concerns contemporary social and political issues, and political processes, in Scottish, UK and international contexts. The subject has been taught in Scotland since the 1960s and is credited with increasing students' political literacy. == References ==


id: nudity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-0.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
Nudity is the state of being in which a human is without clothing. While estimates vary, for the first 90,000 years of pre-history, anatomically modern humans were naked, having lost their body hair, living in hospitable climates, and not having developed the crafts needed to make clothing. As humans became behaviorally modern, body adornments such as jewelry, tattoos, body paint and scarification became part of non-verbal communications, indicating a person's social and individual characteristics. Indigenous peoples in warm climates used clothing for decorative, symbolic or ceremonial purposes but were often nude, having neither the need to protect the body from the elements nor any conception of nakedness being shameful. In many societies, both ancient and contemporary, children might be naked until the beginning of puberty and women often do not cover their breasts due to the association with nursing babies more than with sexuality. In the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean, from Mesopotamia to the Roman Empire, proper attire was required to maintain social standing. The majority might possess a single piece of cloth that was wrapped or tied to cover the lower body; slaves might be naked. However, through much of Western history until the modern era, people of


id: nudity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-1.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
The habitual use of clothing is one of the changes that mark the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of civilization, between 7,000 and 9,000 years ago. Much of what is known about the early history of clothing is from depictions of the higher classes, there being few surviving artifacts. Everyday behaviors are rarely represented in historical records. Clothing and adornment became part of the symbolic communication that marked a person's membership in their society, thus nakedness meant being at the bottom of the social scale, lacking in dignity and status. In each culture, ornamentation represented the wearer's place in society; position of authority, economic class, gender role, and marital status. From the beginning of civilization, there was ambiguity regarding everyday nakedness and the nudity in depictions of deities and heroes indicating positive meanings of the unclothed body. Among ancient civilizations only Abrahamic societies associated nakedness primarily with sin or shame regarding sexuality. === Ancient and classical history === For millennia from Mesopotamia to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt the majority of men and women wore a cloth wrapped or tied to cover the lower part of the body. Both men and women would be bare-chested and barefoot. Complete


id: nudity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-2.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
The revival of pre-colonial culture is asserted in the adoption of traditional dress—young women wearing only beaded skirts and jewelry—in the Umkhosi Womhlanga (Reed Dance) by the Zulu and Swazi. Other examples of cultural tourism reflect the visitor's desire to experience what they imagine being an exotic culture, which includes nudity. === Asia === In Asian countries, rather than always being immoral or shameful, not being properly dressed is perceived as a breach of etiquette (loss of face) in most situations, while nakedness may be part of maintaining purity by public bathing, or expressing rejection of worldliness including clothes. ==== China ==== In contemporary China, while maintaining the traditions of modest dress in everyday life, the use of nudity in magazine advertising indicates the effect of globalization. In much of Asia, traditional dress covers the entire body, similar to Western dress. In stories written in China as early as the fourth century BCE, nudity is presented as an affront to human dignity, reflecting the belief that "humanness" in Chinese society is not innate, but is earned by correct behavior. However, nakedness could also be used by an individual to express contempt for others in their presence. In other stories, the


id: nudity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-3.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Western societies === The Western world inherited contradictory cultural traditions relating to nudity in various contexts. The first tradition came from the ancient Greeks, who saw the naked body as the natural state and as essentially positive. The second is based upon the Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—which view being naked as shameful and essentially negative. The interaction between the Greek classical and later Abrahamic traditions has resulted in Western ambivalence, with nudity acquiring both positive and negative meanings in individual psychology, in social life, and in depictions such as art. The conservative versions of these religions continue to prohibit public and sometimes also private nudity. While public modesty prevails in more recent times, organized groups of nudists or naturists emerged with the stated purpose of regaining a natural connection to the human body and nature, sometimes in private spaces but also in public. Naturism in the United States, meanwhile, remains largely confined to private facilities, with few "clothing optional" public spaces compared to Europe. In spite of the liberalization of attitudes toward sex, Americans remain uncomfortable with complete nudity at the end of the 20th century. A poll in 2025 found that Americans are divided: 25% saying they


id: nudity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-4.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Christianity ==== The meaning of nudity for early Christians was the baptism, which was originally by full immersion and without clothes in a basin attached to every cathedral. Both men and women were baptized naked, deaconesses performing the rite for women to maintain modesty. Until the fifth century CE, pagan nudity was associated with sex, Christian nudity with grace. Jesus was originally depicted nude as would have been the case in Roman crucifixions, but the Christian adoption of the pagan association of the body with sex prompted the clothing of Christ. Some clerics went further, to hatred and fear of the body, insisting that monks sleep fully dressed. Christian theology rarely addresses nudity, but rather proper dress and modesty. Western cultures adopted Greek heritage only with regard to art, the ideal nude. Real naked people remained shameful, and become human only when they cover their nakedness. In one of a series of lectures entitled "Theology of the Body" given in 1979, Pope John Paul II said that the innocent nudity of being before the fall is regained only between loving spouses. In daily life, Christianity requires clothing in public, but with great variation between and within societies as to


id: nudity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-5.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
Historically, men and boys bathed and swam nude in secluded rivers and lakes. In England when sea bathing became popular in the 18th century, beaches were initially male only, but with the easier access of the 19th century due to rail transportation, the mixing of genders became a problem for authorities. The addition of "bathing machines" at seaside resorts was not successful in maintaining standards of decency, men often continuing to be nude while women wore bathing costumes. However, public concern was only regarding adults, it being generally accepted that boys at English beaches would be nude. This prompted complaints by visiting Americans, but Englishmen had no objection to their daughters being fully dressed on the beach with naked boys. In the United States and other Western countries for much of the 20th century, male nudity was the norm in gender segregated activities including summer camps, swimming pools and communal showers based on cultural beliefs that females need more privacy than males. Beginning in 1900, businessmen swam nude at private athletic clubs in New York City, which ended with a 1980 law requiring the admission of women. For younger boys, lack of modesty might include public behavior as in 1909


id: nudity-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-6.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
== Private versus public == In thinking about nudity, an important dimension of culture is private-public and the behavior that is normal within each space. In some cultures private means being entirely alone, defining personal space. In other cultures, privacy includes family and selected others; intimate space. Being in public includes potentially anyone as with parks, sidewalks, and roads. Some public spaces are limited to paying customers as with cafés or supermarkets. The meaning of public space changed as cities grew. Between private and public there may be other distinctions that limit access such as age, sex, membership, which define social spaces, each with expectations of shared norms being followed. In the absence of visual barriers, privacy is maintained by social distance, as when being examined for medical purposes or receiving a massage. Violation of boundaries between doctors and patients is a serious breach of medical ethics. Between social equals, privacy is maintained by civil inattention, allowing others to maintain their personal space by only glancing, not looking directly, as in a crowded elevator. Civil inattention also maintains the non-sexual nature of semi-public situations in which relative or complete nakedness is necessary, such as communal bathing or changing clothes. Such


id: nudity-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-7.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Body image and emotions ==== Body image is the perceptions and feelings of a person regarding their own body's appearance, which effects self-esteem and life satisfaction. There is evidence that the majority of women and girls in western societies have a negative body image, mainly regarding their size and weight. The sociocultural model of body image emphasizes the role of cultural ideals in the formation of an individual's body image. American ideals for women are unrealistic based upon a comparison of a healthy body mass index (BMI) with the desired BMI, which is 15 percent lower. Cultural ideals are transmitted by parents, peers, and the media. Men and boys are increasingly concerned with their appearance, wanting to be more muscular. In non-western cultures, body image has a different meaning, particularly in sociocentric societies in which people think of themselves as part of a group, not as individuals. In addition, where food insecurity and disease is a danger, a person growing thinner is viewed as unhealthy; a more robust body is the ideal. The evolutionary perspective is that for women, hip-to-waist ratio with emphasis on the hips and a more curvaceous body is the ideal around the world, while for


id: nudity-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-8.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
The men's locker room—which in Western cultures had been a setting for open male social nudity—is, in the 21st century United States, becoming a space of modesty and distancing between men. For much of the 20th century, the norm in locker rooms had been for men to undress completely without embarrassment. That norm has changed; in the 21st century, men typically wear towels or other garments in the locker room most of the time and avoid any interaction with others while naked. This shift is the result of changes in social norms regarding masculinity and how maleness is publicly expressed; also, open male nudity has become associated with homosexuality. In facilities such as the YMCA that cater to multiple generations, the young are uncomfortable sharing space with older people who do not cover up. The behavior in women's locker rooms and showers also indicates a generational change, younger women covering more, and full nudity being brief and rare, while older women are more open and casual. In the 21st century, some high-end New York City gyms were redesigned to cater to millennials who want to shower without ever being seen naked. The trend for privacy is being extended to public


id: nudity-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-9.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
Nudism, in German Freikörperkultur (FKK), "free body culture" originated in Europe in the late 19th century among some members of the life reform movement (Lebensreform) who sought a simpler life in opposition to industrialization. While Christian moralists in the early 20th century tended to condemn nudism, some Christians found moral purity in the nude body compared to the sexually suggestive clothing of the era. Its proponents believed that nudism could combat social inequality, including sexual inequality. Naturist attitudes toward the body became more widely accepted in sports and in the arts in the Weimar Republic. There were advocates of the health benefits of sun and fresh air that instituted programs of exercise in the nude for children in groups of mixed gender, Adolf Koch founding thirteen FKK schools. With the rise of Nazism in the 1930s, the nudism movement split ideologically, the socialists adopting the views of Koch, seeing his programs as part of improving the lives of the working class. Although many Nazis opposed nudity, others used it to extol the Aryan race as the standard of beauty, as reflected in the Nazi propaganda film Olympia directed by Leni Riefenstahl. Between the first and second world wars, naturism spread


id: nudity-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity-10.md
category: reference
title: Nudity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nudity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:11.011168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nudity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Torture ==== Nazis used forced nudity to humiliate inmates in concentration camps. This practice was depicted in the film Schindler's List (1993). In 2003, Abu Ghraib prison in Baghdad, Iraq gained international notoriety for accounts of torture and abuses by members of the United States Army Reserve during the post-invasion period. Photographic images were circulated that showed the posing of prisoners naked, sometimes bound, and being intimidated and otherwise humiliated, resulting in widespread condemnation of the abuse. ==== Strip search ==== A strip search is the removal of some or all of a person's clothing to ensure that they do not have weapons or contraband. Such searches are generally done when an individual is imprisoned after an arrest, and is justified by the need to maintain order in the facility, not as punishment for a crime. === Nudity as protest === Nudity is used to draw public attention to a cause, sometimes including the promotion of public nudity itself. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) used nudity to protest the use of animal fur in fashion. In Africa from the colonial to the contemporary eras, women have used nudity to confront economic and political injustices. Although similar


id: nutritional-psychiatry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritional_psychiatry-0.md
category: reference
title: Nutritional psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritional_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:17.619040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nutritional-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Nutritional psychiatry is an emerging field that investigates the complex relationship between an individual's diet, nutrient intake, and mental health. The discipline integrates clinical principles of psychiatry to explore how nutritional strategies can be utilized for both the prevention and treatment of various mental health disorders. == Nutrition and mental health == In the field of nutritional psychiatry, there is ongoing research about how different diet patterns influence the development or symptoms of psychiatric conditions, such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. There is also research about how various diets could be potential avenues for treatment of mental health conditions. In addition, nutrition psychiatry acknowledges the importance of quality diet in relation to improved mood regulation. Research suggests that a quality diet is crucial for developing and maintaining a healthy brain. A healthy diet is generally characterized by a high intake of fruit, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds, fish, and limited processed foods. Conversely, diets in high processed foods, fats and sugars are associated with anxiety and depression. It is noted that the relationship between diet and mental health is "multi-directional," as people experiencing mental illness may face various barriers that make it difficult to adhere to a balanced


id: obshchestvovedeniye-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obshchestvovedeniye-0.md
category: reference
title: Obshchestvovedeniye
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obshchestvovedeniye
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:18.785895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: obshchestvovedeniye-20260505-0
summary:
Obshestvovédeny or Obshchestvovédeniye (Russian: Обществоведение) is a social science and eponymous academic subject in a Soviet school. As a subject, it was taught from the 1960s to 1991 throughout the USSR and covered all the three constituent parts of Marxism–Leninism. These component parts of Marxism, according to Lenin and his Soviet adherents, are Marxist-Leninist philosophy (dialectical and historical materialism), political economy, and scientific communism. == Overview == === Soviet Union === For the first time the school program was approved by the People's Commissariat for Education in 1925. The peculiarity of the subject was to develop a system of views on the world among students of secondary schools, covering all the phenomena occurring in it and giving students a unified understanding and explanation of these phenomena through the prism of Marxist-Leninist philosophy (In other words, the subject was also a complex of social Sciences, but from a Marxist point of view). In the USSR education system, social studies was a mandatory course for all senior-class secondary-school students and represented the world as Soviet officials wanted their young people to see and understand it. In order to indoctrinate students about Communism, the course contained "much distortion, half-truth, and deliberate falsification." The


id: occupational-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Occupational science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:19.992570+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occupational-science-20260505-0
summary:
Occupational science is a discipline dedicated to the study of humans as "doers" or "occupational beings". As used here, the term "occupation" refers to the intentional or goal-directed activities that characterize daily human life as well as the characteristics and patterns of purposeful activity that occur over lifetimes. == History == Occupational science evolved as a loosely organized effort by many scholars in different disciplines to understand human time use. It was named and given additional impetus in 1989 by a team of faculty at the University of Southern California (USC) led by Dr. Elizabeth Yerxa, who had been influenced by the work of graduate students under the supervision of Mary Reilly at the same university. Since its formal beginning at that time, which coincided with the establishment of a Ph.D. program in Occupational Science at USC; occupational science has evolved as an additional source of research to expand empirical knowledge underlying the profession of occupational therapy. == Links between occupational science and occupational therapy == Occupational science was developed by scholars (mainly from the profession of occupational therapy) who drew from original ideas predating the founding of occupational therapy. It may thus be considered as a developing or emerging


id: operationalization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operationalization-0.md
category: reference
title: Operationalization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operationalization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:21.203235+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operationalization-20260505-0
summary:
In research design, especially in psychology, social sciences, life sciences and physics, operationalization (or operationalisation) is a process of defining the measurement of a phenomenon which is not directly measurable, though its existence is inferred from other phenomena. Operationalization thus defines a fuzzy concept so as to make it clearly distinguishable, measurable, and understandable by empirical observation. In a broader sense, it defines the extension of a concept—describing what is and is not an instance of that concept. For example, in medicine, the phenomenon of health might be operationalized by one or more indicators like body mass index or tobacco smoking. As another example, in visual processing the presence of a certain object in the environment could be inferred by measuring specific features of the light it reflects. In these examples, the phenomena are difficult to directly observe and measure because they are general/abstract (as in the example of health) or they are latent (as in the example of the object). Operationalization helps infer the existence, and some elements of the extension, of the phenomena of interest by means of some observable and measurable effects they have. Sometimes multiple or competing alternative operationalizations for the same phenomenon are available. Repeating


id: operationalization-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operationalization-1.md
category: reference
title: Operationalization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operationalization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:21.203235+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operationalization-20260505-0
summary:
=== Anger example === For example, a researcher may wish to measure the concept "anger." Its presence, and the depth of the emotion, cannot be directly measured by an outside observer because anger is intangible. Rather, other measures are used by outside observers, such as facial expression, choice of vocabulary, loudness and tone of voice. If a researcher wants to measure the depth of "anger" in various persons, the most direct operation would be to ask them a question, such as "are you angry", or "how angry are you?". This operation is problematic, however, because it depends upon the definition of the individual. Some people might be subjected to a mild annoyance, and become slightly angry, but describe themselves as "extremely angry," whereas others might be subjected to a severe provocation, and become very angry, but describe themselves as "slightly angry." In addition, in many circumstances it is impractical to ask subjects whether they are angry. Since one of the measures of anger is loudness, the researcher can operationalize the concept of anger by measuring how loudly subjects speak compared to their normal tones. However, this must assume that loudness is a uniform measure. Some might respond verbally while others


id: paedology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paedology-0.md
category: reference
title: Paedology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paedology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:22.400535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paedology-20260505-0
summary:
Paedology (also spelled pedology or paidology) is the study of children's behavior and development. The field may be considered distinct from pedagogy, the art or science of teaching, and pediatrics, the field of medicine relating to children. However, pedology is not commonly recognized as a distinct field of study; therefore, many people who could be described as pedologists are instead described as pedagogues, pediatricians, psychologists, etc. A reason for this is because one could make contributions to the field of pedology while also making contributions to other fields. For example, Jean Piaget made contributions to the study of pedology in his theories of the cognitive development of children; however, Piaget has more commonly been recognized as a developmental psychologist. == Origins of paedology == The origins of this trend in psychology and pedagogy go back to the end of the 18th century with the separation of a branch of psychology that would form the basis of pedagogy, a pedagogic psychology or "experimental pedagogic psychology", "experimental pedagogy", "experimental education". G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) fostered pedology as a separate study, and also became instrumental in the development of modern educational psychology. An American researcher, Oscar Chrisman, proposed the term "pedology" in 1893.


