# kb

id: australian-family-party-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Family_Party-0.md
category: reference
title: Australian Family Party
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Family_Party
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:00.119146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: australian-family-party-20260505-0
summary:
The Australian Family Party is a minor right-wing political party that has been registered in South Australia since 2021. It was founded by Bob Day, who served in the Australian Senate from 2014 until 2016 as a member of Family First. == History == === Formation === Bob Day launched the party on 28 October 2020 to "counter the insidious influence of the Greens and the disappointment of the major parties". The party website says that, "Many great organisations and political movements [...] started in churches" and that "The Australian Family Party began the same way." The party was registered by the Electoral Commission of South Australia on 11 November 2021. Before the 2026 state election, the South Australian branch of the Democratic Labour Party merged with and endorsed the Australian Family Party. === 2022 South Australian election === At the 2022 state election, it fielded six candidates in the lower house, winning 0.28% of the vote, and two candidates in the upper house, winning 0.86% of the vote. === 2026 South Australian election === The party fielded candidates in all 47 electorates for the 2026 lower house election and three candidates in the 2026 upper house state election. It


id: vaccines-and-autism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism-0.md
category: reference
title: Vaccines and autism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:01.401652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccines-and-autism-20260505-0
summary:
Extensive investigation into vaccines and autism spectrum disorder has shown that there is no relationship between the two, causal or otherwise, and that vaccine ingredients do not cause autism. Major health authorities, including the World Health Organization, the National Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the United States Food and Drug Administration, along with large-scale epidemiological research, reinforce the scientific consensus that vaccines are safe, that multiple concurrent vaccinations do not overwhelm the immune system, and that autism cannot be attributed to vaccination. The scientist Peter Hotez researched the growth of the false claim and concluded that its spread originated with Andrew Wakefield's fraudulent 1998 paper, and that no prior paper supports a link. Despite the scientific consensus for the absence of a relationship, and the Wakefield paper's retraction, the anti-vaccination movement at large continues to promote theories linking the two. Celebrity endorsements, social media campaigns and selective reporting have fuelled the anti-vaccination movement and public misunderstanding of vaccines. Fringe political actions continue to promote debunked claims. A developing tactic appears to be citing irrelevant or dubious studies to support a questionable claim. == Claimed mechanisms == The claimed mechanisms have changed over time, in response


id: vaccines-and-autism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism-1.md
category: reference
title: Vaccines and autism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:01.401652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccines-and-autism-20260505-0
summary:
Thiomersal is an antifungal preservative used in small amounts in some multi-dose vaccines (where the same vial is opened and used for multiple patients) to prevent contamination of the vaccine. Thiomersal contains ethylmercury, a mercury compound which is related to, but significantly less toxic than, the neurotoxic pollutant methylmercury. Despite decades of safe use, public campaigns prompted the CDC and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) to request vaccine makers to remove thiomersal from vaccines as quickly as possible on the precautionary principle. Thiomersal is now absent from all common United States and European Union vaccines, except for some preparations of influenza vaccine. Trace amounts remain in some vaccines due to production processes, at an approximate maximum of 1 microgramme, around 15% of the average daily mercury intake in the US for adults and 2.5% of the daily level considered tolerable by the World Health Organization (WHO). The action engendered concern thiomersal could have been responsible for autism. The idea that thiomersal was a cause or trigger for autism is now considered disproven, as incidence rates for autism increased steadily even after thiomersal was removed from childhood vaccines. The cause of autism and mercury poisoning being associated is improbable because


id: vaccines-and-autism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism-2.md
category: reference
title: Vaccines and autism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:01.401652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccines-and-autism-20260505-0
summary:
Vaccines recommended from 1985-1994: Diphtheria Tetanus Pertussis Measles Mumps Rubella Polio Hib Hepatitis B (1991) Vaccines recommended from 2011-2020: Diphtheria Tetanus Pertussis Measles Mumps Rubella Polio Hib Hepatitis B Varicella Hepatitis A Pneumococcal Influenza Rotavirus Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccines were given together as MMR. Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis vaccines were given together as the DTaP. Regarding the latter, Sanofi Pasteur’s Tripedia DTaP vaccine automatically included autism on a long list of “adverse events” in 2005 due to unverified reports from consumers, although such reports did not "establish a causal relationship" to the vaccine at any point. === COVID-19 === A study, initially published in 2024, claimed that the COVID-19 vaccine could generate autism traits in male offsprings of rats. The study has been criticised early on by scientists for its dubious methodology, and has been, in the summer of 2025, retracted on the grounds of methodological concerns. == Celebrity involvement and social media == Some celebrities have spoken out on their views that autism is related to vaccination, including: Jenny McCarthy, Kristin Cavallari, Robert De Niro, Jim Carrey, Bill Maher and Pete Evans. McCarthy, one of the most outspoken celebrities on the topic, has said her son Evan's autism


id: alex-berenson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Berenson-0.md
category: reference
title: Alex Berenson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Berenson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:02.587679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alex-berenson-20260505-0
summary:
Alex Norman Berenson (born January 6, 1973) is an American writer who was a reporter for The New York Times, and has authored several thriller novels as well a book on corporate financial filings. His 2019 book Tell Your Children: The Truth About Marijuana, Mental Illness and Violence sparked controversy, earning denunciations from many in the scientific and medical communities. During the coronavirus pandemic, Berenson appeared frequently in American right-wing media, spreading false claims about COVID-19 and its vaccines. He spent much of the pandemic arguing that its seriousness was overblown. Once the COVID-19 vaccines became available, he spread misinformation about the safety and effectiveness of the vaccines. == Early life and education == Berenson was born in New York, and grew up in Englewood, New Jersey. After attending the Horace Mann School, he graduated from Yale University in 1994 with bachelor's degrees in history and economics. == Career == Berenson joined The Denver Post in June 1994 as a business reporter. In August 1996, he left the Post to join TheStreet, a financial news website founded by Jim Cramer. In December 1999, Berenson joined The New York Times as a business investigative reporter. In the fall of 2003 and


id: sucharit-bhakdi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi-0.md
category: reference
title: Sucharit Bhakdi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:03.805303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sucharit-bhakdi-20260505-0
summary:
Sucharit Bhakdi is a retired Thai-German microbiologist. In 2020 and 2021 Bhakdi became a prominent source of misinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic, claiming that the pandemic was "fake" and that COVID-19 vaccines were going to decimate the world's population. He was a professor at the University of Mainz, where he was head of the Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene. The university has disassociated itself from Bhakdi's views on the coronavirus pandemic. In 2021 Bhakdi's publisher broke off relations following the appearance of an online video in which Bhakdi made antisemitic comments. == Early life and education == Bhakdi (Thai: สุจริต ภักดี Thai pronunciation: [sut̚˨˩.t͡ɕa˨˩.rit̚˨˩ pʰak̚˦˥.diː˧]) was born Sucharit Punyaratabandhu, Thai: สุจริต บุณยรัตพันธุ์, 1 November 1946, in Washington, D.C.; his parents are Thai diplomats. In an interview, Bhakdi stated that his mother studied at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Bhakdi studied at the Universities of Bonn, Gießen, Mainz and Copenhagen, and at the Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology in Freiburg. He studied medicine at the University of Bonn from 1963 to 1970, during part of which (from 1966 to 1970) he was a scholarship holder of the German Academic Exchange Service. Bhakdi worked for a while as a private assistant


id: sucharit-bhakdi-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi-1.md
category: reference
title: Sucharit Bhakdi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:03.805303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sucharit-bhakdi-20260505-0
summary:
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Bhakdi started a YouTube channel proposing that the number of deaths stemming from SARS-CoV-2 infection had been overstated. In November 2020 his account was terminated for violating YouTube's community guidelines. One of his first videos was published 18 March 2020; it went viral, with 300,000 views by 23 March. In the video, he predicted the worst "horror scenario" would be a million infections and 30 deaths a day in Germany, and that death rates in Northern Italy and China were higher only because of high air pollution there (even though Germany typically has more deaths due to pollution than Italy). Bhakdi has made a number of false statements about the COVID-19 pandemic, saying that the pandemic is a "fake", that face masks and quarantines are "nonsense" and that the COVID-19 vaccines are deadly and will decimate the global population. He has been otherwise criticised for his theses on the COVID-19 pandemic; according to Medical Tribune, they are considered unscientific by a majority of experts. === Bhakdi's criticisms of the COVID-19 pandemic response === His criticisms of states' (most particularly Germany's) reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic have included: Writing an open Letter in March 2020 to German


id: bulgarian-national-alliance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Alliance-0.md
category: reference
title: Bulgarian National Alliance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Alliance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:05.031077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bulgarian-national-alliance-20260505-0
summary:
The Bulgarian National Alliance, also called the Bulgarian National Union, is a Bulgarian far-right informal organization headquartered in Sofia, founded in 2001 by Boyan Rassate, which claims to be a successor to the fascist Union of Bulgarian National Legions, led by general Hristo Lukov. == History == The long-time leader of the organization is Boyan Stankov, who goes under the pseudonym Rasate, host of National Guard (Bulgarian: Национална гвардия) on the Balkan Bulgarian Television channel. In 2010, he stepped down as leader. In his place, Zvezdomir Andronov, Asen Krastev and Nikolai Nikolaev were elected co-leaders. In August 2007, after riots and demonstrations in the Krasna Polyana district in Sofia, BNA "Edelweiss" announced that they would create a "national guard" – an organization to protect Bulgarians, mainly from "Gypsy terror". Former leader Boyan Rasate headed the list of the Bulgarian National Union - New Democracy (BNU-ND) for the early parliamentary elections on October 5, 2014. On this occasion, BNA "Edelweiss" issued a public statement emphasizing that they are not related to the BNS-ND party and that BNA "Edelweiss" does not "explicitly or implicitly" support any of the political parties participating in the elections. The organization cooperates in joint initiatives with the


id: bulgarian-national-unification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Unification-0.md
category: reference
title: Bulgarian National Unification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Unification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:06.213828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bulgarian-national-unification-20260505-0
summary:
The Resistance (Bulgarian: Съпротива, romanized: Saprotiva) is a Bulgarian nationalist political party. The leader of the party is chalga singer Georgi Georgiev-Goti. Before 2014, the party was called Bulgarian National Unification (Bulgarian: Българско национално обединение, romanized: Bŭlgarsko natsionalno obedinenie; BNO) == History == On December 1, 2013, the Association of Bulgarian Pensioners, Bulgarian Criminal Detachment, Association of Argoecological Producers and others. establish the Bulgarian National Unification party with Georgi Georgiev as chairman. The party describes itself as center-left and patriotic. BNO states that it will fight for a complete revision of the status quo, raising the standard of living by stimulating the economy and offering better conditions for small and medium-sized businesses. On March 20, 2014, BNO was officially registered by the court. BNO participated in several elections, but received more media attention in 2016, when it nominated Mityo Pishtova for presidential candidate. In 2019, Evgenia Baneva was nominated as an MEP, but soon after they withdrew their support for her. In February 2021, BNO became a mandate holder and submitted its lists for the parliamentary elections in April to the Civil Platform "Bulgarian Summer", which was established by businessman Vasil Bozhkov. === Renaming === Prior to the October 2024


id: bulgarian-patriots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Patriots-0.md
category: reference
title: Bulgarian Patriots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Patriots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:07.363458+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bulgarian-patriots-20260505-0
summary:
The Bulgarian Patriots (Bulgarian: Българските патриоти, romanized: Bŭlgarskite patrioti) was a nationalist electoral alliance formed by VMRO, Volya, and the National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria. The leaders of the three parties will not be MP candidates, as proposed by VRMO leader Krasimir Karakachanov, due to previous infighting that brought down earlier "patriotic" coalitions. == Electoral history == == References ==


id: cease-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEASE_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: CEASE therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEASE_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:08.520548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cease-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
CEASE (Complete Elimination of Autistic Spectrum Expression) therapy is a pseudoscientific practice used by naturopaths (particularly homeopaths) who claim that it can treat or even cure people with autism, claims which have been adjudicated by the UK's Advertising Standards Authority as "bogus". It involves a mixture of supplements, high-dose vitamin C, 'orthomolecular support', dietary restrictions, and homeopathy. The therapy was developed by Dutch doctor Tinus Smits, who claimed to have used it to treat over 300 children with autism. It became more notable in 2017/2018 because of regulatory action taken by professional bodies in The Netherlands, UK, and Canada following a series of complaints about unfounded claims. Smits in the book Autism Beyond Despair – CEASE Therapy stated that autistic children should never be vaccinated. == Regulatory action == In October 2017, the Dutch Advertising Code Foundation (Stichting Reclame Code) found that the official website for CEASE therapy was in breach of advertising regulations. In 2022, The United Kingdom's National Health Service (NHS) warned against CEASE therapy, which rejects vaccinations and recommends potentially harmful amounts of dietary supplements. In the United Kingdom, in April 2018 the Professional Standards Authority (PSA) placed some requirements on the Society of Homeopaths (SoH), due


id: cia-fake-vaccination-campaign-in-pakistan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_fake_vaccination_campaign_in_Pakistan-0.md
category: reference
title: CIA fake vaccination campaign in Pakistan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_fake_vaccination_campaign_in_Pakistan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:09.721422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cia-fake-vaccination-campaign-in-pakistan-20260505-0
summary:
During the manhunt for Osama bin Laden, the CIA ran a covert operation utilizing a fake hepatitis vaccine program in Pakistan to illicitly collect blood samples to confirm the presence of bin Laden or his family. The CIA recruited physician Shakil Afridi to administer hepatitis vaccines, and used the collected DNA to compare with the DNA of bin Laden's sister, who died in Boston in 2010. The program was ultimately unsuccessful in locating Osama bin Laden. It led to the arrest of a participating physician, Shakil Afridi, and was widely ridiculed as undermining public health. The program is credited with increasing vaccine hesitancy in Pakistan and a rise in violence against healthcare workers for being perceived as spies. The rise in vaccine hesitancy following the program led to the re-emergence of polio in Pakistan, with Pakistan having by far the largest number of polio cases in the world by 2014. == Aftermath == In September of 2012, after working for 30 years in Pakistan, Save the Children was expelled. In 2011, the program was condemned by Doctors without Borders. In February 2012, the program was condemned by the non-governmental organization InterAction. On January 6, 2013, the deans of twelve American


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-0.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
A variety of unfounded conspiracy theories and other misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines have spread based on misunderstood or misrepresented science, religion, and law. These have included exaggerated claims about side effects, misrepresentations about how the immune system works and when and how COVID-19 vaccines are made, a story about COVID-19 being spread by 5G, and other false or distorted information. This misinformation, some created by anti-vaccination activists, has proliferated and may have made many people averse to vaccination. Vaccine hesitancy has led to governments and private organizations around the world introducing measures to incentivize or coerce vaccination, such as lotteries, mandates, and free entry to events, which has in turn led to further misinformation about the legality and effect of these measures themselves. Critics of vaccine mandates have argued that such requirements infringe on individual medical choice and personal autonomy. In the US, some prominent biomedical scientists who publicly advocate vaccination have been attacked and threatened in emails and on social media by anti-vaccination activists. == Misinformation == Various false theories have spread in different parts of the world regarding the COVID-19 vaccines. === COVID-19 and variant related claims === ==== Prevalent COVID-19 skepticism ==== Prior to the vaccine launch


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-1.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
Recurrent claims, based on misinterpretation of statistical data, have been made regarding the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines. A frequent fallacy consisted in concluding on the ineffectiveness (or low effectiveness) of vaccines after noticing the apparently high proportion of vaccinated patients among COVID-19-related hospitalisations and deaths, without taking into account the high proportion of vaccinated people among the general population, thus committing the base rate fallacy; or without taking into account the tendency of people at higher risk of developing severe illness from COVID-19 to be vaccinated in priority, thus ignoring the Yule–Simpson effect. In the United Kingdom, a report from the Scientific Pandemic Influenza Group on Modelling (SPI-M), published in March 2021, predicted that 60% of hospitalisations and 70% of deaths would be among people who had received two doses of the vaccine, despite the latter remaining highly effective. The report stated: "This (modelling) is not the result of vaccines being ineffective, merely uptake being so high". Multiple studies have confirmed the effectiveness of a booster dose given on top of the two normal doses of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. There is evidence that those who have received a boosted dose experience reduced severity of infection, in addition to reduced


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-2.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
===== Bell's palsy ===== In late 2020, claims circulated on social media that the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine caused Bell's palsy in trial participants. Several pictures which had originally been published prior to 2020 accompanied these posts, and were falsely labeled as these participants. During the trial, four of the 22,000 trial participants indeed developed Bell's palsy. The FDA observed that the "frequency of reported Bell's palsy in the vaccine group is consistent with the expected background rate in the general population". Debate is still ongoing about whether or not there is a causal link between any of the major COVID-19 vaccines and Bell's palsy. However, experts agree that even if an association exists, it occurs extremely rarely and the effect is small (~10 cases per 100,000 vs 3-7 cases per 100,000 in a typical pre-pandemic year). Bell's palsy is usually temporary and known to occur following many vaccines. ===== Blood clots ===== Videos posted to Facebook and Instagram have claimed without evidence that 62 percent of people given an mRNA vaccine develop blood clots, and that Pfizer's COVID-19 vaccine causes blood to clot "in a minute or two". Studies have found possible causal links between the AstraZeneca and Janssen COVID-19


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-3.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Spike protein cytotoxicity ==== In 2021, anti-vaccination misinformation circulated on social media saying that SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins were "very dangerous" and "cytotoxic". At that time, all COVID-19 vaccines approved for emergency use either contained mRNA or mRNA precursors for the production of the spike protein. This mRNA consists of instructions which, when processed in cells, cause production of spike proteins, which trigger an adaptive immune response in a safe and effective manner. ==== Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ==== In October 2021, the website The Exposé used data published by the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), which misleadingly indicated that COVID-19 infection rates were higher among fully-vaccinated than unvaccinated people, to falsely claim that the COVID-19 vaccines were not only ineffective but were also causing vaccinated people to develop AIDS "much faster than anticipated". The website's claims were cited in a speech by Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro. The video of Bolsonaro's speech was removed from Facebook, Instagram and YouTube for violating their policies regarding COVID-19 vaccines. In January 2022, The Exposé promoted a conspiracy theory claiming that Germans fully-vaccinated against COVID-19 "[would] have full blown Covid-19 vaccine induced acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) by the end of [the month]." ==== Vaccines as


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-4.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Approved vaccines "not available" in the United States ==== Under U.S. FDA regulations, a product approved under an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) is considered "legally distinct" from a product that has received full approval by the FDA. Besides differences in naming and labeling to account for its approval, and increased FDA oversight over its production, there are no formulaic differences between the EUA and approved versions of a vaccine, and the two are considered interchangeable once approved. For example, the Pfizer vaccine has been labeled as "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine" since distribution began, but was assigned the United States Adopted Name "Comirnaty" upon its approval. Some anti-vaccine advocates have made claims surrounding scenarios where this distinction is allegedly applicable; claims have been made that no FDA-approved vaccine is "available" in the United States because doses labeled as "Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine" were still being distributed, and not "Comirnaty". This claim was cited by a group of Louisiana Republican lawmakers, Senator Ron Johnson, and in a lawsuit filed by the First Liberty Institute against a COVID-19 vaccine mandate implemented by the U.S. military. In the case of the latter, the plaintiffs claimed that the mandate applied specifically to Comirnaty only, and not


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-5.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Political divides and distrust in government ==== Discourses against COVID vaccines became part of QAnon's set of beliefs, as adherents used the pandemic to promote the conspiracy theory. In 2021, Romana Didulo, a QAnon-affiliated Canadian conspiracy theorist calling herself the "Queen of Canada" caused her online followers to harass Canadian businesses and public authorities with demands that they cease all measures related to combating the pandemic. She was apprehended in late November after calling on her 73,000 Telegram followers to "shoot to kill" all healthcare workers administering COVID-19 vaccines. Anti-government groups such as sovereign citizens and freemen on the land also took part in the anti-vaccine movement. During lockdowns in Bulgaria, many Roma neighborhoods claimed that they were subject to lockdowns without proper explanations even though the level of infections to other parts of the country were higher than their neighborhoods. The communities already held a distrust of institutions and the government, and helped create an even more strained relationship and lack of trust. In France, Florian Philippot and Nicolas Dupont-Aignan, right-wing candidates to the 2022 presidential election, have both cast doubts about the vaccine's effectiveness and safety. === Government investigations === In December 2022, vaccine-skeptical Florida Governor Ron


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-6.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy varies largely by region; however, regardless of region, medical professionals are vaccinated at higher rates than the general public. Estimates from two surveys were that 67% or 80% of people in the U.S. would accept a new vaccination against COVID-19, with wide disparity by education level, employment status, ethnicity, and geography. A US study conducted in January 2021 found that trust in science and scientists was strongly correlated with likelihood to get vaccinated for COVID-19 among those who had not already gotten vaccinated. In March 2021, 19% of US adults claimed to have been vaccinated while 50% announced plans to get vaccinated. A 2022 study found a link between online COVID-19 misinformation and early vaccine hesitancy and refusal. Despite a strong association between vaccine hesitancy and Republican vote share at the US county and state levels, the authors found that the associations between vaccine outcomes and misinformation remained significant when accounting for political, demographic, and socioeconomic factors. In the United States, vaccine hesitancy could be seen in certain social groups due to lack of trusted medical sources, traumatic past experiences with medical care and widespread theories. Distrust can be seen in the African


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-7.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
Dolly Parton recorded herself getting vaccinated with the Moderna vaccine she helped fund, she encouraged people to get vaccinated and created a new version of her song "Jolene" called "Vaccine". Several other musicians like Patti Smith, Yo-Yo Ma, Carole King, Tony Bennett, Mavis Staples, Brian Wilson, Joel Grey, Loretta Lynn, Willie Nelson, and Paul Stanley have all released photographs of them being vaccinated and encouraged others to do so. Grey stated "I got the vaccine because I want to be safe. We've lost so many people to COVID. I've lost a few friends. It's heartbreaking. Frightening." Many actors including Amy Schumer, Rosario Dawson, Arsenio Hall, Danny Trejo, Mandy Patinkin, Samuel L. Jackson, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sharon Stone, Kate Mulgrew, Jeff Goldblum, Jane Fonda, Anthony Hopkins, Bette Midler, Kim Cattrall, Isabella Rossellini, Christie Brinkley, Cameran Eubanks, Hugh Bonneville, Alan Alda, David Harbour, Sean Penn, Amanda Kloots, Ian McKellen and Patrick Stewart have released photographs of themselves getting vaccinated and encouraging others to do the same. Judi Dench and Joan Collins announced they have been vaccinated. Other TV personalities such as Martha Stewart, Jonathan Van Ness, Al Roker and Dan Rather released photographs of themselves getting vaccinated and encouraged others to do the


id: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy-8.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:12.220688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-and-hesitancy-20260505-0
summary:
In France, since September 2021, all health care workers must have received at least one dose of the vaccine to continue working with any resisters suspended without pay. Additional worker groups that have been mandated to do so earlier in the year are military members and firefighters. In November 2021, Austria announced that it would introduce a nationwide vaccine mandate. In the United States, many businesses, schools and universities, healthcare providers, and governmental and state departments have enacted vaccine mandates. While many of the mandates allowed for a person to opt out due to medical or religious reasons and be regularly tested, the federal mandate signed in September 2021 did not include these options. The federal mandate was eventually struck down. Some of the mandates were focused only on specific groups, such as Rutgers University, which only mandated the vaccine for students and health-care and public-safety employees. The mandates have seen push back with a New York Judge temporarily blocking one for healthcare workers who claimed they could not opt out due to religious reasons, and Arizona Attorney General Mark Brnovich suing the Biden administration for its vaccine mandate for federal employees and private businesses with over 100 employees. Additional


id: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy-0.md
category: reference
title: Direction – Social Democracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:13.478865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
summary:
Direction – Social Democracy (Slovak: Smer – sociálna demokracia), also commonly referred to as Smer, is a left-wing populist and left-wing nationalist political party in Slovakia led by its founder and incumbent prime minister, Robert Fico. The party identifies as social-democratic, and was described as a combination of "leftist economics and nationalist appeal". Founded by Fico in 1999 as a split from the post-communist Party of the Democratic Left, Smer initially defined itself as the Third Way party. It incorporated ‘Social Democracy’ into its name after merging with several minor centre-left parties in 2005. It has dominated Slovak politics since 2006, leading three coalition governments (2006–2010, 2016–2020, 2023–present) and one single-party government (2012–2016). During its time in power, it continued the European integration of Slovakia, reversed some economically liberal reforms implemented by previous centre-right governments and introduced various social welfare measures. Smer-led governments have been associated with numerous political corruption scandals. After the 2020 parliamentary election, which marked Smer's return to the opposition, Slovak authorities investigated a number of corruption-related crimes involving multiple party politicians and individuals reportedly linked to the party. Smer strongly rejected all charges, calling it the criminalization of politics.[1] At the party congress in July 2020,


id: direction-social-democracy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy-1.md
category: reference
title: Direction – Social Democracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:13.478865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
summary:
In the 2012 Slovak parliamentary election, Smer won 44.4% of the votes and became the largest party in the National Council, with an absolute majority of 83 seats (out of 150). Fico's Second Cabinet was the first single-party government in Slovakia since 1993. In the 2014 European Parliament election in Slovakia, Smer came in first place nationally, receiving 24.09% of the vote and electing four Members of the European Parliament. In 2014, in cooperation with the Christian Democratic Movement (KDH), the party passed a constitutional amendment defining marriage exclusively as a union between a man and a woman. The amendment also states that marriage, parenthood, and family are under the protection of the law, and that children and young people are guaranteed special protection Despite suffering a significant loss in support as a result of strikes by teachers and nurses earlier in the year, Smer won the 5 March 2016 parliamentary election with 28.3% of the vote and 49 of 150 seats, and subsequently formed Fico's Third Cabinet in a coalition government with Bridge, Network, and the Slovak National Party. Prime Minister Fico resigned in the wake of the political crisis following the murder of Ján Kuciak and was replaced


id: direction-social-democracy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy-2.md
category: reference
title: Direction – Social Democracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:13.478865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Social policy ==== In 2025, in cooperation with KDH, the party passed a constitutional amendment introducing further provisions related to cultural, ethical, and family issues. The amendment legally recognizes only two sexes, defined by biological criteria, and states that a mother is a woman and a father is a man. It bans surrogacy and guarantees a child's right to know their parents. Adoption is restricted to married heterosexual couples. The amendment also strengthens parental rights, particularly in the area of education, and requires school curricula to align with the cultural and ethical values set out in the Slovak Constitution. It affirms Slovakia's sovereignty in matters such as the protection of life, human dignity, marriage, parenthood, family, culture, language, and related areas of healthcare, education, and upbringing. It further states that Slovak law in these domains takes precedence over European Union law. In 2025, the party's government passed a law amendment requiring NGOs to submit an annual "transparency report" starting in 2026. The report must include details of donors who contribute more than 5,000 euros, including their full names. NGOs will also be required to disclose information about their governing bodies or members of those bodies. Furthermore, NGOs will be


id: direction-social-democracy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy-3.md
category: reference
title: Direction – Social Democracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:13.478865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
summary:
While scholars avoid labeling it as a far-right party, they have described it as incorporating far-right themes, expressing views that resonate with far-right voters, or advancing an electoral program aligned with far-right agendas. Natalia Hatarova described the party's ideological drift:During the ‘90s and into the next century, Smer became increasingly Euro-optimistic, economically open, and culturally mainstream. After the killings of the Slovak investigative journalist Jan Kuciak and his fiancée in 2018, Fico’s resignation and his temporary exile from mainstream politics, Smer, along with other parties, became more culturally conservative, nationalistic, and Euro-skeptic. Hatarova also argues that Smer has become increasingly friendly towards some European far-right parties and figures, such as Viktor Orbán of the Hungarian Fidesz party. However, she concludes that Smer's shift "appears to be caused by pure opportunism rather than continuous influence by Orbán [or other far-right figures]". === Economic policy === Smer advocates economically left-wing policies. The main economic proposals of the party focus on the establishment of a welfare state and supporting the poorest groups of Slovakia. Many of the party's socioeconomic policies, such as free travel for pensioners and pension increases are considered typically left-wing populist. The party also promotes redistributive policies, such as corporate


id: direction-social-democracy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy-4.md
category: reference
title: Direction – Social Democracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:13.478865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Foreign policy === Smer holds Russophilic and Eurosceptic stances on foreign policy; however, it claims to support Slovakia's membership in the European Union and NATO. The party expresses strong anti-Western, especially anti-American sentiment, often spreading Russian propaganda narratives. Regarding the Russo-Ukrainian War, Smer advocates for ending military aid to Ukraine and lifting sanctions against Russia. The party has described the conflict as a proxy war between the United States and Russia, characterizing Russia's actions as a response to perceived threats to its national interests. In its statements, Smer has claimed that the war was provoked in 2014 by what it describes as the "extermination of citizens of Russian nationality by Ukrainian fascists." However, since his return to power, Fico has taken a somewhat different line on Ukraine than during his election campaign. During a meeting with Ukrainian Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal in January 2024, Fico promised not to block private Slovak arms companies from selling to Ukraine, not to block EU financial support for Ukraine, and to support the accession of Ukraine to the European Union. He described Slovakia's political differences with Ukraine as "minor" and claimed to support Ukraine's sovereignty and territorial integrity. In its foreign policy manifesto,


id: direction-social-democracy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy-5.md
category: reference
title: Direction – Social Democracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:13.478865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Appearances in Russian-aligned media ==== Leading figures of the Smer party, including the PM and party's leader Robert Fico and the deputy leader and MEP Ľuboš Blaha, have maintained a presence on media platforms in Slovakia known for promoting Russian-aligned narratives. Among these outlets are Hlavné Správy (Main News) and Infovojna (Infowar), both widely recognized as prominent sources of disinformation and Russian propaganda in Slovakia. Despite Hlavné Správy and Infovojna having been temporarily suspended by the National Security Authority in accordance with the Cyber Security Act following the onset of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 due to identified harmful activity, the leaders continue to utilize these platforms for communication after the suspension was lifted. In December 2023, Robert Fico appeared on Infovojna, where he expressed appreciation towards "alternative media" for "correcting the distortions we have in the media market." Additionally, in October 2024, Fico appeared on Russia's state-owned television network, Rossiya 1, during the program 60 Minutes, hosted by Olga Skabeyeva. Fico criticized Western support for Ukraine, questioned the effectiveness of sanctions against Russia, and accused the West of "prolonging the war" in Ukraine. His appearance marked the first by a political leader from an EU


id: direction-social-democracy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy-6.md
category: reference
title: Direction – Social Democracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:13.478865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Communist nostalgia ==== Following a major internal split that resulted in the founding of a new party named Voice – Social Democracy (Hlas), the party began to radicalize its rhetoric, including expressing nostalgia for the prior communist state. The party politicians utilize slogans reminiscent of the communist era, such as "Loiterers from cafes, to fields and factories" and the greeting "Greetings, comrades! Honor work!" In January 2024, Prime Minister and party chairman Robert Fico and Deputy Speaker of the National Council and party vice-chairman Ľuboš Blaha visited the grave of Gustav Husák, the last communist president of the Czechoslovakia, to pay their respects. Husák was a key figure in the normalization process in Czechoslovakia – a return to strict Communist Party control and the suppression of political liberalization following the Warsaw Pact invasion in 1968. In November 2023, Blaha replaced a portrait of President Zuzana Čaputová in his parliamentary office with a portrait of Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara. In his speech at the Smer-organized commemoration of the anniversary of the Slovak National Uprising in August 2023, Blaha addressed the crowd as "comrades" and stated, "The basic historical truth is that war and fascism have always come from the


id: direction-social-democracy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy-7.md
category: reference
title: Direction – Social Democracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_–_Social_Democracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:13.478865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: direction-social-democracy-20260505-0
summary:
== Legal issues == Since the 2020 parliamentary election – Smer's return to the opposition, Slovak authorities have been investigating a number of corruption-related crimes. By August 2023, a total of 42 individuals reportedly linked to the party, including policemen, prosecutors, judges, members of the Slovak intelligence agency, politicians, officials, and businessmen were convicted.[2] The party strongly rejects all charges, calling it the criminalization of politics.[3] Numerous criticisms of the investigation process and the Special Prosecutor's Office were outlined in the brochure 'Overview of Violations of the Principles of the Rule of Law in the Years 2020–2023' published by the Ministry of Justice led by Boris Susko of Smer in December 2023.[4] In March 2023, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Defense, Robert Kaliňák, who previously served as Minister of Interior, and businessman Jozef Brhel were formally indicted with bribery. Kaliňák was identified as the intermediary in a bribery scheme involving an annual sum of €200,000, purportedly arranged by Brhel for František Imrecze, who served as the President of the Financial Administration at the time. In return for the alleged bribery, Imrecze facilitated the passing of information regarding entities scheduled for corporate income tax audits and ensured the fulfillment of


id: disneyland-measles-outbreak-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneyland_measles_outbreak-0.md
category: reference
title: Disneyland measles outbreak
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneyland_measles_outbreak
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:14.671381+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disneyland-measles-outbreak-20260505-0
summary:
The Disneyland measles outbreak began at the Disneyland Resort, California, in December 2014, and spread to seven states in the United States, Mexico, and Canada, before it was declared over in mid-April 2015. The first case of measles was reported on January 5, 2015, in an unvaccinated 11-year-old Californian resident. Between December 2014 and March 2015, 131 Californians were infected, with almost 90% of cases occurring in southern California. Linked to the California cases were 16 cases in six other US states, 159 cases in a religious group in Québec, Canada, and one case in Mexico. Almost all the Canadian cases were unvaccinated. The source of the initial Disney theme park exposure was not identified, but specimens from several cases matched with the recent measles outbreak in the Philippines. It triggered an international debate on vaccine hesitancy, particularly as it had spread to people who intentionally declined the vaccine and put vulnerable people who could not have the vaccine at risk. The outbreak prompted the California Senate Bill 277, laws that reverted the California personal belief vaccine exemption. Conclusions following examination of the outbreak pointed to undervaccination as a key cause. == Background == According to the Centers for Disease


id: enough-is-enough-party-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enough_is_Enough_(party)-0.md
category: reference
title: Enough is Enough (party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enough_is_Enough_(party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:16.993219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enough-is-enough-party-20260505-0
summary:
Enough is Enough (Serbian: Доста је било, romanized: Dosta je bilo, abbr. DJB) is a right-wing populist political party in Serbia. It was established on 27 January 2014 around the former minister of economy Saša Radulović and his associates from the ministry. Initially, the party had strong liberal, reformist, and progressive views, and in the 2016 parliamentary election they entered the parliament with 16 seats in total. Between early 2017 and 2018, its pro-European and liberal factions split off due to the internal conflict in the party. Since then, the party has shifted to the far-right and it began advocating souverainist and eurosceptic policies alongside numerous right-wing populist stances such as opposition to immigration. Its leader, Saša Radulović also promoted misinformation and several conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemic. == History == It was founded on 27 January 2014 as Association "It's Enough – Restart" (Serbian: Удружење "Доста је било – Рестарт", romanized: Udruženje "Dosta je bilo – Restart"), and since then it was commonly known as Enough is Enough (Serbian: Доста је било, romanized: Dosta je bilo; abbr. DJB). In 2014 Serbian parliamentary election, held less than two months after establishment, the organisation won 2.09% of votes. In yet


id: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles-0.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology of measles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:18.262071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-0
summary:
Measles is extremely contagious, but surviving the infection results in lifelong immunity, so its continued circulation in a community depends on the generation of susceptible hosts by birth of children. In communities which generate insufficient new hosts the disease will die out. This concept was first recognized by Bartlett in 1957, who referred to the minimum number supporting measles as the critical community size (CCS). Analysis of outbreaks in island communities suggested that the CCS for measles is c. 250,000. Due to the development of vaccination against measles, the world has seen a 99% decrease in measles related cases compared to cases before the vaccine was developed. == Incidence == In 2018, the WHO estimated that there were around 353,236 cases of measles worldwide. This has since decreased as in 2020 there were 159,000 approximate cases. Death from measles was reported in approximately 0.2% of the cases in the United States from 1985 through 1992. In populations with high levels of malnutrition and a lack of adequate healthcare, mortality can be as high as 10%. Increased immunization has led to an estimated 78% drop in measles deaths among UN member states. Even in countries where vaccination has been introduced, vaccination


id: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles-1.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology of measles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:18.262071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-0
summary:
As of May 2011, over 17,000 cases of measles had so far been reported from France between January 2008 and April 2011, including 2 deaths in 2010 and 6 deaths in 2011. Over 7,500 of these cases fell in the first three months of 2011, and Spain, Turkey, Macedonia, and Belgium have been among the other European countries reporting further smaller outbreaks. The French outbreak has been specifically linked to a further outbreak in Quebec in 2011, where 327 cases have been reported between January and June 1, 2011, and the European outbreaks in general have also been implicated in further small outbreaks in the US, where 40 separate importations from the European region had been reported between January 1 and May 20. In 2014 many unvaccinated US citizens visiting the Philippines, and other countries, contracted measles, resulting in 288 cases being recorded in the United States in the first five months of 2014, a twenty-year high. In Vietnam, in the measles epidemic in the beginning of 2014, as of April 19 there were 8,500 measles cases and 114 fatalities, and as of May 30 there were 21,639 measles cases and 142 fatalities. The increase of measles in January and


id: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles-2.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology of measles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:18.262071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-0
summary:
Canadian data since 1924 shows measles outbreaks occurring frequently until the large vaccination campaigns in the 1970s. The 1935 epidemic stands out during this early period, with 83,000 reported cases (770 cases per 100,000 population); the highest number of fatalities occurring in 1926, with 892. Immunization programs became widely spread during the 1970s, with an estimated 85% of the target population receiving one dose of vaccination by the end of the decade. However, the frequent recurrence of significant outbreaks (including 6,178 cases in 1991 alone) showed Canada's 1-dose strategy was lacking, even with provinces requiring immunization for school attendance. Two-dose MMR programs and catch-up campaigns were widely introduced in 1996-1997. The Canadian government defines endemic measles as a situation where a chain of transmission continues uninterrupted for 12 months. By this standard, Canada has been free of endemic measles since 1998, but sporadic imported outbreaks have continued. Southern regions of the province of Quebec witnessed a measles outbreak affecting 94 persons in the Spring and summer 2007. The outbreak lasted 25 weeks, included more than one strain of the measles virus and had 12-17 generations of spread. In 2008, Canada had more than 30 confirmed cases in Ontario in 2008,


id: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles-3.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology of measles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:18.262071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-0
summary:
Between January 1 and April 25, 2008, a total of 64 confirmed measles cases were preliminarily reported in the United States to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the most reported by this date since 2001, and the highest total number in six years. Of the 64 cases, 54 were associated with importation of measles from other countries into the United States, and 63 of the 64 patients were unvaccinated or had unknown or undocumented vaccination status. By July 9, 2008, a total of 127 cases were reported in 15 states, making it the largest US outbreak since 1997 (when 138 cases were reported). Most of the cases were acquired outside of the United States and affected individuals who had not been vaccinated. In early 2008 there was an outbreak of measles in San Diego, California. The outbreak is traced to an unvaccinated 7-year-old child who went on a family trip to Europe. The CDC refers to this as an "import-associated outbreak". The final diagnosis included 11 additional cases of measles in unvaccinated children in San Diego. All of the confirmed patients were not vaccinated because they were younger than 1, the minimum age for measles inoculation, or because


id: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles-4.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology of measles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:18.262071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-0
summary:
In February and March 2014, 20 confirmed cases appeared in New York City. In December 2014, a measles outbreak began at Disneyland in Southern California. At least 173 people have become infected with measles in 21 states, as of May 2015. Health officials say 39 cases have been traced to direct exposure at the park, with 117 infections linked by primary or secondary exposure. Among the 110 California patients, 49 (45%) were unvaccinated; five (5%) had 1 dose of measles-containing vaccine, seven (6%) had 2 doses, one (1%) had 3 doses, 47 (43%) had unknown or undocumented vaccination status, and one (1%) had immunoglobulin G seropositivity documented, which indicates prior vaccination or measles infection at an undetermined time. 12 of the unvaccinated patients were infants too young to be vaccinated. Medical professionals, such as David Gorski, have criticized physicians and pediatricians in the area who do not adhere to the CDC's recommended vaccination schedule or discourage vaccination, among them Bob Sears and Jay Gordon for reducing vaccination rates and thus weakening herd immunity, and creating a situation in which an outbreak was more likely. California passed a mandatory vaccination law in June 2015. In January 2015, it was reported that


id: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles-5.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology of measles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:18.262071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ukraine === Ukraine has had a multiple large outbreaks of measles. In 2001–2002, there were around 25,000 cases and 14 deaths reported. In 2006 with 44,534 reported cases with at least 2 deaths. 13,517 cases were reported in 2012. In 2019 Ukraine reported over 57,000 cases, over half the total reports in the WHO European Region. Ukraine has one of the world's worst measles epidemics with more than 100,000 cases from 2017 to June 2019, with 16 deaths in 2018. In 2016 only 31% of the population had been immunised with the MMR vaccine. Various reasons are given for the low rate of vaccination including: a distrust of the state in the 1990s, a failure to keep vaccine supplies reliably refrigerated leading to ineffectiveness, a poorly informed medical profession and a high level of vaccine distrust in the wider population. Children are required to be vaccinated before entering the school system, but UNICEF estimates that as many as 30% of vaccination certificates are falsified. === Germany === Germany has faced repeated outbreaks in the 21st century. 6,037 cases were reported in 2001 with at least two deaths. More than 1,500 cases were reported in 2006. 1,600 cases were reported


id: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles-6.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology of measles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:18.262071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-of-measles-20260505-0
summary:
=== Portugal === Most recent reported cases of measles in Portugal are originally imported from other European countries (United Kingdom, France and Romania), Africa (Angola, South African and Ethiopia) and Asia (China). Since 2004, Portugal reported 22 confirmed cases of measles. Virus isolates from 2005 and 2008 outbreaks belong the genotype D4. Vaccination coverage in Portugal is ≥95% (since 2006) but pockets of reduced immunization coverage (85-94%) still persist in the population. In 2021-22 Portugal has reported 0 cases of measles. === Romania === On December 5, 2023, the Romanian Ministry of Health announced in a press communique that there is a measles epidemic in Romania with over 2,000 cases registered. Anti-measles vaccination in Romania is continuing a descending trend, with 72% of the eligible population having received the first dose and 62% the second dose. == Oceania == === Australia === Fourteen cases have been reported in multiple Australian and New Zealand cities including Melbourne and Auckland in the period between December 7, 2013, and January 3, 2014. The outbreak is believed to have begun at the 2013 World Supremacy Battlegrounds dance festival held in Sydney, Australia. === New Zealand === Ten cases were reported in Christchurch in July


id: freedom-alliance-finland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Alliance_(Finland)-0.md
category: reference
title: Freedom Alliance (Finland)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Alliance_(Finland)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:19.472094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freedom-alliance-finland-20260505-0
summary:
The Freedom Alliance (Finnish: Vapauden Liitto, VL), is a national conservatist registered political party in Finland. The party was founded by Ossi Tiihonen after splitting from the Power Belongs to the People (VKK) party in February 2022. They met the 5,000 signatures requirement for registering as a political party in one day on 19 April 2022, and were officially registered on 6 May 2022. == Background == The Freedom Alliance was founded by influential members of the Power Belongs to the People (VKK) party, who left due to Ano Turtiainen's leadership and support of the Russian Federation and Vladimir Putin, as well as citing his authoritarian leadership and the religious views of the party. Ossi Tiihonen, founder of the Freedom Alliance, is a regional councilor for Lohja and was a member of the Finns Party before joining the VKK. Cia Grönborg, former party secretary, and Heli Rämäkkö, a previous vice-chairwoman, were also both influential members of the VKK and have worked as regional councilors for Espoo and Seinäjoki, respectively. They left the VKK due to perceived authoritarianism and lack of freedom to criticize the party leadership under Ano Turtiainen. In return, Turtiainen accused the splitters of being self-interested. == Ideology


id: george-s-day-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George's_Day_Movement-0.md
category: reference
title: George's Day Movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George's_Day_Movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:20.628298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: george-s-day-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The George's Day Movement (Bulgarian: Движение Гергьовден, romanized: Dvizhenie Gergyovden) is a nationalist political party in Bulgaria. The party was founded in December 1996 by members of the political satire television programme Canaletto. Members of the show, which succeeded Ku-Ku in the mid-1990s, participated in the 1997 Bulgarian protests, and had previously tried to create a party named the Ku-Ku People’s Movement in 1994, but the registration was denied by the Supreme Court of Cassation of Bulgaria, with tacit support from the two major political parties at the time, the Union of Democratic Forces and the Bulgarian Socialist Party. The founder of the party, Lyuben Dilov Jr. estimated that had it run in the 1997 parliamentary election, the party could have earned roughly 10% of the vote and over 30 seats in the parliament. Ultimately, it opted to instead focus on the local elections held in 1999, until which time it de facto operated as a union of clubs alongside the Civil Society Against Corruption Association. Future There Is Such a People founder Slavi Trifonov was a supporter of the party during this time and a member of the television program Ku-Ku and its successor. It joined the United Democratic


id: kim-goldberg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Goldberg-0.md
category: reference
title: Kim Goldberg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Goldberg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:22.194927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kim-goldberg-20260505-0
summary:
Kim Goldberg (born 1954 in Eugene, Oregon) is an American-born journalist, poet and green party supporter who has lived in Canada since the 1970s. == Biography == Goldberg was born and raised in Oregon, and she holds a degree in Biology from the University of Oregon. She relocated to Canada with her family during the Vietnam War years. She is the author of four non-fiction books and two collections of poetry. Much of her published work has addressed contemporary social and environmental issues including poverty, homelessness, aboriginal rights, deforestation and nuclear weapons. She was the British Columbia Current Affairs columnist for Canadian Dimension magazine from 1990 to 2002. She has written extensively about the 1990 car bombing of environmental activist Judi Bari in Oakland, California. Her 2007 book, Ride Backwards On Dragon, was a finalist for Canada's Gerald Lampert Memorial Award for poetry. She is the 2008 winner of the Rannu Fund Poetry Prize for Speculative Literature. Her 2009 book, Red Zone, is a collection of poems and photographs about the homeless population in Nanaimo, British Columbia, where she has lived for more than thirty years. The book has been taught as a literature course text at Vancouver Island University


id: krista-haynes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krista_Haynes-0.md
category: reference
title: Krista Haynes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krista_Haynes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:23.370163+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: krista-haynes-20260505-0
summary:
Krista Ford Haynes (née Ford; born September 13, 1991) is a Canadian former professional women's American football player. She is a daughter of Ontario Premier Doug Ford and niece of former Toronto Mayor Rob Ford. She was the captain of the Toronto Triumph, a team in the Legends Football League. Over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Haynes has shared COVID-19 misinformation and anti-vaccine and anti-mask sentiment, and has been critical of COVID-19 vaccine passports. == Lingerie Football League == Haynes, who was a student at Humber College, was one of more than 100 women who tried out for the first team when the league's Toronto franchise first opened for business in 2011. Press coverage of Haynes' tryout routinely mentioned that she was the niece of then Toronto mayor Rob Ford and the daughter of then city councillor Doug Ford. According to technology journalist Patrick Seitz, the league had lacked stars in its early seasons, so the limited press coverage the league received treated it solely as a "peep show". He asserted that Haynes and Angela Rypien, the daughter of former Super Bowl MVP Mark Rypien, were two potential stars the league could offer in its 2011 season.


id: hold-up-2020-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hold-up_(2020_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Hold-up (2020 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hold-up_(2020_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:24.482712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hold-up-2020-film-20260505-0
summary:
Hold-up is a 2020 independent pseudoscience propaganda film directed by French conspiracy theorist Pierre Barnérias. The film makes a number of false claims about the COVID-19 pandemic. Hold-Up was first released as a VoD on Vimeo 11 November 2020. Vimeo deleted the film the next day, citing the numerous lies in the film; DailyMotion likewise removed the film the next day. The film continues to be spread on social media among QAnon supporters. == Plot == Hold-Up claims that a global conspiracy plot had been formed by the world's elites, and particularly the World Economic Forum. According to the film, the SARS-CoV-2 virus was deliberately created for an excuse to enslave humanity. A full version of the documentary that remains online has been watched more than 2,000,000 times, while a trailer for Hold Up also remains visible on Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. All central claims of the film have been proven to be wrong, and the producers of the film have been shown to falsify their sources and misrepresent statements. == See also == Plandemic == References == == External links == official site Archived 2020-11-22 at the Wayback Machine Hold-up at IMDb Dazed & Confused: Reporting on Europe’s troubled


id: homeoprophylaxis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeoprophylaxis-0.md
category: reference
title: Homeoprophylaxis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeoprophylaxis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:25.781225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homeoprophylaxis-20260505-0
summary:
Homeoprophylaxis, or homeopathic prophylaxis, is the use of homeopathy, as a preventive medicine or immunisation against serious infectious diseases. == History == === Malaria === The concept came to wider notice in the UK after an undercover operation by the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Sense about Science and BBC Newsnight in 2006. Posing as a traveller to countries known to be affected by malaria a researcher visited pharmacies in London and recorded her conversations with homeopaths who offered the incorrect advice that homeopathic remedies could protect against malaria. Dr Peter Fisher, the then Director of the Royal London Homeopathic Hospital (since renamed to Royal London Hospital for Integrated Medicine) told Newsnight that there was "absolutely no reason to think that homeopathy works to prevent malaria" and that "people may even die of malaria if they follow this advice." Following the programme's broadcast the General Pharmaceutical Council (GPhC) began an investigation into some of the pharmacies involved but in 2011 announced it was dropping the cases citing improvements already made to prevent a re-occurrence and the cases not meeting the threshold criteria for a referral to the investigation committee. === Purported alternative to vaccines === In 2010 a


id: angas-johnson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angas_Johnson-0.md
category: reference
title: Angas Johnson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angas_Johnson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:28.049866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: angas-johnson-20260505-0
summary:
Edward Angas Johnson (1873 – 19 June 1951), known as Angas or E. Angas Johnson, was City Health Officer of Adelaide, South Australia. His name has very frequently been misspelled as "Angus" Johnson. == History == Johnson was born in Angaston, South Australia to James Angas Johnson (1841 – 19 May 1902) and his wife Catharine Johnson, née Williams (1841–1909), who married in 1866. James Angas Johnson's mother, Rosetta French Johnson (25 April 1813 – 23 August 1898), later Hannay, was the eldest daughter of George Fife Angas. The Johnsons owned a magnificent property, "St Catharine's" in Prospect, later the administration centre of Blackfriars Priory School. He was educated at Whinham College in North Adelaide, St Peter's College, and the University of Adelaide, but (with many others) was unable to complete the requirements of the Bachelor of Medicine degree in Adelaide because of the "Hospital Row", a toxic standoff between the Adelaide Hospital and the State Government in the mid- to late 1890s, (see Nurse Graham) and professional rivalries as exemplified by this exchange between Professor Archibald Watson and Dr Leith Napier, in which Johnson's name was mentioned. Hence, it was in Melbourne where he graduated in 1897, as did


id: jwa-list-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JWA_List-0.md
category: reference
title: JWA List
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JWA_List
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:29.208806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jwa-list-20260505-0
summary:
JWA List (German: Liste JWA, JWA), also known as JWA – Wirth Anderlan, is a right-wing populist and separatist political party active in South Tyrol, Italy. The party has the aim of representing the German-speaking minority, holds an Eurosceptic stance, opposes immigration, and is involved in anti-vaccine activism. The party's founder and leader is Jürgen Wirth Anderlan, former Südtiroler Schützenbund captain. == History == The JWA List was founded by Jürgen Wirth Anderlan in July 2023 with the aim of running in the 2023 provincial election. JWA ran on a right-wing platform, especially opposing immigration and advocating for the separation of South Tyrol from Italy. In the election, the party took 5.9% of the vote, fending off competition from the alike anti-vaccine Vita, becoming the province's fifth largest party, surpassing the established right-wing Die Freiheitlichen and electing two councilors, Anderlan and SVP-dissident Andreas Colli. In October 2024 Colli left the party and launched the alternative Us Citizens (WB). == Election results == === Provincial Council === == Leadership == Leader: Jürgen Wirth Anderlan (2023–present) == References == == External links == Official website


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-0.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:30.442608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
On 28 February 1998, a fraudulent research paper primarily authored by physician Andrew Wakefield, along with twelve other coauthors (titled "Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children"), was published in The Lancet, a British medical journal. The paper falsely claimed causative links between the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and colitis, and between colitis and autism. The fraud involved data bias and manipulation, and two undisclosed conflicts of interest. It was exposed in a lengthy Sunday Times investigation by reporter Brian Deer, resulting in the paper's retraction in February 2010 and Wakefield's being discredited and struck off the UK medical register three months later. In the paper, Wakefield fabricated evidence to suggest a new "syndrome" existed, which he called "autistic enterocolitis". Wakefield had been employed by a lawyer representing parents in lawsuits against vaccine producers, and had reportedly earned up to US$43 million per year selling diagnostic kits for the non-existent syndrome he claimed to have discovered. He also held a patent to a rival measles vaccine at the time. The scientific consensus on vaccines and autism is that there is no connection between MMR (or any other vaccine) and autism. == 1998 The Lancet paper


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-1.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:30.442608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple subsequent studies failed to find any link between the MMR vaccine, colitis, and autism. In March 1998, a panel of 37 scientific experts set up by the Medical Research Council, headed by Professor Sir John Pattison found "no evidence to indicate any link" between the MMR vaccine and colitis or autism in children. Public concern over Wakefield's claims of a possible link between MMR and autism gained momentum in 2001 and 2002, after he published further papers suggesting that the immunisation programme was not safe. These were a review paper with no new evidence, published in a minor journal, and two papers on laboratory work that he said showed that measles virus had been found in tissue samples taken from children who had autism and bowel problems. There was wide media coverage including distressing anecdotal evidence from parents, and political coverage attacking the health service and government peaked with unmet demands that Prime minister Tony Blair reveal whether his infant son, Leo, had been given the vaccine. It was the biggest science story of 2002, with 1257 articles mostly written by non-expert commentators. In the period January to September 2002, 32% of the stories written about MMR mentioned Leo


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-2.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:30.442608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Conflict of interest === Public understanding of the claims sharply changed in February 2004 with revelations by The Sunday Times of an undisclosed conflict of interest on Wakefield's part in that, two years before the paper's publication, he had been approached by Richard Barr, a lawyer of Justice, Awareness and Basic Support, who was looking for an expert witness to start a planned class action regarding alleged "vaccine damage". Barr hired Wakefield at £150 per hour, plus expenses, and only then did they recruit the twelve children, actively seeking the parents of cases that might imply a connection between MMR and autism. Barr and Wakefield convinced the UK Legal Aid Board, a UK government organization to give financial support to people who could not afford access to justice, to assign £55,000 to fund the initial stage of the research. According to journalist Brian Deer, the project was intended to create evidence for the court case, but this only became publicly known six years after the Lancet report, with the newspaper's first disclosures. Based on Deer's evidence, the Lancet's editor-in-chief Richard Horton said Wakefield's paper should have never been published because its findings were "entirely flawed". Although Wakefield maintained that


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-3.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:30.442608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Manipulation of data === The Sunday Times continued the investigation, and on 8 February 2009, Brian Deer reported that Wakefield had "fixed" results and "manipulated" patient data in the Lancet, creating the appearance of a link with autism. Wakefield falsely denied these allegations, and even filed a complaint with the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) over this article on 13 March 2009. The complaint was expanded by a 20 March 2009 addendum by Wakefield's publicist. In July 2009, the PCC stated that it was staying any investigation regarding the Sunday Times article, pending the conclusion of the GMC investigation. Wakefield did not pursue his complaint, which Deer then published along with a statement saying he and The Sunday Times rejected the complaint as "false and disingenuous in all material respects", and that the action had been suspended by the PCC in February 2010. === UK General Medical Council inquiry === Responding to the first Sunday Times reports, the General Medical Council (GMC), which is responsible for licensing doctors and supervising medical ethics in the UK, launched an investigation into the affair. The GMC brought the case itself, not citing any specific complaints, claiming that an investigation was in the public


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-4.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:30.442608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Full retraction and fraud revelations === In an April 2010 report in The BMJ, Deer expanded on the laboratory aspects of his findings recounting how normal clinical histopathology results generated by the Royal Free Hospital were later changed in the medical school to abnormal results, published in the Lancet. Deer wrote an article in The BMJ casting doubt on the "autistic enterocolitis" that Wakefield claimed to have discovered. In the same edition, Deirdre Kelly, President of the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition and the Editor of the Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition expressed some concern about The BMJ publishing this article while the GMC proceedings were underway. On 5 January 2011, The BMJ published the first of a series of articles by Brian Deer, detailing how Wakefield and his colleagues had faked some of the data behind the 1998 Lancet article. By looking at the records and interviewing the parents, Deer found that for all 12 children in the Wakefield study, diagnoses had been tweaked or dates changed to fit the article's conclusion. Continuing BMJ series on 11 January 2011, Deer said that based upon documents he obtained under freedom of information legislation, Wakefield—in partnership with


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-5.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:30.442608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Aftermath == Characterised as "perhaps the most damaging medical hoax of the 20th Century", The Lancet paper led to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in the UK and Ireland. Promotion of the claimed link, which continues in anti-vaccination propaganda despite being refuted, led to an increase in the incidence of measles and mumps, resulting in deaths and serious permanent injuries. Following the initial claims in 1998, multiple large epidemiological studies were undertaken. Reviews of the evidence by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academy of Sciences, the UK National Health Service, and the Cochrane Library all found no link between the MMR vaccine and autism. Physicians, medical journals, and editors have described Wakefield's actions as fraudulent and tied them to epidemics and deaths. Among commentators drawing on Deer's investigation, academic Peter N. Steinmetz summarizes six fabrications and falsifications in the paper itself and in Wakefield's response: findings of non-specific colitis; timing of MMR vaccine administration and first behavioral symptoms; findings of regressive autism; ethics consent statement; conflict of interest statement; and methods of patient referral. Wakefield has continued to defend his research and conclusions,


id: the-patriots-france-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Patriots_(France)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Patriots (France)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Patriots_(France)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:31.618624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-patriots-france-20260505-0
summary:
The Patriots (French: Les Patriotes; LP) is a nationalist and hard Eurosceptic political party in France. Founded by former vice president of the Front National (FN) Florian Philippot, it was registered on 29 September 2017. The party strongly supports a French withdrawal from both the European Union (EU) and Eurozone. == Gallery == == Election results == === European Parliament === == See also == List of political parties in France Politics of France == References == == External links == Official Les Patriotes website


id: leviathan-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_Movement-0.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan Movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_Movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:32.744963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The Leviathan Movement (Serbian: Покрет Левијатан, romanized: Pokret Levijatan) is a neo-fascist political organisation in Serbia, that presents itself as an animal rights organisation. It is led by Pavle Bihali. == History == The organisation was formed in 2015 as an animal rights group, focused on safeguarding of stray dogs. In 2016, the movement became popular when videos of the members of organisation rescuing animals showed up on social media, as well as videos of them offering compensation for information on animal abusers. Initially, the movement only focused on animal rights issues, exposing animal abusers, and taking their animals away from them. However, the movement has shifted from solely being an animal rights group to openly talking about political issues, mainly illegal immigration. In 2020, the organisation announced that they will be forming a party that will participate in the 2020 parliamentary election, in a coalition with the far-right anti-vax "I live for Serbia" movement. Its leader, Pavle Bihali, appeared under a Russian minority ballot list for the 2022 election which was ultimately rejected by the Republic Electoral Commission (RIK) because it did not collect enough valid signatures. According to CeSID, the ballot list did not support minority rights, but


id: ethan-lindenberger-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethan_Lindenberger-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethan Lindenberger
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethan_Lindenberger
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:33.972187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethan-lindenberger-20260505-0
summary:
Ethan Lindenberger (born September 30, 2000) is an American activist known for his opposition to anti-vaccine disinformation campaigns. He received vaccinations, against his mother's wishes, on reaching the age of majority. In November 2018, Lindenberger used Reddit to ask for help on how he should proceed to get vaccinated. Lindenberger said his mother believed in conspiracy theories about vaccines and so he had not been vaccinated as a child. Around the age of 13 years old, Lindenberger began pursuing vaccines related resources, such as Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) articles, hence deciding that after reaching adulthood he wanted to exercise his right to be vaccinated. He says his mother rejected vaccination because of unfounded fears about adverse effects of vaccines. His father however was reluctant to vaccinate younger kids instead of everyone. His story, which involved intergenerational conflict, caught the attention of media and politicians. In March 2019, Lindenberger was invited to attend a US Senate hearing which dealt with epidemics of diseases such as measles, which can be easily prevented but are returning because of the dissemination of misleading information about vaccines. == References == == External links == Ethan Lindenberger on Facebook Ethan Lindenberger Channel on


id: list-of-anti-vaccination-groups-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_anti-vaccination_groups-0.md
category: reference
title: List of anti-vaccination groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_anti-vaccination_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:35.170428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-anti-vaccination-groups-20260505-0
summary:
A list of groups who are anti-vaccine, vaccine-critical, or vaccine hesitant. == Global == White Rose (disinformation group) World Chiropractic Alliance == Europe == === Austria === Democratic – Neutral – Authentic MFG Austria – People Freedom Fundamental Rights === Denmark === Freedom List === Finland === Crystal Party Power Belongs to the People Freedom Alliance (Finland) === France === National League for Liberty in Vaccination === Germany === Grassroots Democratic Party of Germany WiR2020 === Greece === Free People === Hungary === Normális Élet Pártja === Iceland === Responsible Future === Italy === 3V Movement Vita ENZIAN-Südtirol === Netherlands === List30 === Slovenia === Resni.ca === Turkey === New Welfare Party Party of Life without Imposition === United Kingdom === Humanitarian League (historical) JABS Let London Live National Anti-Vaccination League (historical) Pioneer Club (historical) == North America == === Canada === Vaccine Choice Canada Free Party Canada === United States === Anti-Vaccination League of America Anti-Vaccination Society of America Association of American Physicians and Surgeons The Autism Community in Action (TACA; formerly Talk About Curing Autism) Children's Health Defense Children's Medical Safety Research Institute Freedom Angels Foundation Health Freedom Idaho Informed Consent Action Network Learn The Risk National Vaccine


id: brian-martin-social-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Martin_(social_scientist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Brian Martin (social scientist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Martin_(social_scientist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:36.361961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brian-martin-social-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Brian Martin (born 1947) is a social scientist in the School of Humanities and Social Inquiry, Faculty of Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities, at the University of Wollongong (UOW) in NSW, Australia. He was appointed a professor at the university in 2007, and in 2017 was appointed emeritus professor. His work is in the fields of peace research, scientific controversies, science and technology studies, sociology, political science, media studies, law, journalism, freedom of speech, education and corrupted institutions, as well as research on whistleblowing and dissent in the context of science. Martin was president of Whistleblowers Australia from 1996 to 1999 and remains their International Director. He has been criticized by medical professionals and public health advocates for promoting the disproven oral polio vaccine AIDS hypothesis and supporting vaccine hesitancy in the context of his work. Martin has spoken at a British Science Association Festival of Science, and testified at the Australian Federal Senate's Inquiry into Academic Freedom. The crustacean Polycheles martini was named after him. == Biography == Martin was born in the United States in 1947 and raised in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He earned a BA in physics at Rice University in Texas in 1969, and, seeking to avoid


id: brian-martin-social-scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Martin_(social_scientist)-1.md
category: reference
title: Brian Martin (social scientist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Martin_(social_scientist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:36.361961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brian-martin-social-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Vaccines === Martin has offered support for the discredited proposal that oral polio vaccine caused AIDS. The hypothesis first came to notice in Rolling Stone magazine by way of journalist Curtis and AIDS activist Elswood in 1992, and was later further promoted by the journalist/writer Hooper and Martin, with Hooper crediting Martin for giving the OPV-AIDS link hypothesis "further publicity and credibility". Martin disputes the claim that he has been a supporter of the hypothesis, instead saying that he has "never argued in favour of the OPV theory", but has instead stated "that it was and remains worthy of consideration yet in many ways has been unfairly dismissed". A 2016 article in The Australian described Martin's 2010 paper as claiming "that medical researchers had colluded to silence the theory that the AIDS virus was caused by contaminated polio vaccines in 1950s Africa." Immunologist and research scientist Greg Woods refuted Martin's posit on the Tasmanian devil facial tumour disease stating Martin's 2014 paper in The Conversation on the theory behind the cancer "misrepresents the state of the science". In 2014, Martin published a paper characterising criticism of Andrew Wakefield's discredited claims about vaccines and autism as "suppression of vaccination dissent".