id: performance-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Performance science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:23.588799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performance-science-20260505-0
summary:
Performance science is the multidisciplinary study of human performance. It draws together methodologies across numerous scientific disciplines, including those of biomechanics, economics, physiology, psychology, and sociology, to understand the fundamental skills, mechanisms, and outcomes of performance activities and experiences. It carries implications for various domains of skilled human activity, often performed under extreme stress and/or under the scrutiny of audiences or evaluators. These include performances across the arts, sport, education, and business, particularly those occupations involving the delivery of highly trained skills such as in surgery and management. == Centers of research and teaching == USC Performance Science Institute, University of Southern California 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Centre for Human Performance Sciences, Stellenbosch University Centre for Performance Science, a partnership of the Royal College of Music and Imperial College London Human Performance Science Research Group, University of Edinburgh Performance and Science Working Group, Theatre and Performance Research Association Performance Science Unit, Sports Institute for Northern Ireland == See also == Environmental psychology Industrial and organizational psychology Military psychology Music psychology Sport psychology == References == == External links == International Symposium on Performance Science Frontiers in Psychology: Performance Science (journal)


id: platform-capitalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_capitalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Platform capitalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_capitalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:24.853040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: platform-capitalism-20260505-0
summary:
Platform capitalism refers to the activities of companies such as Google, Facebook, Apple, Microsoft, Uber, Airbnb, Amazon and others to operate as platforms. In this business model both hardware and software are used as a foundation (platform) for other actors to conduct their own business. Platform capitalism has been both heralded as beneficial and denounced as detrimental by various authors. The trends identified in platform capitalism have similarities with those described under the heading of surveillance capitalism. Technology companies build platforms that entire industries rely on, and those industries can easily collapse due to the decisions of those technology companies. The possible effect of platform capitalism on open science has been discussed. Platform capitalism has been contrasted with platform cooperativism. Companies that try to focus on fairness and sharing, instead of just profit motive, are described as cooperatives, whereas more traditional and common companies that focus solely on profit, like Airbnb and Uber, are platform capitalists (or cooperativist platforms vs capitalist platforms). In turn, projects like Wikipedia, which rely on unpaid labor of volunteers, can be classified as commons-based peer-production initiatives. == See also == Enshittification Platform economy == References ==


id: positivism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism-0.md
category: reference
title: Positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:26.231974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positivism-20260505-0
summary:
Positivism is a philosophical school that holds that all genuine knowledge is either true by definition or positive – the latter meaning a posteriori facts derived by reason and logic from sensory experience. Other ways of knowing, such as intuition, introspection, or religious faith, are rejected or considered meaningless. Although the positivist approach has been a recurrent theme in the history of Western thought, modern positivism was first articulated in the early 19th century by Auguste Comte. His school of sociological positivism holds that society, like the physical world, operates according to scientific laws. After Comte, positivist schools arose in logic, psychology, economics, historiography, and other fields of thought. Generally, positivists attempted to introduce scientific methods to their respective fields. Since the turn of the 20th century, positivism, although still popular, has declined under criticism within the social sciences by antipositivists and critical theorists, among others, for its alleged scientism, reductionism, overgeneralizations, and methodological limitations. Positivism also exerted an unusual influence on Kardecism. == Etymology == The English noun positivism in this meaning was imported in the 19th century from the French word positivisme, derived from positif in its philosophical sense of 'imposed on the mind by experience'. The corresponding


id: positivism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism-1.md
category: reference
title: Positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:26.231974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positivism-20260505-0
summary:
The most important thing to determine was the natural order in which the sciences stand—not how they can be made to stand, but how they must stand, irrespective of the wishes of any one. ... This Comte accomplished by taking as the criterion of the position of each the degree of what he called "positivity," which is simply the degree to which the phenomena can be exactly determined. This, as may be readily seen, is also a measure of their relative complexity, since the exactness of a science is in inverse proportion to its complexity. The degree of exactness or positivity is, moreover, that to which it can be subjected to mathematical demonstration, and therefore mathematics, which is not itself a concrete science, is the general gauge by which the position of every science is to be determined. Generalizing thus, Comte found that there were five great groups of phenomena of equal classificatory value but of successively decreasing positivity. To these he gave the names astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. Comte offered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general "law of three stages". Comte intended


id: positivism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism-2.md
category: reference
title: Positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:26.231974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positivism-20260505-0
summary:
Comte's fame today owes in part to Emile Littré, who founded The Positivist Review in 1867. As an approach to the philosophy of history, positivism was appropriated by historians such as Hippolyte Taine. Many of Comte's writings were translated into English by the Whig writer, Harriet Martineau, regarded by some as the first female sociologist. Debates continue to rage as to how much Comte appropriated from the work of his mentor, Saint-Simon. He was nevertheless influential: Brazilian thinkers turned to Comte's ideas about training a scientific elite in order to flourish in the industrialization process. Brazil's national motto, Ordem e Progresso ("Order and Progress") was taken from the positivism motto, "Love as principle, order as the basis, progress as the goal", which was also influential in Poland. In later life, Comte developed a 'religion of humanity' for positivist societies in order to fulfil the cohesive function once held by traditional worship. In 1849, he proposed a calendar reform called the 'positivist calendar'. For close associate John Stuart Mill, it was possible to distinguish between a "good Comte" (the author of the Course in Positive Philosophy) and a "bad Comte" (the author of the secular-religious system). The system was unsuccessful but


id: positivism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism-3.md
category: reference
title: Positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:26.231974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positivism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Historical positivism === In historiography, historical or documentary positivism is the belief that historians should pursue the objective truth of the past by allowing historical sources to "speak for themselves", without additional interpretation. In the words of the French historian Fustel de Coulanges, as a positivist, "It is not I who am speaking, but history itself". The heavy emphasis placed by historical positivists on documentary sources led to the development of methods of source criticism, which seek to expunge bias and uncover original sources in their pristine state. The origin of the historical positivist school is particularly associated with the 19th-century German historian Leopold von Ranke, who argued that the historian should seek to describe historical truth "wie es eigentlich gewesen ist" ("as it actually was")—though subsequent historians of the concept, such as Georg Iggers, have argued that its development owed more to Ranke's followers than Ranke himself. Historical positivism was critiqued in the 20th century by historians and philosophers of history from various schools of thought, including Ernst Kantorowicz in Weimar Germany—who argued that "positivism ... faces the danger of becoming Romantic when it maintains that it is possible to find the Blue Flower of truth without preconceptions"—and


id: positivism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism-4.md
category: reference
title: Positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:26.231974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positivism-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == Historically, positivism has been criticized for its reductionism, i.e., for contending that all "processes are reducible to physiological, physical or chemical events," "social processes are reducible to relationships between and actions of individuals," and that "biological organisms are reducible to physical systems." The consideration that laws in physics may not be absolute but relative, and, if so, this might be even more true of social sciences, was stated, in different terms, by G. B. Vico in 1725. Vico, in contrast to the positivist movement, asserted the superiority of the science of the human mind (the humanities, in other words), on the grounds that natural sciences tell us nothing about the inward aspects of things. Wilhelm Dilthey fought strenuously against the assumption that only explanations derived from science are valid. He reprised Vico's argument that scientific explanations do not reach the inner nature of phenomena and it is humanistic knowledge that gives us insight into thoughts, feelings and desires. Dilthey was in part influenced by the historism of Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886). The contesting views over positivism are reflected both in older debates (see the Positivism dispute) and current ones over the proper role of science in the


id: positivism-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism-5.md
category: reference
title: Positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:26.231974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positivism-20260505-0
summary:
Although Karl Marx's theory of historical materialism drew upon positivism, the Marxist tradition would also go on to influence the development of antipositivist critical theory. Critical theorist Jürgen Habermas critiqued pure instrumental rationality (in its relation to the cultural "rationalisation" of the modern West) as a form of scientism, or science "as ideology". He argued that positivism may be espoused by "technocrats" who believe in the inevitability of social progress through science and technology. New movements, such as critical realism, have emerged in order to reconcile postpositivist aims with various so-called 'postmodern' perspectives on the social acquisition of knowledge. Max Horkheimer criticized the classic formulation of positivism on two grounds. First, he claimed that it falsely represented human social action. The first criticism argued that positivism systematically failed to appreciate the extent to which the so-called social facts it yielded did not exist 'out there', in the objective world, but were themselves a product of socially and historically mediated human consciousness. Positivism ignored the role of the 'observer' in the constitution of social reality and thereby failed to consider the historical and social conditions affecting the representation of social ideas. Positivism falsely represented the object of study by reifying social


id: positivism-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism-6.md
category: reference
title: Positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:26.231974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positivism-20260505-0
summary:
== Positivism today == Echoes of the "positivist" and "antipositivist" debate persist today, though this conflict is hard to define. Authors writing in different epistemological perspectives do not phrase their disagreements in the same terms and rarely actually speak directly to each other. To complicate the issues further, few practising scholars explicitly state their epistemological commitments, and their epistemological position thus has to be guessed from other sources such as choice of methodology or theory. However, no perfect correspondence between these categories exists, and many scholars critiqued as "positivists" are actually postpositivists. One scholar has described this debate in terms of the social construction of the "other", with each side defining the other by what it is not rather than what it is, and then proceeding to attribute far greater homogeneity to their opponents than actually exists. Thus, it is better to understand this not as a debate but as two different arguments: the "antipositivist" articulation of a social meta-theory which includes a philosophical critique of scientism, and "positivist" development of a scientific research methodology for sociology with accompanying critiques of the reliability and validity of work that they see as violating such standards. Strategic positivism aims to bridge these


id: positivism-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism-7.md
category: reference
title: Positivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:26.231974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positivism-20260505-0
summary:
Any sound scientific theory, whether of time or of any other concept, should in my opinion be based on the most workable philosophy of science: the positivist approach put forward by Karl Popper and others. According to this way of thinking, a scientific theory is a mathematical model that describes and codifies the observations we make. A good theory will describe a large range of phenomena on the basis of a few simple postulates and will make definite predictions that can be tested. ... If one takes the positivist position, as I do, one cannot say what time actually is. All one can do is describe what has been found to be a very good mathematical model for time and say what predictions it makes. == See also == Cliodynamics Científico Charvaka Determinism Gödel's incompleteness theorems London Positivist Society Nature versus nurture Physics envy Scientific politics Sociological naturalism The New Paul and Virginia Vladimir Solovyov == Notes == == References == Amory, Frederic. "Euclides da Cunha and Brazilian Positivism". Luso-Brazilian Review. 36 (1 (Summer 1999)): 87–94. Armenteros, Carolina. 2017. "The Counterrevolutionary Comte: Theorist of the Two Powers and Enthusiastic Medievalist." In The Anthem Companion to Auguste Comte, edited by Andrew


id: praxeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Praxeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:27.474473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: praxeology-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy, praxeology or praxiology (; from Ancient Greek πρᾶξις (praxis) 'deed, action' and -λογία (-logia) 'study of') is the theory of human action, based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior, contrary to reflexive behavior and other unintentional behavior. French social philosopher Alfred Espinas gave the term its modern meaning, and praxeology was developed independently by two principal groups: the Austrian school, led by Ludwig von Mises, and the Polish school, led by Tadeusz Kotarbiński. == Origin and etymology == Coinage of the word praxeology (praxéologie) is often credited to Louis Bourdeau, the French author of a classification of the sciences, which he published in his Théorie des sciences. Plan de science intégrale in 1882: On account of their dual natures of specialty and generality, these functions should be the subject of a separate science. Some of its parts have been studied for a long time, because this kind of research, in which man could be the main subject, has always presented the greatest interest. Physiology, hygiene, medicine, psychology, animal history, human history, political economy, morality, etc. represent fragments of a science that we would like to establish, but as fragments scattered and uncoordinated have remained until


id: progress-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress-0.md
category: reference
title: Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:28.660757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progress-20260505-0
summary:
Progress is movement towards a perceived refined, improved, or otherwise desired state. It is central to the philosophy of progressivism, which interprets progress as the set of advancements in technology, science, and social organization – the latter being generally achieved through direct societal action, as in social enterprise or through activism, but being also attainable through natural sociocultural evolution – that progressivism holds all human societies should strive towards. The concept of progress was introduced in the early-19th-century social theories, especially social evolution as described by Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. It was present in the Enlightenment's philosophies of history. As a goal, social progress has been advocated by varying realms of political ideologies with different theories on how it is to be achieved. == Measuring progress == Specific indicators for measuring progress can range from economic data, technical innovations, change in the political or legal system, and questions bearing on individual life chances, such as life expectancy and risk of disease and disability. GDP growth has become a key orientation for politics and is often taken as a key figure to evaluate a politician's performance. However, GDP has a number of flaws that make it an imperfect measure of


id: progress-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress-1.md
category: reference
title: Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:28.660757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progress-20260505-0
summary:
=== Status of women === How progress improved the status of women in traditional society was a major theme of historians starting in the Enlightenment and continuing to today. British theorists William Robertson (1721–1793) and Edmund Burke (1729–1797), along with many of their contemporaries, remained committed to Christian- and republican-based conceptions of virtue, while working within a new Enlightenment paradigm. The political agenda related beauty, taste, and morality to the imperatives and needs of modern societies of a high level of sophistication and differentiation. Two themes in the work of Robertson and Burke—the nature of women in 'savage' and 'civilized' societies and 'beauty in distress'—reveals how long-held convictions about the character of women, especially with regard to their capacity and right to appear in the public domain, were modified and adjusted to the idea of progress and became central to modern European civilization. Classics experts have examined the status of women in the ancient world, concluding that in the Roman Empire, with its superior social organization, internal peace, and rule of law, allowed women to enjoy a somewhat better standing than in ancient Greece, where women were distinctly inferior. The inferior status of women in traditional China has raised the


id: progress-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress-2.md
category: reference
title: Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:28.660757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progress-20260505-0
summary:
Modernization was promoted by classical liberals in the 19th and 20th centuries, who called for the rapid modernization of the economy and society to remove the traditional hindrances to free markets and free movements of people. During the Enlightenment in Europe social commentators and philosophers began to realize that people themselves could change society and change their way of life. Instead of being made completely by gods, there was increasing room for the idea that people themselves made their own society—and not only that, as Giambattista Vico argued, because people made their own society, they could also fully comprehend it. This gave rise to new sciences, or proto-sciences, which claimed to provide new scientific knowledge about what society was like, and how one may change it for the better. In turn, this gave rise to progressive opinion, in contrast with conservational opinion. The social conservationists were skeptical about panaceas for social ills. According to conservatives, attempts to radically remake society normally make things worse. Edmund Burke was the leading exponent of this, although later-day liberals like Friedrich Hayek have espoused similar views. They argue that society changes organically and naturally, and that grand plans for the remaking of society, like


id: progress-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress-3.md
category: reference
title: Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:28.660757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progress-20260505-0
summary:
This was termed the "Opening of China" in the West, and more broadly encompasses the reform and opening up. Among environmentalists, there is a continuum between two opposing poles. The one pole is optimistic, progressive, and business-oriented, and endorses the classic idea of progress. For example, bright green environmentalism endorses the idea that new designs, social innovations and green technologies can solve critical environmental challenges. The other is pessimistic in respect of technological solutions, warning of impending global crisis (through climate change or peak oil, for example) and tends to reject the very idea of modernity and the myth of progress that is so central to modernization thinking. Similarly, Kirkpatrick Sale, wrote about progress as a myth benefiting the few, and a pending environmental doomsday for everyone. An example is the philosophy of Deep Ecology.