id: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation-0.md
category: reference
title: Vaccine misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:37.684169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
Misinformation related to immunization and the use of vaccines circulates in mass media and social media despite the fact that there is no serious hesitancy or debate within mainstream medical and scientific circles about the benefits of vaccination. Unsubstantiated safety concerns related to vaccines are often presented on the Internet as being scientific information. A large proportion of internet sources on the topic are inaccurate which can lead people searching for information to form misconceptions relating to vaccines. Although opposition to vaccination has existed for centuries, the internet and social media have recently facilitated the spread of vaccine-related misinformation. Intentional spreading of false information and conspiracy theories have been propagated by the general public and celebrities. Active disinformation campaigns by foreign actors are related to increases in negative discussions online and decreases in vaccination use over time. Misinformation related to vaccination leads to vaccine hesitancy which fuels disease outbreaks. As of 2019, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccine hesitancy was considered one of the top 10 threats to global health by the World Health Organization. == Extent == A survey by the Royal Society for Public Health found that 50% of the parents of children under the age of five


id: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation-1.md
category: reference
title: Vaccine misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:37.684169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Alternative remedies to vaccination === Responding to misinformation, some may resort to complementary or alternative medicine and homeopathy as an alternative to vaccination. Those who believe in this narrative view vaccines as 'toxic and adulterating' while seeing alternative 'natural' methods as safe and effective. Some of the misinformation circulating around alternate remedies for vaccination include: False: Eating yoghurt cures human papillomavirus: Eating any natural product does not prevent or cure HPV. False: Homeopathy can be used as an alternative to protect against measles: Homeopathy has been shown to be ineffective against preventing measles. False: Quercetin, zinc, vitamin D, and other nutritional supplements can protect from/treat COVID-19: none of the above can prevent or treat COVID-19. False: Nosodes are an alternative to vaccines: There is no evidence supporting nosodes' effectiveness in preventing or treating infectious diseases. === Vaccination as genocide === Misinformation that forced vaccination could be used to "depopulate" the earth circulated in 2011 by misquoting Bill Gates. There is misinformation implying that vaccines (particularly the mRNA vaccine) could alter DNA in the nucleus. mRNA in the cytosol is very rapidly degraded before it would have time to gain entry into the cell nucleus. (mRNA vaccines must be stored


id: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation-2.md
category: reference
title: Vaccine misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:37.684169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
False: Polio is not a real disease and the symptoms are actually due to DDT poisoning: The first major documented polio outbreak in the United States occurred in 1894 in Vermont. In the early 20th century, a polio epidemic started in the west causing 6,000 deaths and leaving 27,000 people paralyzed. In 1954, the Salk Institute created the polio vaccine putting an end to the epidemic and saving millions of lives. The incorrect theory that polio was related to pesticide poisoning predates the discovery of the polio vaccine. It was proposed in 1952 by Dr. Ralph R. Scobey in an article in the Archives of Pediatrics. Scobey argued that there were similarities between the symptoms of polio and various types of poisoning, and suggested that polio outbreaks might be more likely to occur during the summer and be related to consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables. While pesticides such as DDT are dangerous, as was shown by Rachel Carson in Silent Spring in 1962, they are not dangerous in the way that Scobey believed them to be, as a cause of polio. Studies have clearly demonstrated causal relationships showing that polio is caused by a virus. Vaccines have proven effective


id: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation-3.md
category: reference
title: Vaccine misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:37.684169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Effects on herd immunity === Vaccine-related misinformation has decreased the effectiveness of herd immunity, especially for measles. The World Health Organization reported that measles vaccine compliance dropped by 3% from 2019 to 2024. In the United States, measles vaccine rates officially dropped below the herd immunity threshold of 95% during the 2023-2024 academic year. Lancet Digital Health Journal stated that there are only a few percentage points of herd immunity that make the difference between having an epidemic and not having an epidemic, highlighting just how crucial it is to maintain concrete vaccination rates. Countries such as the United States, the UK, and Ukraine have reported increased measles cases alongside misinformation campaigns for the MMR vaccine. === Vaccine mandate exemptions === Multiple states across the US offer exemptions to vaccine mandates for medical, religious, and philosophical reasons. Medical exemptions are often requested by a physician when a patient is severely immunocompromised, usually due to cancer treatment, HIV/AIDS, or other pre-existing health complications. Religious exemptions typically surround vaccines whose development involved human fetal cells. Philosophical exemptions account for any exemption that does not meet the qualifications for medical or religious exemptions; these exemptions are based in personal beliefs and are


id: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation-4.md
category: reference
title: Vaccine misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:37.684169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
Communication strategies to counter vaccine misinformation and effectively improve the intention to vaccinate include communicating the scientific consensus that vaccines are safe and effective, using humour to dispel vaccine myths, and providing vaccine misinformation warnings. Compared to these, debunking vaccine misinformation and providing vaccine education materials work less in tackling misinformation. Scare tactics, and failing to acknowledge uncertainty is not effective, and can even backfire and worsen the intention to vaccinate. Research shows that science communicators should directly counter misinformation because of its negative influence on silent audience who are observing the vaccine debate, but not engaging in it. The refutations to vaccine-related misinformation should be straightforward in order to avoid emphasizing misinformation. It is useful to pair scientific evidence with stories that connect to the belief and value system of the audience. Interventions for parents/caregivers who make decisions about their children's vaccination are vital. Given the complexity of this problem, effective evidence-based strategies have yet to be identified. Although many wish to provide families with as much corrective information as possible, this often has unintended consequences. One study in 2013 tested four separate interventions to correct MMR vaccine misinformation and promote parental behavioral change: (1) Provide information explaining lack


id: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation-5.md
category: reference
title: Vaccine misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:37.684169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccine-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Some vaccine-preventable diseases have been eradicated === Vaccination has enabled the reduction of most vaccine-preventable diseases (e.g. polio has been eradicated in every country except Afghanistan and Pakistan). However, some are still prevalent and even cause epidemics in some parts of the world. If the affected population is not protected by vaccination, the disease can quickly spread from country to country. Vaccines not only protect individuals, but also lead to herd immunity if a sufficient number of people in the population have taken the vaccine. Eradication is the permanent elimination of an infectious disease worldwide through deliberate efforts, rendering further intervention measures unnecessary. To date, the only disease that has been successfully eradicated is smallpox. Poliomyelitis was targeted for eradication by the year 2000, and significant progress was made towards this goal, with the Western Hemisphere being declared polio-free and over a year having passed without any reported cases in the Western Pacific Region of the World Health Organization. An examination of the technical feasibility of eradicating other diseases preventable by vaccines currently available in the United States suggests that measles, hepatitis B, mumps, rubella, and possibly Haemophilus influenzae type b are potential candidates for eradication. From a practical


id: conservative-bulgaria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Bulgaria-0.md
category: reference
title: Conservative Bulgaria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Bulgaria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:38.924807+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservative-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
Conservative Bulgaria (Bulgarian: Консервативна България), previously known as National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria (Bulgarian: Национален фронт за спасение на България, romanized: Natsionalen front za spasenie na Bŭlgariya, NFSB), is a national conservative political party in Bulgaria. == History == The party was established on 17 May 2011 in sports hall Boycho Branzov in Burgas as the National Salvation Front for Bulgaria. Its founding was attended by over 820 people from across the country, mainly from the cities of Varna, Shumen, Asenovgrad, Pazardzhik, Plovdiv, Vratsa, Svilengrad, Lovech, Chirpan, Stara Zagora, Vidin, and Dobrich. The party was described as ultra-nationalist by foreign observers. The party elected three leaders - Valeri Simeonov, Valentin Kasabov and Dancho Hadzhiev. The Secretary of the party is Maria Petrova. The National Political Council includes 19 people, such as independent councilors from Burgas and hosts from SKAT TV (i.e. Velizar Enchev and Valentin Fartunov). Among the party's founders is former regional president of the Union of Democratic Forces in the city Vladimir Pavlov. The party was a member of the Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD) group during the 7th European Parliament. On 3 August 2014, a coalition agreement was signed between NFSB and VMRO called


id: nationalist-party-of-bulgaria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_Party_of_Bulgaria-0.md
category: reference
title: Nationalist Party of Bulgaria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_Party_of_Bulgaria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:40.081744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nationalist-party-of-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
The Nationalist Party of Bulgaria or NPB (Natzionalisticheska Partiya na Bulgaria) (Bulgarian: Националистическа партия на България), was a far-right nationalist political party in Bulgaria that was formed in 2013. Since then the party is believed to have carried out multiple attacks on illegal migrants and refugees within Bulgaria, however, these claims were never substantiated. Some commentators have compared it to the Golden Dawn party in Greece. == References ==


id: neutral-bulgaria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_Bulgaria-0.md
category: reference
title: Neutral Bulgaria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_Bulgaria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:41.199971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neutral-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
Neutral Bulgaria (Bulgarian: Неутрална България, romanized: Neutralna Balgarija) was a coalition of political parties in Bulgaria created to participate in the 2023 Bulgarian parliamentary election. The members are in support of the Russian Federation and Russian president Vladimir Putin, as well as in opposition to NATO. == History == The coalition was led by Nikolai Malinov, who was personally awarded by Vladimir Putin and has been placed under sanctions from the Magnitsky Act. Volen Siderov stood as the party's candidate in Sofia and Varna. The coalition received 0.40% of the vote, well below the 4% threshold to enter the National Assembly. The coalition fell apart during the lead-up to the October 2024 parliamentary election due to the ideological gap between the right-winged Russophiles and the left-winged communists, as well as internal opposition within the communist parties due to Malinov's espionage charges. Malinov would go on to form the Russophiles for Bulgaria to contest the elections. == Composition == === 2023 === === 2024 === == Electoral history == === National Assembly === == References ==


id: new-welfare-party-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Welfare_Party-0.md
category: reference
title: New Welfare Party
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Welfare_Party
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:42.416574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-welfare-party-20260505-0
summary:
The New Welfare Party (Turkish: Yeniden Refah Partisi, YRP) is an Islamist and ultraconservative political party in Turkey, founded on 23 November 2018. The party positions itself as the successor to the Welfare Party (Turkish: Refah Partisi), which was a prominent Islamist political party in the 1990s. The party's founder and leader Fatih Erbakan is the son of the late Turkish prime minister Necmettin Erbakan who was the founder of the original Welfare Party and the inspiration for the Millî Görüş ideology. == History == YRP was established by Fatih Erbakan, who aimed to revive the legacy of the original Welfare Party, which had been a significant political force in Turkey before its closure by the Constitutional Court in 1998 for activities against the principle of secularism. The founding of the New Welfare Party reflects an effort to re-enter the political scene with a reformed agenda that complies with the secular and democratic framework of the Turkish Republic while retaining a focus on Islamic values. On 21 January 2023, leader of the far-right Danish political party Stram Kurs, Rasmus Paludan was permitted to burn a Quran outside the Turkish embassy in Stockholm. Following the incident, the party protested Sweden in


id: niki-greek-political-party-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niki_(Greek_political_party)-0.md
category: reference
title: Niki (Greek political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niki_(Greek_political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:43.750060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: niki-greek-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
The Democratic Patriotic Popular Movement "Niki" (Greek: Δημοκρατικό Πατριωτικό Λαϊκό Κίνημα «Νίκη», romanized: Dimokratikó Patriotikó Laikó Kínima “Níki”), often shortened to simply Niki (lit. 'Victory'), is a far-right political party in Greece. It was founded by educator Dimitris Natsios in 2019. In the parliamentary elections of June 2023, the party received a percentage of 3.70%, electing 10 deputies to the Hellenic Parliament in which today, it forms the 7th Parliamentary Group. Its main programmatic positions are defined as, "Faith, Fatherland, Family", the radical restructuring of education in Greek schools, changing Greek nationality law in regards to immigrants and refugees and the adoption of measures to solve the demographic problem, such as supporting large families and the traditional family. The party is supportive of the Greek Orthodox Church and has been described as "ultra-religious". == History == The party was founded by the public education teacher and theologian Dimitris Natsios on 17 June 2019 in Thessaloniki, after the signing of the Prespa Agreement and one month before the 2019 parliamentary elections, in which he did not participate. He emerged in the polls shortly before the May 2023 elections. In that election, the first in which it participated, it garnered 2.92% of


id: one-nation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-0.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
Pauline Hanson's One Nation (PHON), commonly known as One Nation (ON), is a right-wing populist political party in Australia. It is led by its founder Pauline Hanson, who has been a senator for Queensland since 2016 and previously served in the House of Representatives from 1996 to 1998. The party was founded by Hanson in 1997 following her disendorsement by the Liberal Party and enjoyed an initial period of electoral success in the late 1990s. It polled second at the 1998 Queensland state election and won the third-highest vote count in both the House of Representatives and Senate at the 1998 federal election, though only winning a single Senate seat. It subsequently underwent a period of electoral decline and several party splits, while retaining representation in the Parliament of Queensland until 2009. Following Hanson's return as leader, the party won four seats at the 2016 federal election and retained representation across the following three federal elections, despite several high-profile defections. The party experienced increased popularity in and following the May 2025 federal election. After the Liberal Party's leadership challenge and falling out with the Nationals, Barnaby Joyce defected from the Nationals and joined One Nation in December 2025. Australia's richest


id: one-nation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-1.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
The 1998 Queensland state election produced One Nation's greatest electoral success, with the ALP winning 44 seats to be the largest party in the Assembly, the Coalition winning 32 seats and One Nation winning 11 seats. During the campaign, polling for One Nation led to commentators saying One Nation might secure the balance of power in a hung parliament. During the campaign, all three major political parties suffered a decline in voter support due to One Nation having entered the fray. The National Party saw an 11.1% drop in support, their Liberal Party coalition partners lost 6.7% and Labor's vote dropped 4.0%. To the surprise of many pundits, the One Nation Party received 22.7% of the first preference vote, giving them the second largest voter turnout for any party in Queensland during the 1998 election. One Nation drew the majority of its support from regional and rural Queensland, winning nine of its 11 seats in rural and regional electorates. With nearly 23% of the vote, One Nation gained a higher percentage of the vote than any other third party (i.e. not Labor or Coalition) at the state or territory level since Federation. This was also the only election at which


id: one-nation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-2.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
==== Internal disputes and claims of corruption (1999–2003) ==== The party was affected by internal divisions and has split several times. Lawsuits involving ex-members did eventually force Hanson to repay approximately $500,000 of public funding won at the 1998 Queensland election amid claims by Abbott that the party was fraudulently registered. Abbott established a trust fund called "Australians for Honest Politics Trust" to help bankroll civil court cases against the party. The suits alleged that the party was undemocratically constituted in order to concentrate all power in the hands of three people—Hanson, Ettridge and Oldfield (in particular Oldfield)—and that it technically had only two members: Ettridge and Hanson. Even though Hanson's fraud charges were dropped, the Electoral Commission of Queensland never reimbursed Hanson for the monies that they collected from the claim. Within a year of One Nation's electoral success, three of the 11 Queensland MPs elected had quit the party claiming the leadership had too much control over the party. The One Nation contingent in the Queensland Parliament split, with dissident members forming the rival City Country Alliance in late 1999. The first Annual General Meeting of the One Nation party was held in April 1999, which critic Paul


id: one-nation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-3.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
==== Revival of Pauline Hanson's One Nation (2013–2015) ==== Hanson rejoined One Nation as a rank-and-file member in 2013. Later that year, she unsuccessfully contested the Senate for New South Wales at the 2013 federal election. In 2014, Hanson was reappointed as leader by the One Nation executive. She contested the seat of Lockyer for the party at the January 2015 Queensland state election, falling 114 votes short of defeating sitting Liberal National Party member Ian Rickuss. In 2013, it was reported by One Nation that the party had more than 5000 members, with the figure rising since Hanson returned as party leader. In July 2015, Hanson announced that the party was renamed the original "Pauline Hanson's One Nation" and contested in the Senate for Queensland at the 2016 federal election. In the lead up to the 2016 election, Hanson arranged a "Fed Up" tour that began in July 2015 as part of her re-election campaign, flying in a private plane to Rockhampton prior to a Reclaim Australia rally, piloted by James Ashby. ==== Return to federal politics in 45th parliament (2016) ==== At the 2016 federal election the party polled 4.3% (+3.8) of the nationwide primary vote in the


id: one-nation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-4.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2019 election and 46th parliament ==== At the May 2019 federal election, One Nation polled 5.40% (up 1.12%) for the nationwide Senate primary vote. The party polled higher than their national vote in Queensland, taking 10.27% up 1.08%, of the primary vote in the senate. The PHON House of Representatives candidate for the Division of O'Connor, Dean Smith, was in December of the same year a target of recruitment for Neo-Nazi group The Base. In secretly recorded tapes of his "interview" by a recruiter, Smith tells of his hatred of immigrants and his wish to "save the race". He tells the recruiter that he had become "more and more extreme and passionate about my views", and disillusioned with One Nation and the possibility of a political solution. However, he was deemed too great a risk for The Base because of his political profile, so was not admitted into their ranks. In 2019, Hanson received widespread condemnation in the Australian media after claiming that domestic violence victims routinely lie to the Family Court. The Law Council of Australia called for the abandonment of a federal parliamentary inquiry into the family law system, citing concerns that the hearings were being used


id: one-nation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-5.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2025–2026 elections ==== In the lead-up to the 2025 Australian federal election to elect the 47th Parliament of Australia, pollsters recorded an increase in One Nations primary vote, particularly near the end of the campaign period where the party began to come close to or surpass their result at the 1998 Australian federal election. One Nation ran 147 candidates in the House of Representatives, and a Senate team for each state and territory except for the Australian Capital Territory. One Nation won 6.4% of the vote in the House of Representatives, the second-best result for the party since its inception. One Nation won a senate seat in New South Wales and Western Australia with Warwick Stacey and Tyron Whitten, doubling its Senate representation. Stacey resigned for health reasons shortly after his election, with Sean Bell, a former political advisor to Pauline Hanson, announced as Stacey's successor on 16 September 2025. In May 2025, South Australian MLC Sarah Game quit the party, citing brand issues associated with One Nation. It came after her mother, who had been leader of One Nation in South Australia, Jennifer Game, resigned from the party after she was not chosen to head the party ticket


id: one-nation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-6.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Contemporary === Writer Hans-Georg Betz described One Nation and Pauline Hanson in 2019 as among "the first prominent radical right-wing populist entrepreneurs to mobilize popular resentment against a very specific target — the intellectual elite" and that in the twenty-first century where "today's army of self-styled commentators and pundits summarily dismissing radical right-wing populist voters as uncouth, uneducated plebeians intellectually incapable of understanding the blessings of progressive identity politics, Hanson's anti-elite rhetoric anno 1996 proved remarkably prescient, if rather tame." Betz also argued that One Nation differs from European right-wing parties by focusing on its own brand of populism which he termed Hansonism based on Hanson's personality and debates unique to Australian society. Despite the party's early image as an anti-immigration party, the party has – since 2016 – run a number of migrant Chinese and Indian candidates in elections. Political scientist Ian McAllister argues the current version of One Nation from 2017 does not have much in the way of policy beyond an "anti-establishment stance" while others have argued it has changed to focus its policies on opposition to Islam. During the 2017 Queensland state election, One Nation disendorsed its Bundamba candidate Shan Ju Lin after her anti-gay


id: one-nation-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-7.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Welfare and pensions === One Nation is in favour of a substantial increase in the aged pension and disability support pension. It was reported in 2016 that One Nation had voted with the Liberal government on a number of welfare cuts. One Nation is also opposed to increasing the age of entitlement to 70 years, and supports a $100 a week increase under the work bonus scheme for pensioners. In 2024, One Nation cooperated with the Albanese government and minister Bill Shorten in reforming the National Disability Insurance Scheme to crack down on alleged misuse of the system and to rein in the growing costs of the program. === COVID-19 vaccines === Many politicians, commentators and scientists claim that One Nation senators have spread misinformation and conspiracies on the effectiveness and scientific basis of COVID-19 vaccines. One Nation opposes vaccine mandates, but denies being against vaccinations. However, in 2021, One Nation MLC Mark Latham said that vaccinated people should be exempt from Sydney's COVID-19 lockdown. One Nation introduced legislation in 2021 pertaining to COVID-19 mandates, with the bill proposing banning discrimination on COVID-19 vaccination status in the fields of goods, services, facilities, employment, education, accommodation, and sport. It was


id: one-nation-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation-8.md
category: reference
title: One Nation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:45.114297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-nation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Queensland === === Northern Territory === === Maps === == Leaders == === Federal === Unlike the Queensland state leadership, the changes of the federal leadership of the party were largely undocumented (besides Hanson's terms), due to previously having low media attention and confusion of branch leadership within the party. In August 2017, the party's constitution was changed so that Hanson would be party President for as long as she may wish, and to choose her successor, who may also continue until resignation. === New South Wales === === Victoria === === Western Australia === === South Australia === === Queensland === === Australian Capital Territory === == Members of parliament == === Current MPs === ==== Federal ==== ==== South Australia ==== Cory Bernardi MLC (2026–present) Carlos Quaremba MLC (2026–present) Rebecca Hewett MLC (2026–present) David Paton MP (Ngadjuri, 2026–present) Robert Roylance MP (Hammond, 2026–present) Jason Virgo MP (MacKillop, 2026–present) Chantelle Thomas MP (Narungga, 2026–present) ==== Victoria ==== Rikkie-Lee Tyrrell MLC (Northern Victoria, 2022–present) ==== Western Australia ==== Rod Caddies MLC (2025–present) Phil Scott MLC (2025–present) === Former MPs === == Donors == A 2019 report found that Pauline Hanson's One Nation Party had received over $6,000 in disclosed


id: our-homeland-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Homeland_Movement-0.md
category: reference
title: Our Homeland Movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Homeland_Movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:46.285774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: our-homeland-movement-20260505-0
summary:
Our Homeland Movement (Hungarian: Mi Hazánk Mozgalom [ˈmi ˈhɒzaːŋk ˈmozɡɒlom], Mi Hazánk, MH or MHM) is a far-right political party in Hungary. It was founded by Ásotthalom mayor and former Jobbik Vice-President László Toroczkai, along with other Jobbik dissidents who left the organization after the party's leadership moved away from its radical right beginnings and became more moderate. The party ran in the 2019 European Parliament election for the first time but did not win a seat. In the 2022 Hungarian parliamentary election, it became the third-largest party in the country, with a result of nearly 6%, far surpassing public opinion polls. In the 2024 European Parliament election, the party continued to increase its support, reaching nearly 7%. The party again received almost 6% of the vote in the 2026 Hungarian parliamentary election, maintaining its 6 seats. == History == On 8 April 2018, after the loss in the 2018 Hungarian parliamentary election, Jobbik president Gábor Vona, resigned and a reform congress was announced in the party. Toroczkai was the first to indicate his intention to run for the position of president, which was followed by the presidential application of Tamás Sneider, nominated by the acting presidency. Almost half of


id: our-homeland-movement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Homeland_Movement-1.md
category: reference
title: Our Homeland Movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Homeland_Movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:46.285774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: our-homeland-movement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social issues === The party strongly opposes LGBT rights. After the release of a children's book, Meseország mindenkié, which features LGBT members and ethnic minorities as characters, Dúró referred to the book as "homosexual propaganda" during a press conference and promptly ripped pages out of the book and then shredded them. The move caused significant controversy and garnered international attention. The party has called for a ban on LGBT pride marches. Eventually, the Fidesz government banned pride marches in the country in 2024, resulting in the largest pride march in the country's history. === Environment === In an interview with Mandiner, Toroczkai described Our Homeland Movement as "a unique green party in Europe", and thus the party is sometimes referred to as supporting some form of green conservatism. Toroczkai further said that "we are unwilling to accept that only anti-social and anti-human liberal parties can be green parties. We think that those who do not want to protect our environment, our forests, our beautiful Great Plain, Lake Balaton, our rivers cannot really love their homeland." === Health === Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary, the party protested against lockdown measures set in place by the government, accusing them of


id: party-of-young-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Young_People-0.md
category: reference
title: Party of Young People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Young_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:47.485935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: party-of-young-people-20260505-0
summary:
The Party of Young People (Romanian: Partidul Oamenilor Tineri; POT, lit. '[I] can/ [They] can') is a political party in Romania, founded by MP Anamaria Gavrilă, who had previously left the Alliance for the Union of Romanians (AUR). POT supported the candidacy of independent Călin Georgescu in the 2024 presidential election, even before Georgescu appeared in opinion polls. == History == The Party of Young People was founded by Anamaria Gavrilă on 31 July 2023. === 2024 elections === In the 2024 local elections, the party won 11 local councillor mandates. The party did not participate in the 2024 European Parliament election. For the 2024 parliamentary election, the party has nominated over 140 candidates from various professions (entrepreneurs, lawyers, drivers, sales specialists, engineers), including many candidates from the diaspora. === Support for Georgescu's candidacy === The Party of Young People attempted to register Anamaria Gavrilă's candidacy for the 2024 presidential election, but later gave up and chose to support Călin Georgescu following an internal poll. The party strongly associates itself with Georgescu and calls on Georgescu voters to vote for it in the parliamentary elections. Party of Young People campaigns heavily on social media, such as TikTok, Instagram and Telegram


id: patriotic-front-bulgaria-2014-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Bulgaria,_2014)-0.md
category: reference
title: Patriotic Front (Bulgaria, 2014)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Bulgaria,_2014)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:48.682823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patriotic-front-bulgaria-2014-20260505-0
summary:
Patriotic Front (Bulgarian: Патриотичен фронт) was a nationalist electoral alliance in Bulgaria between political parties VMRO and NFSB. == History == VMRO ran as part of an electoral alliance led by the political party Bulgaria Without Censorship (BWC) during the 2014 European parliamentary election, where both allied parties won a seat in the European Parliament. The signing of the coalition agreement between VMRO and NFSB marked the end of the BWC-VMRO coalition. The coalition agreement forming Patriotic Front was signed on 3 August 2014 and stated its goals to be "a revival of the Bulgarian economy, a fight against monopolies, achieving modern education and healthcare and a fair and uncorrupt judiciary." The members of the alliance included PROUD, National Ideal for Unity, Middle European Class, Association Patriot, Undivided Bulgaria, National Movement BG Patriot, Union of the Patriotic Forces "Defense", Revival of the Fatherland, National Association of Alternate Soldiery "For the Honor of epaulette", National Movement for the Salvation of the Fatherland and National Democratic Party. In 2016, the Patriotic Front successfully lobbied for a ban on the Burqa. == Elections == The coalition's electoral debut took place in the 2014 parliamentary election. === Statistics === == See also == Attack


id: patriotic-front-bulgaria-2021-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Bulgaria,_2021)-0.md
category: reference
title: Patriotic Front (Bulgaria, 2021)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Bulgaria,_2021)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:49.815132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patriotic-front-bulgaria-2021-20260505-0
summary:
The Patriotic Front (Bulgarian: Патриотичен фронт; PF) is a Bulgarian nationalist coalition participating in the November 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election. The coalition includes NFSB, Entire Bulgaria and BDSR. At the same time, the coalition does not include VMRO and Volya, which was in several coalitions before this one: Patriotic Front (2014), United Patriots, and Bulgarian Patriots. == Electoral history == === Parliamentary === === Presidential === == See also == Patriotic Front (2014-2017) United Patriots (2016-2021) Bulgarian Patriots (May–August 2021) == References ==


id: people-s-party-united-states-2017-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_Party_(United_States,_2017)-0.md
category: reference
title: People's Party (United States, 2017)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_Party_(United_States,_2017)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:51.021207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: people-s-party-united-states-2017-20260505-0
summary:
The People's Party (formerly the Movement for a People's Party, MPP) is a syncretic political organization in the United States which describes itself as having the goal of "forming a major new political party free of corporate money and influence." Initially a progressive political organization, Nick Brana formed the party after the 2016 presidential election as a successor to the "Draft Bernie for a People's Party" group. Bernie Sanders declined to be the People's Party's figurehead, instead, seeking the presidential nomination in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. In 2023, Brana joined the Robert F. Kennedy Jr. 2024 presidential campaign. == History == In 2017, Nick Brana founded the Movement for a People's Party (MPP) out of the "Draft Bernie for a People's Party" group, which had failed to gain Bernie Sanders's support. Brana had worked on Sanders's 2016 presidential campaign as the National Political Outreach Coordinator. In September 2017, the group gave an invitation with 50,000 signatures to Sanders to lead the creation of the People's Party, which Sanders ignored. In August 2020, the organization held a virtual People's Convention that was viewed by 400,000 people on various platforms. Speakers included former Democratic Party 2020 presidential election candidate Marianne


id: qanon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-0.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
QAnon is a far-right American political conspiracy theory and political movement that originated in 2017. QAnon centers on fabricated claims made by an anonymous individual or individuals known as "Q Clearance Patriot", more commonly known as "Q". Q's claims have been relayed and developed by online communities and influencers. Their core belief is that a cabal of Satanic, cannibalistic child molesters in league with the deep state is operating a global child sex trafficking ring and that Donald Trump is secretly leading the fight against them. QAnon has direct roots in Pizzagate, another conspiracy theory that appeared on the Internet one year earlier, but also incorporates elements of many different conspiracy theories and unifies them into a larger interconnected theory. QAnon has been described as a cult. During the first presidency of Donald Trump, QAnon followers believed the administration would conduct arrests and executions of thousands of members of the cabal on a day known as "the Storm" or "the Event". QAnon conspiracy believers have named Democratic politicians, Hollywood actors, high-ranking government officials, business tycoons, and medical experts as members of the cabal of pedophiles. QAnon is described as antisemitic or rooted in antisemitic tropes, due to its fixation on


id: qanon-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-1.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Previous "anons" === In its most basic sense, an "anon" is an anonymous or pseudonymous Internet poster. The concept of anons "doing research" and claiming to disclose otherwise classified information, while a key component of the QAnon conspiracy theory, is not exclusive to it. Q was preceded by so-called anons who also claimed to have special government access. On July 2, 2016, the anonymous poster "FBIAnon", a self-described "high-level analyst and strategist" who claimed to have "intimate knowledge of the inner workings of the Clinton case", began posting false information about the 2016 investigation into the Clinton Foundation and claimed that Hillary Clinton would be imprisoned if Trump became president. Around that time, "HLIAnon", standing for "High-Level Insider Anon", hosted long question-and-answer sessions, dispensing various conspiracy theories, including that Princess Diana was murdered after trying to stop the September 11 attacks. Soon after the 2016 United States elections, two anonymous posters, "CIAAnon" and "CIAIntern", falsely claimed to be high-ranking Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) officers, and in late August 2017, "WHInsiderAnon" offered a supposed preview that something was "going to go down" regarding leaks that would affect the Democratic Party. == Origin and spread == A 4chan user named "Q


id: qanon-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-2.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
QAnon first received attention from the mainstream press in November 2017. Newsweek called it "Pizzagate on steroids". Gossip columnist Liz Crokin, a Pizzagate follower, was one of the first public figures to embrace QAnon. She went on to become one of the movement's most prominent influencers. Fox News personality Sean Hannity and comedian Roseanne Barr spread the news about it to their social media followers in early 2018, and the conspiracy theory gained traction on the mainstream right. At this time, InfoWars host and far-right conspiracy theorist Alex Jones claimed to be in personal contact with Q. This led to the presence of QAnon followers at a July 2018 Trump rally for the midterm elections in Tampa, Florida, the first visible presence of the QAnon movement at Trump rallies. Some Christian pastors introduced their congregations to QAnon ideas. The Indiana-based Omega Kingdom Ministry tried to combine QAnon and Christianity, with Q posts and Bible quotes both read during church services. Some Christians, such as pastor Derek Kubilus, call QAnon heresy, but most U.S. pastors have not taken a stand against it. More generally, QAnon's rise coincided with increasing radicalization and violent episodes in American far-right movements. QAnon-related merchandise was widely


id: qanon-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-3.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
=== International following === Marc-André Argentino, a researcher of the movement, noted in August 2020 that QAnon-dedicated Facebook pages existed in 71 countries worldwide. In January 2021, researcher Joel Finkelstein told The Washington Post that the German and Japanese QAnon movements were "strong and growing", though according to a later New York Times report, the Japanese version (also known as "JAnon" [Japanese: Jアノン]) remains a fringe belief even among conspiracy theorists. Three pro-QAnon groups in Japan are known to exist as of 2022: J-Anon, QArmyJapanFlynn and YamatoQ. In April 2022, the Tokyo Metropolitan Police arrested several members of YamatoQ for breaking into a health clinic which provided COVID-19 vaccinations. Between March and June 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, QAnon activity nearly tripled on Facebook and nearly doubled on Instagram and Twitter. By that time, QAnon had spread to Europe, from the Netherlands to the Balkan Peninsula. In Germany, far-right activists and influencers have created a German audience for QAnon on YouTube, Facebook, and Telegram, estimated at 200,000 in 2020. German Reichsbürger groups adopted QAnon to promote its belief that modern Germany is not a sovereign republic but rather a corporation created by Allied nations after World War II, and expressed


id: qanon-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-4.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
Q made thousands of posts on 4chan and 8chan/8kun. These "drops" were often allusive, cryptic, and impossible to verify; some included strings of characters that are allegedly coded messages. Q used a conspiratorial tone, with phrases like "I've said too much" or "Some things must remain classified to the very end". To sustain faith in a final victory over the "cabal", Q used recurring phrases such as "Trust the plan", "Enjoy the show", and "Nothing can stop what is coming". Q's messages typically claimed that everything was going as planned, that Trump was in control, and that all his adversaries would end up in prison. Q also encouraged followers to do their own research by telling them to "Follow the White Rabbit". QAnon followers used the "White Rabbit" reference both as a hashtag and as the name of a Facebook group that had around 90,000 members in 2020. Many early posts advanced claims about "deep state" collusion with foreign powers. In 2018, Q mentioned geopolitical conspiracies such as the Obama administration having planned to send technology to Iran and North Korea. Later, Q found new targets such as Planned Parenthood, which they accused of harvesting fetuses for profit, or Ruth


id: qanon-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-5.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
Joe Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021, would be an elaborate trap set for the Democrats, who would be arrested en masse and executed while Trump retained power. Trump would be inaugurated on March 4, 2021, as the 19th president. Trump would be inaugurated again on March 20, 2021. After this did not happen, QAnon adherents predicted it would happen on August 13, 2021. The Arizona audit would prove election fraud, handing the state to Trump, and other states would follow suit in a "domino effect", resulting in Trump being reinstated as president. The 2021 California gubernatorial recall election result would be proven fraudulent, which would catalyze a national fraud audit, resulting in Trump returning to power. John F. Kennedy (the 35th president of the United States, who was assassinated in 1963) or his son John F. Kennedy Jr. (who died in a plane crash in 1999) would appear alive in front of a crowd in Dallas on November 2, 2021, and announce Trump's reinstatement as president and the installation of Kennedy Jr. as vice president. === Child sex trafficking and satanic sacrifice === QAnon effectively merged with Pizzagate by incorporating its beliefs – namely that children are being abducted


id: qanon-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-6.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
Due to the overlap between the two movements, some QAnon followers have joined the sovereign citizens, a loose grouping of vexatious litigants and tax protesters whose set of pseudolegal beliefs implies that most laws and taxes are illegitimate and can be safely ignored if one uses the correct procedures. In 2022, the Anti-Defamation League reported that sovereign citizen ideology was attracting a growing number of QAnon adherents, as their belief in the Biden administration's illegitimacy meshed well with sovereign citizens' broader anti-government views. In 2018, Q said that "vaccines [not all]" were part of the Big Pharma conspiracy. Later on, as anxiety and isolation linked to the COVID-19 pandemic fostered a rise of conspiracy theories and anti-vaccine discourse, many in the movement used the pandemic to promote QAnon. Very little of this was directed by Q posts, and Q did not mention the pandemic until March 23, 2020 (when they called COVID-19 the "China virus"), not using the name "COVID-19" until April 8. But influencers in the QAnon community were openly anti-mask and anti-vaccine, and helped spread denialism as well as other misinformation about the pandemic. QAnon conspiracy theorists touted drinking an industrial bleach (known as MMS, or Miracle Mineral


id: qanon-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-7.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
==== Multiple people ==== By 2020, it became accepted among researchers that the pseudonymous entity known as Q has been controlled by multiple people in cooperation. A stylometric analysis has suggested that two people likely wrote Q's posts, and that their "distinct signatures clearly correspond to separate periods in time and different online forums". An analysis of metadata of images posted by Q found that they were likely posted by someone in the Pacific Time Zone. By design, anonymous imageboards such as 4chan and 8chan obscure their posters' identities. Those who wish to prove a consistent identity between posts while remaining anonymous can use a tripcode, which associates a post with a unique digital signature for any poster who knows the password. There have been thousands of posts associated with a Q tripcode. The tripcode associated with Q has changed several times, creating uncertainty about the poster's continuous identity. Passwords on 8chan are also easy to crack, and the Q tripcode has been repeatedly compromised and used by people pretending to be Q. When 8chan returned as 8kun in November 2019 after several months of downtime, the Q posting on 8kun posted photos of a pen and notebook that had


id: qanon-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-8.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
The spread of QAnon has been accompanied by a series of slogans, catchphrases, buzzwords and hashtags that helped boost its popularity and online presence. Terms like the cabal or the Storm, and Q's recurring phrases like "Trust the plan" or "Enjoy the show" are among the most popular. Q's "drops" are also known as "crumbs" (Q has used the term) or "breadcrumbs". In turn, followers of the conspiracy who analyze these posts have called themselves "bakers" who assemble the "crumbs" to make "dough", or "bread", as they weave the clues into a better understanding of the narrative. One early rallying cry among QAnon followers was "Follow the White Rabbit". A popular QAnon slogan is "Where we go one, we go all" (frequently abbreviated as "WWG1WGA"), first used by Q in April 2018. The phrase "Do your own research" (or "Do the research") encourages people to look for "clues" that will confirm QAnon narratives. "Q sent me" has been a declaration of "allegiance" to Q. Other common phrases in QAnon parlance include "white hat" (a Trump supporter), "black hat" (someone in league with the deep state), "Great Awakening" (the point at which the public wakes up to the truth), "red pill"


id: qanon-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-9.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
==== The hidden enemy ==== A central element of QAnon's worldview is the belief in a hidden, malevolent force controlling society. This concept echoes medieval anxieties, such as fears surrounding witchcraft, secret societies, and demonic conspiracies blamed for societal ills. In particular, it closely mirrors accusations from texts like the Malleus Maleficarum, which claimed that witches secretly conspired with Satan to corrupt society from within. Historian Niall Ferguson argues that such moral panics often emerge during times of instability, as societies search for scapegoats and simplified explanations for complex crises. QAnon further incorporates themes from early-Christian Gnosticism, particularly the idea that the true nature of the world is hidden and accessible only to those with special insight or "gnosis". QAnon adherents similarly see themselves as uniquely able to discern the secret evil manipulating events behind the scenes. Additionally, this hidden-enemy narrative frequently overlaps with historical antisemitic tropes, portraying shadowy elites controlling world affairs. The fusion of these elements creates a potent narrative that positions followers as warriors engaged in a cosmic battle against a concealed, all-powerful adversary. ==== Satanic rituals and child victims ==== The Malleus Maleficarum argued that witches forged explicit pacts with the Devil—engaging in spells, nocturnal sabbaths,


id: qanon-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-10.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
Travis View, a researcher who studies QAnon, says that it is as addictive as a video game, and offers the "player" the possibility of being involved in something of world-historical importance. According to View, "You can sit at your computer and search for information and then post about what you find, and Q basically promises that through this process, you are going to radically change the country, institute this incredible, almost bloodless revolution, and then be part of this historical movement that will be written about for generations." View compares this to mundane political involvement in which one's efforts might help to get a state legislator elected. QAnon, says View, competes not in the marketplace of ideas, but in the marketplace of realities. The belief in "The Plan" that Q alleged was in place to defeat the deep state and the cabal boosted the confidence of QAnon followers, who were told that things were happening behind the scenes and that victory would inevitably follow if they trusted Trump and the secret plan. QAnon believers try to solve riddles presented in Q's posts by connecting them to Trump speeches and tweets and other sources. The New Yorker has likened QAnon to


id: qanon-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-11.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
According to an August 2018 Qualtrics poll for The Washington Post, 58% of Floridians were familiar enough with QAnon to have an opinion about it. Of those who had an opinion, most were unfavorable. The average score on the feeling thermometer was just above 20, a very negative rating, and about half of what other political figures enjoy. Positive feelings toward QAnon were strongly correlated with susceptibility to conspiracy thinking. According to a March 2020 Pew survey, 76% of Americans had never heard of QAnon, 20% had heard "a little about it", and 3% said they had heard "a lot". The survey showed 39% of those identifying as liberal democrats knew a little or more about Qanon while only 18% of people who were republican or leaned republican reported knowing a little or more about Qanon. In September 2020, a Pew survey of the 47% of respondents who said they had heard of QAnon found that 41% of Republicans and those who lean Republican believed QAnon was good for the country, compared to 7% of Democrats and those who lean Democratic. An October 2020 Yahoo-YouGov poll found that even if they had not heard of QAnon, a majority of Republicans


id: qanon-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-12.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
After Trump lost the 2020 election, the rate of Q's posts sharply declined and Q stopped posting altogether one month later. The last "drop" for 18 months was on December 8, 2020. Mike Rothschild, author of a book on QAnon, said in 2021 that he doubted Q would ever come back, as the movement had "outgrown the need for new drops" and Trump's election loss had invalidated the core QAnon prophecy, but he added that Q might resume posting if "the community really needed new drops to keep it moving forward". The inauguration of Joe Biden as president was a major disappointment for QAnon followers, who were convinced that Biden had won the election through voter fraud and his victory would be invalidated. Many QAnon adherents believed that something momentous would happen during the ceremony, and Trump would remain in power. The inauguration ultimately went on as planned. According to a book on the psychology of QAnon followers, Pastels and Pedophiles: Inside the Mind of QAnon, "The inauguration was a particularly difficult prophecy to get wrong, and the result has been that some QAnon believers experienced deep melancholy, suicidal ideation, or engaged in self-harm". On inauguration day, Ron Watkins wrote


id: qanon-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-13.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
QAnon followers supported the efforts of Trump's legal team to overturn the election through multiple lawsuits and submitted conspiracy theories of their own. They theorized that voting machines made by Dominion Voting Systems had deleted millions of votes for Trump. This was repeated on the far-right cable news outlet One America News Network, and Trump tweeted the segment to his followers. One specific QAnon-affiliated conspiracy theory, known as Italygate and pushed in the last weeks of Trump's presidency, alleged that the American election had been rigged using technology from the United States Embassy in Rome with the help of an Italian hacker, an Italian general and the Vatican. Several elected leaders, including Congresswoman Marjorie Taylor Greene and Arizona House Election Chairwoman Kelly Townsend were well known QAnon adherents before the 2020 election and who helped lead attempts to overturn the election in the aftermath. In June 2020, Townsend posted a QAnon video with a flaming "Q" to her social media and followed high-profile QAnon accounts. Some local Arizona politics reporters have referred to Townsend as the QAnon Queen of the Legislature. Based on a misinterpretation of the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871 by the sovereign citizen movement, according


id: qanon-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-14.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
In May 2019, an FBI "Intelligence Bulletin" memo from the Phoenix field office identified QAnon-driven extremists as a domestic terrorism threat. The document cited arrests related to QAnon, some of which had not been publicized before. According to the memo, "This is the first FBI product examining the threat from conspiracy theory-driven domestic extremists and provides a baseline for future intelligence products. ... The FBI assesses these conspiracy theories very likely will emerge, spread, and evolve in the modern information marketplace, occasionally driving both groups and individual extremists to carry out criminal or violent acts." According to FBI's counterterrorism director Michael G. McGarrity's testimony before Congress in May, the FBI divides domestic terrorism threats into four primary categories, "racially motivated violent extremism, anti-government/anti-authority extremism, animal rights/environmental extremism, and abortion extremism", which includes both abortion-rights and anti-abortion extremists. The fringe conspiracy theory threat is closely related to the anti-government/anti-authority subject area. On December 19, 2018, a Californian man whose car contained bomb-making materials he intended to use to "blow up a satanic temple monument" in the Springfield, Illinois, Capitol rotunda to "make Americans aware of Pizzagate and the New World Order, who were dismantling society" was arrested. The FBI said another


id: qanon-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-15.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
In 2019, two Republican congressional candidates expressed support for QAnon theories. In early 2020, Jim Watkins created the "Disarm the Deep State" super PAC, whose stated aim was to "mobilize a community of patriots in order to remove power from Deep State members". In November 2020, it was reported that the PAC had raised just $4,736, including a $500 loan from Watkins's lawyer. In 2020, there were 97 QAnon followers in the primaries, of whom 22 Republicans and two independents ran in the elections of that year. Businesswoman Marjorie Taylor Greene won an August 2020 runoff to become the GOP nominee in the 14th Congressional District in Georgia. In 2020, she said many of Q's claims "have really proven to be true". Months into the Trump presidency, she stated in a video: "There's a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to take this global cabal of Satan-worshiping pedophiles out, and I think we have the president to do it". Jo Rae Perkins, the 2020 Republican Senate candidate in Oregon, tweeted a video on the night of her May primary victory showing her holding a WWG1WGA sticker and stating that she "[stood] with Q and the team. Thank you Anons, and thank you patriots." She


id: qanon-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-16.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
==== Donald Trump ==== According to Media Matters for America, as of August 2020, Trump had amplified QAnon messaging at least 216 times by retweeting or mentioning 129 QAnon-affiliated Twitter accounts, sometimes multiple times a day. QAnon followers came to refer to Trump as "Q+". On August 24, 2018, Trump hosted Michael William "Lionel" Lebron, a leading QAnon promoter, in the Oval Office for a photo op. Shortly after Christmas 2019, Trump retweeted over a dozen QAnon followers. On August 19, 2020, Trump was asked about QAnon during a press conference; he replied: "I don't know much about the movement, other than I understand they like me very much, which I appreciate." An FBI Field Office in Phoenix has called QAnon a potential domestic terror threat, but Trump called QAnon followers "people who love our country". When a reporter asked Trump if he could support a notion that suggests he "is secretly saving the world from this satanic cult of pedophiles and cannibals", he responded: "Well, I haven't heard that, but is that supposed to be a bad thing or a good thing?" Presidential candidate Joe Biden responded that Trump was aiming to "legitimize a conspiracy theory that the FBI


id: qanon-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-17.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
In August 2019, a "Digital Soldiers Conference" was announced for the next month in Atlanta. The stated purpose was to prepare "patriotic social media warriors" for a coming "digital civil war" against "censorship and suppression". The announcement of the event prominently displayed a Q spelled in stars on the blue field of an American flag, with the three stars making up the tail of the "Q" being highlighted separately to reference Flynn's military status. Scheduled speakers for the event, which was hosted by Yippy CEO Rich Granville, included Flynn and George Papadopoulos, as well as Gina Loudon, a Trump friend and member of his campaign media advisory board, singer Joy Villa, and Bill Mitchell, a radio host and ardent Trump supporter. On July 4, 2020, Flynn posted to his Twitter account a video of himself leading a small group in an oath with the QAnon motto, "Where we go one, we go all". Analysts said the oath was part of QAnon's attempt to organize "digital soldiers" for the political and social apocalypse they see coming. Flynn's apparent declaration of allegiance to QAnon made him the most prominent former government official to endorse the conspiracy theory. Member of Trump's legal team


id: qanon-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-18.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
==== Kelly Townsend ==== Former Arizona State Senator Kelly Townsend is a longtime conspiracy theorist, feeding conspiracies such as the Obama birther conspiracy to Trump before he was elected. She posted the QAnon "Q" symbol to her social media account in 2018 and has consistently aligned with QAnon theories, including calling all vaccines "communist". In 2021, Townsend supported activists active in the election denial movement in a spirit similar to the events that occurred at the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, urging parents to take control of school board meetings related to COVID-19 restrictions and mask mandates. Throughout the process of securing the Arizona audit conducted by QAnon conspiracy theorist Doug Logan from Cyber Ninjas, Townsend worked closely with QAnon adherent Liz Harris, who rented one of her condos to QAnon board owner Ron Watkins so he could run for office in Arizona in 2022. Along with Roger Stone associate Jerome Corsi, Sheriff Joe Arpaio, and 2020 Maricopa County Sheriff candidate and then chief Arpaio staffer Jerry Sheridan, Townsend worked with informant Dennis Montgomery. In 2020, she worked with Corsi again, claiming the 2020 election was stolen from Trump and emailing Corsi a document of Arizona senators endorsing Trump


id: qanon-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-19.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Removal of content === In March 2018, Reddit banned one of its communities discussing QAnon, /r/CBTS_Stream, for "encouraging or inciting violence and posting personal and confidential information". Some followers moved to Discord. Several other communities were formed for discussion of QAnon, leading to further bans on September 12, 2018, in response to these communities "inciting violence, harassment, and the dissemination of personal information", which led to thousands of followers regrouping on Voat, a Switzerland-based Reddit clone that has been described as a hub for the alt-right. In early 2019, Twitter removed accounts suspected of being connected to the Russian Internet Research Agency that had disseminated a high volume of QAnon-related tweets that used the #WWG1WGA slogan. In May 2020, Facebook announced its removal of five pages, 20 accounts, and six groups linked to "individuals associated with the QAnon network" as part of an investigation into "suspected coordinated inauthentic behavior" ahead of the 2020 United States election. On August 19, Facebook expanded its Dangerous Individuals and Organizations policy to address "growing movements that, while not directly organizing violence, have celebrated violent acts, shown that they have weapons and suggest they will use them, or have individual followers with patterns of


id: qanon-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-20.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bibliography === Bloom, Mia; Moskalenko, Sophia (2021). Pastels and Pedophiles: Inside the Mind of QAnon. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-3029-1. Bloom, Mia; Rollings, Rachael (2022). "Introduction to the Special Issue: Losing My Religion: Evangelicalism and the Gospel of Q". Journal of Religion and Violence. 10 (1): 1–15. doi:10.5840/jrv20221011. Cook, Jesselyn (2024). The Quiet Damage: QAnon and the Destruction of the American Family. Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-593-44325-5. Ingersoll, Julie (2022). "America's Holy Trinity: How Conspiracism, Apocalypticism, and Persecution Narratives Set Us up for Crisis". Journal of Religion and Violence. 10 (1): 73–88. doi:10.5840/jrv202281698. Rothschild, Mike (2021). The Storm Is Upon Us: How QAnon Became a Movement, Cult, and Conspiracy Theory of Everything. Melville House. ISBN 978-1-61219-930-6. Sommer, Will (2023). Trust the Plan: The Rise of QAnon and the Conspiracy That Unhinged America. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-311448-7. == Further reading == Badham, Van (2022). QAnon and On: A Short and Shocking History of the Internet Conspiracy Cults: A Short and Shocking History of Internet Conspiracy Cults. Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books. ASIN B09JBFDKYZ. ISBN 978-1-74379-787-7. OCLC 1285976834. Beverley, James A. (2020). The QAnon Deception: Everything You Need to Know about the World's Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theory. EqualTime Books.


id: rebel-news-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News-0.md
category: reference
title: Rebel News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:54.033860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rebel-news-20260505-0
summary:
Rebel News (also known as The Rebel Media and The Rebel) is a Canadian far-right political and social commentary media website operated by Rebel News Network Ltd. It has been described as a "global platform" for the anti-Muslim ideology known as counter-jihad. It was founded in February 2015 by former Sun News Network personalities Ezra Levant and Brian Lilley. Rebel News broadcasts its content only on the internet and has been compared to Breitbart News in the US. Rebel News has been described as being part of the alt-right movement. Former Sun News reporter Faith Goldy joined Rebel News after its launch, but was fired for her coverage of the 2017 Charlottesville rally and for conducting an interview with The Daily Stormer. A co-founder and two freelancers resigned in protest of the coverage. Gavin McInnes, founder of the far-right neo-fascist organization Proud Boys, was a contributor. McInnes departed in 2017, then temporarily rejoined the site for a period in 2019. In the midst of the 2021 Canadian federal election, Justin Trudeau accused Rebel News of spreading misinformation, especially with regard to COVID-19 vaccines. Rebel News has promoted climate change denial. == History == Prior to the official opening of the


id: rebel-news-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News-1.md
category: reference
title: Rebel News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:54.033860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rebel-news-20260505-0
summary:
=== Coverage of Unite the Right Rally === On 12 August 2017, Rebel correspondent Faith Goldy reported from the Unite the Right Rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. Broadcasting on livestream, she gained clear footage of a fatal car attack by a white supremacist against left-wing protestors. Interviewed about the rally and the clip by Israel's Channel 2 News, Goldy opined that, "there is a "culture war" happening between the hard left and hard right and that "many on both sides see this as a civil war – you know the fascists vs. the communists." On Monday August 14, Rebel founder Ezra Levant denounced the element of the "alt-right" which had participated in the rally, stating that it "now effectively means racism, anti-Semitism and tolerance of neo-Nazism." The same day Brian Lilley announced his departure from Rebel News, writing, "What anyone from The Rebel was doing at a so-called 'unite the right' rally that was really an anti-Semitic white power rally is beyond me. Especially not a rally dedicated to keeping up a statue of Robert E. Lee, a man that whatever else he stood for, also fought on the wrong side of history and the wrong side of America's bloodiest conflict."


id: rebel-news-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News-2.md
category: reference
title: Rebel News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:54.033860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rebel-news-20260505-0
summary:
=== Advertiser boycott === Beginning in May 2017, the Rebel was the target of a boycott campaign by the social media activist group Sleeping Giants whereby advertisers were pressured to withdraw their adverts from The Rebel Media's YouTube channel and website. Within a three-month period in 2017, the activist group claimed that the Rebel had lost approximately 300 advertisers, including CCM Hockey, Mountain Equipment Co-op, Red Lobster, Reitmans, Penguin Books Canada, Volkswagen Canada and Tangerine Bank, along with PetSmart, the Hudson's Bay Company, General Motors Canada, the Royal Canadian Mint, the Nova Scotia Liquor Corporation, Ottawa Tourism, Porter Airlines, and Whistler Blackcomb ski resort. In June 2017, the city council of Edmonton, following complaints on social media from multiple residents, pulled its online advertisements from Rebel News. City councillor Michael Oshry described content on the website as "hate mongering, or even racist". Another activist group, Hope not Hate, pressured Norwegian Cruise Lines into cancelling a scheduled Caribbean cruise which was to feature talks by The Rebel Media personalities, many of whom have since left the media website. === Rebel Freedom Fund === In December 2017, Wells Asset Management announced the Rebel Freedom Fund, allowing investors to fund Levant's film and


id: rebel-news-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News-3.md
category: reference
title: Rebel News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:54.033860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rebel-news-20260505-0
summary:
=== Coverage of anti-vaccine and anti-lockdown movements === In December 2021, Rebel News fundraised to pay for the legal fees of Mehmet Erhan, an Adelaide, Australia resident who was arrested and charged with breaching a health order. The money was to be paid into Rebel News's Fight the Fines fund instead of Erhan's GoFundMe account. Rebel News later cut ties with Erhan, saying that they had discontinued their relationship as Erhan had allegedly "routinely switched lawyers" and acted in bad faith. In early 2022 Rebel News provided favourable coverage of the Canada convoy protest and the Convoy to Canberra, with many of its posts linking to donation pages or fundraising campaigns. Similarweb found that the number of Canadians accessing the Rebel News website had increased by 70% between January and February 2022. Australian traffic increased by 11% over the same time period. Elise Thomas of the Institute for Strategic Dialogue said that groups like Rebel News were utilising the anti-vaccine and anti-lockdown communities to "reinvigorate their following", saying, "The thing about these kind of fringe communities is that they are often really hyper-engaged communities, they're not getting this content anywhere else in their life". === Journalism tax credit ruling ===


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between vaccination and religion is complex and multifaceted. While most major religions have issued statements supportive of vaccination, and no major religion explicitly prohibits vaccinations, some individuals cite religious adherence as a basis for opting not to vaccinate themselves or their children. Historically, both pro- and anti-vaccination groups have used religious arguments to support their positions. For instance, in Australia, anti-vaccinationists founded the Church of Conscious Living, a "fake church", in an attempt to claim religious exemptions, which ultimately led to the removal of such exemptions in the country. Similarly, a United States pastor has been reported to offer vaccine exemptions in exchange for church membership. == Historical == === Early religious influences on vaccination === One of the earliest documented cases of variolation involved a Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni) between 1022 and 1063 CE. She ground smallpox scabs into a fine powder and administered it through the nostrils of an uninfected person to promote immunity. Centuries later, the 14th Dalai Lama continued the tradition of disease prevention by personally supporting polio vaccination campaigns. === Religious figures and advocacy for vaccination === In 1721, the influential Massachusetts preacher Cotton Mather was the first known person to attempt smallpox inoculation


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-1.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
==== Support for vaccination ==== Other Christians have supported vaccinations and mask wearing in the wake of COVID-19 to stop the spread of the disease, even using scripture to support the position.In 2021, the former director of the National Institute of Health, Francis Collins, a practicing Christian, expressed his support for the COVID-19 vaccine, stating that the development of vaccines are a “gift from God” and an “answer to prayer”. Additionally, Dr. Peter Mack, a physician at Novant Health South Park Family Physicians, cites Genesis 41, the story of David and Goliath, as a justification that vaccines are a “modern tool from God”. Other religious leaders from around the world, such as the Pope and some American bishops, expressed support for the COVID-19 vaccine during the height of the pandemic. In 2021, then-Pope Francis advocated for individuals to take the COVID-19 injections because it was a "moral obligation" or a "moral responsibility" to protect the health and safety of others. Pope Francis also stated in a series of Tweets that COVID-19 vaccinations are an "act of love" for others, while also suggesting that opposition to the vaccines, no matter the ideological, religious, or political basis, was considered "suicidal denialism, as