id: progress-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress-4.md
category: reference
title: Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:28.660757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progress-20260505-0
summary:
== Philosophy == Sociologist Robert Nisbet said that "No single idea has been more important than ... the Idea of Progress in Western civilization for three thousand years", and defines five "crucial premises" of the idea of progress: value of the past nobility of Western civilization worth of economic/technological growth faith in reason and scientific/scholarly knowledge obtained through reason intrinsic importance and worth of life on earth Sociologist P. A. Sorokin said, "The ancient Chinese, Babylonian, Hindu, Greek, Roman, and most of the medieval thinkers supporting theories of rhythmical, cyclical or trendless movements of social processes were much nearer to reality than the present proponents of the linear view." Unlike Confucianism and to a certain extent Taoism, that both search for an ideal past, the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition believes in the fulfillment of history, which was translated into the idea of progress in the modern age. Therefore, Chinese proponents of modernization have looked to western models. According to Thompson, the late Qing dynasty reformer, Kang Youwei, believed he had found a model for reform and "modernisation" in the Ancient Chinese Classics. Philosopher Karl Popper said that progress was not fully adequate as a scientific explanation of social phenomena. More recently, Kirkpatrick


id: progress-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress-5.md
category: reference
title: Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:28.660757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progress-20260505-0
summary:
Faith in the liberating power of knowledge is encrypted into modern life. Drawing on some of Europe's most ancient traditions, and daily reinforced by the quickening advance of science, it cannot be given up by an act of will. The interaction of quickening scientific advance with unchanging human needs is a fate that we may perhaps temper, but cannot overcome... Those who hold to the possibility of progress need not fear. The illusion that through science humans can remake the world is an integral part of the modern condition. Renewing the eschatological hopes of the past, progress is an illusion with a future. Recently the idea of progress has been generalized to psychology, being related with the concept of a goal, that is, progress is understood as "what counts as a means of advancing towards the end result of a given defined goal." === Antiquity === Historian J. B. Bury said that thought in ancient Greece was dominated by the theory of world-cycles or the doctrine of eternal return, and was steeped in a belief parallel to the Judaic "fall of man," but rather from a preceding "Golden Age" of innocence and simplicity. Time was generally regarded as the enemy


id: progress-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress-6.md
category: reference
title: Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:28.660757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progress-20260505-0
summary:
=== Romanticism and 19th century === In the 19th century, Romantic critics charged that progress did not automatically better the human condition, and in some ways could make it worse. Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) reacted against the concept of progress as set forth by William Godwin and Condorcet because he believed that inequality of conditions is "the best (state) calculated to develop the energies and faculties of man". He said, "Had population and food increased in the same ratio, it is probable that man might never have emerged from the savage state." He argued that man's capacity for improvement has been demonstrated by the growth of his intellect, a form of progress which offsets the distresses engendered by the law of population. German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) criticized the idea of progress as the 'weakling's doctrines of optimism,' and advocated undermining concepts such as faith in progress, to allow the strong individual to stand above the plebeian masses. An important part of his thinking consists of the attempt to use the classical model of 'eternal recurrence of the same' to dislodge the idea of progress. Iggers (1965) argues there was general agreement in the late 19th century that the steady accumulation


id: quantum-social-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_social_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Quantum social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:33.648777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Quantum social science is an emerging field of interdisciplinary research that draws parallels between quantum physics and the social sciences. Although there is no settled consensus on a single approach, a unifying theme is that, while the social sciences have long modelled themselves on mechanistic science, they can learn much from quantum ideas such as complementarity and entanglement. Some authors are motivated by quantum mind theories that the brain, and therefore human interactions, are literally based on quantum processes, while others are more interested in taking advantage of the quantum toolkit to simulate social behaviours which elude classical treatment. Quantum ideas have been particularly influential in psychology but are starting to affect other areas such as international relations and diplomacy in what one 2018 paper called a "quantum turn in the social sciences". == History == The idea that quantum physics might play an important role in living systems has long been considered by physicists. Niels Bohr for example believed that his principle of complementarity extended into both biology and psychology, while Erwin Schrödinger wrote in his 1944 book What is Life? of a "quantum theory of biology" that saw genetic mutations in terms of quantum leaps. In his 1989


id: quantum-social-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_social_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Quantum social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:33.648777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-social-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Applications == Ideas from quantum physics have long inspired thinkers in areas such as politics, diplomacy, and international relations. The journalist Flora Lewis spoke of the "Quantum Mechanics of Politics" in 1975. In a 1997 lecture on "Diplomacy in the Information Age", former US Secretary of State George P. Shultz credits the physicist Sidney Drell for coining the term "quantum diplomacy" to describe how diplomats need to account for uncertainty and the fact that "the process of observation itself is a cause of change". In a 2011 paper, James Der Derian proposed quantum diplomacy as a way to understand the entanglements brought about by a globalized media and a multiplicity of actors operating at different levels. These ideas have been a theme of Der Derian's annual Q-Symposium since 2014. In a 2018 address to the Trilateral Commission, Danah Zohar argued that a mechanistic worldview has led to problems from inequality to climate change, and that we need to shift to a quantum perspective which incorporates effects such as uncertainty and entanglement. While Wendt's 2015 book Quantum Mind and Social Science does not focus on political science, it does discuss the applicability of quantum theory to social systems in general,


id: representative-sequences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_sequences-0.md
category: reference
title: Representative sequences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_sequences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:34.918742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: representative-sequences-20260505-0
summary:
In social sciences and other domains, representative sequences are whole sequences that best characterize or summarize a set of sequences. In bioinformatics, representative sequences also designate substrings of a sequence that characterize the sequence. == Social sciences == In Sequence analysis in social sciences, representative sequences are used to summarize sets of sequences describing for example the family life course or professional career of several thousands individuals. The identification of representative sequences proceeds from the pairwise dissimilarities between sequences. One typical solution is the medoid sequence, i.e., the observed sequence that minimizes the sum of its distances to all other sequences in the set. An other solution is the densest observed sequence, i.e., the sequence with the greatest number of other sequences in its neighborhood. When the diversity of the sequences is large, a single representative is often insufficient to efficiently characterize the set. In such cases, an as small as possible set of representative sequences covering (i.e., which includes in at least one neighborhood of a representative) a given percentage of all sequences is searched. A solution also considered is to select the medoids of relative frequency groups. More specifically, the method consists in sorting the sequences (for example,


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:37.328670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology studies (STS) or science, technology, and society is an interdisciplinary field that examines the creation, development, and consequences of science and technology in their historical, cultural, and social contexts. == History == Like most interdisciplinary fields of study, STS emerged from the confluence of disciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s—in viewing science and technology as socially embedded enterprises. The key disciplinary components of STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the 1980s, although Ludwik Fleck's (1935) monograph Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many of STS's key themes. In the 1970s Elting E. Morison founded the STS program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which served as a model. By 2011, 111 STS research centers and academic programs were counted worldwide. === Important key points === History of technology, that examines technology in its social and historical context. Starting in the 1960s, some historians questioned technological determinism, a doctrine that can induce public passivity to technologic and scientific "natural" development. At the same time, some historians began to develop similarly contextual approaches to the


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:37.328670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social constructions are human-created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship. The following also alludes to the notion that not everything is set, a circumstance or result could potentially be one way or the other. According to the article "What is Social Construction?" by Ian Hacking, "Social construction work is critical of the status quo. Social constructionists about X tend to hold that: X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of things; it is not inevitable Very often they go further, and urge that: X is quite as bad as it is. We would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically transformed." In the past, there have been viewpoints that were widely regarded as fact until being called to question due to the introduction of new knowledge. Such viewpoints include the past concept of a correlation between intelligence and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:37.328670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social technical systems are an interplay between technologies and humans, this is clearly expressed in the sociotechnical systems theory. To expound on this interplay, humans fulfill and define tasks, then humans in companies use IT and IT supports people, and finally, IT processes tasks and new IT generates new tasks. This IT redefines work practices. This is what we call the sociotechnical systems. In socio-technical systems, there are two principles to internalize, that is joint optimization and complementarity. Joint optimization puts an emphasis on developing both systems in parallel and it is only in the interaction of both systems that the success of an organization arises. The principle of complementarity means that both systems have to be optimized. If you focus on one system and have bias over the other it will likely lead to the failure of the organization or jeopardize the success of a system. Although the above socio-technical system theory is focused on an organization, it is undoubtedly imperative to correlate this theory and its principles to society today and in science and technology studies. Understanding technology in the context of national development: critical reflections discusses how governance frameworks, digital infrastructure, and institutional capacity influence the societal


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:37.328670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Examples ==== Ford Pinto – Ford Motor Company sold and produced the Pinto during the 1970s. A flaw in the automobile design of the rear gas tank caused a fiery explosion upon impact. The exploding fuel tank killed and injured hundreds of people. Internal documents of test results proved Ford CEO Lee Iacocca and engineers were aware of the flaw. The company decided to ignore improving its technology because of profit-driven motives, strict internal control, and competition from foreign competitors such as Volkswagen. Ford Motor Company conducted a cost-benefit analysis to determine if altering the Ford Pinto model was feasible. An analysis conducted by Ford employees argued against a new design because of increased cost. Employees were also under tight control by the CEO who rushed the Pinto through production lines to increase profits. Ford finally changed after public scrutiny. Safety organizations later influenced this technology by requiring stricter safety standards for motor vehicles. DDT/toxins – DDT was a common and highly effective insecticide used during the 1940s until its ban in the early 1970s. It was utilized during World War 2 to combat insect-borne human diseases that plagued military members and civilian populations. People and companies soon realized


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:37.328670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Importance ==== Recently, there has been a movement towards greater transparency in the fields of policy and technology. Jasanoff comes to the conclusion that there is no longer a question of if there needs to be increased public participation in making decisions about science and technology, but now there need to be ways to make a more meaningful conversation between the public and those developing the technology. ==== In practice ==== Bruce Ackerman and James S. Fishkin offered an example of a reform in their paper "Deliberation Day." The deliberation is to enhance public understanding of popular, complex and controversial issues through devices such as Fishkin's deliberative polling, though implementation of these reforms is unlikely in a large government such as that of the United States. However, things similar to this have been implemented in small, local governments like New England towns and villages. New England town hall meetings are a good example of deliberative democracy in a realistic setting. An ideal deliberative democracy balances the voice and influence of all participants. While the main aim is to reach consensus, deliberative democracy should encourage the voices of those with opposing viewpoints, concerns due to uncertainties, and questions about assumptions


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:37.328670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Langdon Winner states that groups and social interests likely to be affected by a particular kind of technological change ought to be represented at an early stage in defining exactly what that technology will be. It is the idea that relevant parties have a say in technological developments and are not left in the dark. Spoken about by Massimiano Bucchi This ideal does not require the public to become experts on the topics of science and engineering, it only asks that the opinions and ideas be heard before making drastic decisions, as talked about by Steven L. Goldman. === Legacy thinking === Legacy thinking is defined as an inherited method of thinking imposed from an external source without objection by the individual because it is already widely accepted by society. Legacy thinking can impair the ability to drive technology for the betterment of society by blinding people to innovations that do not fit into their accepted model of how society works. By accepting ideas without questioning them, people often see all solutions that contradict these accepted ideas as impossible or impractical. Legacy thinking tends to advantage the wealthy, who have the means to project their ideas on the public. It


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:37.328670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Academic programs == STS is taught in several countries. According to the STS wiki, STS programs can be found in twenty countries, including 45 programs in the United States, three programs in India, and eleven programs in the UK. STS programs can be found in Canada, Germany, Israel, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Some examples of institutions offering STS programs are Stanford University, University College London, Harvard University, the University of Oxford, Mines ParisTech, Bar-Ilan University, and York University. In Europe the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) offers an MA degree in STS through study programs and student exchanges with over a dozen specializations. == Professional associations == The field has professional associations in regions and countries around the world. === In Europe === In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST) was founded in 1981 to "improve scholarly communication and exchange in the field", "increase the visibility of the subject to policy-makers and to the general public", and "stimulate and support teaching on the subject at all levels". Similarly, the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) researches and studies science and technology in society, in both historical and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:37.328670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Bauchspies, Wenda; Croissant, Jennifer; Restivo, Sal (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23210-0. Bijker, Wiebe; Hughes, Thomas; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1987). The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02262-0. Felt, Ulrike; Fouché, Rayvon; Miller, Clark A.; Smith-Doerr, Laruel, eds. (2017). The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03568-2. Fuller, Steve (1993). Philosophy, Rhetoric, and the End of Knowledge: The Coming of Science and Technology Studies. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (2nd edition, with James H. Collier, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004) Hess, David J. (1997). Science Studies: An Advanced Introduction. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3564-0. Jasanoff, Sheila; Markle, Gerald; Petersen, James; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1994). Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 978-0-8039-4021-5. Kuhn, Thomas (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Restivo, Sal, ed. (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514193-1. Guglielmo Rinzivillo (2020), Raccontare la


id: seriousness-check-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriousness_check-0.md
category: reference
title: Seriousness check
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriousness_check
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:38.458802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seriousness-check-20260505-0
summary:
The seriousness check is a technique that can be used in online research (also called Internet-based research, Web-based research, Web-based experiments) to improve data quality. Nowadays, many scientific studies with human participants are conducted online and are accessible to a large diversity of participants. Nonetheless, many people just want to look at the different pages of the questionnaire, instead of giving carefully chosen answers to the questions. The seriousness check addresses this problem: In this approach the respondents are asked about the seriousness of their participation or for a probability estimate that they will complete the entire study or experiment. Thus, by using the seriousness check irrelevant data entries can be easily identified and be excluded from the data analysis. == Method == Seriousness checks can be implemented both before and after participation in the study. However, it has been shown that the seriousness check is a good predictor of dropout rates when implemented in the first page of the experiment. There are Web-based tools, e.g. WEXTOR, that implement the seriousness check by default. == Impact == Several studies have shown that performing a seriousness check at the start of a study best predicts motivation and dropout probability. It was


id: social-neuroscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neuroscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Social neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:39.740309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
Social neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding the relationship between social experiences and biological systems. Humans are fundamentally a social species, and studies indicate that various social influences, including life events, poverty, unemployment and loneliness can influence health related biomarkers. Still a young field, social neuroscience is closely related to personality neuroscience, affective neuroscience and cognitive neuroscience, focusing on how the brain mediates social interactions. The biological underpinnings of social cognition are investigated in social cognitive neuroscience. The term "social neuroscience" can be traced to a publication entitled "Social Neuroscience Bulletin" which was published quarterly between 1988 and 1994. The term was subsequently popularized in an article by John Cacioppo and Gary Berntson, published in the American Psychologist in 1992. Cacioppo and Berntson are considered as the legitimate fathers of social neuroscience. == Overview == Traditional neuroscience has for many years considered the nervous system as an isolated entity and largely ignored influences of the social environments in which humans and many animal species live. In fact, we now recognize the considerable impact of social structures on the operations of the brain and body. These social factors operate on the individual through a continuous interplay of neural, neuroendocrine,


id: social-neuroscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neuroscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Social neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:39.740309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Methods == A number of methods are used in social neuroscience to investigate the confluence of neural and social processes. These methods draw from behavioral techniques developed in social psychology, cognitive psychology, and neuropsychology, and are associated with a variety of neurobiological techniques including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET), facial electromyography (EMG), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), electroencephalography (EEG), event-related potentials (ERPs), electrocardiograms, electromyograms, endocrinology, immunology, galvanic skin response (GSR), single-cell recording, and studies of focal brain lesion patients. In recent years, these methods have been complemented by virtual reality techniques (VR) and hormonal measures. Animal models are also important to investigate the putative role of specific brain structures, circuits, or processes (e.g., the reward system and drug addiction). In addition, quantitative meta-analyses are important to move beyond idiosyncrasies of individual studies, and neurodevelopmental investigations can contribute to our understanding of brain-behavior associations. The two most popular forms of methods used in social neuroscience are fMRI and EEG. fMRI are very cost efficient and high in spatial resolution. However, they are low in temporal resolution and therefore, are best to discover pathways in the brain that are used during social experiments. fMRI have low


id: social-neuroscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neuroscience-2.md
category: reference
title: Social neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:39.740309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Society for Social Neuroscience == A dinner to discuss the challenges and opportunities in the interdisciplinary field of social neuroscience at the Society for Neuroscience meeting (Chicago, November 2009) resulted in a series of meetings led by John Cacioppo and Jean Decety with social neuroscientists, psychologists, neuroscientists, psychiatrists, sociologists and economists in Argentina, Australia, Chile, China, Colombia, Hong Kong, Israel, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Social neuroscience was defined broadly as the interdisciplinary study of the neural, hormonal, cellular, and genetic mechanisms underlying the emergent structures that define social species. Thus, among the participants in these meetings were scientists who used a wide variety of methods in studies of animals as well as humans, and patients as well as normal participants. The consensus also emerged that a Society for Social Neuroscience should be established to give scientists from diverse disciplines and perspectives the opportunity to meet, communicate with, and benefit from the work of each other. The international, interdisciplinary Society for Social Neuroscience (http://S4SN.org) was launched at the conclusion of these consultations in Auckland, New Zealand on 20 January 2010, and the inaugural meeting for the Society was


id: social-relation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_relation-0.md
category: reference
title: Social relation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_relation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:41.126380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-relation-20260505-0
summary:
A social relation is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more conspecifics within and/or between groups. The group can be a language or kinship group, a social institution or organization, an economic class, a nation, or gender. Social relations are derived from human behavioral ecology, and, as an aggregate, form a coherent social structure whose constituent parts are best understood relative to each other and to the social ecosystem as a whole. == History == Early inquiries into the nature of social relations featured in the work of sociologists such as Max Weber in his theory of social action, where social relationships composed of both positive (affiliative) and negative (agonistic) interactions represented opposing effects. Categorizing social interactions enables observational and other social research, such as Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (lit. 'community and society'), collective consciousness, etc. Ancient works which include manuals of good practice in social relations include the text of Pseudo-Phocylides, 175–227, Josephus' polemical work Against Apion, 198–210, and the deutero-canonical Jewish Book of Sirach or Ecclesiasticus, 7:18–36. More recent research on social behaviour has demonstrated that newborn infants tend to instinctually gravitate towards prosocial behaviour.