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-2.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hinduism === Hinduism consists of various denominations that share core beliefs but differ in philosophies and practices. With no single founder, it is known as Sanatan Dharma (the Eternal Tradition) and traces its origins to the Vedic texts of ancient India, dating back to between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. In Hinduism, the ethical and symbolic meanings of scriptures, as interpreted by spiritually enlightened gurus, are often prioritized over literal interpretations. Vaccination is generally accepted in countries with a predominantly Hindu population. Hindus uphold the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) and value all forms of life, believing that divinity exists in every being, including plants and animals. Many Hindus follow a vegetarian diet to honor higher forms of life, while others consume meat only on specific days. Dietary practices differ across regions and communities. This review did not find any current concerns among Hindus regarding the presence of bovine-derived ingredients in some vaccines. === Buddhism === Buddhism is a religion with a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, which means "the awakened one." The Buddha shared his insights to help people overcome ignorance, desire, and suffering, ultimately leading to


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-3.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
===== Nigeria ===== In 2003 imams in northern Nigeria advised their followers not to have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine, perceived to be a plot by Westerners to decrease Muslim fertility. The boycott caused the number of polio cases to rise not only in Nigeria but also in neighboring countries. The followers were also wary of other vaccinations, and Nigeria reported more than twenty thousand measles cases and nearly six hundred deaths from measles from January through March 2005. In 2006 Nigeria accounted for more than half of all new polio cases worldwide. Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, at least 200 children died in a late-2007 measles outbreak in Borno State. In 2013, nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano, but this was an isolated incident. Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to support the vaccination campaign, and Nigeria has not had a polio case since July 24, 2014; in 2016, Nigeria was declared polio-free. ===== Pakistan and Afghanistan ===== In the 2000s, in Pakistan and Afghanistan, some Taliban issued fatwas opposing vaccination as an American plot to sterilize Muslims, and kidnapped, beat, and assassinated vaccination


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-4.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recent measles outbreaks in religious communities === Mennonite Community in Texas: In early 2025, a significant measles outbreak occurred in Gaines County, Texas, primarily affecting an under-vaccinated Mennonite community. Despite the church not opposing vaccinations, some members' hesitancy contributed to the outbreak, leading to over 200 infections, hospitalizations, and two deaths. Amish Community in New York: Concurrently, New York's Amish community faced legal challenges regarding religious exemptions to vaccination mandates. After the state's 2019 repeal of religious exemptions following a 2018 measles outbreak, the Amish contested this decision. In March 2025, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the repeal, emphasizing public health over religious exemptions. === Legislative actions on religious exemptions === West Virginia's Legislative Decision: In March 2025, West Virginia's House of Delegates rejected a bill that would have introduced religious and philosophical exemptions to mandatory childhood vaccinations. This decision was influenced by concerns over public health, especially amid ongoing measles outbreaks in neighboring states. === Declining vaccination rates and public health concerns === Expert Warnings in Texas: Dr. Peter Hotez, co-director of the Center for Vaccine Development, highlighted the dangers of declining vaccination rates in Texas. He warned that reduced immunization could lead to the resurgence


id: revival-bulgaria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)-0.md
category: reference
title: Revival (Bulgaria)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:56.424284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revival-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
Revival (Bulgarian: Възраждане, romanized: Vazrazhdane) is a far-right political party in Bulgaria. Founded in August 2014, its chairman is Kostadin Kostadinov. The party is characterised by various analysts and media as ultranationalist, pro-Russian, anti-EU, anti-NATO, being opposed to COVID-19 vaccinations and spreading anti-vaccine and anti-LGBT rhetoric. In the 51st National Assembly of Bulgaria, Revival is the third largest parliamentary group (behind GERB–SDS and PP–DB) and the second largest party (behind GERB). == History == In June 2014, Kostadin Kostadinov told media that there would be a Constituent Assembly on 2 August of the same year in the city of Pliska to create the party "Revival". The founders chose the day due to its significance as being the anniversary of the Ilinden Uprising. Kostadinov founded the party after he became unhappy following Krasimir Karakachanov's reelection as leader of IMRO-BNM in 2012. === Entrance into parliament === The party has grown rapidly due to the Bulgarian political crisis. They first entered the Bulgarian National Assembly after the 2021 general election, gaining 13 seats. A member of Revival's parliamentary group left them in June 2022. The party would more than double its presence in the assembly, gaining 14 more seats in the 2022


id: revival-bulgaria-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)-1.md
category: reference
title: Revival (Bulgaria)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:56.424284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revival-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
==== Visit to Moscow ==== On 19 February, three Revival MPs visited Moscow at the invitation of the ruling party, United Russia, meeting with members of the State Duma and representatives of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The visit led the PP-DB parliamentary group to request that the MPs who participated in the visit be excluded from committees with significance for "national security". Additionally, the PP-DB MP Yavor Bozhankov sent a signal to the Prosecutors Office and DANS about potential illegal activity on the part of the three MPs. In response, Revival leader Kostadinov claimed the procedure for the expulsion of MPs from a committee did not exist within the rulebook and insisted that the MPs will continue to attend the committee meetings. On 28 February, the point about the exclusion of two Revival MPs from the Foreign Affairs and Defense parliamentary committees was presented before the parliament by PP-DB, however, the measure was not supported due to the opposition of the other parliamentary parties. === Anti-Euro protests (2025) === On 22 February 2025, thousands of the party's supporters rallied in Sofia in opposition to the planned adoption of the euro. The demonstration began outside the Bulgarian National Bank


id: revival-bulgaria-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)-2.md
category: reference
title: Revival (Bulgaria)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:56.424284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revival-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ties to parties outside Europe === Kostadinov, Revival's Chairman, has also claimed that the party has "begun friendly relations" with the African National Congress. A Revival delegation, led by party vice-chairman Tsoncho Ganev, visited China between the 24 and 26 November 2024 as part of an official visit organised by the CCP. The party has maintained relations with the Republicans for National Renewal, a donor organisation linked with the United States Republican Party, including a meeting between the head of the organisation, Mark Ivanyo, and Kostadin Kostadinov in November 2023. In 2024, the party also had meetings with Republican Congressman Paul Gosar and officials from the 2024 Donald Trump presidential campaign. The party expressed "full support" for Trump following the attempted assassination of Donald Trump. The party has also voiced support for Trump's proposed annexation of Canada, Greenland and the Panama Canal by the United States. In April 2025, a Revival delegation met with Republican Congressmen Barry Moore and Keith Self and expressed support for replacing the euro on Bulgaria's currency board with the United States dollar, therefore tying the Bulgarian lev to the dollar. Revival MEP Rada Laykova has also cooperated with Republican Congressman Andy Ogles on opposing


id: russophiles-for-the-revival-of-the-fatherland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russophiles_for_the_Revival_of_the_Fatherland-0.md
category: reference
title: Russophiles for the Revival of the Fatherland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russophiles_for_the_Revival_of_the_Fatherland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:57.591114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: russophiles-for-the-revival-of-the-fatherland-20260505-0
summary:
Russophiles for the Revival of the Fatherland (Bulgarian: Русофили за възраждане на Отечеството, romanized: Rusofili za vazrazhdane na Otechestvoto) is a Bulgarian political party. The leader of the party is Nikolay Malinov. == History == On November 1, 2008, a congress was held to create Revival of the Fatherland with 500 generals and officers of the Bulgarian Land Forces in attendance. The two founding groups of the party were two Veterans' organizations; "For the Honor of the Epaulette" and the "Green Alliance" with the party officially being founded in 2009 and receiving court recognition on February 11, 2010. In 2014, the party became part of the Patriotic Front coalition. In 2019, the party has been part of the Coalition for Bulgaria led by the Alternative for Bulgarian Revival. In the 2019 Bulgarian local elections the party saw 64 councilors and 8 mayors elected. During the party's congress on September 5, 2020, the party elected Nikolay Malinov as its leader and four members of its Russophile wing were elected to the party's executive board. For the 2021 Bulgarian general election the party was part of the Left Union for a Clean and Holy Republic coalition and signed a memorandum of cooperation


id: sanseit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō-0.md
category: reference
title: Sanseitō
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:58.929577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sanseit-20260505-0
summary:
Sanseitō (Japanese: 参政党, lit. 'Political Participation Party'; self-rendered as Party of Do It Yourself in English, DIY) is an ultraconservative, right-wing populist political party in Japan. It is on the far-right of the political spectrum. The party was founded in 2020 by Sohei Kamiya, the current secretary general of the party, and won a seat in the 2022 House of Councillors election, also becoming an official political party by winning more than 2% of the vote in the election. Sanseitō gained international media attention during the 2022 House of Councillors election due to Kamiya's antisemitic rhetoric during public appearances and campaign rallies. In the 2024 general election, the party won 3 seats. In the 2025 House of Councillors election, the party won more than 14 seats and came in third in the national popular vote. According to the party's leader Kamiya, it is the Japanese equivalent of Trumpism in the United States. The party promotes COVID-19 misinformation. The party's president, Manabu Matsuda, has called COVID-19 vaccines a "murder weapon". The party is against same-sex marriage and LGBT rights. The party strongly opposes immigration, claiming that foreigners bring crime and receive better treatment than native citizens. It proposes the creation of


id: sanseit-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō-1.md
category: reference
title: Sanseitō
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:58.929577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sanseit-20260505-0
summary:
=== Constitution === The party is in favour of "creating" a new Constitution, instead of reforming the Constitution. The party also criticizes the current Japanese Constitution, saying that it was "established under the supervision of GHQ during the occupation," and advocates "constitutional creation" in which the Japanese people should create a constitution that reflects the values of the Japanese people themselves. In May 2025, the Party announced the "New Constitution of Japan (Conceptual Draft)" on its official website as the result of its "Constitution Creation Project". The draft simplifies the current Constitution's 103 articles to 33 articles. The main contents of the proposed Constitution by Sanseitō include the lack of any provisions on human rights such as equality of citizens or freedom of religion, and the simplification of provisions on the Diet, Cabinet, and courts. It does not include the words "sovereignty of the people" or "fundamental human rights", and it stipulates that "the nation shall possess sovereignty". It also stipulates that "Japan is a nation in which the Emperor and the people are one, governed by the Emperor", and that the Emperor is the subject of governing power. It states that the "national polity" is a family state in


id: sanseit-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō-2.md
category: reference
title: Sanseitō
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:58.929577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sanseit-20260505-0
summary:
==== Cultural industry ==== The party supports giving authority to the Agency for Cultural Affairs to restrict the content of manga, anime, and video games, drawing criticism from creators including Hideki Arai, Hiro Arikawa and Hikaru Yuzuki. ==== Health ==== ===== Vaccine and mask wearing ===== The party advocated the ability to opt out of both wearing masks and taking vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic, and has "characterized the pandemic as being staged". The party promotes a range of conspiracy theories regarding vaccines. In the 2022 Japanese House of Councillors election the party proposed the "liberalisation of mask wearing" as their policy on coronavirus. Analysis found that as of 2022 their voter overlap with young people and child-rearing generation suffering from pandemic fatigue, especially in regions with lower vaccination rate. For these reasons, the party has been criticized and labeled as a far-right political party with adherence to conspiracy theories ==== Perspective of history and education ==== The party calls the Pacific War the "Greater East Asia War" and claims that it was "not a war of aggression". It also claims that its purpose was to liberate Asian countries from the West. Regarding the Battle of Okinawa, it believes that


id: nicole-shanahan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan-0.md
category: reference
title: Nicole Shanahan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:00.158933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nicole-shanahan-20260505-0
summary:
Nicole Ann Shanahan (born September 26, 1985) is an American attorney and entrepreneur. She was the running mate of Robert F. Kennedy Jr. in his campaign in the 2024 U.S. presidential election. Born in California, Shanahan graduated from the University of Puget Sound and the Santa Clara University School of Law. Before law school, she worked as a paralegal and then as a patent specialist at the defensive patent aggregator RPX Corp. She was a fellow at Stanford Law School's CodeX, Stanford Center for Legal Informatics. Shanahan married Google co-founder Sergey Brin in 2018; they separated in 2021 and divorced in 2023. She reportedly has a net worth of over $1 billion, primarily as a result of her marriage to Brin. In 2019, she established a private foundation, Bia-Echo, that promotes research to lengthen the human reproductive lifespan. In March 2024, Kennedy named Shanahan as his running mate in his presidential campaign. Shanahan has questioned the scientific consensus on vaccine safety and efficacy. == Early life == Nicole Ann Shanahan was born to Shawn and Amy Shanahan (née Wong) in Placer County, California, on September 26, 1985. She grew up in Oakland, California. In a 2023 interview, she said she


id: nicole-shanahan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan-1.md
category: reference
title: Nicole Shanahan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:00.158933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nicole-shanahan-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early role in campaign === In May 2023, when Robert F. Kennedy Jr. was running for the 2024 Democratic presidential nomination, Shanahan donated the maximum of $6,600 to his campaign. After Kennedy dropped out of the Democratic primaries in October 2023, announcing that he would run in the general election as an independent candidate, Shanahan said she was "incredibly disappointed" and would not support his candidacy. In early 2024, she reversed course, and resumed backing Kennedy. Through Planeta Management LLC, Shanahan donated $4 million to a super PAC to pay for a 30-second television Super Bowl ad, aired during Super Bowl LVIII, supporting the campaign. In addition to funding the ad, Shanahan was also a "creative force" behind it, the total cost of which was variously said to be $5 million or (according to the super PAC's co-founder) $7 million. Kennedy said that his campaign was not directly involved with the ad, as coordination between independent expenditure groups and campaigns is illegal. Shanahan separately donated (also through Planeta Management LLC) half a million dollars to a different super PAC supporting Kennedy's campaign. === Vice-presidential running mate === In March 2024, Kennedy's campaign manager and daughter-in-law, Amaryllis Fox Kennedy, confirmed


id: nicole-shanahan-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan-2.md
category: reference
title: Nicole Shanahan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:00.158933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nicole-shanahan-20260505-0
summary:
== Personal life == In 2014, Shanahan married Jeremy Asher Kranz, a San Francisco Bay Area investor and finance executive. They had dated since 2011. Weeks before their marriage, she began an affair with Sergey Brin, a co-founder of Google, which Kranz discovered from texts on her phone. Kranz and Shanahan divorced in 2015. Shanahan had met Brin at a yoga festival in Lake Tahoe in 2014; they married in 2018. They have a daughter together, born in 2018. Brin and Shanahan maintained an estate at Point Dume in Malibu, California, purchased in 2020. Shanahan and Brin's daughter was diagnosed with autism in 2020. In 2022, Shanahan sought the advice of Dr. Jack Kruse, a neurosurgeon turned paleo-diet advocate and wellness guru. Kruse blamed Shanahan and Brin for their daughter's autism, claiming that it was because Shanahan allowed her infant to receive vaccines and be exposed to artificial light and electromagnetic radiation. Kruse also accused Brin of participating in a plot by the U.S. government and "Big Tech" to use blue light to control the population. Shanahan took his advice and modified her home to limit non-sun light, as well as Wi-Fi and cellular signals. She also converted her swimming


id: shots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shots!!!-0.md
category: reference
title: Shots!!!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shots!!!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:01.329841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shots-20260505-0
summary:
"Shots!!!" is the third episode of the twenty-third season of the American animated television series South Park. The 300th episode overall of the series, it premiered on Comedy Central in the United States on October 9, 2019. In the episode, Randy Marsh revels in a milestone reached by his marijuana farm, much to the ire of his wife. Meanwhile, in a parody of the antivaccine movement, Eric Cartman, terrified of needles, seeks to avoid a required immunization by citing fear that vaccines might make him "artistic", an eggcorn play on the word autistic, that is literally realized in the episode. == Plot == Randy Marsh celebrates the milestone $300,000 in profit that his business, Tegridy Farms, has made selling marijuana by organizing a parade and producing a television commercial touting the new customer base resulting from his recent deal with the Chinese government. However his wife, Sharon, is angered at him for undertaking these endeavors without considering their cost or consulting her, despite the fact that they purchased the farm together to avoid the type of business it has now become. She is also upset that the Chinese government purchases their product to use it to frame Chinese protesters in


id: swiss-democracy-czech-republic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Democracy_(Czech_Republic)-0.md
category: reference
title: Swiss Democracy (Czech Republic)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Democracy_(Czech_Republic)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:03.758217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swiss-democracy-czech-republic-20260505-0
summary:
Swiss Democracy (Czech: Švýcarská demokracie) is a Czech political party advocating for direct democracy and the adoption of a new constitution inspired by the Swiss model, founded in 2021. == History == Swiss Democracy was founded in 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, as a party opposing the imposed anti-pandemic restrictions. It contested the 2021 Czech parliamentary election, led by molecular geneticist and anti-vaccination activist Soňa Peková and its founder Tomáš Ráždík, and presented lists in all 14 electoral regions. The party earned 0.31% of the vote, and failed to meet the electoral threshold. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the party participated in protests challenging the anti-pandemic restrictions in place, led by the Chcípl PES movement and together with Tricolour, Svobodní, Free bloc and other parties in organisations. In 2022, Swiss Democracy took part in a series of anti-governmental protest under banner of Czech Republic First!, criticising the Cabinet of Petr Fiala. It contested the 2024 European Parliament election together with the Party of the State of Direct Democracy – Party of Labour, running on a eurosceptic platform. It gained 0.09% of the vote and no seats in the European Parliament. The party contested 4 out of 27 districts in the 2024


id: tsargrad-tv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsargrad_TV-0.md
category: reference
title: Tsargrad TV
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsargrad_TV
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:04.940603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tsargrad-tv-20260505-0
summary:
Tsargrad TV (Russian: Царьград ТВ) is a Russian television channel owned by Konstantin Malofeev. It was named after Tsargrad, the old Slavic name for Constantinople, now modern Istanbul. It is known for its pro-Kremlin and Russian Orthodox stances. == History == Konstantin Malofeev hired former Fox News news director John "Jack" Hanick (Russian: Джек Хэник born 1950), who, with producer Roger Ailes, co-founded Fox News, was its news director from 1996 to 2011 and moved to Moscow in 2013 to help Malofeev launch the channel. From at least 2013 until 2018, Hanick supported Malofeev in several schemes. Beginning in the fall of 2014, Hanick worked for Ilya Kuzmenkov (Russian: Илья Кузьменков), who was the general director and editor-in-chief of the channel. The channel started broadcasting on 12 April 2015 with Andrei Afanasiev (Russian: Андрей Афанасьев, born 1988 or 1989), who graduated from both MGIMO and Complutense University of Madrid and was a former RT employee from 2010 to 2014, as the news anchor. Aleksandr Dugin was named chief editor the same year. He has since been replaced by Elena Sharoykina. The channel is known for being conservative, mixing Russian Orthodox Christianity with Soviet nationalism, and supporting president Vladimir Putin. Vladimir


id: union-of-patriotic-forces-and-militaries-of-the-reserve-defense-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Patriotic_Forces_and_Militaries_of_the_Reserve_Defense-0.md
category: reference
title: Union of Patriotic Forces and Militaries of the Reserve Defense
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Patriotic_Forces_and_Militaries_of_the_Reserve_Defense
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:06.076933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: union-of-patriotic-forces-and-militaries-of-the-reserve-defense-20260505-0
summary:
The Union of Patriotic Forces and Militaries of the Reserve Zashtita (Sajuz na Patrioticnite Sili i Voinite ot Zapaca Zaštita, abbreviated as SPSZ) is a nationalist political party in Bulgaria founded in December 1998. Since 2021, SPSZ was part of Bulgarian Patriots nationalist electoral alliance. == External links == Official site


id: united-patriots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Patriots-0.md
category: reference
title: United Patriots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Patriots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:07.266240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: united-patriots-20260505-0
summary:
The United Patriots (OP; Bulgarian: Обединени Патриоти; ОП, romanized: Obedineni Patrioti; OP) was a nationalist electoral alliance in Bulgaria formed by three political parties: VMRO, Attack (until 25 July 2019), and the National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria (NFSB). The coalition between the three parties was created by the agreement put forward a joint candidacy for the 2016 presidential election. The coalition's candidates for president and vice president were the then Deputy Chairmen of the National Assembly Krasimir Karakachanov (for President) and Yavor Notev (for Vice President). On July 25, 2019, Volen Siderov, Desislav Chukolov and Pavel Shopov were expelled from the parliamentary group. The coalition was part of the Third Borisov Government. All parties in the coalition were defeated in the 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election and failed to gain any seats in the National Assembly. == Electoral history == == See also == Patriotic Front (Bulgaria) Nationalist electoral alliance (2016–2017) == References ==


id: vaccine-choice-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Choice_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: Vaccine Choice Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Choice_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:08.470559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccine-choice-canada-20260505-0
summary:
Vaccine Choice Canada (VCC) is Canada's main anti-vaccination group. It was founded in 1986 under the name Association for Vaccine Damaged Children, became the Vaccination Risk Awareness Network in 1994 and adopted its current name in 2014. The group has been contributing to vaccine hesitancy in Canada, encouraging citizens to forgo immunization and legislators to support anti-vaccine regulations and legislation. == Vaccine hesitancy == VCC spreads the discredited hypothesis that vaccination causes autism and denies that the introduction of vaccines led to a decline of the targeted diseases. They blame vaccination for a variety of ailments, including autism spectrum disorders, learning disabilities, ADHD, allergies, and asthma. The group argues incorrectly that a vaccine against COVID-19 is unnecessary. Late in the pandemic, it still repeated the discredited myth that the pandemic is no more severe than the flu. Although a small fraction of vaccine doses provoke serious adverse reactions, health professionals agree the benefits of being protected against a wide range of infectious diseases far outweigh the risks. Responding directly to communications from Vaccine Choice Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada stated that the science on vaccines is unequivocal, but laments the actions of "a small but vocal anti-vaccination community


id: velichie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie-0.md
category: reference
title: Velichie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:09.697918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: velichie-20260505-0
summary:
Velichie (Bulgarian: Величие, lit. 'Greatness') is a Bulgarian political party founded in 2023, with strong connections to the Bulgarian businessman Ivelin Mihaylov. The party has a strong position in Vetrino Municipality and received parliamentary representation following the June 2024 Bulgarian parliamentary election. Following the October snap election, the party won 3.999% of the vote, falling short by 21 votes of the 4% threshold required to gain representation in the 51st National Assembly. However, after the Constitutional Court ruled that Velichie passed the threshold following a recount, the party gained 10 seats in parliament. == History == === Origin === The Velichie party was founded in summer 2023 in Vetrino Municipality. It has been reported that the founder was Ivelin Mihaylov. In an interview with Radio Free Europe, Mihaylov recounted that the party was founded by Vetrino locals in response to plans to build a wind energy production site in the municipality. The party contested the 2023 Bulgarian local elections, in which it gained 40.51% of the votes in Vetrino. === Nikolay Markov === In 2024, the party began an association with Nikolay Markov, who was often called the party's leader, although not legally holding the position. Markov, a National Guard


id: velichie-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie-1.md
category: reference
title: Velichie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:09.697918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: velichie-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parliamentary activity === The Velichie party had 13 seats at the start of the 50th National Assembly, with Nikolay Markov being selected as the chair of the parliamentary group. Prior to the convention of the National Assembly, Markov did not deny the possibility of Velichie negotiating with GERB; however, he clarified that they would only negotiate with GERB leader Boyko Borisov. Ultimately, the party did not attend the meeting organised by the GERB negotiation team on 18 June. During the first session of the National Assembly, the Velichie parliamentary group nominated its own candidates for the position of Speaker, although both candidacies failed to gather support outside of the grouping. During the first session, Markov, the chief of the parliamentary group, arrived late; it was later alleged by Velichie MP Darin Georgiev that the reason for Markov's lateness was due to alleged attempts at blackmail by GERB. Markov, in the days following, seemed to confirm the allegations, stating that a contact group representing "three political parties" had threatened to release an audio tape implicating himself and the party's founder, Ivelin Mihaylov, if Velichie did not give political support to GERB. On 21 June, during a vote for who should


id: velichie-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie-2.md
category: reference
title: Velichie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:09.697918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: velichie-20260505-0
summary:
=== October 2024 parliamentary election === Velichie ran alone in the October 2024 Bulgarian parliamentary election. It opened its electoral campaign in the town of Troyan, with founder Ivelin Mihaylov claiming that Velichie's programme would be focused on creating a long-term plan for Bulgaria's development. During the campaign period, the party office of Velichie in Varna was set on fire by unknown assailants. In a video on Facebook, party founder and candidate Ivelin Mihaylov implied that the assailants might be connected to GERB and may have done it due to Mihaylov's revelation of alleged vote-buying schemes in Varna. Following the publication of the provisional final results from the electoral commission, Velichie was shown as being just below the 4% threshold to enter parliament, receiving 3.999%. In a number of publications on the party's Facebook page and by party candidates, it was implied that the percentage received by Velichie was intentionally lowered by the Central Electoral Commission, under pressure from external actors, in order to prevent Velichie from entering parliament. In an address on the party-affiliated news channel Free Voice, Ivelin Mihaylov claimed that the election had been "stolen", both due to alleged mass vote buying and manipulations of the voting


id: velichie-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie-3.md
category: reference
title: Velichie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:09.697918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: velichie-20260505-0
summary:
=== Allegations of electing illegitimate MPs === On 30 October 2025, Radostin Vassilev, leader of the parliamentary party MECh, alleged that one of the MPs elected from the Velichie list had not signed the necessary declaration confirming her will to become a member of parliament, with the document instead being signed by another MP, Stiliyana Bobcheva. He cited a signal sent by the civic organisation "Bulgarian anti-mafia league", as well as a review conducted by lawyers associated with MECh. Subsequently, Radostin Vassilev called on Mariya Ilieva to resign. On 12 November, Radostin Vassilev played a 4-minute audio recording in the National Assembly which was an extract of a telephone conversation between Velichie MP Stiliyana Bobcheva and a member of the civic organisation "Bulgarian Anti-Mafia League", Grigor Zdravkov. He alleged that the recording depicted Stiliyana Bobcheva as being complicit in the forgery of documents related to the election of MPs. Vassilev further claimed that the extract was part of a 40 minute long recording, which had been deposited to the general prosecutors office, and called for law enforcement intervention. Mariya Ilieva, as well as politicians affiliated with Velichie, have denied the claims raised by Vassilev. After the publication of the allegations,


id: eduardo-ver-stegui-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Verástegui-0.md
category: reference
title: Eduardo Verástegui
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Verástegui
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:10.899216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduardo-ver-stegui-20260505-0
summary:
José Eduardo Verastegui (Spanish pronunciation: [eˈðwaɾðo βeˈɾasteɣi]; born May 21, 1974) is a Mexican actor, activist, singer, and producer. He was part of the band Kairo and later embarked on a solo music career before he started appearing in Mexican telenovelas and eventually feature films like Chasing Papi, Bella, and Little Boy, the latter two produced by his own production company, Metanoia. Various media outlets have described his political ideas as ultra-conservative, far-right and social-darwinist. Currently, Verástegui directs the Viva México movement. On September 7, 2023, he registered as an independent candidate for the 2024 Mexican presidential election. He was later disqualified from the election as he did not meet the required signatures. Verástegui is active on social media, and has an active YouTube channel of nearly 300,000 subscribers. == Early life == Verástegui was born on May 21, 1974, in Ciudad Mante, Tamaulipas, Mexico, and grew up in Xicoténcatl. The son of José Jesús Verástegui Treviño (1950–2022), a sugarcane farmer, and Alicia Córdoba, Verástegui was raised in a practicing Catholic family and has been interested in the world of entertainment since his childhood. After studying law for a time, Verástegui instead decided to try his hand at modeling, acting,


id: eduardo-ver-stegui-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Verástegui-1.md
category: reference
title: Eduardo Verástegui
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Verástegui
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:10.899216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduardo-ver-stegui-20260505-0
summary:
== Political activism == Verástegui is an advocate through the organization Manto de Guadalupe, which he helped get started. He has said that while researching his role in Bella, he visited an abortion clinic, where he spoke with a Hispanic couple who were there for an abortion. According to his account, they recognized him from his telenovela work on Mexican television and listened as he described his upcoming role and the film's plot. He said the couple then decided not to proceed with the abortion and returned home. After their child was born, they contacted him to share the news, thank him, and ask permission to name the baby Eduardo after him. He later met the child, whom he referred to as "little Eduardo". In 2008, he released a lengthy video message criticizing the high abortion rate among Hispanic communities in the United States and accusing the Barack Obama campaign of targeting Hispanic communities with pro-abortion messages during the presidential race. He has also been active in anti-abortion organizations and founded Manto de Guadalupe, an anti-abortion organization based in Los Angeles that operates a crisis pregnancy center. On September 15, 2020, US President Donald Trump announced his intention to appoint


id: virulent-the-vaccine-war-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulent:_The_Vaccine_War-0.md
category: reference
title: Virulent: The Vaccine War
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulent:_The_Vaccine_War
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:12.102479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virulent-the-vaccine-war-20260505-0
summary:
Virulent: The Vaccine War is a 2022 documentary produced by Laura Davis and directed by Tjardus Greidanus which explores the history, dangers and impact of the anti-vaccination movement in the United States at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. == Description == Virulent: The Vaccine War explores the history of vaccines and the perspectives of the opposition in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. The film posits that vaccine hesitancy is largely caused by two unconnected reasons, one is personal freedom and the other is opposition to anything that is seen as unnatural. The movie also explores conspiracy theories about vaccination created and spurred on by the anti-vaccination movement. Davis said that she was surprised to learn how complicated vaccine hesitancy is: "I really thought it was going to be easy to dismiss vaccine skeptics as not educated. It’s much subtler than I thought". The film includes commentary by many medical experts, including the film's credited medical consultant, Paul Offit, and also identifies the big names and organizations in the anti-vaccine movement, including Del Bigtree, the CEO of the Informed Consent Action Network, and Robert F. Kennedy Jr., founder of Children's Health Defense who is interviewed in the film. Virulent highlights


id: vox-political-party-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-0.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
Vox (Spanish pronunciation: [boks]; Latin for 'voice'; often stylized in all caps) is a national conservative political party in Spain. Founded in 2013, it is led by party president Santiago Abascal, and vice president and secretary-general Ignacio Garriga. Vox has been described as far-right or radical right. The party entered the Spanish parliament for the first time after winning seats in the April 2019 general election. Later that year, it received 3.6 million votes in the November 2019 general election, winning 52 seats and becoming the third-largest party in the Congress of Deputies. Its public support reached its peak within the next few years, according to the results of subsequent regional elections and opinion polling, but in the 2023 Spanish general election showed worse results: a loss of 19 seats in parliament (albeit remaining the third-largest political party in Spain with roughly 3 million votes). In the European Parliament, the six deputies of Vox are members of Patriots for Europe after a stint in the European Conservatives and Reformists Group. == History == === Early years === ==== Origins (2013–2014) ==== Vox was founded on 17 December 2013, and publicly launched at a press conference in Madrid on 16 January


id: vox-political-party-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-1.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
==== COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2021) ==== At the beginning of 2020, during the onset of the global COVID-19 pandemic, Vox called for travel restrictions between China and Spain, and later between Italy and Spain, to safeguard against the "Chinese virus". At the time, the epidemic was already in full swing in those countries, but it was prior to any COVID cases being officially confirmed within Spain in significant numbers. This position found no support among other parties, and it was criticized as xenophobic rhetoric. The party claims that serious counter-COVID measures were deliberately delayed in Spain by the government, which hid the information and downplayed known risks to allow for mass public events on International Women's Day (8 March) to take place, as these events were important for the left wing agenda of the newly formed coalition government of PSOE and UP. At the same time, Vox went forward with their own global party conference on 8 March in Vistalegre, where party supporters from all parts of Spain were invited. The conference resulted in numerous cases of COVID infection, including confirmed cases of COVID transmission between members of Vox leadership. This fact was often brought up by Vox opponents to criticize


id: vox-political-party-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-2.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
==== Entering regional governments (2022–2023) ==== On 13 February 2022, Vox came third in the 2022 Castilian-Leonese regional election, raising its representation from 1 up to 13 seats, and becoming the key player for the rival People's Party (PP), who won the elections, to form a government. Following this election result, and an unfolding leadership crisis in PP, Vox for the first time was recognized as the Spain's second political force, according to some opinion polls for the next general elections. In March 2022, it was announced that Vox would form government with the PP in Castile and León, taking three of ten ministerial positions including vice president for regional leader Juan García-Gallardo. Vox member Carlos Pollán was elected President of the Cortes of Castile and León, the position of speaker. This represents the first participation of Vox in any regional government. On 19 June 2022, Vox came third in the 2022 Andalusian regional elections. With Macarena Olona as the leading candidate, the party improved over the previous regional elections, gaining about 100,000 more votes, and two more seats in the Parliament of Andalusia, but failed short of the expectations to achieve significantly better results and become the key to


id: vox-political-party-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-3.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
Vox identifies as a "right-wing without complexes" and regards itself as an alternative to both the "cowardly right" of the People's Party and the "orange fickle" of Citizens. In November 2018, during a party event in Murcia, party leader Santiago Abascal defined his party as "antifascist, anti-Nazi and anti-communist". The party has been described as simply right-wing, a populist radical-right (in contrast to an extreme right), far-right, and also neo-Francoist. According to certain analysis, the main tenets in Vox's ideology are: (i) a strong anti-immigration stance and advocacy for stricter law and order policies; (ii) a strong defence of the unity of Spain against all who allegedly want to break or undermine it; (iii) an opposition to what it labels the "progressive dictatorship"; and (iv) a strong defence of Catholicism and traditional values. Guillermo Fernández Vázquez, who described Vox as "economically anti-statist and neoliberal" as well as "morally authoritarian", believes that the party holds positions similar to Jörg Haider's Freedom Party of Austria or Jean Marie Le Pen's National Front, likening its emergence to an archaic radical right party more worried about modernizing their image. Vox's approach to cultural issues would be in line with old school Spanish nationalist parties,


id: vox-political-party-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-4.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
==== LGBT rights ==== Vox opposes same-sex marriage but supports same-sex civil unions. While not openly opposed to homosexual adoption, party members want to prioritise heterosexual couples. Vox opposes the Ley Trans approved by the Spanish government in June 2021, believing that the law "attacks the rights of women, children, biology, and common sense". Vox congratulated the Hungarian parliament for passing legislation that would ban media and educational content which may be seen by minors from depicting LGBT individuals or addressing LGBT issues. Vox has been accused of homophobia, which the party denies. Party leader Santiago Abascal has denied said allegations by stating that Vox merely opposes "LGBT ideology", going on to say that many homosexuals are party members, and that he personally has gay friends. José María Marco, a gay conservative, contested the April 2019 Senate election in Madrid as Vox's candidate, and also ran second in the party list for the 2019 Madrilenian regional election. In some discourses, party leaders have suggested that their opposition to mass immigration from Islamic countries effectively protects the LGBT community, as homosexuality is largely prosecuted in Islamic cultures, and that most immigrants do not alter their attitude upon arrival to Spain. ===


id: vox-political-party-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-5.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
==== Energy and environment ==== The party's discourse about the environment has changed over time, going from climate change denial to a conservationist approach. However, the party still opposes the mainstream environmental views, labelling them as "Green religion", and has voted against the Law for Climate Change and Energy Transition, which was adopted anyway. Vox supports nuclear energy and wants to stop the closure of nuclear plants. === Foreign policy === Vox is opposed to globalization and advocates a strong nation-state, wishing to recover national sovereignty. The party wants to emphasise bilateralism in international relations, and supports abandoning supranational organizations opposed to Spain's interests. It supports increasing military spending. ==== Europe ==== Vox's views on the European Union have been described as either Eurosceptic or Soft Eurosceptic, arguing that Spain should make no sovereignty concessions to the EU in order to guarantee national sovereignty. The party is strongly opposed to the EU becoming a federal superstate and instead argues for a Europe of "strong and sovereign states" that "defends its borders and its Christian roots and opposes multiculturalism and mass immigration". Political scientists Andrés Santana and Lisa Zanotti noted that out of all the parties in Spain, Vox's voters and


id: vox-political-party-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-6.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
Vox was initially close to Matteo Salvini's Lega Nord party in Italy but, by 2021, it grew closer to Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy party instead. In October 2021, Abascal said that Vox has an "unbreakable" alliance with the Portuguese Chega party. Vox has connections to the Serbian People's Party. In the European Parliament, Vox joined the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) after the 2019 elections. As a member of the ECR, Vox shared group with parties such as the Polish Law and Justice, Brothers of Italy, and the Sweden Democrats. In July 2024, Vox left the ECR in favour of the Patriots for Europe group, aligning with longstanding partners of Vox such as the French National Rally, the Hungarian Fidesz and Chega. However, upon doing so, it insisted that Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy would remain a "friend and ally". Abascal and Vox also expressed "full support" for Alternative for Germany, a member of Europe of Sovereign Nations, in the 2025 German federal election. In the United States, Vox is strongly supportive of Donald Trump and his political ideals. Trump has virtually addressed the annual Viva conference hosted by Vox, and Vox has invited pro-Trump factions of the Republican


id: vox-political-party-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-7.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
Francoism History of the far-right in Spain Sociological Francoism == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Arroyo Menéndez, Millán (2020). "Las causas del apoyo electoral a VOX en españa". Política y Sociedad. 57 (3). Madrid: 693–717. doi:10.5209/poso.69206. S2CID 241063503. Carmona Pascual, Pablo (2020). "Vox y el dilema de las derechas". Familia, raza y nación en tiempos de posfascismo (PDF). Traficantes de Sueños. pp. 161–186. ISBN 978-84-121259-4-8. Casals, Xavier (2020). "El ultranacionalismo de Vox. Cinco claves para comprender 'la España viva'". Grand Place. Pensamiento y Cultura. 13. Zarautz: Mario Onaindia Fundazioa: 27–35. ISSN 2386-429X. Esteban Fernández, Nacho (2023). Por rojos y maricones: homofobia y transfobia en el Partido Popular y el resto de la derecha española. Egales. 104-134. ISBN 978-84-19728-03-6. Ferreira, Carles (2019). "Vox como representante de la derecha radical en España: un estudio sobre su ideología" [Vox as Representative of the Radical Right in Spain: A study of its Ideology]. Revista Española de Ciencia Política (in Spanish). 51 (51): 73–98. doi:10.21308/recp.51.03. ISSN 2173-9870. Mendes, Mariana; Dennison, James (2021). "Explaining the emergence of the radical right in Spain and Portugal: Salience, Stigma and Supply". West European Politics. 44 (4): 752–775. doi:10.1080/01402382.2020.1777504. Lebourg, Nicolas; Camus, Jean-Yves (2020). Las extremas derechas


id: we-voice-from-the-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_–_Voice_from_the_People-0.md
category: reference
title: We – Voice from the People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_–_Voice_from_the_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:14.408926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: we-voice-from-the-people-20260505-0
summary:
The We – Voice from the People (Serbian: Ми — Глас из народа, Mi — Glas iz naroda, abbrev. MI–GIN) is a populist political organisation in Serbia. Until the 2024 split, the main representative of MI–GIN was Branimir Nestorović, a prominent pulmonologist and conspiracy theorist. MI–GIN gained national representation in the National Assembly of Serbia and City Assembly of Belgrade following the 2023 Serbian parliamentary election and 2023 Belgrade City Assembly election. == History == === Background and formation === In the 2022 Serbian parliamentary election, Branimir Nestorović supported the Dveri–POKS list, which helped this list in attracting votes. After the election, Nestorović said that he was dissatisfied with the Dveri list, and that Serbia "deserves a national, non-partisan, honest and decent option. With people who will not trade mandates and votes after the election". Nestorović announced the creation of the movement on 23 June 2023. === 2023 election === The movement announced that it would participate in the 2023 Serbian parliamentary election on 27 October 2023. Prior to that, it was mainly centered around a YouTube channel. On 26 November 2023, the movement submitted 10 thousand signatures to the Republican Electoral Commission of Serbia, and on 27 November it


id: jeanette-wilson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanette_Wilson-0.md
category: reference
title: Jeanette Wilson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanette_Wilson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:15.640359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jeanette-wilson-20260505-0
summary:
Jeanette Wilson (born 1962 or 1963) is a New Zealand medium, reiki practitioner, and spiritual healer. She says she is able to heal people with the assistance of spirits. She has been criticised for promoting anti-vaccination views, unproven supplements, anti-5G claims, and dangerous COVID-19 health advice. == Early life and family == Wilson was born in the United Kingdom. She worked as a Lloyds Bank manager in the UK until she began working as a psychic healer, reiki healer, and medium. She says her grandfather was the first dead person to contact her. She moved from the UK to New Zealand in 1999. Her partner is Andrew Carter and they live in Orewa in Auckland. == Mediumship and psychic healing == Wilson has said that she is able to communicate with spirits who help her to conduct spiritual healing. She has stated that her psychic healing abilities include curing arthritis and the healing of vision impairments that require glasses. She has also stated that she has treated paralysis, blindness in one eye, and many cases of life-threatening cancer. Wilson has said she never discourages her clients from seeking medical care. When asked whether curing people of medical conditions was accurate,


id: jeanette-wilson-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanette_Wilson-1.md
category: reference
title: Jeanette Wilson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanette_Wilson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:15.640359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jeanette-wilson-20260505-0
summary:
== Dietary supplements == In July 2020, RNZ reported that Wilson was claiming that a bluetooth device called the Healy Resonance she sells for the starting price of $780 can dose vitamins "vibrationally." In a sales-pitch, Wilson says "This is the best investment you'll probably make your whole life, for what it can do for you and your family". The Consumer NZ head of research said Wilson's claims were "a load of nonsense and unfortunately these kinds of claims are rife and enforcement is lacking which means shonky traders are making advantage of the situation". Physics professor Richard Easther of the University of Auckland says that claims being made about the product are not valid, and that he "wouldn't touch this with a barge pole." A Medsafe spokesman said Healy was being sold by Wilson as a medical device, therefore its promotion via testimonial was not permitted. The statement went on to warn that consumers with serious health conditions should speak to a healthcare professional before buying a device like the Healy. At her shows, Wilson advertises a dietary supplement, called alfa PXP Royale, made from micronised black rice. The supplement is sold by Enzacta, a multi-level marketing company for


id: your-baby-s-best-shot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Baby's_Best_Shot-0.md
category: reference
title: Your Baby's Best Shot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Baby's_Best_Shot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:16.808152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: your-baby-s-best-shot-20260505-0
summary:
Your Baby's Best Shot: Why Vaccines are Safe and Save Lives is a 2012 pro-vaccine book, published by Rowman and Littlefield, and written by E. Allison Hagood, a psychology professor, and Stacy Mintzer Herlihy, a freelance writer from Roseland, New Jersey. The foreword was written by Paul Offit. == Summary == The book's introduction states: "I hope that anyone reading this book will read it and gain an understanding why vaccines are so vitally important to the health and well being of all of us." Chapter 1 describes who the authors are, their own experiences with vaccines, and what motivated them to write this book. Chapter 2 focuses on the story of Edward Jenner and the development of the first vaccine. Chapter 3 discusses the biological mechanisms by which vaccines work, as well as the concept of herd immunity. Chapter 4 discusses the anti-vaccine claims about how vaccines contain "dangerous ingredients" such as formaldehyde and polymyxin B. == Reviews == Kristen Kemp of Parents called the book a "great resource", and Publishers Weekly wrote that it was "extensively researched and forceful." Another positive review came from Booklist, where Karen Springen wrote that "This thoroughly researched book should convince even ardent


id: gregory-d-zimet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_D._Zimet-0.md
category: reference
title: Gregory D. Zimet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_D._Zimet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:17.998878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gregory-d-zimet-20260505-0
summary:
Gregory D. Zimet is an American clinical psychologist and academic researcher known for his work on vaccination attitudes and behavior, particularly regarding human papillomavirus vaccination (HPV), and for co-developing the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). He is professor emeritus of Pediatrics and Psychiatry at Indiana University School of Medicine, where he served on the faculty for three decades. == Early life and education == Zimet earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology from Vassar College in 1978. He went on to receive both his Master of Arts (1981) and Doctor of Philosophy (1985) in clinical psychology from Duke University. He completed a predoctoral internship and postdoctoral training at Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine from 1984 to 1986. == Career == After his postdoctoral training, Zimet joined Case Western Reserve University as an Assistant Professor of Psychiatry (1986–1987), then as Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, a position he held from 1987 to 1993. In 1993, Zimet joined the faculty at Indiana University School of Medicine in the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Adolescent Medicine. He was promoted to full Professor of Pediatrics in 1999 and also held appointments in the Department of Psychiatry, the Department of Psychology


id: scientific-diving-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific diving is the use of underwater diving techniques by scientists to perform work underwater in the direct pursuit of scientific knowledge. The legal definition of scientific diving varies by jurisdiction. Scientific divers are normally qualified scientists first and divers second, who use diving equipment and techniques as their way to get to the location of their fieldwork. The direct observation and manipulation of marine habitats afforded to scuba-equipped scientists have transformed the marine sciences generally, and marine biology and marine chemistry in particular. Underwater archeology and geology are other examples of sciences pursued underwater. Some scientific diving is carried out by universities in support of undergraduate or postgraduate research programs, and government bodies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the UK Environment Agency carry out scientific diving to recover samples of water, marine organisms and sea, lake or riverbed material to examine for signs of pollution. Equipment used varies widely in this field, and is generally selected based on cost, effectiveness, availability and risk factors. Open-circuit scuba is most often used as it is widely available and cost-effective, and is the entry-level training mode in most places, but since the late 1990s the use of rebreather


id: scientific-diving-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== Contribution of scientific diving to research === Underwater diving interventions, particularly on scuba, provide the capacity for scientists to make direct observations on site and in real time, which allow for ground-truthing of larger scale observations and occasional serendipitous observations outside the planned experiment. Human dexterity remains less expensive and more adaptable to unexpected complexities in experimental setup than remotely operated and robotic alternatives in the shallower depth ranges. Scuba has also provided insights which would be unlikely to occur without direct observation, where hypotheses produced by deductive reasoning have not predicted interactive and behavioural characteristics of marine organisms, and these would not be likely to be detected from remote sensing or video or other methods which do not provide the full context and detail available to the diver. Scuba allows the scientist to set up the experiment and be present to observe unforeseen alternatives to the hypothesis. The field of global change biology includes investigation of evidence relating to global warming and ocean acidification. Many of the measurable changes in global climate occur in the sea. Coral bleaching is an example of an indicator of change, and scuba diving has provided a large amount of low-impact observational data


id: scientific-diving-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
==== Diving activities in support of research ==== Sampling: Diving is highly selective and useful for sampling delicate materials or organisms, and for collecting from specific locations or associations, it can be more efficient than sampling methods relying on chance, and can be cost-effective compared with the use of research vessels. In some cases there is no other way to gain access to the specimen, or the specimen must be actively searched for and visually identified, before extracting it from a complex environment without damage. Diving can produce higher quality samples with less collateral damage. Specimen collection of animals is more prevalent, but algal specimen and sediment core collection by diver can produce better quality samples in many cases. Survey and quantitative observation: Surveys and quantitative assessments may comprise quantitative descriptions of biotic assemblages, distribution or abundance of a species or group or other feature, or relate the topography of the seafloor to the distribution of a species or group. There are examples where ROVs and video surveys have been used for these purposes, and the alternatives each have their advantages. Animal behaviour: Behaviour tends to be studied by direct observation, video or time lapse photography. In many cases the


id: scientific-diving-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== Branches of science frequently using diving === Fisheries science – Academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries Freshwater biology – Scientific study of freshwater ecosystems and biology Hydrology – Science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth Limnology – Science of inland aquatic ecosystems Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life Ocean chemistry – Chemistry of oceans and seas Marine ecology – The study of the interactions between organisms and environment in the sea Marine geology – Study of the history and structure of the ocean floor Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean Underwater archaeology – Study of human activity via evidence found underwater === Other fields which may use scientific diving === Aquaculture – Farming of aquatic organisms Environmental protection – Practice of protecting the natural environment === Citizen science === Several citizen science projects use observational input from recreational divers to provide reliable data on presence and distribution of marine organisms. The ready availability of digital underwater cameras makes collection of such observations easy and the permanence of the record allows peer and expert review. Such projects include the Australian-based Reef Life Survey, and the more international iNaturalist project, based in California,


id: scientific-diving-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
The first recorded U.S. scientific diver was Dr. William H. Longley, starting in 1910, and who made the first underwater colour photograph with National Geographic staff photographer Charles Martin in 1926 off the Florida Keys in the Gulf of Mexico. By the middle of the 20th century, scientific diving was being done around the U.S. in surface supplied shallow water helmets and standard diving dress. During WWII Jacques Cousteau and Frédéric Dumas used the Aqua-Lung for underwater archaeology to excavate a large mound of amphorae near Grand Congloué, an island near Marseilles. The first scientific diver at Scripps Institution of Oceanography was Cheng Kwai Tseng, a biologist from China and graduate student during World War II, who used Japanese surface-supplied equipment to collect algae off the San Diego coast in 1944. In 1947, Frank Haymaker made observations in Scripps Canyon using a similar surface-supplied diving helmet. In 1949 Conrad Limbaugh introduced scientific scuba diving at Scripps Institution of Oceanography. While a doctoral student in 1954 he became Scripps' first diving safety officer, his research diving course was the first civilian diver training programme in the U.S. and he wrote the first scientific diving manual. Limbaugh and researcher Andreas Rechnitzer purchased


id: scientific-diving-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== Diving control board === The American system has a diving control board taking overall responsibility for all scientific diving work done by an organisation. The diving safety officer is responsible to the board for operational, diving and safety matters. For each dive, one scientist, designated as the lead diver, must be present at the site during that entire operation, and is responsible for management of the dive, including dive planning, briefing, emergency planning, equipment and procedures. The divers operate in a strict buddy diving system. === Dive planning === As scientific diving is by definition done in pursuit of scietific knowledge, there is a purpose to each dive and therefore there will be a plan to safely and effectively achieve that purpose. == Standard and emergency diving procedures == The standard procedures for scuba and surface-supplied diving are essentially the same as for any other similar diving operation using similar equipment in a similar environment, by both recreational, technical and other professional divers. There are a few special cases where scientific diving operations are carried out in places where other divers would generally not go, such as blue-water diving. Scientific dives tend to be more task oriented than recreational


id: scientific-diving-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
Circular search – a diver swims at a series of distances (radii) around a fixed reference point. The circular search is simple and requires little equipment. It is useful where the position of the objects of the search is known with reasonable accuracy. Pendulum searches – a variation on the circular search where the diver stops and changes direction at the end of each arc. Jackstay search – divers swim along a search line – the jackstay, while searching to the sides. There are various techniques for performing a jackstay search. Compass searches – search patterns controlled by compass directions. Towed searches – divers are towed behind a boat while searching visually. Sonar assisted searches – Divers search using a sonar transponder. Active transponders that emit a signal and measure the return signal strength to determine obstructions in a given direction, or passive transponders which measure a signal emitted by the target can be used. === Collection, sampling, tagging and recording === Most scientific fieldwork involves some form of data collection. In some cases, it is on-site measurement of physical data, and sometimes it involves taking samples, usually recording the circumstances in some detail. Video, still photography and manual listing


id: scientific-diving-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-7.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
== Demographics == In the United States scientific diving is done by research institutions, universities, museums, aquaria, and consulting companies for purposes of research, education and environmental monitoring. As of 2005 there were an estimated 4000 scientific divers, of which a small number are career scientific divers, with an average age of around 40 years, and a larger number of students in the 18 to 34 year age group. There is no specific upper age limit providing the diver remains medically fit to dive. The lower limit is determined by the age of students qualifying for training. About a quarter are female. == Regulation of scientific diving == Scientific diving is generally considered to be occupational diving, and is usually regulated as such except where specifically exempted. === Exemptions === In the US, scientific diving is exempted from the requirements of the Federal Occupational Safety and Health regulations, provided that it complies with the requirements specified for the exemption. === Governance and representation organisations === Scientific diving governance organizations include: The Australian Scientific Divers Association The American Academy of Underwater Sciences – American diving standards organisation The European Scientific Diving Panel – A panel of the European Network of Marine


id: scientific-diving-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-8.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
Diving first aid, including cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and oxygen administration to diving casualties. Standard emergency procedures and diving casualty management. Scuba rescue techniques and management of casualties in and under the water. Further training for special equipment, such as closed circuit mixed gas rebreathers, extended range, or special tasks may be required. As of 2016 there were three sets of rebreather standards for scientific diving in the US, those of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS), National Park Service (NPS) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). All three organisations require full scientific diver status with nitrox certification as prerequisite, NOAA requires certification to 130 feet (40 m) and 100 open water dive, while AAUS and NPS require 100 feet (30 m) and 50 open water dives. Each agency specifies stepwise certification to increasing depths, and certification is valid only for the rebreather type trained on, for environmental conditions similar to those during training. Classroom training includes theory review of topics included in open circuit training, and decompression and dive planning appropriate to the chosen unit. More technical topics include system design and operation, pre-dive setup and testing, post-dive break down and maintenance, oxygen exposure and decompression management, dive


id: scientific-diving-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-9.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== South Africa === In South Africa, scientific diving is considered a form of commercial diving and is within the scope of the Diving Regulations 2009 and the Code of Practice for Scientific Diving published by the Chief Inspector of the Department of Employment and Labour, Under DR 2009 the Codes of Practice are guidance and not compulsory practice. They are provided as recommended good practice, and in theory need not be followed providing an acceptable level of safety is achieved in terms of the Occupational Health and Safety Act No.85 of 1993. However, in this case the onus is on the diving contractor to ensure acceptable safety during the diving operation based on risk assessment. The level of safety required is specified in the OHS act as "reasonably practicable" taking into account a number of factors, including cost effectiveness, availability of technology for mitigation and available knowledge of hazards. Use of the relatively flexible scientific code rather than the default Code of Practice for Inshore Diving is restricted to clients which are registered as organisations engaged in either scientific research or higher education. The qualification required to dive at work in South Africa is linked to the mode of


id: scientific-diving-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-10.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === In the United States scientific diving is permitted by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to operate under an alternative consensual standard of practice that is maintained by the American Academy of Underwater Sciences. 29 CFR Part 1910 – Subpart T "Commercial Diving Operations," establishes mandatory occupational safety and health requirements for commercial diving operations which apply wherever OSHA has statutory jurisdiction. This covers the inland and coastal territorial waters of the United States and possessions. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America petitioned the Federal Government in 1975 to issue an emergency temporary standard covering all professional diving operations, which was issued on June 15, 1976, to be effective from July 15, 1976. This was challenged in the US Court of Appeals and was withdrawn in November 1976. A permanent standard for commercial diving was subsequently formulated which became effective from October 20, 1977. The American Academy of Underwater Sciences applied for an exemption for scientific diving, citing 20 years of self-regulation and a lower accident rate than the commercial diving industry. An exemption was issued effective from November 28, 1982, after negotiation. To be able to avail itself of the Scientific


id: scientific-diving-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-11.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
Belgium (statutory member) Bulgaria (member) Croatia (member) Finland (statutory member) France (statutory member) Germany (statutory member) Greece (candidate member) Italy (member) Norway (statutory member) Poland (candidate member) Portugal (member) Slovenia (candidate member) Sweden (statutory member) United Kingdom (statutory member) The ESDP is intended to maintain and develop a system for recognition of scientific diving competencies issued by member states, which may be issued under various training routes and levels of national legislation, to facilitate participation and mobility by diving scientists in European research programmes, and to improve diving safety, quality of science, and underwater techniques and technologies. Two levels of scientific diver registration are recognised: the European Scientific Diver (ESD) and the Advanced European Scientific Diver (AESD). AESDs are qualified to lead scientific diving trips, while ESDs are only permitted to take part. These represent the minimum level of training and competence required to allow scientists to participate freely throughout the countries of the European Union in underwater research projects diving using scuba. Certification or registration by an authorized national agency is a prerequisite, and depth and breathing gas limitations may apply. This competence may be gained either through a formal training program, by in the field training and experience


id: 1992-cageless-shark-diving-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_cageless_shark-diving_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: 1992 cageless shark-diving expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_cageless_shark-diving_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:21.019727+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1992-cageless-shark-diving-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The 1992 cageless shark-diving expedition was the world's first recorded intentionally cageless dive with great white sharks, contributing to a change in public opinions about the supposed ferocity of these animals. == History == The dive took place in January 1992, during the filming of the National Geographic documentary Blue Wilderness, at Dyer Island, South Africa. After 8-10 large Great White sharks had been kept around their boat for about 6 hours using chum and sea mammal flesh, four scuba divers carried out the world's first recorded dive amongst these animals without a safety cage, or any other protection, like chain-mail suits. The divers were Ron and Valerie Taylor, notable Australian film-makers and pioneers of underwater exploration, their friend George Askew, a South African diver and photographer, and Piet 'PJ' van der Walt, who had founded the South African cage-diving industry in 1988. The Taylors and Askew, recognised shark experts and authorities, were testing their hypothesis that these animals had a much fiercer reputation than they deserved. Their hypothesis was based on many years of experiences with various types of shark, including face to face encounters underwater. In 1978, Askew had written an article entitled "The Jaws fish - Myth


id: continental-shelf-station-two-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Station_Two-0.md
category: reference
title: Continental Shelf Station Two
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Station_Two
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:25.633827+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continental-shelf-station-two-20260505-0
summary:
Continental Shelf Station Two or Conshelf Two was an attempt at creating an environment in which people could live and work on the sea floor. It was the successor to Continental Shelf Station One (Conshelf One). The alternate designation Precontinent has also been used to describe the set of projects to build an underwater "village" carried out by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and his team. The projects were named Precontinent I (Conshelf One), Precontinent II (Conshelf Two) and Precontinent III (Conshelf Three). Each following project was aimed at increasing the depth at which people continuously lived under water. == Precontinent I == Precontinent I was constructed offshore from Marseille, France, in 1962. Two scuba divers spent two weeks in a small chamber 12 meters deep on the seabed. == Precontinent II == In 1963, six oceanauts lived 10 metres down in the Red Sea, at Sha’ab Rumi off Sudan, in a starfish-shaped house for 30 days. The undersea living experiment also had two other structures, one a submarine hangar that housed a small, two man submarine referred to as the "diving saucer" for its resemblance to a science fiction flying saucer, and a smaller "deep cabin" where two oceanauts lived at a


id: mission-31-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_31-0.md
category: reference
title: Mission 31
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_31
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:30.297023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mission-31-20260505-0
summary:
Mission 31 was an undersea expedition organized by Fabien Cousteau. It was originally scheduled for November 2013, but was delayed to June 2014. On June 1, Cousteau and six crew members descended to the undersea laboratory Aquarius in the Florida Keys. Halfway through the expedition, three of crew were replaced, as had been planned. After 31 days, Cousteau and the crew ascended on July 2. Throughout Mission 31, Cousteau's team conducted extended scuba diving expeditions to collect scientific data and IMAX footage. They hosted various one-day guests, conversed live with classrooms, and kept in touch with the outside world via social media. Cousteau estimated that his team collected the equivalent of two years' worth of surface dive data, enough for 10 scientific papers. Mission 31 was envisioned as a tribute to Cousteau's grandfather, Jacques Cousteau, who spent 30 days living underwater in 1963. Fabien Cousteau thus beat his grandfather's record for time spent underwater by a film crew by one day. == Background == In 1963, French oceanographer and filmmaker Jacques Cousteau spent 30 days living underwater in Conshelf Two, in the Red Sea. The footage was turned into the Academy Award-winning film World Without Sun. Subsequently, his television show,


id: 1928-great-barrier-reef-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928_Great_Barrier_Reef_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: 1928 Great Barrier Reef expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928_Great_Barrier_Reef_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:35.045965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1928-great-barrier-reef-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
1928 Great Barrier Reef expedition, also known as the Yonge Expedition or the Low Isles Expedition was a thirteen-month scientific program beginning in 1928, which was promoted to study the Australian Great Barrier Reef. == Origins == The Great Barrier Reef Expedition was a scientific study suggested by Sir Matthew Nathan and Professor Henry Richards who led the Australian Great Barrier Reef Committee from its establishment in 1922. With support from the British Barrier Reef Committee and the Association for the Advancement of Science in England, there was considerable interest in conducting zoological studies of Australia's Great Barrier Reef, to investigate theories put forward by Charles Darwin and others. It was also planned to determine the economic importance of the reef's marine life. This largely British expedition of scientists sought financial support from the Australian government, universities and the public to fund the expedition and study biological and geological life in a number of sections of the Reef. == Personnel == C. Maurice Yonge, a marine invertebrate researcher, was encouraged to join a proposed expedition to Australia's Great Barrier Reef in 1927. He was eventually appointed its leader. Twelve scientists including Yonge, his wife Dr Mattie Yonge who would act


id: 1948-american-australian-scientific-expedition-to-arnhem-land-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_American-Australian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Arnhem_Land-0.md
category: reference
title: 1948 American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_American-Australian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Arnhem_Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:36.209933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1948-american-australian-scientific-expedition-to-arnhem-land-20260505-0
summary:
The American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land (also known as the Arnhem Land Expedition) remains one of the most significant, most ambitious and least understood expeditions. Commenced in February 1948, it was one of the largest scientific expeditions to have taken place in Australia and was conducted by a team of Australian and American researchers and support staff. == Background == A number of publications, including H. H. Finlayson’s The Red Centre: Man and Beast in the Heart of Australia (1935), and Walkabout travel and geographical magazine (1934–1974), revised Australians' concept of 'The Centre" from the picture presented in J. W. Gregory's The Dead Heart of Australia (1909). Leader-to-be of the Arnhem Land Expedition, Charles P. Mountford and his wife Bessie travelled over four months from Ernabella to Uluru in 1940, with Lauri Sheard and skilled cameleer Tommy Dodd undertaking an extensive study of the art and mythology surrounding Uluru and Kata Tjuta. The results of this endeavour were showcased through photographic exhibitions and a prize-winning film created in 1940, which subsequently became the foundation for Mountford's first publication Brown Men and Red Sand (1948), and his 1945 lecture tour in the United States which paved the way for the


id: 1948-american-australian-scientific-expedition-to-arnhem-land-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_American-Australian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Arnhem_Land-1.md
category: reference
title: 1948 American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_American-Australian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Arnhem_Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:36.209933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1948-american-australian-scientific-expedition-to-arnhem-land-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == May, Sally K. in press 2009. Collecting Indigenous Cultures: myth, politics and collaboration in the 1948 Arnhem Land Expedition. California: Altamira. May, Sally K. 2008 ‘The Art of Collecting: Charles Pearcy Mountford’. In Nicholas Peterson, Lindy Allen, and Louise Hamby, The Makers and Making of Indigenous Australian Museum Collections. Melbourne: Museum Victoria. May, Sally K. with Donald Gumurdul, Jacob Manakgu, Gabriel Maralngurra and Wilfred Nawirridj. 2005. 'You Write it Down and Bring it Back... That's What We Want" - Revisiting the 1948 Removal of Human Remains from Gunbalanya (Oenpelli), Australia', in Smith, Claire & Wobst, H. Martin (eds). Indigenous Peoples and Archaeology. London: Routledge. May, Sally K. 2005 ‘Collecting the ‘Last Frontier’’, in Hamby, Louise (ed). Twined Together. Melbourne: Museum Victoria. May, Sally K, Jennifer McKinnon and Jason Raupp, 2009. ‘Boats on Bark: an analysis of Groote Eylandt bark paintings featuring Macassan praus from the 1948 Arnhem Land Expedition’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. May, Sally K. 2003 'Colonial Collections of Portable Art and Intercultural Encounters in Aboriginal Australia', in Paul Faulstich, Sven Ouzman, and Paul S.C. Taçon (eds), Before Farming: the archaeology and anthropology of hunter-gatherers. California: Altamira. 1, 8, p. 1-17. May, Sally K.