id: social-services-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_services-0.md
category: reference
title: Social services
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_services
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:42.227529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-services-20260505-0
summary:
Social services are a range of public services intended to provide support and assistance towards particular groups, which commonly include the disadvantaged. They may be provided by individuals, private and independent organizations, or administered by a government agency. Social services are connected with the concept of welfare and the welfare state, as countries with large welfare programs often provide a wide range of social services. Social services are employed to address the wide range of needs of a society. Prior to industrialisation, the provision of social services was largely confined to private organisations and charities, with the extent of its coverage also limited. Social services are now generally regarded globally as a 'necessary function' of society and a mechanism through which governments may address societal issues. The provision of social services by governments is linked to the belief of universal human rights, democratic principles, as well as religious and cultural values. The availability and coverage of social services varies significantly within societies. The main groups which social services is catered toward are: families, children, youths, elders, women, the sick, and the disabled. Social services consists of facilities and services such as: public education, welfare, infrastructure, mail, libraries, social work, food


id: social-services-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_services-1.md
category: reference
title: Social services
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_services
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:42.227529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-services-20260505-0
summary:
==== South America (1910–1960) ==== According to Carmelo Meso-Lago, social services and welfare systems within South America developed in three separate stages, with three groups of countries developing at different rates. The first group, consisting of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Uruguay, developed social insurance schemes in the late 1910s and the 1920s. The notable schemes, which had been implemented by 1950, consisted of work injury insurance, pensions, and sickness and maternity insurance. The second group, consisting of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela, implemented these social services in the 1940s. The extent to which these programs and laws were implemented were less extensive than the first group. In the final group, consisting of the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras and Nicaragua, social services programmes were implemented in the 1950s and 1960s, with the least coverage out of each group. With the exception of Nicaragua, social service programs are not available for unemployment insurance or family allowances. Average expenditure on social services programs in as a percentage of GDP in these states is 5.3%, which is significantly lower than that of Europe and North America. ==== Asia (1950–2000) ==== Within Asia, the significant development


id: social-services-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_services-2.md
category: reference
title: Social services
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_services
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:42.227529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-services-20260505-0
summary:
Within the area of child welfare, social services aim to provide help to children and their families, while providing mechanisms to ensure they are able to live safe, stable lives with a permanent home. In the United States, 3 million children are maltreated each year, with the overall economic costs of child maltreatment totalling up to US$80 billion annually. Social service programs cost the US$29 billion USD on child maltreatment prevention and child welfare services. According to researchers, social service programs are effective in reducing maltreatment and reducing overall economic costs to society, however the effectiveness of these programs are significantly reduced when they are not correctly implemented, or when these programs are not implemented together. The issues in which social services attempt at preventing for children include substance abuse, underemployment and unemployment, homelessness and criminal convictions. Social service programs within this area include family preservation, kinship care, foster and residential care. === Women === Empirical evidence suggests that social service programs have had a significant impact upon the employment of single mothers. Following 1996 welfare reform in the US, employment rates among single mothers have increased considerably from 60% in 1994 to 72% in 1999. Social services, particularly education,


id: social-simulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_simulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Social simulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_simulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:43.417449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-simulation-20260505-0
summary:
Social simulation is a research field that applies computational methods to study issues in the social sciences. The issues explored include problems in computational law, psychology, organizational behavior, sociology, political science, economics, anthropology, geography, engineering, archaeology and linguistics (Takahashi, Sallach & Rouchier 2007). Social simulation aims to cross the gap between the descriptive approach used in the social sciences and the formal approach used in the natural sciences, by moving the focus on the processes/mechanisms/behaviors that build the social reality. In social simulation, computers support human reasoning activities by executing these mechanisms. This field explores the simulation of societies as complex non-linear systems, which are difficult to study with classical mathematical equation-based models. Robert Axelrod regards social simulation as a third way of doing science, differing from both the deductive and inductive approach; generating data that can be analysed inductively, but coming from a rigorously specified set of rules rather than from direct measurement of the real world. Thus, simulating a phenomenon is akin to generating it—constructing artificial societies. These ambitious aims have encountered several criticisms. The social simulation approach to the social sciences is promoted and coordinated by four regional associations, the European Social Simulation Association (ESSA) for Europe,


id: social-simulation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_simulation-1.md
category: reference
title: Social simulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_simulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:43.417449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-simulation-20260505-0
summary:
=== System level simulation === System Level Simulation (SLS) is the oldest level of social simulation. System level simulation looks at the situation as a whole. This theoretical outlook on social situations uses a wide range of information to determine what should happen to society and its members if certain variables are present. Therefore, with specific variables presented, society and its members should have a certain response to the new situation. Navigating through this theoretical simulation will allow researchers to develop educated ideas of what will happen under some specific variables. For example, if NASA were to conduct a system level simulation it would benefit the organization by providing a cost-effective research method to navigate through the simulation. This allows the researcher to steer through the virtual possibilities of the given simulation and develop safety procedures, and to produce proven facts about how a certain situation will play out. (National Research 2006) === System level modeling === System level modeling (SLM) aims to specifically predict (unlike system level simulation's generalization in prediction) and convey any number of actions, behaviors, or other theoretical possibilities of nearly any person, object, construct et cetera within a system using a large set of mathematical


id: social-simulation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_simulation-2.md
category: reference
title: Social simulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_simulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:43.417449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-simulation-20260505-0
summary:
"Generative e-Social Science for Socio-Spatial Simulation" or (GENESIS) is a research node of the UK National Centre for e-Social Science funded by the UK research council ESRC. "National e-Infrastructure for Social Simulation" or (NeISS) is a UK-based project funded by JISC. "Network Models Governance and R&D collaboration networks" or (N.E.M.O) is a research centre whose main focus is to identify ways to create and to assess desirable network structures for typical functions; (e.g. knowledge, creation, transfer, and distribution.) This research will ultimately aid policy-makers at all political levels in improving the effectiveness and efficiency of network-based policy instruments at promoting the knowledge economy in Europe. "Agent-based Simulations of Market and Consumer Behavior" is another research group that is funded by the Unilever Corporate Research. The current research that is being conducted is investigating the usefulness of agent-based simulations for modeling consumer behavior and to show the potential value and insights it can add to long-established marketing methods. "New and Emergent World Models Through Individual, Evolutionary and Social Learning" or (New Ties) is a three-year project that will ultimately create a virtual society developed by agent-based simulation. The project will develop a simulated society capable of exploring the environment and developing


id: social-simulation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_simulation-3.md
category: reference
title: Social simulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_simulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:43.417449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-simulation-20260505-0
summary:
Simulations, being man-made from mathematical interfaces, predict human behavior in a far too simple manner in regard to the complexities of humanity and our actions. Simulations cannot enlighten researchers as to how people interact or behave in ways not programmed into their models. For this reason, the scope of simulations are limited in that the researchers must already know what they are going to find (to a degree, for they cannot find anything they themselves did not place in the model) at least vaguely, possibly skewing the results. Due to the complexities of what is being measured, simulations must be analyzed in unbiased ways; however, with the model running on a pre-made set of instructions coded into it by a modeler, biases exist almost universally. It is highly difficult and often impractical to attempt to link the findings from the abstract world the simulation creates and our complex society and all of its variation. Researchers working in social simulation might respond that the competing theories from the social sciences are far simpler than those achieved through simulation and therefore suffer the aforementioned drawbacks much more strongly. Theories in some social science tend to be linear models that are not dynamic,


id: social-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Social studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:44.656804+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-studies-20260505-0
summary:
In many countries' curricula, social studies is the combined study of humanities, the arts, and social sciences, mainly including history, economics, and civics. The term was coined by American educators around the turn of the twentieth century as a catch-all for these subjects, as well as others which did not fit into the models of lower education in the United States such as philosophy and psychology. One of the purposes of social studies, particularly at the level of higher education, is to integrate several disciplines, with their unique methodologies and special focuses of concentration, into a coherent field of subject areas that communicate with each other by sharing different academic "tools" and perspectives for deeper analysis of social problems and issues. Social studies aims to train students for informed, responsible participation in a diverse democratic society. It provides the necessary background knowledge in order to develop values and reasoned opinions, and the objective of the field is civic competence. A related term is humanities, arts, and social sciences, abbreviated HASS. == Branches of social studies == Social studies is not a subject unto itself; instead, it functions as a field of study that incorporates many different subjects. It primarily includes


id: social-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Social studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:44.656804+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== United States == The subject was introduced to promote social welfare and its development in countries like the United States and others. An early concept of social studies is found in John Dewey's philosophy of elementary and secondary education. Dewey valued the subject field of geography for uniting the study of human occupations with the study of the earth. He valued inquiry as a process of learning, as opposed to the absorption and recitation of facts, and he advocated for greater inquiry in elementary and secondary education, to mirror the kind of learning that takes place in higher education. His ideas are manifested to a large degree in the practice of inquiry-based learning and student-directed investigations implemented in contemporary social studies classrooms. Dewey valued the study of history for its social processes and application to contemporary social problems, rather than a mere narrative of human events. In this view, the study of history is made relevant to the modern student and is aimed at the improvement of society. In the United States through the 1900s, social studies revolved around the study of geography, government, and history. In 1912, the Bureau of Education (not to be confused with its successor,


id: social-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Social studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:44.656804+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Individuals, groups, and institutions ==== Learners will understand how groups and institutions influence people's everyday lives. They will be able to understand how groups and institutions are formed, maintained, and changed. ==== Power, authority, and governance ==== Learners will understand the forms of power, authority, and governance from historical to contemporary times. They will become familiar with the purpose of power, and with the limits that power has on society. ==== Production, distribution, and consumption ==== Learners will understand the organization of goods and services, ultimately preparing the learner for the study of greater economic issues. The study of economic issues, and with it, financial literacy, is intended to increase students' knowledge and skills when it comes to participating in the economy as workers, producers, and consumers. ==== Science, technology, and society ==== Learners will understand the relationship between science, technology, and society, understanding the advancement through the years and the impacts they have had. ==== Global connections ==== Learners will understand the interactive environment of global interdependence and will understand the global connections that shape the everyday world. ==== Civic ideals and practices ==== Learners will understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens and learn to grow in


id: social-work-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-0.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
Social work is an academic discipline and practice-based profession concerned with meeting the basic needs of individuals, families, groups, communities, and society as a whole to enhance their individual and collective well-being. Social work practice draws from liberal arts, social science, and interdisciplinary areas such as psychology, sociology, health, political science, community development, law, and economics to engage with systems and policies, conduct assessments, develop interventions, and enhance social functioning and responsibility. The ultimate goals of social work include the improvement of people's lives, alleviation of biopsychosocial concerns, empowerment of individuals and communities, and the achievement of social reform. Social work practice is often divided into three levels. Micro-work involves working directly with individuals and families, such as providing individual counseling/therapy or assisting a family in accessing services. Mezzo-work involves working with groups and communities, such as conducting group therapy or providing services for community agencies. Macro-work involves fostering change on a larger scale through advocacy, social policy, research development, non-profit and public service administration, or working with government agencies. Starting in the 1960s, a few universities began social work management programmes, to prepare students for the management of social and human service organizations, in addition to classical social work


id: social-work-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-1.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === During the 1840s, Dorothea Lynde Dix, a retired Boston teacher who is considered the founder of the Mental Health Movement, began a crusade that would change the way people with mental disorders were viewed and treated. Dix was not a social worker; the profession was not established until after she died in 1887. However, her life and work were embraced by early psychiatric social workers (mental health social worker/clinical social worker), and she is considered one of the pioneers of psychiatric social work along with Elizabeth Horton, who in 1907 was the first social worker to work in a psychiatric setting as an aftercare agent in the New York hospital systems to provide post-discharge supportive services. The early twentieth century marked a period of progressive change in attitudes towards mental illness. The increased demand for psychiatric services following the First World War led to significant developments. In 1918, Smith College School for Social Work was established, and under the guidance of Mary C. Jarrett at Boston Psychopathic Hospital, students from Smith College were trained in psychiatric social work. She first gave social workers the "Psychiatric Social Worker" designation. A book titled "The Kingdom of Evils," released


id: social-work-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-2.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === A role for psychiatric social workers was established early in Canada's history of service delivery in the field of population health. Native North Americans understood mental trouble as an indication of an individual who had lost their equilibrium with the sense of place and belonging in general, and with the rest of the group in particular. In native healing beliefs, health and mental health were inseparable, so similar combinations of natural and spiritual remedies were often employed to relieve both mental and physical illness. These communities and families greatly valued holistic approaches for preventive health care. Indigenous peoples in Canada have faced cultural oppression and social marginalization through the actions of European colonizers and their institutions since the earliest periods of contact. Culture contact brought with it many forms of depredation. Economic, political, and religious institutions of the European settlers all contributed to the displacement and oppression of indigenous people. The first officially recorded treatment practices were in 1714, when Quebec opened wards for the mentally ill. In the 1830s social services were active through charity organizations and church parishes (Social Gospel Movement). Asylums for the insane were opened in 1835 in Saint John and New Brunswick.


id: social-work-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-3.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
=== India === The earliest citing of mental disorders in India are from Vedic Era (2000 BC – AD 600). Charaka Samhita, an ayurvedic textbook believed to be from 400 to 200 BC describes various factors of mental stability. It also has instructions regarding how to set up a care delivery system. In the same era, Siddha was a medical system in south India. The great sage Agastya was one of the 18 siddhas contributing to a system of medicine. This system has included the Agastiyar Kirigai Nool, a compendium of psychiatric disorders and their recommended treatments. In Atharva Veda too there are descriptions and resolutions about mental health afflictions. In the Mughal period Unani system of medicine was introduced by an Indian physician Unhammad in 1222. The existing form of psychotherapy was known then as ilaj-i-nafsani in Unani medicine. The 18th century was a very unstable period in Indian history, which contributed to psychological and social chaos in the Indian subcontinent. In 1745, lunatic asylums were developed in Bombay (Mumbai) followed by Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1784, and Madras (Chennai) in 1794. The need to establish hospitals became more acute, first to treat and manage Englishmen and Indian 'sepoys' (military


id: social-work-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-4.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
But general bodies/councils accepts automatically a university-qualified social worker as a professional licensed to practice or as a qualified clinician. Lack of a centralized council in tie-up with Schools of Social Work also makes a decline in promotion for the scope of social workers as mental health professionals. Though in this midst the service of social workers has given a facelift to the mental health sector in the country with other allied professionals.


id: social-work-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-5.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
=== Iran === State welfare organization was previously part of health and social security ministry. == Theoretical models and practices == Social work is an interdisciplinary profession, meaning it draws from a number of areas, such as (but not limited to) psychology, sociology, politics, criminology, economics, ecology, education, health, law, philosophy, anthropology, and counseling, including psychotherapy. Field work is a distinctive attribution to social work pedagogy. This equips the trainee in understanding the theories and models within the field of work. Professional practitioners from multicultural aspects have their roots in this social work immersion engagements from the early 19th century in the western countries. Social work theories help explain the root causes of problems and identify the most effective intervention methods. Key perspectives include: === Systems theory === Systems theory views people as products of complex systems (family, community, social environment) rather than as isolated individuals. In social work, the use of systems theory enables professionals to view the situation and environmental factors of their clients holistically, thereby better understanding the reasons behind their challenges, difficulties, and choices. === Complexity theory === Complexity theory focuses on unpredictable, emergent patterns in these vast, dynamic systems (like societal issues), offering tools to


id: social-work-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-6.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
Service — help people in need and provide pro bono services Social Justice — engage in social change activities for and with people to promote social justice and challenge social injustice Dignity and worth of the person — treat people with care and respect, be sensitive to cultural and ethnic diversity, and promote individuals socially responsible self determination Importance of human relationships — maintain positive client relationships because they play a vital role in driving change, and engage with people as partners who empower them through the helping process Integrity — engage clients with honesty and responsibility to build trust, and you are not only responsible for your own professional ethics and integrity but also of the service organization Competence — practice and build expertise as a social worker, and continually seek to enhance and contribute professional knowledge and skills The International Federation of Social Workers also outlines essential principles for guiding social workers towards high professional standards. These include recognizing the inherent dignity of all people, upholding human rights, striving for social justice, supporting self-determination, encouraging participation, respecting privacy and confidentiality, treating individuals holistically, using technology and social media responsibly, and maintaining professional integrity. A historic and defining feature


id: social-work-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-7.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
== Mental health of social workers == Several studies have reported that social workers have an increased risk of common mental disorders, long-term sickness absence due to mental illnesses and antidepressant use. A study in Sweden has found that social workers have an increased risk of receiving a diagnosis of depression or anxiety and stress-related disorders in comparison with other workers. The risk for social workers is high even when comparing to other similar human-service professions, and social workers in psychiatric care or in assistance analysis are the most vulnerable. There are multiple explanations for this increased risk. Individual components include secondary traumatic stress, compassion fatigue and selection of vulnerable employees into the profession. On an organizational level, high job strain, organizational culture and work overload are important factors. There is a difference in gender. When comparing to their same-gender counterparts in other professions, men in social work have a higher risk than women. Male social workers, when compared to men in other professions, have a 70% increased risk of being diagnosed with depression or anxiety disorders. Female social workers have an increased risk of 20% when comparing to women in other professions. This might be due the baseline prevalence


id: social-work-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-8.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
=== North America === In the United States, social work undergraduate and master's programs are accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. A CSWE-accredited degree is required for one to become a state-licensed social worker. The CSWE even accredits online master's in social work programs in traditional and advanced standing options. In 1898, the New York Charity Organization Society, which was the Columbia University School of Social Work's earliest entity, began offering formal "social philanthropy" courses, marking both the beginning date for social work education in the United States, as well as the launching of professional social work. However, a CSWE-accredited program doesn't necessarily have to meet ASWB licensing knowledge requirements, and many of them do not meet them. The Association of Social Work Boards (ASWB) is a regulatory organization that provides licensing examination services to social work regulatory boards in the United States and Canada. Due to the limited scope of the organization's objectives, it is not a social work organization that is accountable to the broader social work community or to the ones certified by ASWB exams. ASWB generates an annual profit of $6,000,000 from license examination administration and $800,000 from publishing study materials. As such, it


id: social-work-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-9.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
== Professional associations == Social workers have several professional associations that provide ethical guidance and other forms of support for their members and social work in general. These associations may be international, continental, semi-continental, national, or regional. The main international associations are the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW). The largest professional social work association in the United States is the National Association of Social Workers, they have instituted a code for professional conduct and a set of principles rooted in six core values: service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, integrity, and competence. There also exist organizations that represent clinical social workers such as the American Association of Psychoanalysis in Clinical Social Work. AAPCSW is a national organization representing social workers who practice psychoanalytic social work and psychoanalysis. There are also several states with Clinical Social Work Societies which represent all social workers who conduct psychotherapy from a variety of theoretical frameworks with families, groups, and individuals. The Association for Community Organization and Social Administration (ACOSA) is a professional organization for social workers who practice within the community organizing, policy, and political spheres.