id: 1955-gough-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_Gough_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: 1955 Gough Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_Gough_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:37.444301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1955-gough-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The 1955 Gough Island Scientific Survey was a scientific expedition undertaken in 1955 through 1956 from England to Gough Island in the South Atlantic Ocean. The expedition’s purpose was to study various aspects of the island's flora and fauna and to perform geological and cartographic surveys. It was led by John B. Heaney. The book "Mountains in the Sea" was written by one of the expedition crew about the expedition. == Origins == The expedition started after a suggestion from Dr. B.B. Roberts of the Scott Polar Research Institute. Other team members were sourced from British universities, except for J.J. van der Merwe of South Africa. Funding came from the Scott Polar Research Institute, the Royal Geographical Society, the Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and others. R.J.H. Chambers took over as leader of the expedition after doctors persuaded John Heaney to remain in England for his health. == Expedition == The expedition sailed from Britain to South Africa, and from there to Tristan. There, they stayed for some time until there was a sufficient weather window. They saw local dances and attempted to summit the mountain. They landed on October 1, 1955. After six weeks they found a weather window


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-0.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
The American Expedition (1799–1804) was a scientific exploration of Spanish America conducted by the Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt and the French botanist Aimé Bonpland. Over the course of five years, the expedition traversed across present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Cuba, Mexico, and parts of the United States. Humboldt and Bonpland conducted pioneering research in fields including geography, biology, geology, meteorology, and ethnography. They were the first Europeans to scientifically describe vast regions of South and Central America, mapping rivers like the Orinoco and investigating the Andes Mountains—including an attempt to climb Chimborazo. Their observations of plant and animal life, atmospheric phenomena, and indigenous cultures laid the foundations for modern biogeography and ecology. Humboldt’s meticulous measurements of altitude, climate, and geology, as well as his analyses of social and economic conditions, greatly expanded European knowledge of the New World. The expedition’s findings were later published in a series of influential works that shaped scientific thought and inspired generations of explorers and naturalists. == Background == By the mid 1790s Humboldt had devoted himself wholly into scientific research. Despite being offered a promotion and an increase of pay he resigned his position as a mining official in the Prussian civil service


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-1.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
== The Journey to South America == On 5 June 1799, the Pizarro departed from the port of La Coruña after a period of delay caused by unfavorable weather. The ship, commanded by Captain Cagigal, left in the early afternoon and encountered difficulties navigating the harbor due to contrary winds, nearly running aground before eventually clearing the port. The vessel passed Castle San Antonio and the Tower of Hercules by the evening, then altered its course to avoid a British naval squadron operating offshore, a precaution necessitated by ongoing hostilities and blockades associated with the European wars of the period. Spain, originally allied with Britain and other monarchies against revolutionary France, had made peace with France in 1795. If the Pizarro had been captured at sea, the ship would likely have been taken to Portugal, a British ally, resulting in the loss of passage for the expedition’s civilian passengers to the New World. During the voyage, Humboldt and Bonpland initiated scientific work, including the use of a dip needle to measure the Earth’s magnetic inclination and water-temperature readings, confirming previous observations by Franklin and Williams regarding ocean temperatures. The Pizarro sailed past Cape Finisterre and, on 8 June 1799, encountered


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-2.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tenerife === Upon landing on Tenerife, Humboldt and Bonpland were received by local officials and noted the distinctive flora of the island, including bananas, papaws, and ornamental plants. On June 20, before dawn,Bonpland an Humboldt departed with guides and mules for La Orotava, near the Teide volcano. They passed through San Cristébal, built on a basalt ridge around the Peak of Tenerife, and paused to inspect rocks, eventually arriving at La Laguna, the capital of Tenerife. After the climbing Humboldt and his party left La Laguna, traversing a landscape rich in plant diversity, including palms, orange trees, vines, and cacti. The region’s natural beauty was contrasted by socio-economic inequality, with land concentrated among a few wealthy planters and the indigenous population living in poverty. The group passed through Juan de la Rambla, Victoria, and Matanza, sites of both agricultural abundance and historical conflict with Spanish conquest in the fifteenth century. In La Orotava, they visited the botanical garden and met Monsieur LeGros, the French vice-consul, who had lived on Tenerife since being shipwrecked and agreed to guide their ascent of Pico del Teide. On 21 June 1799, the climbing party, which included LeGros, other local guides, and consular staff,


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-3.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
== Route and Major Stages == === Venezuela === ==== Cumaná ==== On the morning of July 16, 1799, the Pizarro anchored at Cumana, and even those weakened by typhus managed to witness their arrival. Humboldt, eager to immerse himself in the new environment, immediately visited the home of their native guide, disregarding the captain's reminder about the need to present credentials to the Governor first. In the shade of a mimosa tree, surrounded by unfamiliar tropical fragrances and the daily life of their host’s family, Humboldt found the experience more rewarding than any official audience could provide. The town of Cumana, or what remained of it after a devastating earthquake, presented a scene of partial ruin. Governor Don Vicente Emparán, a progressive and scientifically minded official, welcomed the explorers warmly. As head of New Andalusia, then part of the Spanish colony of New Granada, Emparán took pride in introducing Humboldt and Bonpland to local crafts, especially textiles and furniture made from native materials. His appreciation for science ensured that Humboldt and Bonpland received favorable treatment during their South American travels. The natural scenery, with its mist-shrouded mountains, vibrant birds, and luxuriant plant life, left Humboldt and Bonpland exhilarated and


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-4.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
==== Llanos and tropical ecology ==== In February 1800, Humboldt and Bonpland departed the Caribbean coast, setting their sights on the Orinoco River. This important northern neighbor of the Amazon promised a gateway into the equatorial jungles, famed for their extraordinary biodiversity and dense tropical vegetation. For Humboldt, the journey offered a long-awaited opportunity to conduct magnetic measurements at latitudes where Earth’s magnetism would differ significantly from what he had found in Europe. The expedition also carried the excitement of possibly confirming the rumored connection between the Orinoco and Amazon or Rio Negro river systems—a geographical mystery that had fascinated explorers for years. The most direct route from Caracas to the Orinoco would have been to cross the southern mountain chain between Baruta and Salamanca, traverse the savannahs of Ocumare, and embark at Cabruta near the Rio Guarico’s mouth. However, this shortcut would have denied the travelers the chance to survey the most fertile and cultivated regions of the province—the valleys of Aragua—along with valuable opportunities to measure the elevation of the coastal mountain chain by barometer and to descend the Rio Apure to its meeting point with the Orinoco. From Puerto Cabello, Humboldt and Bonpland made their way across


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-5.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
Nights were spent camping on riverbanks, where hammocks were usually slung between trees or, when trees were absent, from canoe paddles or on ox-hides. This exposed the expedition to risks from snakes, alligators, and jaguars, which were especially prevalent and feared by local Natives. Nighttime was often unsettled due to animal activity, including monkeys, peccaries, sloths, and birds.Shortly after departure, a sudden squall nearly overturned the canoe, but a shift in wind stabilized the vessel. The following morning, the expedition encountered a Carib family traveling from the mouth of the Orinoco to collect turtle eggs, an event that attracted hundreds of Natives from various tribes and a few white traders. The eggs were rendered for oil, used for cooking and lighting, though overharvesting threatened the turtle population. At the Island of the Tortoises, Native tribes gathered annually to harvest turtle eggs, each tribe distinguished by unique body paint. Humboldt observed the process and noted that the previous Jesuit supervisors had ensured some eggs were left to hatch, but that their successors, the Franciscans, did not exercise such care, causing a decline in the turtle population. The Native crew from San Fernando departed at the turtle islands, as they lacked experience


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-6.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
Humboldt credited Bonpland’s energy and courage. The climate damaged a significant portion of their botanical collection. Shortly after arrival in Angostura, Humboldt, Bonpland, and a servant became seriously ill, likely with typhoid. Humboldt recovered quickly, but Bonpland’s illness was severe and slow to resolve. After a month, Bonpland was fit enough for the journey across the Llanos to the coast. Their return was delayed by a privateer, but British naval intervention rescued them. By late August 1800, they reached Cumana, concluding the first phase of their South American expedition after nearly a year away.


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-7.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cuba (1800–1801) === On November 24, 1800, Humboldt and Bonpland departed the Venezuelan coast for Havana in a small vessel, enduring a perilous, storm-ridden journey of twenty-five days. Upon arrival, Havana presented a crowded and unsanitary environment, with a population of 44,000, half of whom were people of African descent. The city, nearly as large as New York due to its suburbs, was afflicted by yellow fever. The travelers were welcomed with receptions and enjoyed the hospitality of the local elite. Humboldt undertook a survey of the harbor, the principal commercial and naval base of Spanish colonial power in the Caribbean, correcting its geographic position. Humboldt and Bonpland then traveled into the Cuban interior, visiting sugar plantations, factories, and fields of indigo, tobacco, and cotton. They observed the harsh conditions under which enslaved people labored. Humboldt aimed to make an objective comparison between Cuba and South American societies. His observations culminated in the Political Essay on the Island of Cuba, a comprehensive geographic study examining the island’s physical and economic conditions, as well as the social realities of slavery. Published in 1828, the work was notable for its data and its condemnation of slavery, resonating during the Latin American


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-8.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== New Granada (Colombia) === Sailing southeast, the sloop entered the Gulf of Batabano, passing Isla de Pinos and navigating the challenging Jardines y Jardinillos archipelago, a region earlier named by Columbus. Humboldt measured latitudes and studied water characteristics, noting the solitude of the area, which was once frequented by fishermen. The journey was slow, with stops for geological and botanical observations. The crew’s cruelty toward wildlife disturbed Humboldt. After several days, the ship entered open water and was driven off course by winds toward the Cayman Islands before resuming its route to the Colombian coast. On March 24, the ship arrived in the Gulf of Santa Marta, enduring rough weather before seeking shelter near the Rio Sint. The travelers landed in a remote area, where locals regarded them with suspicion. Humboldt met a fellow German among palm wine workers, who offered insights about the climate but little else. After collecting botanical specimens, the travelers faced further storms at sea, nearly capsizing before finally finding shelter. Humboldt attempted to make astronomical observations to determine longitude but was prevented by the captain due to difficult terrain. An encounter with escaped enslaved people left Humboldt reflecting on the region’s hardships and the


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-9.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
==== Climbing Chimborazo ==== Humboldt and Bonpland began their ascent of Chimborazo from the plain of Tapia, situated at 3,163 yards (2,892 m) above sea level. The route led through a high plateau between the eastern and western chains of the Andes, passing sparse vegetation such as cacti and Schinus molle, as well as herds of llamas. The altitude caused agricultural difficulties, since nocturnal cooling often resulted in frozen crops. Before reaching Calpi, they visited Lican, once an important settlement before the Spanish conquest, but now reduced to a small village. Indigenous people believed that wild llamas on Chimborazo descended from domesticated herds scattered after the destruction of Lican. The travelers spent the night in Calpi, which Humboldt measured at 3,452 yards (3,157 m) meters above sea level. On June 23, they began the main phase of their Chimborazo expedition, choosing a south-southeast route favored by their Indigenous guides, though only a few guides had reached the limits of the perpetual snow. Humboldt observed that Chimborazo was surrounded by step-like, grass-covered plateaus, which he compared to former lake beds and similar terrace formations in the Alps. The flora of these grasslands was dominated by grass species common in northern Europe,


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-10.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== Peru === The travelers gradually descended into the cinchona forests and former Inca territories. In Riobamba, they stayed with Montufar’s brother, where Humboldt accessed rare sixteenth-century manuscripts written in an extinct dialect and later translated into Spanish. These documents described pre-conquest events and the major eruption of Nevado de Altar volcano, which affected nearby towns with ash for seven years. Traveling from Riobamba to Cuenca across the Paramo of Azuay, Humboldt studied the remains of the Inca road, notable for its precise porphyry paving and straightness, comparable to Roman roads, leading to Cuzco. He also visited the ruins of Inca Tapayupangi’s palace and its summer house carved from rock, which offered impressive views and prompted Humboldt to admire Inca public works. Southward, the group had to ford the Rio Guancabamba, a tributary of the Amazon, twenty-seven times. Although not wide, the river’s strong current endangered their mules, which carried important collections. Humboldt described the anxiety of watching their passage. Further along, he observed the local postal system known as “el correo que nada,” where a messenger swam downstream with mail secured in a cotton handkerchief, sometimes using a balsa log to rest and stopping at huts for food and


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-11.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
On Christmas Eve, Humboldt and his party departed from Callao for Guayaquil, traveling slowly along the coast. During the voyage, Humboldt took regular oceanographic measurements of the cold current along the Peruvian coast. Although local fishermen had known of this current for centuries, Humboldt was the first to systematically study its properties. Over time, despite his protests, this current came to be widely known as the Humboldt Current, and it remains a principal geographical feature associated with his name. On February 15, 1803, Humboldt sailed from Guayaquil to Mexico. Even two hundred miles offshore, he heard the eruption of Cotopaxi. After thirty-three days at sea, the ship approached Acapulco. Humboldt discovered that standard charts had mislocated the port, a significant error given Acapulco’s importance as a hub for Spanish Pacific trade. On March 22, 1803, the ship anchored, and Humboldt began immediate astronomical observations to determine the port’s precise location. He confirmed that Acapulco was situated up to five miles west of its position on existing maps, prompting necessary revisions to the cartography of New Spain. Acapulco, with its natural harbor, had been settled by indigenous peoples for thousands of years and later established as a port by Hernán Cortés


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-12.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
In early April, Humboldt and his companions prepared for their journey to Mexico City, enduring harsh conditions as they crossed the Sierra Madre del Sur, where temperatures reached 104 degrees Fahrenheit and the path was dusty and rocky. At Chilpancingo, they experienced a cooler climate and the scent of pine. Throughout the journey, Humboldt meticulously charted their route, using instruments to record geologic and geographic data. His systematic surveying produced the first geological cross-section based on precise instrument readings, a significant innovation in geological science. The group next visited Taxco, a renowned mining town famous for its silver mines. Humboldt observed the extensive mining operations and learned about the legendary fortunes and losses of miners like Jose de Laborde. He studied local mining techniques and later published critical observations in his "Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain," condemning the harsh treatment of indigenous laborers and outdated, dangerous mining practices. Humboldt was struck by the poor conditions underground, where men and children worked in hazardous environments. Taxco’s mining traditions persisted into Humboldt's time, but he noted improvements in workers' well-being compared to earlier periods. The town preserved memories of Humboldt’s visit, including the house where he stayed and the


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-13.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States (1804) === On 29 April 1804, Alexander von Humboldt, accompanied by Bonpland and Monttfar, embarked from Havana on the Spanish frigate Concepcion en route to Philadelphia. They endured a week-long storm in the Bahama Straits, raising concerns for the safety of their scientific collections. After 24 days, they reached the calm waters of Delaware, where they had their first views of the United States. The landscape featured low, forest-covered shores punctuated with marshland, and as they neared Philadelphia, attractive farmhouses came into sight amidst the forest clearings. However, upon closer approach, the waterfront revealed an unsightly scene of wooden warehouses and refuse. Behind this façade lay a well-organized city of 75,000 residents, reminiscent of European towns. Its cobblestone streets lined with poplar trees, elegant three-storey red-brick houses, and well-furnished interiors stood in stark contrast to the initial impression. The main public building, aside from the State House, was Philosophic Hall, home to the American Philosophical Society, which played a crucial role in arranging for Humboldt's visit. Despite Philadelphia losing its capital status to Washington, it remained the cultural and scientific heart of the burgeoning republic. Humboldt and his companions were accommodated in an inn near the harbor


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-14.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
On 1 June, Humboldt and his party arrived in Washington, which had become the United States capital in 1800. The city was still under construction, with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants and about 800 houses clustered around the Capitol, the President’s residence, and the Navy Yard along the Potomac River. The Executive Mansion, where Humboldt was invited to lunch with President Thomas Jefferson, was also incomplete and surrounded by unfinished grounds. Jefferson’s study, serving as his Cabinet room, was filled with a variety of personal and official items, including his books, maps, gardening tools, and a cage for his favorite mockingbird. It was in this space that Jefferson and Humboldt engaged in detailed discussions. Jefferson, at sixty-one, was known for his unpretentious lifestyle and devotion to family. The luncheon, attended by figures such as Charles Willson Peale, was informal, focusing on topics like natural history and international customs rather than politics. Jefferson and Humboldt quickly developed mutual respect, sharing scientific interests and political ideals. Jefferson was knowledgeable in various scientific fields, having conducted meteorological studies, experimented with agricultural techniques, and designed a plow. He was well-acquainted with the works of leading European scientists and demonstrated expertise in astronomy and paleontology. He


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-15.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
== Aftermath == After returning to France in August 1804, Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland arrived in Bordeaux after a swift Atlantic crossing. Their return after six years abroad was marked by the need to adjust to changed circumstances and reintegrate into European life. During quarantine, Humboldt wrote to the Institut National in Paris, informing them of his safe arrival. This news caused surprise, as rumors of his death had circulated in Europe. Humboldt reached Paris in late August, looking healthy and energetic. He was warmly welcomed by friends and family, with accounts noting he appeared unchanged by his long absence. Parisian society celebrated Humboldt as a hero. He was honored at scientific meetings and social gatherings, gaining widespread public attention for his South American explorations. His collections and drawings, exhibited at the Jardin des Plantes, attracted large crowds. Within six weeks, the Institut National held a special meeting where Humboldt presented his scientific results, receiving enthusiastic applause. In mid-October, Humboldt presented the first reports of his journey at a meeting of the Institut National des Sciences et Arts, a French government organisation created in 1795 to promote science, the beaux arts, and literature. The meeting was crowded and


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-16.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
== Contributions to Science == Alexander von Humboldt’s scientific achievements are notable for their scope, empirical rigor, and transformative impact across the natural sciences. His American expedition (1799–1804) produced a vast array of new data and observations, which he synthesized in a remarkable body of published work. Humboldt’s enduring reputation is grounded in his relentless fieldwork, his innovative methods of data visualization, and above all in his vision of nature as a unified and dynamic system. His contributions to plant geography are evident in his Essai sur la géographie des plantes (1805), which introduced the idea that plant distributions are determined by environmental factors such as climate, elevation, and soil. This groundbreaking work was based on his ascent of equatorial mountains like Chimborazo and Pichincha, where he meticulously recorded changes in vegetation corresponding to altitude and temperature. Humboldt’s iconic “Chimborazo profile” visually mapped plant zones along the mountain’s slopes, integrating botanical, meteorological, and physical data. By demonstrating that the same climatic zones could produce similar vegetation types on different continents, Humboldt laid the foundations for modern biogeography and ecology, moving beyond Linnaean taxonomy to a dynamic understanding of the relationship between organisms and their environment. The methods and concepts presented


id: austrian-expedition-to-brazil-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_expedition_to_Brazil-0.md
category: reference
title: Austrian expedition to Brazil
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_expedition_to_Brazil
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:41.050714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: austrian-expedition-to-brazil-20260505-0
summary:
The Austrian expedition to Brazil (German: Österreichische Brasilien-Expedition) was a scientific expedition which explored Brazil. It was organized and financed by the Austrian Empire from 1817 to 1835. == History == The expedition had as its main supporter the Austrian statesman Prince Metternich and the expedition was associated with the politically significant marriage of Dom Pedro of Brazil and Archduchess Leopoldine of Austria. Overall planning was overseen by Metternich and scientific planning was undertaken by Carl Franz von Schreibers. The contingent of fourteen naturalists included Johann Christian Mikan, Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, Giuseppe Raddi, Heinrich Wilhelm Schott, Johann Baptist von Spix, Johann Baptist Emanuel Pohl, Johann Natterer, Ferdinand Dominik Sochor (Imperial hunter and a skilled taxidermist) and the artists Thomas Ender and Johann Buchberger. A thirteen-room "Brazilian Museum" containing 133,000 objects from the expedition was opened to the public. It was closed in 1836 and the contents integrated with those of the Hof-Naturalienkabinette, now the Natural History Museum of Vienna. == References == Kann, Bettina: Die österreichische Brasilienexpedition 1817 - 1836 unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ethnographischen Ergebnisse. Diplomarbeit Wien 1992 Riedl-Dorn, Christa: Johann Natterer und die österreichische Brasilienexpedition. Petrópolis 1999 Steinle, Robert: Historische Hintergründe österreichischen Brasilienexpedition (1817-1835) mit einer Dokumentation


id: dennis-r-bell-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_R._Bell-0.md
category: reference
title: Dennis R. Bell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_R._Bell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:42.191543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dennis-r-bell-20260505-0
summary:
Dennis R. "Tink" Bell (15 July 1934 – 26 July 1959) was a British meteorologist who worked for the then Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS). He accidentally fell and died in a crevasse at King George Island while on an Antarctica mission in 1959, though his remains were not recovered until 2025. == Early life and career == Dennis Bell, who was also known as Dennis Tink Bell, was born in 1934 and was the oldest of three siblings. He obtained his secondary school education from Harrow County School for Boys. After high school, he joined the Royal Air Force for National Service where he received training as a radio operator. In 1958, he joined FIDS as a meteorologist and his initial posting was a two-year term at Admiralty Bay, a small United Kingdom research base staffed by about six people, located on King George Island in the South Shetland Islands, approximately 120 kilometres off the northern coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. == Death == On 26 July 1959, Bell, accompanied by three colleagues and two dog sledges, departed from the base to ascend a glacier for survey and geological work. While climbing, the party crossed a crevassed section covered


id: dana-expeditions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_expeditions-0.md
category: reference
title: Dana expeditions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_expeditions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:43.343122+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dana-expeditions-20260505-0
summary:
The Dana expeditions were four Danish research expeditions from 1920 to 1930. The first two were undertaken by the Dana I and the third by the Dana II. They were funded in part by the Carlsberg Foundation and led by Johannes Schmidt. The first three expeditions took place from 1920 to 1922 and the fourth and final was from 1928 to 1930. They centered around investigating the breeding of eels. The first two expeditions allowed Schmidt to prove his theory that European eels migrate to the Sargasso Sea to spawn. The final expedition traveled to the Indian Ocean and gathered numerous samples. == First expeditions (1920–1922) == === Planning === From 1920 to 1922, Dana undertook a series of three expeditions that were led by the marine biologist Johannes Schmidt. Schmidt and C. F. Dreschel had first proposed an expedition that would explore the deep sea of the Atlantic Ocean in 1916. Although the two men originally envisioned a single large expedition, in January 1917 Schmidt had suggested instead running two expeditions with the first focusing on the Atlantic and the second circumnavigating the world over the course of two years. The two decided to focus first on the Atlantic


id: dana-expeditions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_expeditions-1.md
category: reference
title: Dana expeditions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_expeditions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:43.343122+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dana-expeditions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Third === Schmidt's third expedition earned him a reputation "as a first rate marine scientist." In autumn 1920 the Danish government purchased a new research ship for marine research in Great Britain. It was transported to Denmark, overhauled, and renamed R/V Dana or Dana II. The boat had 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) of metal wire, allowing it to "fish deeper than anyone before." The expedition began in late 1921, arriving near Portugal and Spain in September, where they investigated the strait of Gibraltar. Over the course of ten months, the expedition did work. In early December, the Carlsberg Foundation agreed to fund an extension of the expedition to travel through the Panama Canal, which it did on 10 January. In the Pacific, Dana II took numerous samples that revealed the Pacific Ocean was cooler and less salty than the Atlantic. They also found an oxygen minimum zone around 500 metres (1,600 ft) below the surface, making those aboard Dana II the first researchers to document such a phenomenon. High plankton densities helped the expedition observe upwelling and deep-level samples gave them an image of species richness greater than that in the Atlantic. On 20 January, they left the Pacific


id: dunbar-and-hunter-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunbar_and_Hunter_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Dunbar and Hunter Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunbar_and_Hunter_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:44.482469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dunbar-and-hunter-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Dunbar and Hunter Expedition, also known as the Grand Expedition, was an expedition led by William Dunbar and Dr. George Hunter with the purpose of exploring the lower portion of the Louisiana Purchase. The expedition was given the orders by U.S. President Thomas Jefferson to explore parts of Mississippi and Missouri. The members of the expedition recorded information about the Ouachita River, and studied things such as the hot springs in present-day Arkansas and provided one of the earliest descriptions of Arkansas and Louisiana. == Motivations == William Dunbar was a Scottish immigrant and scientist living in Natchez, Mississippi, when Jefferson contacted him about the proposed expedition. Jefferson wanted the expedition to travel through the southern area of the Louisiana Purchase. Specifically, he wanted the expedition to follow the rivers in the area, such as the Red River or the Arkansas River. The other leading member of the expedition, George Hunter, was recruited by Jefferson and was instructed to "make observations, to note courses," and to study the same things as Dunbar, but to keep his own account in case their observations differed from one another. In 1804, a boat was built for the expedition to travel up the


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:45.715901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The Eddington experiment was an observational test of general relativity, organised by the British astronomers Frank Watson Dyson and Arthur Stanley Eddington in 1919. Observations of the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 were carried out by two expeditions, one to the West African island of Príncipe, and the other to the Brazilian town of Sobral. The aim of the expeditions was to measure the gravitational deflection of starlight passing near the Sun. The amount of deflection was predicted by Albert Einstein in a 1911 paper; however, his initial prediction proved inaccurate because it was based on an incomplete theory of general relativity. Einstein improved his prediction after finalizing his theory in 1915 and obtaining the solution to his equations by Karl Schwarzschild. Following the return of the expeditions, the results were presented by Eddington to a joint meeting of the Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society in London and, after some deliberation, were accepted. Widespread newspaper coverage of the results led to worldwide fame for Einstein and his theories. == Background == One of the first considerations of gravitational deflection of light was published in 1801, when Johann Georg von Soldner pointed out that Newtonian gravity predicts that


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:45.715901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
== Theory == The theory behind the experiment concerns the predicted deflection of light by the Sun. The first observation of light deflection was performed by noting the change in position of stars as they passed near the Sun on the celestial sphere. The approximate angular deflection δφ for a massless particle coming in from infinity and going back out to infinity is given by the following formula: δ φ ≈ 2 r s b = 4 G M c 2 b . {\displaystyle \delta \varphi \approx {\frac {2r_{s}}{b}}={\frac {4GM}{c^{2}b}}.} Here, b can be interpreted as the distance of closest approach. Although this formula is approximate, it is accurate for most measurements of gravitational lensing, due to the smallness of the ratio rs/b. For light grazing the surface of the Sun, the approximate angular deflection is roughly 1.75 arcseconds. This is twice the value predicted by calculations using the Newtonian theory of gravity. It was this difference in the deflection between the two theories that Eddington's expedition and other later eclipse observers would attempt to observe. == Expeditions and observations == The aim of the expeditions was to take advantage of the shielding effect of the Moon during a total


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-2.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:45.715901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Príncipe === The equipment used for the expedition to Príncipe, an island in the Gulf of Guinea off the coast of West Africa, was an astrographic lens borrowed from the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford. Eddington sailed from England in March 1919. By mid-May he had his equipment set up on Príncipe near what was then Spanish Guinea. The eclipse was due to take place in the early afternoon of 29 May, at 2 pm, but that morning there was a storm with heavy rain. Eddington wrote: The rain stopped about noon and about 1.30 ... we began to get a glimpse of the sun. We had to carry out our photographs in faith. I did not see the eclipse, being too busy changing plates, except for one glance to make sure that it had begun and another half-way through to see how much cloud there was. We took sixteen photographs. They are all good of the sun, showing a very remarkable prominence; but the cloud has interfered with the star images. The last few photographs show a few images which I hope will give us what we need ... Eddington developed the photographs on Príncipe, and attempted to measure


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-3.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:45.715901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The presentation of the results at the joint 6 November 1919 session of Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society led to intensive press coverage first in Great Britain and a few days later in the US press, notably in The New York Times, and some days later still in the German press. While Einstein had been a moderately famous public figure in Germany for a few years by that time, the articles in question marked the beginning of his international celebrity status. A notable exception was Belgium, where the Eddington results were given the cold shoulder – partly because Einstein was seen as representing Germany, with the suffering of Belgium in World War I still very present in the country. The sudden popularity of Einstein's theories led to an "Einstein boom" of popular science books. While there is a later anecdote describing Einstein as unimpressed about the experimental results, and sure of his theory even in the absence of evidence (stating, when asked what he would have said if the results had been otherwise, "Then I would feel sorry for the dear Lord. The theory is correct anyway.") the evidence of Einstein's letters to other scientists indicates, on the contrary,