id: social-work-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work-10.md
category: reference
title: Social work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:45.966175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-20260505-0
summary:
Bohjalian, Chris (2007). The double bind: a novel (1st ed.). New York: Shaye Areheart Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-4746-8. Cooper, Philip (2013). Social work man. Leicester: Matador. ISBN 978-1-78088-508-7. Barrington, Freya (2015). Known to Social Services (1st ed.). USA: FARAXA Publishing. ISBN 978-99957-828-7-0. Desai, Kishwar (2010). Witness the night. London: Beautiful Books. ISBN 978-1-905636-85-3. Irish, Lola (1993). Streets of dust: a novel based on the life of Caroline Chisholm. Kirribilli, N.S.W: Eldorado. ISBN 1-86412-001-0. Greenlee, Sam (1990) [1969]. The spook who sat by the door: a novel. African American life. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-2246-8. Konrád, György (1987). The case worker. Writers from the other Europe. New York, N.Y., U.S.A: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-009946-8. Henderson, Smith (2014). Fourth of July Creek: A Novel. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-228644-4. Johnson, Greg (2011). A very famous social worker. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse Inc. ISBN 978-1-4502-8548-3. Johnson, Kristin (2012). Unprotected: a novel. St. Butt, MN: North Star Press. ISBN 978-0-87839-589-7. Kalpakian, Laura (1992). Graced land (1st ed.). New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 0-8021-1474-1. Lewis, Sinclair (1933). Ann Vickers (First ed.). Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Company. OCLC 288770. Mengestu, Dinaw (2014). All our names (First ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-385-34998-7. Sapphire (1996).


id: social-work-management-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work_management-0.md
category: reference
title: Social work management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:51.749502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-work-management-20260505-0
summary:
Social work management is the management of organisations or enterprises in the social economy and non-profit sector, e.g., public service providers, charities, youth welfare offices, associations, etc. Social work management has been traditionally pursued by social workers, social pedagogues, pedagogues, psychologists without additional management skills and knowledge or legal practitioners and business economists – often without reference to the social economy. Furthermore, Social work management is a field of education & practice established since 1980s in Europe & North America that focuses on person-centred leadership, motivation & strategic issues. It manages organizations in social economy & non-profit sector. Most scholars and practitioners agree that social work managers need to have a high degree of leadership skills to make considered managerial decisions, to empower social workers, to develop staff within and collaborate with partners outside the social and human service organisation. Social work management as a field of social work education and practice was established in many universities in Europe and North America since the 1980s. Established qualifications in higher education first included diplomas in social economy. It originally focused on person-centred leadership, motivation and strategic issues. It combines management with social pedagogical, psychological, and sociological knowledge and skills. == Definition


id: spatial-turn-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_turn-0.md
category: reference
title: Spatial turn
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_turn
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:53.010867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spatial-turn-20260505-0
summary:
Spatial turn is an intellectual movement that places emphasis on place and space in social science and the humanities. It is closely linked with quantitative studies of history, literature, cartography, geography, and other studies of society. The movement has been influential in providing and analyzing mass amounts of spatial data for study of cultures, regions, and specific locations. An important aspect is the realisation that the spatial environment not only provides a physical background for historical and social developments, but also helps to shape them. According to this understanding, spaces are also constructed through social interactions and also shape these in turn. == History == Academics such as German philosopher Ernst Cassirer and American historian Lewis Mumford helped to define a sense of "community" and "commons" in their studies, forming the first part of a "spatial turn." The turn developed more comprehensively in the later 20th century in French academic theories, such as those of Michel de Certeau, Michel Foucault, and Henri Lefebvre. Technologies have also played an important role in "turns." The introduction of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has also been instrumental in quantifying data in the humanities for study by its place. In the 21st century, the increasing


id: standard-social-science-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_social_science_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Standard social science model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_social_science_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:54.405461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standard-social-science-model-20260505-0
summary:
The term standard social science model (SSSM) was first introduced by John Tooby and Leda Cosmides in the 1992 edited volume The Adapted Mind. They used SSSM as a reference to social science philosophies related to the blank slate, relativism, social constructionism, and cultural determinism. They argue that those philosophies, capsulized within SSSM, formed the dominant theoretical paradigm in the development of the social sciences during the 20th century. According to their proposed SSSM paradigm, the mind is a general-purpose cognitive device shaped almost entirely by culture. After establishing SSSM, Tooby and Cosmides make a case for replacing SSSM with the integrated model (IM), also known as the integrated causal model (ICM), which melds cultural and biological theories for the development of the mind. Supporters of SSSM include those who feel the term was conceived as a point of argument in support of ICM specifically and evolutionary psychology (EP) in general. There are criticisms that the allegation of SSSM is based on a straw man or rhetorical technique. == Alleged proponents == Steven Pinker names several prominent social scientists as proponents of the standard social science model, including John B. Watson, Margaret Mead, Franz Boas, B. F. Skinner, Richard Lewontin,


id: transclass-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transclass-0.md
category: reference
title: Transclass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transclass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:55.533455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transclass-20260505-0
summary:
Transclass, class transitioner, class defector (French: transfuge de classe), or social defector (French: transfuge social) refers to an individual who has experienced a major change in social environment during their lifetime. The concept of transclass was coined by the French philosopher Chantal Jaquet. In the English translation of her work, Gregory Elliot employs the term class-passing (French: passage (de classe)) instead of defection (French: transfuge). Similarly, the German translation by Horst Brühmann established the term "class passer" (German: Klassenübergänger) in this context. == Definition == Becoming transclass follows a significant passing in social space, meaning for an individual to permeate the boundaries that differentiate social classes. This passing can occur following marriage, employment, studies, etc. Whether upward or downward, passing necessitates substantial social mobility. The existence of defectors is therefore partly linked to the possibility for individuals to radically change their social environment. The upward change of social class encounters not only sociological difficulties (see in particular the theses of Pierre Bourdieu), but also psychological difficulties, which were discovered by Vincent de Gaulejac through the concept of class neurosis (French: La Névrose de classe, book published in 1987; re-edited in 1991). The concept of transclass was put forward by the


id: visual-anthropology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_anthropology-0.md
category: reference
title: Visual anthropology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_anthropology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:56.752879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: visual-anthropology-20260505-0
summary:
Visual anthropology is a subfield of social anthropology that is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. More recently it has been used by historians of science and visual culture. Although sometimes wrongly conflated with ethnographic film, visual anthropology encompasses much more, including the anthropological study of all visual representations such as dance and other kinds of performance, museums and archiving, all visual arts, and the production and reception of mass media. Histories and analyses of representations from many cultures are part of visual anthropology: research topics include sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings and photographs. Also within the province of the subfield are studies of human vision, properties of media, the relationship of visual form and function, and applied, collaborative uses of visual representations. Multimodal anthropology describes the latest turn in the subfield, which considers how emerging technologies like immersive virtual reality, augmented reality, mobile apps, social networking, gaming along with film, photography and art is reshaping anthropological research, practice and teaching. == History == Even before the emergence of anthropology as an academic discipline in the 1880s, ethnologists used photography as a


id: visual-anthropology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_anthropology-1.md
category: reference
title: Visual anthropology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_anthropology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:56.752879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: visual-anthropology-20260505-0
summary:
== Timeline and breadth of prehistoric visual representation == While art historians are clearly interested in some of the same objects and processes, visual anthropology places these artifacts within a holistic cultural context. Archaeologists, in particular, use phases of visual development to try to understand the spread of humans and their cultures across contiguous landscapes as well as over larger areas. By 10,000 BP, a system of well-developed pictographs was in use by boating peoples and was likely instrumental in the development of navigation and writing, as well as a medium of storytelling and artistic representation. Early visual representations often show the female form, with clothing appearing on the female body around 28,000 BP, which archaeologists know now corresponds with the invention of weaving in Old Europe. This is an example of the holistic nature of visual anthropology: a figurine depicting a woman wearing diaphanous clothing is not merely an object of art, but a window into the customs of dress at the time, household organization (where they are found), transfer of materials (where the clay came from) and processes (when did firing clay become common), when did weaving begin, what kind of weaving is depicted and what other evidence


id: visual-ethnography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_ethnography-0.md
category: reference
title: Visual ethnography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_ethnography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:58.067437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: visual-ethnography-20260505-0
summary:
Visual ethnography is an approach to ethnography (the study of people and cultures) that uses visual methods such as photography, film and video. There are many methods available to conduct visual ethnography. According to Sarah Pink, visual ethnography is a research methodology that brings “theory and practice of visual approaches to learning and knowing about the world and communicating these to others”. As a methodology, visual ethnography can guide the design of research as well as the methods to choose for data collection. Visual ethnography suggests a negotiation of the participants’ view of reality and a constant questioning on the part of the researcher. == Historical development == Beginning in the early 1900s, researchers have recognized the importance of visual methods which has largely emerged from anthropology. That is when photography as well as video became ways of recording targeted populations during field work which are called “salvage ethnography” or “salvage anthropology.” Flaherty's Nanook of the North (1922), Margaret Mead's and Gregory Bateson's video and photos of the Balinese, and Evans-Prichard's photographs of the Nuer are examples of this “salvage ethnography (Pink, 2006, cited in van den Scott, 2018). Boas as explained by Pink was an early user of photography


id: vyavah-ram-l-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyavahāramālā-0.md
category: reference
title: Vyavahāramālā
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyavahāramālā
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:58:59.244476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vyavah-ram-l-20260505-0
summary:
Vyavahāramālā is a treatise in Sanskrit on jurisprudence and legal practices composed by an unknown scholar from Kerala sometime during the 16th-17th centuries CE. This was the standard reference for legal practices in the kingly courts of the erstwhile kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin till the adoption of modern legal practices under the supervision and guidance of John Munro (1778 – 1858) who had served as Resident and Diwan of the States of Travancore and Cochin between 1810 and 1819. However, Munro's reforms did not make Vyavahāramālā completely obsolete. Munro used it to develop an Anglo-Indian code of law for the Travancore kingdom called Caṭṭavariyōla and established a hierarchy of courts and the rules for presenting cases in those courts. Vyavahāramālā is a digest of rules on legal procedure extracted from the well-known ancient Smṛti called Parāśarasmṛiti. Based on the selection and organization of the verses collected in the Vyavahāramālā one could see that is a it is a collection of verses on law and legal procedure based on the Vyavahāranirṇaya of Varadaraja. It is a work consisting of 1234 verses and the main part is divided into 19 chapters called prakaraṇa-s. Before starting the prakaraṇa-s, the author has dealt


id: war-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: War studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:00.485666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: war-studies-20260505-0
summary:
War studies, sometimes called polemology, is the multi-disciplinary study of war. It pertains to the military, diplomatic, philosophical, social, political, psychological or economic dimensions of human conflict. The word polemology derives from Ancient Greek: πόλεμος, romanized: pólemos, lit. 'war, battle' + -logy. == History == In 1943, King's College London reestablished its military science department as the Department of War Studies. The department was discontinued in 1948, and the field of war studies was taught in the Department of Medieval and Modern History until the Department of War Studies was reinstated in 1962. == Disciplines == == See also == == References ==


id: youth-culture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_culture-0.md
category: reference
title: Youth culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:01.670257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youth-culture-20260505-0
summary:
Youth culture refers to the societal norms of children, adolescents, and young adults. Specifically, it comprises the processes and symbolic systems that are shared by the youth and are distinct from those of adults in the community. An emphasis on clothes, popular music, sports, vocabulary, and dating typically sets youth apart from other age groups. Within youth culture, there are many constantly changing youth subcultures, which may be divided based on race, ethnicity, economic status, public appearance, or a variety of other factors. == Existence == There is a debate surrounding the presence, existence, and origins of youth culture. Some researchers argue that youth culture is not a separate culture, as their values and morals are not distinct from those of their parents. Additionally, peer influence varies greatly among contexts, gender, age, and social status, making a single "youth culture" difficult to define. which differ from those of their parent's culture. Janssen et al. used the terror management theory (TMT) to argue for the existence of youth culture. They tested the following hypothesis: "If youth culture serves to help adolescents deal with problems of vulnerability and finiteness, then reminders of mortality should lead to increased allegiance to cultural practices and


id: youth-culture-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_culture-1.md
category: reference
title: Youth culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:01.670257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youth-culture-20260505-0
summary:
== Theories == The presence of youth culture is a relatively recent historical phenomenon. There are several dominant theories about the emergence of youth culture in the 20th century, which include hypotheses about the historical, economic, and psychological influences on the presence of youth culture. One historical theory credits the emergence of youth culture to the beginning of compulsory schooling. James Coleman argues that age segregation is the root of separate youth culture. Before mandatory education, many children and adolescents interacted primarily with adults. In contrast, modern children associate extensively with others their age. These interactions allow adolescents to develop shared experiences and meanings, which are the root of youth culture. Another theory posits that some cultures facilitate the development of youth culture, while others do not. The basis of this distinction is the presence of universalistic or particularistic norms. Particularistic norms are guidelines for behavior that vary from one individual to another. In contrast, universalistic norms apply to all members of society. Universalistic norms are more likely to be found in industrialized societies. Modernization in the last century has encouraged universalistic norms since interaction in modern societies makes it necessary for everyone to learn the same set of norms.


id: youth-culture-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_culture-2.md
category: reference
title: Youth culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:01.670257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youth-culture-20260505-0
summary:
For decades, adults have worried that youth subcultures were the root of moral degradation and changing values in younger generations. Researchers have characterized youth culture as embodying values that are "in conflict with those of the adult world". Common concerns about youth culture include a perceived lack of interest in education, involvement in risky behaviors like substance use and sexual activity, and engaging extensively in leisure activities. These perceptions have led many adults to believe that adolescents hold different values than older generations and to perceive youth culture as an attack on the morals of current society. These worries have prompted the creation of parenting websites such as The Youth Culture Report and the Center for Parent Youth Understanding, whose goal is to preserve the values of older generations in young people. There is no consensus among researchers about whether youth subcultures hold different beliefs than adults do. Some researchers have noted the simultaneous rise in age segregation and adolescent adjustment problems such as suicide, delinquency, and premarital pregnancy. However, most evidence suggests that these youth problems are not a reflection of different morals held by younger generations. Multiple studies have found that most adolescents hold views that are similar


id: youth-intervention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_intervention-0.md
category: reference
title: Youth intervention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_intervention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:02.909226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youth-intervention-20260505-0
summary:
Youth intervention is a practice within the field of youth services. This practice is designed to intervene when young people are at risk of or beginning to make poor decisions that can have lifelong negative impacts. Youth intervention is intended to support academic achievement and prevent juvenile delinquency. == Basis == Youth intervention providers work with young people to help them become engaged and contributing members of the community. Typically, youth intervention programs work with young people between 6 and 18 years of age, but may also work with young people between 18 and 24 years of age. Poor decision-making or engaging in negative behaviors that can lead to interaction with the juvenile justice system can often be a symptom of an underlying problem. Causation factors can include unaddressed mental and emotional health struggles, unhealthy family environments and relationships, as well as stress and adverse childhood experiences (ACES) related to poverty. With the wide variety of challenges that can lead to poor decision-making, youth intervention encompasses a broad array of program approaches. Youth intervention can include: Pre-court diversion Restorative justice mental and chemical health counseling Mentoring Out-of-school time programs Transitional housing for young people who are homeless Employability The theory


id: youth-services-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_services-0.md
category: reference
title: Youth services
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_services
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:08.392549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youth-services-20260505-0
summary:
Youth services is a field of practices within the social services sector in North America. Defined as "programs, activities, and services aimed at providing a range of opportunities for school-aged children, including mentoring, recreation, education, training, community service, or supervision in a safe environment," youth services are a comprehensive series of strategies, activities, programs and organizations spread across the United States and Canada today. In North America, youth services are generally viewed as more organized and systemized than youth work. The term "youth services" is used in international contexts as well. == Activities == Youth services are varied and disparate, often emerging from the needs of their local context or from the mandate of external funding sources. "Best practices in youth services include the provision of safety, appropriate supervision, supportive relationships, opportunities to belong, positive social norms, support for efficacy and skill building, and integration of community, school, and family efforts." Specific activities, projects, programs and organizations within the realm of youth services address a variety of issues. According to Fletcher (2024), they include: Prevention Intervention Out-of-school time education Personal identities Civics and democracy Culture and society Rights and freedoms Youth-specific issues Public health Personal health (including mental health) The


id: youth-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Youth studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:09.539425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youth-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Youth studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of the development, history, culture, psychology, and politics of youth. The field studies not only specific cultures of young people, but also their relationships, roles and responsibilities throughout the larger societies which they occupy. The field includes scholars of education, literature, history, politics, religion, sociology, and many other disciplines within the humanities and social sciences. Youth studies encourages the understanding of experiences that are predominantly manifested among young people, generalized phenomenon and social change. The majority of 15- to 24-year-olds in 2008 lived in developing countries. The definition of youth varies across cultural contexts. The social experience and organization of time and space are important themes in youth studies. Scholars examine how neoliberalism and globalization affect how young people experience life, including in comparison to previous generations. == Topics == Youth voice Youth development History of youth (category) Youth culture Psychology Youth politics Children's geographies Youth empowerment Youth rights Civic engagement Youth participation Criminalization Youth service Youth courts Youth work Adultism Adultcentrism Ephebiphobia == Scholarly and academic journals == International Journal of Child, Youth & Family Studies. Journal of Youth Studies Youth Studies Australia Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies


id: zemiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemiology-0.md
category: reference
title: Zemiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:10.811479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zemiology-20260505-0
summary:
Zemiology is the study of social harms. Zemiology gets its name from the Greek word ζημία zēmía, meaning "harm". It originated as a critique of criminology and the notion of crime. In contrast with "individual-based harms" such as theft, the notion of social harm or social injury incorporates harms caused by nation states and corporations. These ideas have received increased attention from critical academics such as neo-Marxists and feminists who have sought to create an independent field of study, separate from criminology. Zemiology studies the harms that affect individuals' lives that are not considered to be criminal or are rarely criminalised, such as mortgage misselling, poverty and unemployment. == Zemiological critique of criminology and crime == Hillyard and Tombs outline a number of criticisms of criminology and crime: "Crime has no ontological reality" – Crime is a construct and is based on social judgements. However, there are no central properties that pertain to the notion of crime; therefore, what is a crime will vary across time and space. "Criminology perpetuates the myth of crime" – Criminology is based upon the notion of crime, which fails to adequately address the social construction of the concept. Therefore, criminology's continued use of the


id: zemiology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemiology-1.md
category: reference
title: Zemiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:10.811479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zemiology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Relation of welfare benefits to prison population === Concern has been expressed that the prison is being used as a mechanism to deal with social problems as spending on welfare benefits and services has decreased. Downes and Hansen argue that a country's welfare spending and prison population are inversely related, meaning that a country with high spending on welfare has a lower prison population and vice versa. Portugal, for example, has 147 prisoners per 100,000 people but spend only 18.2% of their GDP on welfare. This is quite a contrast to Scandinavian states, such as Sweden, whose prison population is 60 prisoners per 100,000 people as they spend 31% of GDP on welfare. During the 1990s the UK, whose spending on welfare is 20.8% GDP, saw an increase of 40% in the number of custodial sentences passed out. This is arguably reflected in the composition of the UK's prison population. For example, almost half of the prison population in Britain has been diagnosed with 3 or more mental disorders. Of those prisoners diagnosed with a mental health problem: 50% of these prisoners are not registered with a GP; 42% of men with a psychotic disorder received no emotional or


id: zemiology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemiology-2.md
category: reference
title: Zemiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:10.811479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zemiology-20260505-0
summary:
It is estimated by the Low Pay Commission that 146,000–219,000 workers are not receiving the wage they are legally entitled too. It has been suggested that the reasons for relate to the limited resources available to the Inland Revenue Enforcement Teams. The Inland Revenue Enforcement Team consists of 16 compliance teams, each with 3 to 8 officers, based in fourteen towns and cities throughout the UK. In 1999 there were 115 Inspectors which meant that a workplace could expect to be inspected once every 30 years. === Policy responses to inequality === Inequality has grown in countries like the UK since the beginning of the 1980s. It is argued that this growth in inequality has had a series of deleterious and harmful effects. These include children's life chances, mental health, physical health, crime and social well-being. Using the example of physical, numerous studies have demonstrated that those from lower socio economic classes have lower life expectancy. For instance a recent research study that investigated differences in health in the 678 electoral wards of the northern region of England found that death rates were four times as high in the poorest 10 per cent of wards as they were in the


id: history-of-scholarship-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scholarship-0.md
category: reference
title: History of scholarship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scholarship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:12.600049+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-scholarship-20260505-0
summary:
The history of scholarship is the historical study of fields of study which are not covered by the English term "science" (cf., history of science), but are covered by, for example, the German term "Wissenschaft" (i.e., all kinds of academic studies). Examples include the history of classical studies, philosophy, religion, biblical studies, historiography, music, art, and literature. It is a field which has recently undergone a complete renewal and is now a major branch of research. In 2015, the Society for the History of the Humanities was established, coinciding with the launch of the journal History of Humanities in 2016. Both developments reflect the field’s growing institutional presence and international scholarly collaboration. == Classical scholarship == Rudolph Pfeiffer (1968) describes the history of classical scholarship from its revival inspired by Petrarch to the achievements of the Italian humanists and the independent movement in Holland (including Erasmus) and the German scholar-reformers. Pfeiffer traces the development of classical scholarship in the countries of Western Europe through the next two centuries, with particular attention to sixteenth-century France and eighteenth-century England. Finally he provides an account of the new approach made by Winckelmann and his successors in Germany. == Philosophers, scholars, polymaths, and scientists


id: history-of-agricultural-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science-0.md
category: reference
title: History of agricultural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:13.737821+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-agricultural-science-20260505-0
summary:
The history of agricultural science is a sub-field of the history of agriculture which looks at the scientific advancement of techniques and understanding of agriculture. Early study of organic production in botanical gardens was continued in with agricultural experiment stations in several countries. Fertilizer is a major contribution to agriculture history increasing the fertility of the soil and minimizing nutrient loss. Scientific study of fertilizer was advanced significantly in 1840 with the publication Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agrikulturchemie und Physiologie (Organic Chemistry in Its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology) by Justus von Liebig. One of Liebig's advances in agricultural science was the discovery of nitrogen as an essential plant nutrient. == Fertilizer == The first method of soil nourishment utilized compost. Composting used rotten organic materials to replenish the soil of its nutrients and dates back to tenth and twelfth century Arab writings. Composting was a normal and widely used practice of fertilization, up into the twentieth century. Johann Friedrich Mayer was the first scientist to publish experiments on the use of gypsum as a fertilizer, but the mechanism that made it function as a fertilizer was contested by his contemporaries. Agricultural science developed when analytical chemistry


id: history-of-business-architecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_business_architecture-0.md
category: reference
title: History of business architecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_business_architecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:15.010771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-business-architecture-20260505-0
summary:
The history of business architecture has its origins in the 1980s. In the next decades business architecture has developed into a discipline of "cross-organizational design of the business as a whole" closely related to enterprise architecture. The concept of business architecture has been proposed as a blueprint of the enterprise, as a business strategy, and also as the representation of a business design. The concept of business architecture has evolved over the years. It was introduced in the 1980s as architectural domains and as an activity of business design. In the 2000s the study and concept development of business architecture accelerated. By the end of the 2000s the first handbooks on business architecture were published, separate frameworks for business architecture were being developed, separate views and models for business architecture were further under construction, the business architect as a profession evolved, and more businesses added business architecture to their agenda. By 2015 business architecture has evolved into a common practice. The business architecture body of knowledge has been developed and is updated multiple times each year, and the interest from the academic world and from top management is growing. == Overview == Business architecture has its roots in traditional cross-organizational


id: history-of-business-architecture-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_business_architecture-1.md
category: reference
title: History of business architecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_business_architecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:15.010771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-business-architecture-20260505-0
summary:
The business architecture of the company (organization structure, strategic business units and missions, product and services) is the foundation of IRM planning. Since every company has an existing architecture, architectural planning begins with an inventory of the firm's information resources. Assembling the various information resource components' inventories results in an "as is" picture of the corporation's technology structure. From this inventory, the CIO can analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the company's information resources, particularly as they relate to business information needs as identified in the strategic planning process. From this analysis one can evolve an architectural plan, which is a "to be" picture of where one wants to go and how to get there, not just a picture of the status quo. Cees J. Schrama. (1988) of the European IFIP Technical Committee on Information Systems IFIP TC8 presented the opinion, that "business architecture is required to provide a solid base for the total development process." He pictured another model consisted of elements such as information processing architecture and network architecture, and explained: [Business architecture] contains the fundamentals for the information processing architecture, where process data, support systems and network architecture are performed. In business architecture the following can 'be


id: history-of-business-architecture-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_business_architecture-2.md
category: reference
title: History of business architecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_business_architecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:15.010771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-business-architecture-20260505-0
summary:
As activity : Lindsay & Price (1991) for example presented business architecture as a "self security activity," which included the "study of a function, including its component organizations, tools, methods, and relationships, both internal and external... The very activity of identifying and listing all these elements is an important learning process for managers. In addition to the element identification and listing processes, the architecture develops a set of principles. Principles are semi-permanent statements of philosophy. That is, they are the basic rules by which managers agree they want to operate." As blueprint or model of the enterprise : Bourke (1994) described it as "a set of integrated blueprints of the ... [enterprise]'s business processes," and Veasey (1994) spoke of business architecture as "a model of the enterprise which is a mechanism for the management of change." As strategy for any change program : Davis (1996) for example described that business architecture can be used to "describe the type of comprehensive plan required to set the stage for integrated change programmes. The term "architecture" connotes the level of creativity and holistic change required to achieve process excellence. A comprehensive business architecture defines the way in which human performance, processes and technology


id: history-of-business-architecture-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_business_architecture-3.md
category: reference
title: History of business architecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_business_architecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:15.010771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-business-architecture-20260505-0
summary:
Architecture Frameworks have been used in many industries, including the domains of industrial automation / manufacturing / production management, business information systems (of various kinds), telecommunications and defence. Part of the Enterprise Architecture practice is ‘enterprise engineering’ and the practice of ‘enterprise modelling’ (or just modelling) and complete AFs describe the scope of modelling (which later can be summaised as a Modelling Framework that is part of the AF). One specific type of Framework is called the "Enterprise Reference Architecture." According to Bernus & Noran (2010): Several proposals emerged in those two decades – e.g. PERA (Williams 1994), CIMOSA (CIMOSA Association 1996), ARIS (Scheer 1999), GRAI-GIM (Doumeingts, 1987), and the IFIP-IFAC Task Force, based on a thorough review of these as well as their proposed generalisation (Bernus and Nemes, 1994) developed GERAM (IFIP-IFAC Task Force, 1999) which then became the basis of ISO15704:2000 “Industrial automation systems – Requirements for enterprise-reference architectures and methodologies”... === Business Architecture Working Group === The Business Architecture Special Interest Group (BASIG) is a working group on business architecture of the Object Management Group (OMG). This working group was founded in 2007 as the Business Architecture Working Group (BAWG). === Business strategy === In the 2006


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
The history of astronomy focuses on the efforts of civilizations to understand the universe beyond earth's atmosphere. Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences, achieving a high level of success in the second half of the first millennium. Astronomy has origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory. Early astronomical records date back to the Babylonians around 1000 BC. There is also astronomical evidence of interest from early Chinese, Central American and North European cultures. Astronomy was used by early cultures for timekeeping, navigation, spiritual and religious practices, and agricultural planning. Ancient astronomers observed and charted the skies in an effort to learn about the workings of the universe. During the Renaissance Period, revolutionary ideas emerged about astronomy. One such idea was contributed in 1543 by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who developed a heliocentric model that depicted the planets orbiting the Sun. This was the start of the Copernican Revolution, with the invention of the telescope in 1608 playing a key part. Later developments included the reflecting telescope, astronomical photography, astronomical spectroscopy, radio telescopes, cosmic ray astronomy, infrared telescopes, space telescopes, ultraviolet astronomy, X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, space probes, neutrino astronomy, and gravitational-wave


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-1.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
The Nebra sky disc is a Bronze Age bronze disc that was buried on Mittenberg hill in Germany around 1600 BC. It measures about 30 cm (12 in) diameter with a mass of 2.2 kg (4.9 lb) and displays a blue-green patina (from oxidization) inlaid with gold symbols. Found by archeological thieves in 1999 and recovered in Switzerland in 2002, it was soon recognized as a spectacular discovery, among the most important of the 20th century. Investigations revealed that the object had been in use around 400 years before burial (2000 BC), but that its use had been forgotten by the time of burial. The inlaid gold depicted the full moon, a crescent moon about 4 or 5 days old, and the Pleiades star cluster in a specific arrangement, forming the earliest known depiction of celestial phenomena. Twelve lunar months pass in 354 days, requiring a calendar to insert a leap month every two or three years in order to keep synchronized with the solar year's seasons (making it lunisolar). The earliest known descriptions of this coordination were recorded by the Babylonians in the sixth or seventh centuries BC, over one thousand years later. Those descriptions verified ancient knowledge of


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-2.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
The origins of astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were located. A form of writing known as cuneiform emerged among the Sumerians around 3500–3000 BC. Our knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age. Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians. They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, or an hour into 60 minutes, began with the Sumerians. For more information, see the articles on Babylonian numerals and mathematics. Mesopotamia is worldwide the place of the earliest known astronomer and poet by name: Enheduanna, Akkadian high priestess to the lunar deity Nanna/Sin and princess, daughter of Sargon the Great (c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE). She had the Moon tracked in her chambers and wrote poems about her divine Moon.


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-3.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his Timaeus, Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul. Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric spheres, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the Earth. This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the 16th century. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-4.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a horologium (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a palm (φοίνιξ), the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the Sun and Moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the Sun and Moon; and one concerns their risings. The Astrologer's instruments (horologium and palm) are a plumb line and sighting instrument. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the Berlin Museum; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arm's length. The "Hermetic" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with Hellenistic Hermetism. From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-5.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
The Arabic and the Persian world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from Greek astronomy, Indian astronomy, and Persian astronomy were translated into Arabic, which were then used and stored in libraries throughout the area. An important contribution by Islamic astronomers was their emphasis on observational astronomy. This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century. Zij star catalogues were produced at these observatories. In the ninth century, Persian astrologer Albumasar was thought to be one of the greatest astrologer at that time. His practical manuals for training astrologers profoundly influenced Muslim intellectual history and, through translations, that of western Europe and Byzantium In the 10th century, Albumasar's "Introduction" was one of the most important sources for the recovery of Aristotle for medieval European scholars. Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the Andromeda Galaxy. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish,


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-6.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the 12th century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages. Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the 4th to the 16th centuries. Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius. In the 6th century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars. In the 7th century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text,


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-7.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
During the renaissance period, astronomy began to undergo a revolution in thought known as the Copernican Revolution, which gets the name from the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. His De revolutionibus orbium coelestium was published in 1543. While in the long term this was a very controversial claim, in the very beginning it only brought minor controversy. The theory became the dominant view because many figures, most notably Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton championed and improved upon the work. Other figures also aided this new model despite not believing the overall theory, like Tycho Brahe, with his well-known observations. Brahe, a Danish noble, was an essential astronomer in this period. He came on the astronomical scene with the publication of De nova stella, in which he disproved conventional wisdom on the supernova SN 1572 (As bright as Venus at its peak, SN 1572 later became invisible to the naked eye, disproving the Aristotelian doctrine of the immutability of the heavens.) He also created the Tychonic system, where the Sun and Moon and the stars revolve around the Earth, but the other five planets


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-8.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Galileo === The invention of the telescope in 1608 revolutionized the study of astronomy. Galileo Galilei was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, after constructing a 20x refractor telescope. He discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610, which are now collectively known as the Galilean moons, in his honor. This discovery was the first known observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that the Moon had craters and observed, and correctly explained sunspots, and that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases. Galileo argued that these facts demonstrated incompatibility with the Ptolemaic model, which could not explain the phenomenon and would even contradict it. With Jupiter's moons, he demonstrated that the Earth does not have to have everything orbiting it and that other bodies could orbit another planet, such as the Earth orbiting the Sun. In the Ptolemaic system the celestial bodies were supposed to be perfect so such objects should not have craters or sunspots. The phases of Venus could only happen in the event that Venus orbits around the Sun, which did not happen in the Ptolemaic system. He, as the most famous example, had


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-9.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Stellar astronomy === Cosmic pluralism is the name given to the idea that the stars are distant suns, perhaps with their own planetary systems. Ideas in this direction were expressed in antiquity, by Anaxagoras and by Aristarchus of Samos, but did not find mainstream acceptance. The first astronomer of the European Renaissance to suggest that the stars were distant suns was Giordano Bruno in his De l'infinito universo et mondi (1584). This idea was among the charges brought against him by the Inquisition. Telescopic observations by Galileo Galilei showed that the Milky Way was a great concentration of individual stars. The idea of many stars became mainstream in the later 17th century, especially following the publication of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds by Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle (1686), and by the early 18th century it was the default working assumptions in stellar astronomy. The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667. Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby "fixed" stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus. William Herschel was the


id: history-of-astronomy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy-10.md
category: reference
title: History of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:16.412764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
With the accumulation of large sets of astronomical data, teams like the Harvard Computers rose in prominence which led to many female astronomers, previously relegated as assistants to male astronomers, gaining recognition in the field. The United States Naval Observatory (USNO) and other astronomy research institutions hired human "computers", who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge. A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women "computers" and reported to their supervisors. Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered the cepheid variable star period-luminosity relation which she further developed into a method of measuring distance outside of the Solar System. A veteran of the Harvard Computers, Annie J. Cannon developed the modern version of the stellar classification scheme in during the early 1900s (O B A F G K M, based on color and temperature), manually classifying more stars in a lifetime than anyone else (around 350,000). The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars. Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and, hence, its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude. The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-0.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
The history of aviation spans over two millennia, from the earliest innovations like kites and attempts at tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight in powered, heavier-than-air jet aircraft. Kite flying in China, dating back several hundred years BC, is considered the earliest example of man-made flight. In the 15th-century Leonardo da Vinci designed several flying machines incorporating aeronautical concepts, but they were unworkable due to the limitations of contemporary knowledge. In the late 18th century, the Montgolfier brothers invented the hot-air balloon which soon led to manned flights. At almost the same time, the discovery of hydrogen gas led to the invention of the hydrogen balloon. Various theories in mechanics by physicists during the same period, such as fluid dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the development of modern aerodynamics; most notably by Sir George Cayley. Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with France establishing balloon companies during the French Revolution. In the 19th century, especially the second half, experiments with gliders provided the basis for learning the dynamics of winged aircraft; most notably by Cayley, Otto Lilienthal, and Octave Chanute. By the early


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-1.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Rotor wings === The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, an ancient Chinese toy. The similar "moulinet à noix" (rotor on a nut) appeared in Europe in the 14th century AD. === Hot air balloons === Since ancient times, the Chinese understood that hot air rises and applied the principle to a type of small hot air balloon called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists of a paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally launched for recreation and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, such lanterns were found in China since the 3rd century BC. Their military use is attributed to the general Zhuge Liang (180–234 AD), who is said to have used them to scare the enemy troops. There is evidence that the Chinese also "solved the problem of aerial navigation" using balloons, hundreds of years before the 18th century. === Renaissance === Eventually, some investigators began to discover and define some of the basics of rational aircraft design. Most notable of these was Leonardo da Vinci, although his work remained unknown until 1797, and so


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-2.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
On 4 June, a crowd gathered in Annonay, France, to witness the unmanned hot air balloon display by the Montgolfier brothers. Their 500-pound balloon ascended to nearly 3,000 feet and traveled over a mile and a half. It stayed in the air for ten minutes before tipping over and catching fire. On 27 August, Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers unveiled the first unmanned hydrogen balloon from Paris' Champ de Mars. It landed almost an hour later in Gonesse, where terrified farmers mistook it for a monster and destroyed it. On 19 October, in front of 2,000 spectators, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes boarded the Montgolfier aircraft as the first people. Later that day, Giroud de Villette, another pilot, took to the skies much higher. On 21 November, the Montgolfiers launched the first free flight with human passengers. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, along with the Marquis François d'Arlandes, successfully petitioned for the honour. They drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon powered by a wood fire. On 1 December, Jacques Charles and the Nicolas-Louis Robert launched their manned hydrogen balloon from


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-3.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
=== 17th and 18th centuries === Traveller Evliya Çelebi reported that in 1633, Ottoman scientist and engineer Lagari Hasan Çelebi blasted off from Sarayburnu in a 7-winged rocket propelled by 50 okka (140 lbs) of gunpowder. The flight was said to have been undertaken at the time of the birth of Sultan Murad IV's daughter. As Evliya Celebi wrote, Lagari proclaimed before launching his craft "O my sultan! Be blessed, I am going to talk to Jesus!"; after ascending in the rocket, he landed in the sea, swimming ashore and joking "O my sultan! Jesus sends his regards to you!"; he was rewarded by the Sultan with silver and the rank of sipahi in the Ottoman army. Evliya Çelebi also wrote of Lagari's brother, Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi, making a flight by glider a year earlier. Italian inventor Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish King Władysław IV to his court in Warsaw, built a model aircraft with four fixed glider wings in 1647. Described as "four pairs of wings attached to an elaborate 'dragon'", it was said to have successfully lifted a cat in 1648 but not Burattini himself. He promised that "only the most minor injuries" would result from


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-4.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
Clarifying our ideas and laying down the principles of heavier-than-air flight. Reaching a scientific understanding of the principles of bird flight. Scientific aerodynamic experiments were conducted to demonstrate drag and streamlining, movement of the center of pressure, and the increase in lift from curving the wing surface. Defining the modern aeroplane configuration comprising a fixed-wing, fuselage and tail assembly. Demonstrations of manned, gliding flight. Identified the crucial understanding that a lightweight, powerful engine would be necessary for sustained heavier-than-air flight, now known as the power-to-weight ratio Recognized for establishing the theoretical foundation for engine use in airplanes and modern aircraft design by identifying and explaining the four fundamental forces of flight: lift, thrust, drag, and weight. Cayley's research on the aeroplane aimed to address the four fundamental areas that are essential to aeronautics: propulsion, structural design, aerodynamics, and stability and control. His work laid the groundwork for a comprehensive understanding of these critical components, which continue to be vital in the field today. Cayley's first innovation was to study the basic science of lift by adopting the whirling arm test rig for use in aircraft research and using simple aerodynamic models on the arm, rather than attempting to fly a


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-5.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
Alphonse Pénaud, a Frenchman, advanced the theory of wing contours and aerodynamics. He also constructed successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871 he flew the first aerodynamically stable fixed-wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called the "Planophore", a distance of 40 m (130 ft). Pénaud's model incorporated several of Cayley's discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent stability, and rubber power. The planophore also had longitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane was set at a smaller angle of incidence than the wings, an original and important contribution to the theory of aeronautics. Pénaud's later project for an amphibian aeroplane, although never built, incorporated other modern features. A tailless monoplane with a single vertical fin and twin tractor propellers, it also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit. Another theorist was Frenchman Victor Tatin. In 1879, he flew a model which, like Pénaud's project, was a monoplane with twin tractor propellers but also had a separate horizontal tail. It was powered by compressed air. Flown tethered to a pole, this was the first model to take off under its own power. In 1884, Alexandre Goupil


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-6.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
Otto Lilienthal became known as the "Glider King" or "Flying Man" of Germany. He duplicated Wenham's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research in 1889 as Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst), which is seen as one of the most important works in aviation history. He also produced a series of hang gliders, including bat-wing, monoplane, and biplane forms, such as the Derwitzer Glider and Normal soaring apparatus, which is considered to be the first airplane in series production, making the "Maschinenfabrik Otto Lilienthal" the first airplane production company in the world. Starting in 1891, he became the first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and the first to be photographed flying a heavier-than-air machine, stimulating interest around the world. Lilienthal's work led to him developing the concept of the modern wing. His flights in the year 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight and because of that he is often referred to as either the "father of aviation" or "father of flight". He rigorously documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is one of the best known of the early pioneers. Lilienthal made over


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-7.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his name to Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915, he designed and built early flying machines and engines. On 14 August 1901, two and a half years before the Wright Brothers' flight, he claimed to have carried out a controlled, powered flight in his Number 21 monoplane at Fairfield, Connecticut. The flight was reported in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald local newspaper. About 30 years later, several people questioned by a researcher claimed to have seen that or other Whitehead flights. In March 2013, Jane's All the World's Aircraft, an authoritative source for contemporary aviation, published an editorial which accepted Whitehead's flight as the first manned, powered, controlled flight of a heavier-than-air craft. The Smithsonian Institution (custodians of the original Wright Flyer) and many aviation historians continue to maintain that Whitehead did not fly as suggested. The historians of the Royal Aeronautical Society noted that: "All available evidence fails to support the claim that Gustave Whitehead made sustained, powered, controlled flights predating those of the Wright brothers." The editors of Scientific American agree: "The data show that not only was Whitehead not first in flight, but that he


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-8.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
The Wrights appear to be the first to make serious studied attempts to simultaneously solve the power and control problems. Both problems proved difficult, but they never lost interest. They solved the control problem by inventing wing warping for roll control, combined with simultaneous yaw control with a steerable rear rudder. Almost as an afterthought, they designed and built a low-powered internal combustion engine. They also designed and carved wooden propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate performance from their low engine power. Although wing-warping as a means of lateral control was used only briefly during the early history of aviation, the principle of combining lateral control in combination with a rudder was a key advance in aircraft control. While many aviation pioneers appeared to leave safety largely to chance, the Wrights' design was greatly influenced by the need to teach themselves to fly without unreasonable risk to life and limb, by surviving crashes. This emphasis, as well as low engine power, was the reason for low flying speed and for taking off in a headwind. Performance, rather than safety, was the reason for the rear-heavy design because the canard could not be highly


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-9.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
Although the full details of the Wright Brothers' system of flight control had been published in l'Aerophile in January 1906, the importance of this advance was not recognised, and European experimenters generally concentrated on attempting to produce inherently stable machines. Short powered flights were performed in France by Romanian engineer Traian Vuia on 18 March and 19 August 1906 when he flew 12 and 24 metres, respectively, in a self-designed, fully self-propelled, fixed-wing aircraft, that possessed a fully wheeled undercarriage. He was followed by Jacob Ellehammer who built a monoplane which he tested with a tether in Denmark on 12 September 1906, flying 42 metres. On 13 September 1906, the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont made a public flight in Paris with the 14-bis, also known as Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of prey"). This was canard configured with a pronounced wing dihedral, and covered a distance of 60 m (200 ft) on the grounds of the Chateau de Bagatelle in Paris' Bois de Boulogne before a large crowd of witnesses. This well-documented event was the first flight verified by the Aéro-Club de France of a powered heavier-than-air machine in Europe and won the Deutsch-Archdeacon Prize for the first officially observed


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-10.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
Almost as soon as they were invented, aeroplanes were used for military purposes. The first country to use them for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made reconnaissance, bombing and artillery correction flights in Libya during the Italian-Turkish war (September 1911 – October 1912). This war also saw Ottoman soldiers shoot down a warplane for the first time in history. The first warplane reconnaissance mission flown on 23 October 1911 by the Italian air force's Captain Carlo Piazza, and the first bombing mission was flown on 1 November 1911 by Italy's Second Lieutenant Giolio Gavotti. Bulgaria later followed this example. Its planes attacked and reconnoitred Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War 1912–13. The first war to see major use of aeroplanes in offensive, defensive and reconnaissance capabilities was World War I. The Allies and Central Powers both used aeroplanes and airships extensively. While the concept of using the aeroplane as an offensive weapon was generally discounted before World War I, the idea of using it for photography was one that was not lost on any of the major forces. All of the major forces in Europe had light aircraft, typically derived from pre-war sporting designs, attached to their reconnaissance


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-11.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
The years between World War I and World War II saw great advancements in aircraft technology. Airplanes evolved from low-powered biplanes made from wood and fabric to sleek, high-powered monoplanes made of aluminum, based primarily on the founding work of Hugo Junkers during the World War I period and its adoption by American designer William Bushnell Stout and Soviet designer Andrei Tupolev. After World War I, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their skills. Many American pilots became barnstormers, flying into small towns across the country and showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for rides. Eventually, the barnstormers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races, acrobatic stunts, and feats of air superiority. The air races drove engine and airframe development—the Schneider Trophy, for example, led to a series of ever faster and sleeker monoplane designs culminating in the Supermarine S.6B. With pilots competing for cash prizes, there was an incentive to go faster. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the most famous of those on the barnstorming/air show circuit. She was also the first female pilot to achieve records such as the crossing of the Atlantic and


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-12.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
In 1929, Jimmy Doolittle developed flight instruments . 1929 also saw the first flight of by far the largest plane ever built until then: the Dornier Do X with a wingspan of 48 m. On its 70th test flight on 21 October 1929, there were 169 people on board, a record that was not broken for 20 years. In 1923, The first successful rotorcraft appeared in the form of the autogyro, invented by Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva and first flown in 1919. In this design, the rotor is not powered but spins freely as it moves through the air, while a separate engine powers the aircraft to move forward. This was the basis of further development and prototypes that led to the creation of the helicopter. In 1930 Corradino D'Ascanio, an Italian engineer, developed a coaxial helicopter with the important inclusion of three small propellers on the craft, which controlled the pitch, roll, and yaw of the aircraft. Later helicopters saw several adjustments to their rotors but the first modern helicopter was not constructed until 1947 by Igor Sikorsky Only five years after the German Dornier Do-X had flown, Tupolev designed the largest aircraft of the 1930s era,


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-13.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
The British de Havilland Comet became the first commercial jet airliner and was introduced into scheduled service by 1952. The aircraft was a breakthrough in technical achievements, but had several intense failures. The square design of the windows caused stress cracks from metal fatigue, caused by cycles of cabin pressurization and depressurization. This eventually led to severe structural failures in the fuel area. These issues were resolved too late, since competing jet airliners were already flying. On 15 September 1956, the USSR's airline Aeroflot became the first to offer continuous, regular jet services using the Tupolev Tu-104. Soon after, Boeing 707 and DC-8 also set new standards in comfort, safety, and passenger experience. This was the beginning of the Jet Age, the introduction of large-scale commercial air travel. Jet airliners were able to fly higher, faster, and farther than older piston‑powered propliners, making transcontinental and intercontinental travel considerably faster and easier. Aircraft leaving North America and crossing the Atlantic Ocean (and later, the Pacific Ocean) could now fly to their destinations non-stop, making much of the world accessible within a single day's travel for the first time. Large jetliners could carry more passengers than piston-powered airliners, which caused air fares


id: history-of-aviation-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation-14.md
category: reference
title: History of aviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:18.099578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-aviation-20260505-0
summary:
== 21st century == 21st-century aviation has seen increasing interest in fuel savings and fuel diversification, as well as low cost airlines and facilities. Additionally, much of the developing world that did not have good access to air transport has been steadily adding aircraft and facilities; though severe congestion remains a problem in many up and coming nations. Around 20,000 city pairs are served by commercial aviation, up from less than 10,000 as recently as 1996. There appears to be newfound interest in returning to the supersonic era whereby waning demand in the turn of the 20th century made flights unprofitable, as well as the final commercial stoppage of the Concorde due to reduced demand following a fatal accident and rising costs. At the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology allowed subsonic military aviation to begin eliminating the pilot in favour of remotely operated or completely autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In April 2001, the unmanned aircraft Global Hawk flew from Edwards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop and un-refuelled. This is the longest point-to-point flight ever undertaken by an unmanned aircraft and took 23 hours and 23 minutes. In October 2003, the first totally autonomous flight across


id: history-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: History of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:19.261593+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The history of biochemistry can be said to have started with the ancient Greeks who were interested in the composition and processes of life, although biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline has its beginning around the early 19th century. Some argued that the beginning of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen, while others considered Eduard Buchner's first demonstration of a complex biochemical process alcoholic fermentation in cell-free extracts to be the birth of biochemistry. Some might also point to the influential work of Justus von Liebig from 1842, Animal chemistry, or, Organic chemistry in its applications to physiology and pathology, which presented a chemical theory of metabolism, or even earlier to the 18th century studies on fermentation and respiration by Antoine Lavoisier. The term biochemistry itself is derived from the combining form bio-, meaning 'life', and chemistry. The word is first recorded in English in 1848, while in 1877, Felix Hoppe-Seyler used the term (Biochemie in German) in the foreword to the first issue of Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie (Journal of Physiological Chemistry) as a synonym for physiological chemistry and argued for the setting up of institutes


id: history-of-biochemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: History of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:19.261593+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
As early as the late 18th century and early 19th century, the digestion of meat by stomach secretions and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were known. However, the mechanism by which this occurred had not been identified. In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that this fermentation was catalyzed by a vital force contained within the yeast cells called ferments, which he thought functioned only within living organisms. He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells." In 1833 Anselme Payen discovered the first enzyme, diastase, and in 1878 German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne (1837–1900) coined the term enzyme, which comes from Greek ενζυμον 'in leaven', to describe this process. The word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms. In 1897 Eduard Buchner began to study the ability of yeast extracts to ferment sugar despite the absence of living yeast cells. In a series of experiments at


id: history-of-biochemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: History of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:19.261593+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Since metabolism focuses on the breaking down (catabolic processes) of molecules and the building of larger molecules from these particles (anabolic processes), the use of glucose and its involvement in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is fundamental to this understanding. The most frequent type of glycolysis found in the body is the type that follows the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) Pathway, which was discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakob Karol Parnas. These three men discovered that glycolysis is a strongly determinant process for the efficiency and production of the human body. The significance of the pathway shown in the adjacent image is that by identifying the individual steps in this process doctors and researchers are able to pinpoint sites of metabolic malfunctions such as pyruvate kinase deficiency that can lead to severe anemia. This is most important because cells, and therefore organisms, are not capable of surviving without proper functioning metabolic pathways. == Instrumental advancements (20th century) == Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labelling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of


id: history-of-botany-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-0.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
The history of botany examines the human effort to understand life on Earth by tracing the historical development of the discipline of botany, the part of natural science dealing with organisms traditionally treated as plants. Rudimentary botanical science began with empirically based plant lore passed from generation to generation in the oral traditions of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers. The first writings that show human curiosity about plants themselves, rather than the uses that could be made of them, appear in ancient Greece and ancient India. In Ancient Greece, the teachings of Aristotle's student Theophrastus at the Lyceum in ancient Athens in about 350 BC are considered the starting point for Western botany. In ancient India, the Vṛkṣāyurveda, attributed to Parashara, is also considered one of the earliest texts to describe various branches of botany. In Europe, botanical science was soon overshadowed by a medieval preoccupation with the medicinal properties of plants that lasted more than 1000 years. During this time, the medicinal works of classical antiquity were reproduced in manuscripts and books called herbals. In China and the Arab world, the Greco-Roman work on medicinal plants was preserved and extended. In Europe, the Renaissance of the 14th–17th centuries heralded a scientific revival


id: history-of-botany-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-1.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ancient India ==== Early Indian texts, like the Vedas mention plants with magical properties. The Sushruta Samhita, describes over 700 plants used for medicinal purposes. This text reflects a level of medical knowledge and practice comparable to ancient Egypt. Notably, the Sushruta Samhita categorizes food plants based on their parts used, taste, and dietary effects. While lacking detailed botanical descriptions beyond occasional habitat or foliage references, the text demonstrates close observation of plants. This is evident in the classification of sugarcane varieties and the listing of fungi based on their growth medium. The Charaka Samhitā, foundational Ayurvedic text, presents the earliest known plant classification system in India, using habitat, presence of flowers/fruits, and reproduction as criteria. === Classical antiquity === ==== Classical Greece ==== Ancient Athens, of the 6th century BC, was the busy trade centre at the confluence of Egyptian, Mesopotamian and Minoan cultures at the height of Greek colonisation of the Mediterranean. The philosophical thought of this period ranged freely through many subjects. Empedocles (490–430 BC) foreshadowed Darwinian evolutionary theory in a crude formulation of the mutability of species and natural selection. The physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) avoided the prevailing superstition of his day and approached healing


id: history-of-botany-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-2.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ancient China === In ancient China, lists of different plants and herb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes date back to at least the time of the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC). Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics. The Chinese dictionary-encyclopaedia Erh Ya probably dates from about 300 BC and describes about 334 plants classed as trees or shrubs, each with a common name and illustration. The Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) includes the notable work of the Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Zhongjing. == Medieval knowledge == === Medicinal plants of the early Middle Ages === In Western Europe, after Theophrastus, botany passed through a bleak period of 1800 years when little progress was made and, indeed, many of the early insights were lost. As Europe entered the Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries), China, India and the Arab world enjoyed a golden age. ==== Medieval China ==== Chinese philosophy had followed a similar path to that of the ancient Greeks. Between 100 and 1700 AD, many new works on pharmaceutical botany were produced. The 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo compiled learned treatises on natural


id: history-of-botany-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-3.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
A great advance was made by the first German composers of herbals, who went straight to nature, described the wild plants growing around them and had figures of them carefully executed in wood. Thus was made the first beginning of a really scientific examination of plants, though the aims pursued were not yet truly scientific, for no questions were proposed as to the nature of plants, their organisation or mutual relations; the only point of interest was the knowledge of individual forms and of their medicinal virtues. German Otto Brunfels's (1464–1534) Herbarum Vivae Icones (1530) contained descriptions of about 47 species new to science combined with accurate illustrations. His fellow countryman Hieronymus Bock's (1498–1554) Kreutterbuch of 1539 described plants he found in nearby woods and fields and these were illustrated in the 1546 edition. However, it was Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) who pioneered the formal botanical description that detailed both flowers and fruits, some anatomy including the number of chambers in the ovary, and the type of ovule placentation. He also made observations on pollen and distinguished between inflorescence types. His five-volume Historia Plantarum was published about 18 years after his early death aged 29 in 1561–1563. In England, William Turner


id: history-of-botany-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-4.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
Public and private gardens have always been strongly associated with the historical unfolding of botanical science. Early botanical gardens were physic gardens, repositories for the medicinal plants described in the herbals. As they were generally associated with universities or other academic institutions, the plants were also used for study. The directors of these gardens were eminent physicians with an educational role as "scientific gardeners" and it was staff of these institutions that produced many of the published herbals. The botanical gardens of the modern tradition were established in northern Italy, the first being at Pisa (1544), founded by Luca Ghini (1490–1556). Although part of a medical faculty, the first chair of materia medica, essentially a chair in botany, was established in Padua in 1533. Then in 1534, Ghini became Reader in materia medica at Bologna University, where Ulisse Aldrovandi established a similar garden in 1568 (see below). Collections of pressed and dried specimens were called a hortus siccus (garden of dry plants) and the first accumulation of plants in this way (including the use of a plant press) is attributed to Ghini. Buildings called herbaria housed these specimens mounted on card with descriptive labels. Stored in cupboards in systematic order,


id: history-of-botany-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-5.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
By the middle of the 18th century, the botanical booty resulting from the era of exploration was accumulating in gardens and herbaria – and it needed to be systematically catalogued. This was the task of the taxonomists, the plant classifiers. Plant classifications have changed over time from "artificial" systems based on general habit and form, to pre-evolutionary "natural" systems expressing similarity using one to many characters, leading to post-evolutionary "natural" systems that use characters to infer evolutionary relationships. Italian physician Andrea Caesalpino (1519–1603) studied medicine and taught botany at the University of Pisa for about 40 years eventually becoming Director of the Botanic Garden of Pisa from 1554 to 1558. His sixteen-volume De Plantis (1583) described 1500 plants and his herbarium of 260 pages and 768 mounted specimens still remains. Caesalpino proposed classes based largely on the detailed structure of the flowers and fruit; he also applied the concept of the genus. He was the first to try and derive principles of natural classification reflecting the overall similarities between plants and he produced a classification scheme well in advance of its day. Gaspard Bauhin (1560–1624) produced two influential publications Prodromus Theatrici Botanici (1620) and Pinax (1623). These brought order to


id: history-of-botany-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-6.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
In plant physiology, research interest was focused on the movement of sap and the absorption of substances through the roots. Jan Helmont (1577–1644) by experimental observation and calculation, noted that the increase in weight of a growing plant cannot be derived purely from the soil, and concluded it must relate to water uptake. Englishman Stephen Hales (1677–1761) established by quantitative experiment that there is uptake of water by plants and a loss of water by transpiration and that this is influenced by environmental conditions: he distinguished "root pressure", "leaf suction" and "imbibition" and also noted that the major direction of sap flow in woody tissue is upward. His results were published in Vegetable Staticks (1727) He also noted that "air makes a very considerable part of the substance of vegetables". English chemist Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) is noted for his discovery of oxygen (as now called) and its production by plants. Later, Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799) observed that only in sunlight do the green parts of plants absorb air and release oxygen, this being more rapid in bright sunlight while, at night, the air (CO2) is released from all parts. His results were published in Experiments upon vegetables (1779) and with this


id: history-of-botany-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-7.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
The opening of the 19th century was marked by an increase in interest in the connection between climate and plant distribution. Carl Willdenow (1765–1812) examined the connection between seed dispersal and distribution, the nature of plant associations and the impact of geological history. He noticed the similarities between the floras of N America and N Asia, the Cape and Australia, and he explored the ideas of "centre of diversity" and "centre of origin". German Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) and Frenchman Aime Bonpland (1773–1858) published a massive and highly influential 30 volume work on their travels; Robert Brown (1773–1852) noted the similarities between the floras of S Africa, Australia and India, while Joakim Schouw (1789–1852) explored more deeply than anyone else the influence on plant distribution of temperature, soil factors, especially soil water, and light, work that was continued by Alphonse de Candolle (1806–1893). Joseph Hooker (1817–1911) pushed the boundaries of floristic studies with his work on Antarctica, India and the Middle East with special attention to endemism. August Grisebach (1814–1879) in Die Vegetation der Erde (1872) examined physiognomy in relation to climate and in America geographic studies were pioneered by Asa Gray (1810–1888). Physiological plant geography, or ecology, emerged from


id: history-of-botany-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-8.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
Until the 1860s, it was believed that species had remained unchanged through time: each biological form was the result of an independent act of creation and therefore absolutely distinct and immutable. But the hard reality of geological formations and strange fossils needed scientific explanation. Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) replaced the assumption of constancy with the theory of descent with modification. Phylogeny became a new principle as "natural" classifications became classifications reflecting, not just similarities, but evolutionary relationships. Wilhelm Hofmeister established that there was a similar pattern of organisation in all plants expressed through the alternation of generations and extensive homology of structures. German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832), a polymath, had interests and influence that extended into botany. In Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen (1790), he provided a theory of plant morphology (he coined the word "morphology") and he included within his concept of "metamorphosis" modification during evolution, thus linking comparative morphology with phylogeny. Though the botanical basis of his work has been challenged, there is no doubt that he prompted discussion and research on the origin and function of floral parts. His theory probably stimulated the opposing views of German botanists Alexander Braun (1805–1877) and Matthias Schleiden


id: history-of-botany-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany-9.md
category: reference
title: History of botany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:20.683361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-botany-20260505-0
summary:
Increased experimental precision combined with vastly improved scientific instrumentation was opening up exciting new fields. In 1936, Alexander Oparin (1894–1980) demonstrated a possible mechanism for the synthesis of organic matter from inorganic molecules. In the 1960s, it was determined that the Earth's earliest life-forms treated as plants, the cyanobacteria known as stromatolites, dated back some 3.5 billion years. Mid-century transmission and scanning electron microscopy presented another level of resolution to the structure of matter, taking anatomy into the new world of "ultrastructure". New and revised "phylogenetic" classification systems of the plant kingdom were produced by several botanists, including August Eichler. A massive 23 volume Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien was published by Adolf Engler & Karl Prantl over the period 1887 to 1915. Taxonomy based on gross morphology was now being supplemented by using characters revealed by pollen morphology, embryology, anatomy, cytology, serology, macromolecules and more. The introduction of computers facilitated the rapid analysis of large data sets used for numerical taxonomy (also called taximetrics or phenetics). The emphasis on truly natural phylogenies spawned the disciplines of cladistics and phylogenetic systematics. The grand taxonomic synthesis An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (1981) of American Arthur Cronquist (1919–1992) was superseded when,


id: history-of-cartography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography-0.md
category: reference
title: History of cartography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:26.449661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-cartography-20260505-0
summary:
Maps have been one of the most important human inventions, allowing humans to explain and navigate their way. When and how the earliest maps were made is unclear, but maps of local terrain are believed to have been independently invented by many cultures. The earliest putative maps include cave paintings and etchings on tusk and stone. Maps were produced extensively by ancient Babylon, Greece, Rome, China, and India. The earliest maps ignored the curvature of Earth's surface, both because the shape of the Earth was unknown and because the curvature is not important across the small areas being mapped. However, since the age of Classical Greece, maps of large regions, and especially of the world, have used projection from a model globe to control how the inevitable distortion gets apportioned on the map.Modern methods of transportation, the use of surveillance aircraft, and more recently the availability of satellite imagery have made documentation of many areas possible that were previously inaccessible. Free online services such as Google Earth have made accurate maps of the world more accessible than ever before. == Etymology == The English term cartography is modern, borrowed from the French cartographie in the 1840s, itself based on Middle


id: history-of-cartography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography-1.md
category: reference
title: History of cartography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:26.449661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-cartography-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ancient Greece === Many scholars throughout history, such as Strabo, Kish, and Dilke, consider Homer to be the founder of the early Greek conception of Earth, and therefore of geography. Homer conceived Earth to be a disk surrounded by a constantly moving stream of Ocean, an idea which would be suggested by the appearance of the horizon as it is seen from a mountaintop or from a seacoast. This model was accepted by the early Greeks. Homer and his Greek contemporaries knew very little of the Earth beyond the Libyan desert of Egypt, the southwest coast of Asia Minor, and the northern boundary of the Greek homeland. Furthermore, the coast of the Black Sea was only known through myths and legends that circulated during his time. In his poems there is no mention of Europe and Asia as geographical concepts. That is why the big part of Homer's world that is portrayed on this interpretive map represents lands that border on the Aegean Sea. The Greeks believed that they occupied the central region of Earth and its edges were inhabited by savage, monstrous barbarians and strange animals and monsters: Homer's Odyssey mentions a great many of these. Additional statements


id: history-of-cartography-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography-2.md
category: reference
title: History of cartography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:26.449661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-cartography-20260505-0
summary:
Herodotus traveled extensively, collecting information and documenting his findings in his books on Europe, Asia, and Libya. He also combined his knowledge with what he learned from the people he met. Herodotus wrote his Histories in the mid-5th century BC. Although his work was dedicated to the story of long struggle of the Greeks with the Persian Empire, Herodotus also included everything he knew about the geography, history, and peoples of the world. Thus, his work provides a detailed picture of the known world of the 5th century BC. Herodotus rejected the prevailing view of most 5th-century BC maps that the Earth is a disk surrounded by ocean. In his work he describes the Earth as an irregular shape with oceans surrounding only Asia and Africa. He introduces names such as the Atlantic Sea, and the Erythrean Sea, which translates as the "Red Sea". He also divided the world into three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa. He depicted the boundary of Europe as the line from the Pillars of Hercules through the Bosphorus and the area between the Caspian Sea and the Indus River. He regarded the Nile as the boundary between Asia and Africa. He speculated that the extent


id: history-of-cartography-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography-3.md
category: reference
title: History of cartography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:26.449661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-cartography-20260505-0
summary:
==== Marinus of Tyre ==== Marinus of Tyre (c. A.D. 70–130) was a Hellenized Phoenician geographer and cartographer. He founded mathematical geography and provided the underpinnings of Ptolemy's influential Geographia. Marinus's geographical treatise is lost and known only from Ptolemy's remarks. He introduced improvements to the construction of maps and developed a system of nautical charts. His chief legacy is that he first assigned to each place a proper latitude and longitude. His zero meridian ran through the westernmost land known to him, the Isles of the Blessed around the location of the Canary or Cape Verde Islands. He used the parallel of Rhodes for measurements of latitude. Ptolemy mentions several revisions of Marinus's geographical work, which is often dated to AD 114 although this is uncertain. Marinus estimated a length of 180,000 stadia for the equator, roughly corresponding to a circumference of the Earth of 33,300 km, about 17% less than the actual value. He also carefully studied the works of his predecessors and the diaries of travelers. His maps were the first in the Roman Empire to show China. He also invented equirectangular projection, which is still used in map creation today. A few of Marinus's opinions are


id: history-of-cartography-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography-4.md
category: reference
title: History of cartography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:26.449661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-cartography-20260505-0
summary:
==== Earliest geographical writing ==== In China, the earliest known geographical Chinese writing dates back to the 5th century BC, during the beginning of the Warring States (481–221 BC). This was the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu chapter of the Shu Jing or Book of Documents. The book describes the traditional nine provinces, their kinds of soil, their characteristic products and economic goods, their tributary goods, their trades and vocations, their state revenues and agricultural systems, and the various rivers and lakes listed and placed accordingly. The nine provinces in the time of this geographical work were very small in size compared to their modern Chinese counterparts. The Yu Gong's descriptions pertain to areas of the Yellow River, the lower valleys of the Yangzi, with the plain between them and the Shandong Peninsula, and to the west the most northern parts of the Wei River and the Han River were known (along with the southern parts of modern-day Shanxi). ==== Earliest known reference to a map (圖 tú) ==== The oldest reference to a map in China comes from the 3rd century BC. This was the event of 227 BC where Crown Prince Dan of Yan had his assassin


id: history-of-cartography-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography-5.md
category: reference
title: History of cartography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:26.449661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-cartography-20260505-0
summary:
==== Pei Xiu, the 'Ptolemy of China' ==== In the year 267, Pei Xiu (224–271) was appointed as the Minister of Works by Emperor Wu of Jin, the first emperor of the Jin dynasty. Pei is best known for his work in cartography. Although map making and use of the grid existed in China before him, he was the first to mention a plotted geometrical grid and graduated scale displayed on the surface of maps to gain greater accuracy in the estimated distance between different locations. Pei outlined six principles that should be observed when creating maps, two of which included the rectangular grid and the graduated scale for measuring distance. Western historians compare him to the Greek Ptolemy for his contributions in cartography. However, Howard Nelson states that, although the accounts of earlier cartographic works by the inventor and official Zhang Heng (78–139) are somewhat vague and sketchy, there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng. Later Chinese ideas about the quality of maps made during the Han dynasty and before stem from the assessment given by Pei Xiu. Pei Xiu noted that the extant


id: history-of-cartography-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography-6.md
category: reference
title: History of cartography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:59:26.449661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-cartography-20260505-0
summary:
==== Yuan dynasty (Mongol Empire) ==== In the Mongol Empire, the Mongol scholars with the Persian and Chinese cartographers or their foreign colleagues created maps, geographical compendium as well as travel accounts. Rashid-al-Din Hamadani described his geographical compendium, "Suvar al-aqalim", constituted volume four of the Collected chronicles of the Ilkhanate in Persia. His works says about the borders of the seven climes (old world), rivers, major cities, places, climate, and Mongol yams (relay stations). The Great Khan Khubilai's ambassador and minister, Bolad, had helped Rashid's works in relation to the Mongols and Mongolia. Thanks to Pax Mongolica, the easterners and the westerners in Mongol dominions were able to gain access to one another's geographical materials. The Mongols required the nations they conquered to send geographical maps to the Mongol headquarters. One of medieval Persian work written in northwest Iran can clarify the historical geography of Mongolia where Genghis Khan was born and united the Mongol and Turkic nomads as recorded in native sources, especially the Secret History of the Mongols. Map of relay stations, called "yam", and strategic points existed in the Yuan dynasty. The Mongol cartography was enriched by traditions of ancient China and Iran which were now under