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-4.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:45.715901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources and further reading == Collins, Harry; Pinch, Trevor (1993). The Golem: What everyone should know about science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521477360. Cowen, Ron (May 2019). Gravity's Century: From Einstein's Eclipse to Images of Black Holes (Illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-97496-8. Crelinsten, Jeffrey (May 2006). Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12310-3. Gates, Sylvester J. Jr; Pelletier, Cathie (2019). Proving Einstein right: The daring expeditions that changed how we look at the universe (First ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1541762251. Kennefick, Daniel (2019). No Shadow of a Doubt: The 1919 Eclipse That Confirmed Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691183862. Popper, Karl (2002) [1935]. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-99462-0. Stanley, Matthew (2019). Einstein's War: How Relativity Triumphed Amid the Vicious Nationalism of World War I. Dutton. ISBN 978-1-5247-4541-7. == External links == Eclipse 1919, website about the eclipse, the expeditions and centenary events "Eddington's Eclipse and Einstein's Celebrity" Discovery (audio) episode (from BBC World Service) "The man who made Einstein world-famous" (BBC News, 24 May 2019) "Matthew Stanley and Einstein's War". Archived 2020-07-30 at the Wayback Machine (Clarke Center for Human Imagination, UCSD podcast) "100


id: fahnestock-south-sea-expeditions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahnestock_South_Sea_Expeditions-0.md
category: reference
title: Fahnestock South Sea Expeditions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahnestock_South_Sea_Expeditions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:46.888869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fahnestock-south-sea-expeditions-20260505-0
summary:
The Fahnestock South Sea Expeditions were three scientific expeditions to the Pacific Ocean during 1935–1937, 1940 and 1941, organised and led by brothers Sheridan and Bruce Fahnestock. The Fahnestocks collected plant and animal specimens for museums in the United States, made recordings of traditional songs and music from Pacific Islands, and on the third expedition collected intelligence for the United States armed forces after the outbreak of World War 2. == First expedition 1935–1937 == The first expedition sailed from New York on 1 January 1935, in the 65ft schooner Director. The captain of the expedition was 21-year-old James Sheridan Fahnestock, and his brother Bruce (25) was director. Four other men specialising in various fields were also part of the expedition: herpetologist and photographer Hugh Davis, director of the Mohawk Zoo in Tulsa; ornithologist and artist Dennis Puleston from England; Wilson Glass and George Harris. Later participants included John Green and artist Edward Dair. The expedition aimed to study flying fish in the Pacific, as well as insects and birds. The Fahnestocks’ widowed mother, Mary Sheridan Fahnestock, joined the expedition during its eight-month stay in Tahiti and subsequently wrote a book called I Ran Away To Sea At Fifty. After


id: fahnestock-south-sea-expeditions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahnestock_South_Sea_Expeditions-1.md
category: reference
title: Fahnestock South Sea Expeditions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahnestock_South_Sea_Expeditions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:46.888869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fahnestock-south-sea-expeditions-20260505-0
summary:
This expedition also sent back habitat specimens to the AMNH for dioramas being constructed for the Whitney Hall of Oceanic Birds to showcase specimens collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition. Sheridan Fahnestock noted that:Care is taken to get these groups exactly right, down to the last grain of sand. Specimens are preserved by five different methods. Plaster casts are made of the flowers, leaves, etc., to preserve shape. Then formalin specimens are kept. The groups are also sketched in water colours and are photographed in black and white. Dried specimens are also collected. Whole trees are shifted to be transplanted into the very same earth in which they formerly rested in their native surroundings. The voyage was cut short when Director II hit a reef at Gladstone, Queensland and sank in October 1940. Sheridan Fahnestock blamed the reef collision on 200-year-old marine charts. He said that the Australian authorities had been reluctant to provide up-to-date charts because they were worried about a possible attack by Japan, which had begun expanding into Southeast Asia. == Third expedition 1941 == The Fahnestock brothers met President Franklin D. Roosevelt in January 1941, ostensibly to discuss their recent expedition. In fact, the president


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Lewis and Clark Expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery Expedition, was the United States expedition to cross the newly acquired western portion of the country after the Louisiana Purchase. The Corps of Discovery was a select group of U.S. Army and civilian volunteers under the command of Captain Meriwether Lewis and his close friend Second Lieutenant William Clark. Clark, along with 30 others, set out from Camp Dubois (Camp Wood), Illinois, on May 14, 1804, met Lewis and ten other members of the group in St. Charles, Missouri, then went up the Missouri River. The expedition crossed the Continental Divide of the Americas near the Lemhi Pass, eventually coming to the Columbia River, and the Pacific Ocean in 1805. The return voyage began on March 23, 1806, at Fort Clatsop, Oregon, ending six months later on September 23. President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the expedition, shortly after the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, to explore and detail as much of the new territory as possible. Furthermore, he wished to find a practical travel route across the western half of the continent—directly avoiding the hot and desolate desert southwest—and to establish an American presence in the new lands before European


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
It was impossible to find a character who to a complete science in botany, natural history, mineralogy & astronomy, joined the firmness of constitution & character, prudence, habits adapted to the woods & a familiarity with the Indian manners and character, requisite for this undertaking. All the latter qualifications Capt. Lewis has. In 1803, Jefferson sent Lewis to Philadelphia to study medicinal cures under Benjamin Rush, a physician and former leader in the American Revolution. He also arranged for Lewis to be further educated by Andrew Ellicott, an astronomer who instructed him in the use of a sextant, among other navigational instruments. From Benjamin Smith Barton, Lewis learned how to describe and preserve plant and animal specimens; from Robert Patterson, refinements in computing latitude and longitude, and Caspar Wistar covered fossils, and the search for possible living remnants. Lewis, however, was not ignorant of science, having demonstrated a marked capacity to learn, especially with Jefferson as his teacher. At Monticello, Jefferson possessed an enormous library on the subject of North American geography, to which Lewis had full access. He spent time consulting maps and books, as well as conferring with Jefferson. The keelboat used for the first year of the


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-2.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Corps of Discovery departed from Camp Dubois (Camp Wood) at 4 pm on May 14, 1804. Under Clark's command, they traveled up the Missouri River in their keelboat and two pirogues to St. Charles, Missouri, where Lewis joined them six days later. The expedition set out the next afternoon, May 21. While accounts vary, it is believed the Corps had as many as 45 members, including the officers, enlisted military personnel, civilian volunteers, and York, an African-American man enslaved by Clark. From St. Charles, the expedition followed the Missouri through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska. On August 20, 1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd died, apparently from acute appendicitis. He had been among the first to sign up with the Corps of Discovery and was the only member to die during the expedition. He was buried at a bluff by the river, now named after him, in what is now Sioux City, Iowa. His burial site was marked with a cedar post on which was inscribed his name and day of death. 1 mile (2 km) up the river, the expedition camped at a small river which they named Floyd's River. During the final week of August,


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-3.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The expedition sighted the Pacific Ocean for the first time on November 7, 1805, arriving two weeks later. The expedition faced the beginning of its second bitter winter camped on the north side of the Columbia River, in a storm-wracked area Clark called Dismal Nitch. Lack of food was a major factor. The elk, the party's main source of food, had retreated from their usual haunts into the mountains, and the party was now too poor to purchase enough food from neighboring tribes. On November 24, 1805, the majority of the party voted to move their camp to the south side of the Columbia River near modern Astoria, Oregon. Both Sacagawea and the enslaved York participated in the vote. On the south side of the Columbia River, 2 miles (3 km) upstream on the west side of the Netul River (now Lewis and Clark River), they constructed Fort Clatsop. They did this not just for shelter and protection, but also to officially establish the American presence there, with the American flag flying over the fort. During the winter at Fort Clatsop, Lewis committed himself to writing. He filled many pages of his journals with valuable knowledge, mostly about botany, because


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-4.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Lewis and Clark Expedition gained an understanding of the geography of the Pacific Northwest and produced the first accurate maps of the area. During the journey, Lewis and Clark drew about 140 maps. Stephen Ambrose says the expedition "filled in the main outlines" of the area. The expedition documented natural resources and plants that had been previously unknown to European Americans, though not to the indigenous peoples. Lewis and Clark were the first Americans to cross the Continental Divide, and the first Americans to see Yellowstone, enter into Montana, and produce an official description of these different regions. Their visit to the Pacific Northwest, maps, and proclamations of sovereignty with medals and flags were legal steps needed to claim title to each indigenous nation's lands under the discovery doctrine. The expedition was sponsored by the American Philosophical Society (APS). Lewis and Clark received some instruction in astronomy, botany, climatology, ethnology, geography, meteorology, mineralogy, ornithology, and zoology. During the expedition, they made contact with over 70 Native American tribes and described more than 200 new plant and animal species. Thomas Jefferson had the expedition declare "sovereignty" and demonstrate their military strength to ensure native tribes would be subordinate to the


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-5.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Observations === As the expedition encountered the various Native American tribes during the course of their journey, they observed and recorded information regarding their lifestyles, customs and the social codes they lived by, as directed by President Jefferson. By European standards, the Native American way of life seemed harsh and unforgiving as witnessed by members of the expedition. After many encounters and camping in close proximity to the Native American nations for extended periods of time during the winter months, they soon learned first hand of their customs and social orders. One of the primary customs that distinguished Native American cultures from those of the West was that it was customary for the men to take on two or more wives if they were able to provide for them and often took on a wife or wives who were members of the immediate family circle, e.g. men in the Minnetaree and Mandan tribes would often take on a sister for a wife. Chastity among women was not held in high regard. Infant daughters were often sold by the father to men who were grown, usually for horses or mules. Women in Sioux nations were often bartered away for horses


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-6.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Two months passed after the expedition's end before Thomas Jefferson made his first public statement to Congress, giving a one-sentence summary about the success of the expedition before offering justification for the expenses involved. Over the course of their journey, the Corps of Discovery acquired a knowledge of numerous tribes of Native Americans previously unknown to Europeans or Americans; they informed themselves of the trade which may be carried on with them, the best channels and positions for it, and they were able to describe the geography of the route they took with accuracy. Upon their return, the botanical and zoological discoveries drew the intense interest of the American Philosophical Society who requested specimens, various artifacts traded with the Native Americans, and reports on plants and wildlife along with various seeds obtained. Jefferson used seeds from "Missouri hominy corn" along with a number of other unidentified seeds to plant at Monticello which he cultivated and studied. He later reported on the "Indian corn" he had grown as being an "excellent" food source. The expedition helped establish the U.S. presence in the newly acquired territory and beyond and opened the door to further exploration, trade and scientific discoveries. Lewis and Clark


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-7.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Far Horizons, a 1955 film about the expedition Gateway Arch National Park Lewis and Clark Pass (Montana) – the only non-motorized pass on the expedition's route Lewis and Clark's Keelboat The Red River Expedition (1806) and the Pike Expedition were also commissioned by Jefferson James Kendall Hosmer, American history professor and librarian who edited and published Nicholas Biddle's account of Lewis and Clark's journal Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Allen, Paul (1902). History of the expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol I. Toronto: George N. Morang & Co. Ltd. —— (1902). History of the expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol II. Toronto:George N. Morang & Co. Ltd. —— (1902). History of the expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol III. Toronto: George N. Morang & Co. Ltd. Ambrose, Stephen E. (1996). Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 511. ISBN 9780684811079. Bennett, George D. (2002). The United States Army: Issues, Background and Bibliography. Nova Publishers. p. 229. ISBN 9781590333006. Bergon, Frank (1989). The Journals of


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-8.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Primary sources === Lewis, Meriwether; Clark, William (2004). The Journals Of Lewis And Clark. Kessinger Publishing. p. 312. ISBN 9781419167997. E'books, Full view Lewis, Meriwether; Clark, William; Floyd, Charles; Whitehouse, Joseph (1905). Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804–1806, Vol. 6. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. p. 280. Lewis, Meriwether; Clark, William (2003). Bergon, Frank (ed.). The Journals of Lewis & Clark. Penguin. p. 560. ISBN 9780142437360. Lewis, Meriwether (1811). The Travels of Captains Lewis and Clarke, from St. Louis, by way of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, to the Paciﬁc Ocean; performed in the Years 1804, 1805, and 1806. By Order of the Government of the United States; containing Delineations of the Manners, Customs, Religion, &c. of the Indians; compiled from various authentic Sources and original Documents; and a summary of the Statistical View of the Indian Nations, from the official communication of Meriwether Lewis. In 8vo. illustrated with a Map of the Country inhabited by the Tribes of Western Indians. ("This is an interesting volume, and exhibits not only some valuable geographical notices, but very copious and amusing details respecting the manners, habits, and divisions of the India North America Tribes.") Modern Publications, and


id: morea-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Morea expedition (French: Expédition de Morée) is the name given to the land intervention of the French Army in the Peloponnese between 1828 and 1833, at the time of the Greek War of Independence, with the aim of expelling the Ottoman-Egyptian occupation forces from the region. It was also accompanied by a scientific expedition mandated by the French Academy. After the fall of Messolonghi in 1826, the Western European powers decided to intervene in favour of revolutionary Greece. Their primary objective was to force Ibrahim Pasha, the Ottoman Empire's Egyptian ally, to evacuate the occupied regions and the Peloponnese. The intervention began when a Franco-Russo-British fleet was sent to the region and won the Battle of Navarino in October 1827, destroying the entire Turkish-Egyptian fleet. In August 1828, a French expeditionary corps of 15,000 men led by General Nicolas-Joseph Maison landed in the southwestern Peloponnese. During October, soldiers took control of the principal strongholds still held by the Turkish troops. Although the bulk of the troops returned to France in early 1829 after an eight month-deployment, the French kept a military presence in the area until 1833. The French army would suffer about 1,500 dead, mainly due to fever


id: morea-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
In 1828, Ibrahim Pasha thus found himself in a difficult situation: he had just suffered a defeat at Navarino; the joint fleet enforced a blockade which prevented him from receiving reinforcements and supplies; and his Albanian troops, whom he could no longer pay, had returned to their country under the protection of Theodoros Kolokotronis' Greek troops. On 6 August 1828, a convention had been signed at Alexandria between the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, and the British admiral Edward Codrington. By its terms, Ibrahim Pasha was required to evacuate his Egyptian troops and leave the Peloponnese to the few Turkish troops (estimated at 1,200 men) remaining there, but he refused to honour the agreement and continued to control various Greek regions: Messenia, Navarino, and Patras as well as several other strongholds—and even ordered the systematic destruction of Tripolitza. Meanwhile, the French government of Charles X was beginning to have doubts about its Greek policy. Ibrahim Pasha himself noted this ambiguity when he met General Maison in September. Eventually a pro-Greek liberal movement, inspired by what was then happening in Greece, began to develop in France. The longer France waited to act, the more delicate her position vis-à-vis Metternich became. The


id: morea-expedition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-2.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Chamber of Deputies authorised a loan of 80 million gold francs to allow the government to meet its obligations for the expedition. An expeditionary corps of 13,000–15,000 men commanded by Lieutenant-General Nicolas Joseph Maison was formed. It was composed of nine infantry regiments distributed in three brigades commanded by the maréchaux de camp Tiburce Sébastiani (brother of Marshal Horace Sébastiani, soldier, diplomat and minister, 1st brigade), Philippe Higonet (2nd brigade), and Virgile Schneider (3rd brigade). The Chief of the General Staff was General Antoine Simon Durrieu. Also departing were the 3rd Chasseur Regiment (1st brigade, 286 men, commanded by Colonel Paul-Eugène de Faudoas-Barbazan), four companies of artillery (484 men, with 12 battery pieces for sieges, 8 for campaigns, and 12 for mountains) of the 3rd and 8th Artillery Regiments, and two companies of military engineers that included 800 sappers (combat engineers) and miners. A transport fleet protected by warships was organised; sixty ships sailed in all. Equipment, victuals, munitions and 1,300 horses had to be brought over, as well as arms, munitions and money for the Greek provisional government of Ioannis Kapodistrias. France wished to support the first steps of free Greece by helping it developing its own army.


id: morea-expedition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-3.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
According to the Convention of Alexandria (6 August 1828), signed by the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, and the British admiral Edward Codrington, Ibrahim Pasha was required to evacuate his Egyptian troops and leave the Peloponnese to the few Turkish troops (estimated at 1,200 men) remaining there. He used a number of pretexts to delay the evacuation: problems with food supply or transport, or unforeseen difficulties in handing over the strongholds. The French officers had problems restraining the fighting zeal of their soldiers, who for example had become excited at the (false) news of an imminent march on Athens. The impatience of the French troops was perhaps decisive in convincing the Egyptian commander to respect his obligations. Moreover, the French soldiers began to suffer from the autumnal rains that drenched the tents pitched in their camps and favoured the spread of fever and dysentery. On 24 September, Louis-Eugène Cavaignac wrote that thirty men of 400 in his company of military engineers were already affected by fever. General Maison wished to be able to set up his men in the fortresses' barracks. On 7 September, following a long conference aboard the ship Conquérant, in the presence of General Maison and the


id: morea-expedition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-4.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
It was more difficult to take Koroni. General Tiburce Sébastiani showed up there on 7 October with a part of his 1st brigade and announced the taking of the fortresses of Navarino and Methoni. The fort commander's response was similar to those given at Navarino and Methoni. Sébastiani sent his sappers, who were pushed back by rocks thrown from atop the walls. A dozen men were wounded, among them Cavaignac and, more seriously, a captain (Boutauld), a sergeant and three sappers. The other French soldiers felt insulted and their general had great difficulty in preventing them from opening fire and taking the stronghold by force. The Amphitrite, the Breslaw and the Wellesley came to assist the ground troops. The threat they posed led the Ottoman commander to surrender. On October 9, the French entered Koroni and seized 80 cannon and guns, along with a store of victuals and munitions. The fortress was then given to the Greek troops of General Nikitaras who settled there. ===== Patras ===== Patras had been controlled by Ibrahim Pasha's troops since his evacuation of the Peloponnese. The 3rd brigade commanded by General Virgile Schneider had been sent by sea to take the city, located in


id: morea-expedition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-5.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
On 5 November 1828, the last Turks and Egyptians had definitely left Morea. 2,500 men and their families were placed aboard French vessels headed for Smyrna. Therefore 26-27,000 men in total were forced to leave the country and the strongholds in a few days. The capture of the Morea strongholds by the French expeditionary force had only required a month:Our operations were successful in all aspects: we do not find military glory there, without any doubt; but the object for which we have come, the liberation of Greece, will have been more successful and prompt; Morea will have been purged of its enemies. — Lieutenant-General Nicolas-Joseph MaisonThe French and British ambassadors had set themselves up at Poros in September 1828 and invited Constantinople to send a diplomat there so as to conduct negotiations over the status of Greece. Because the Porte persisted in refusing to participate in conferences, General Maison explicitly suggested Greek Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias (on 5 October) pursuing military operations and extending them to Attica and Euboea. France supported this project and had for that initially given instructions to General Maison on 27 August 1828. But the British Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, opposed this plan (he


id: morea-expedition-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-6.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Fortifications were raised (like those at Methoni or Navarino), barracks were built (the "Maison's building" in Navarino's fortress, which houses nowadays the new archaeological museum of Pylos), bridges were constructed (such as those over the Pamissos River between Navarino and Kalamata), the road Navarino–Methoni was built (the first road of independent Greece, which is still used today), hospitals (in Navarino, Modon and Patras) and health commissions were established for the Greek population (as during the plague epidemic in the mountainous villages of Kalavryta and Vrachni in December 1828, which was contained by the General Higonet). Finally, many improvements were made to the Peloponnesian cities (schools, postal services, printing companies, bridges, squares, fountains, gardens, etc.). The military engineering commander of the Morea expedition, Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph-Victor Audoy, was commissioned by the Governor of Greece Ioannis Kapodistrias to design the first urban framework plan of the country's modern history. Audoy built from the spring of 1829 the new cities of Modon (today Methoni) and Navarino (today Pylos) outside the walls of the fortresses, on the model of the bastides of Southwest France (from where he originated) and of the cities of the Ionian Islands (which share common features, such as a central geometrical


id: morea-expedition-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-7.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Despite the brevity of the military operations and the small number of battles, the human cost of the French expedition was extremely heavy: between 1 September 1828 and 1 April 1829, the Chief Medical Officer of the expeditionary corps, Dr. Gaspard Roux, officially reported 4,766 illnesses and 1,000 deaths (numbers confirmed by Doctor Charles-Joseph Bastide, Surgeon-Major of the 16th Line Infantry Regiment). Thus, almost a third of French troops were affected by fevers, diarrhea and dysentery, which had been mostly contracted between October and December 1828 in the camps established within the marshy plains of Petalidi, in the mouth of the river Djalova (in Navarino Bay) or in Patras. This epidemic of fever, characterized by a large majority of tertian fevers (occurring every two days), periodic, with a high rate of relapse, dazzling and accompanied by shivering, jaundice, convulsions, headache and neurological and digestive disorders, certainly corresponds to malaria (word that originates from medieval Italian: mala aria—"bad air"; the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marshland) which was endemic to the region at that time (it was definitively eradicated in Greece in 1974). The epidemic began during the warm season, on


id: morea-expedition-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-8.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
...take advantage of the presence of our soldiers who were occupying Morea to send a scholarly commission. It did not have to equal that attached to the glory of Napoleon […] It did however need to render eminent services to the arts and sciences. The Interior minister of King Charles X, the power behind the throne and real head of the government at the time, the Viscount of Martignac, charged six academicians of the Institut de France (Académie des Sciences: Georges Cuvier and Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres: Charles-Benoît Hase and Desiré-Raoul Rochette. Académie des Beaux-arts: Jean-Nicolas Hyot and Jean-Antoine Letronne) to appoint the chief-officers and members of each section of the Scientific Committee. Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent was thus appointed director of the commission on December 9, 1828. They also determined the routes and objectives. As Bory will write later: Messrs. De Martignac and Siméon had asked me expressly not to restrict my observations to Flies and Herbs, but to extend them to places and to menThe expedition, composed of nineteen scientists, was divided into three sections (Physical Sciences, Archaeology, Architecture-Sculpture), each placed under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (Physical Sciences section), Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois


id: morea-expedition-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-9.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
One of the first objectives fixed by the French government had been to draw precise maps of the Peloponnese, with a scientific purpose, but also for economic and military reasons. The Minister of War, the Vicomte de Caux, had written to General Maison on January 6, 1829: All the maps of Greece are very imperfect and were drawn up based on more or less inaccurate templates; it is thus essential to fix them. Not only will geography be enriched by this research, but we will in the process support France's commercial interests by making her relations easier, and it will above all be useful for our ground and naval forces, who may find themselves involved in this part of Europe. The only maps available at the time were those made by Jean-Denis Barbié du Bocage (1808, in 1:500,000 scale), whose map was relatively imperfect, and that of Pierre Lapie (1826, in 1:400,000 scale), which was more exact for a detailed layout and was used by the members of the expedition. Captain Pierre Peytier, of the topographic service in the French army, had already been invited to Greece by Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias when the latter had come to Paris in October


id: morea-expedition-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-10.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
==== Botany and Zoology ==== Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent led the Morea scientific expedition, and made detailed botanical observations. He gathered a multitude of specimens: Flore de Morée (1832) lists 1,550 plants, of which 33 were orchids and 91 were grasses (just 42 species had not yet been described); Nouvelle Flore du Péloponnèse et des Cyclades (1838) described 1,821 species. In Morea, Bory de Saint-Vincent limited himself to collecting only the plants. He proceeded to their classification, identification and description upon his return to the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris. He was then helped, not by his collaborators from Greece, but by the eminent botanists of his time, Louis Athanase Chaubard, Jean-Baptiste Fauché and Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart. Similarly, the well-known naturalists Étienne and his son Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire helped him to write and edit the expedition's scientific works, under the supervision of Georges Cuvier at the institute. As the gathering process went along, they sent the plants, as well as birds and fish, to France. In zoological matters, relatively few new species were described. However, the Morea expedition identified for the first time the species of jackal, Canis aureus, or golden jackal, that populates the region. Although earlier travel narratives


id: morea-expedition-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-11.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
==== Itineraries ==== The publication of the works on archaeology and art followed the same pattern as with the publication of the works on physical and natural sciences: that of an itinerary with descriptions of the roads travelled, noteworthy monuments along these routes, and descriptions of their destinations. Hence, volume I of Expédition de Morée. Section des Beaux Arts describes Navarino (pp. 1–7) with six pages of drawings (fountains, churches, the fortress of Navarino and the city of Nestor); then on pages 9–10, the road Navarino-Methoni is detailed with four pages of plates (a church in ruins and its frescoes, but also bucolic landscapes reminding the reader that the scene is not so far from Arcadia); and finally three pages on Methoni with four pages of drawings. The bucolic landscapes were rather close to the "norm" that Hubert Robert had proposed for the depictions of Greece. The presence of the troops from the expeditionary corps was important, alternating with that of the Greek shepherds: "[...] their generous hospitality and simple and innocent manners reminded us of the beautiful period of pastoral life which fiction calls the Golden age, and which seemed to offer the real characters of the Theocritus' and


id: morea-expedition-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-12.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Then, the expedition spent six weeks, starting on May 10, 1829, in Olympia. Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois (Archaeology section) and Abel Blouet (Architecture and Sculpture section) undertook the first excavations there. They were accompanied by the painters Frédéric de Gournay, Pierre Achille Poirot, Pierre Félix Trézel and Amaury-Duval, as well as a troop of more than a hundred workers. The site of Olympia had been rediscovered in 1766 by the English antiquarian Richard Chandler. Since then, it had been visited by many other travellers such as Fauvel, Pouqueville, Gell, Cokerell and Leake. Its general identification by the archaeologists of the Morea expedition was made possible thanks to the more precise descriptions of Edward Dodwell (for Dubois) and John Spencer Stanhope (for Blouet). Most of the buildings were invisible, because as Abel Blouet noted, they must have been covered with a thick layer of sediment due to the frequent overflows of rivers Alfeios and Kladeos. Only a single large fragment of a Doric column was visible. It had already been spotted by the previous travellers because the inhabitants of neighboring villages had dug trenches there to remove the stone, but none of them had attributed it with certainty to the temple of Zeus.


id: morea-expedition-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-13.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== End of the scientific mission === The vast majority of members of the scientific expedition paid a heavy price for the fevers they suffered during their sojourn in Morea. Many were forced to shorten their stay on the peninsula and to be repatriated to France before the beginning of 1830. The topographic brigade was severely affected: out of eighteen officers who had been successively employed in the topographical works of the Morea, three had died there and ten, whose health was ruined, were forced to retire. Captain Peytier wrote in 1834: "It is geodesy that ruins my health and I do not want anymore to do it in the mountains, at any cost whatsoever." They were therefore reduced to work only during the cool season and to stop for summer, the season during which they drew their maps. Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent, meanwhile wrote: "The horrible heat that beset us in July placed the entire topographic brigade in disarray. These gentlemen, having worked in the sun, have nearly all taken ill, and we grieved to see M. Dechièvre die at Napoli eight days ago." Émile Puillon Boblaye wrote: "Out of twelve officers employed in the geodetic service, two are


id: morea-expedition-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-14.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Nouvelle Flore du Péloponnèse et des Cyclades Bory de Saint-Vincent, Reviewed edition, augmented by the Flore de Morée. de 1832, F.G. Levrault, Paris, 1838 Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de Morée Émile Puillon Boblaye, F.G. Levrault, Paris, 1836. Notice sur les opérations géodésiques exécutées en Morée, en 1829 et 1830, MM. Peytier, Puillon-Boblaye et Servier; suivie d’un catalogue des positions géographiques des principaux points déterminés par ces opérations, Pierre Peytier, Émile Puillon Boblaye et Aristide-Camille Servier, in the Bulletin de la Société de géographie, vol. 19 n° 117–122 (Jan–June 1833) The Peytier Album, Liberated Greece and the Morea Scientific Expedition, in the Stephen Vagliano Collection, Album by Pierre Peytier, National Bank of Greece, Athens, 1971. Percement de l'isthme de Corinthe Pierre Théodore Virlet d'Aoust, p. 408–421, Bulletin de la Société de géographie, vol. 2, 1881. ==== Archaeology section ==== De la Grèce moderne, et de ses rapports avec l'antiquité by Edgar Quinet, F.G. Levrault, Paris, 1830. Souvenirs (1829-1830) Eugène Emmanuel Amaury Duval, Librairie Plon, E. Plon, Nourrit et Cie, imprimeurs-éditeurs, Paris, 1885. Journal de voyage de M. Trézel (unpublished), by Pierre Félix Trézel, National Library of France–BnF, n. acq. fr. 1849, fol. 19r, 21 July 1829. Jean-Baptiste Vietty et l'Expédition


id: morea-expedition-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-15.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Baloti Xeni D., Le maréchal N.J. Maison (1771–1840) – Un Grand Philhellène, editions Helliniki Euroekdotiki, Athens, 1993. Bourguet Marie-Noëlle, Lepetit Bernard, Nordman Daniel, Sinarellis Maroula, L’Invention scientifique de la Méditerranée. Égypte, Morée, Algérie., Editions EHESS, 1998. ISBN 2-7132-1237-5 (in French) Brewer David, The Greek War of Independence : The Struggle for Freedom from Ottoman Oppression and the Birth of the Modern Greek Nation, New York, The Overlook Press, 393 p. 2001. ISBN 978-1-58567-395-7 Brunet de Presle Wladimir and Alexandre Blanchet, Grèce depuis la conquête romaine jusqu’à nos jours, Paris, Firmin Didot, 589 p., 1860. (in French) Contogeorgis Georges, Histoire de la Grèce, Paris, Hatier, coll. Nations d'Europe, 477 p., 1992. ISBN 978-2-218-03841-9 (in French) Dakin Douglas, The Greek Struggle for Independence, 1821–1833, University of California Press, 1973. Driault Édouard and Lhéritier Michel, Histoire diplomatique de la Grèce, de 1821 à nos jours, volume I and II, Les presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1925. (in French) Gioanni Stéphane, Jean-Baptiste Vietty et l'Expédition de Morée (1829). À propos de deux manuscrits retrouvés, Journal des Savants, De Boccard, 2 (1), pp. 383–429, 2008. doi:10.3406/jds.2008.5891 (in French) Hugo Abel, France militaire. Histoire des armées françaises de terre et de mer de


id: norwegian-scientific-expedition-to-tristan-da-cunha-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Tristan_Da_Cunha-0.md
category: reference
title: Norwegian Scientific Expedition to Tristan Da Cunha
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Tristan_Da_Cunha
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:50.638156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: norwegian-scientific-expedition-to-tristan-da-cunha-20260505-0
summary:
The Norwegian Scientific Expedition to Tristan Da Cunha was a scientific and cultural exploration of the most remote inhabited archipelago in the world, in the south Atlantic Ocean, 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) from the nearest inhabited land, Saint Helena. The expedition arrived on the island in December 1937 and left in March 1938. == History == Captained by botanist Erling Christophersen, the thirteen man crew included three University of Oslo Ph.D. students conducting research for their dissertations, which were published shortly after their return; these included sociologist Peter A. Munch, ornithologist Yngvar Hagen, and phycologist Egil Baardseth. Also among the crew were a geologist, a marine biologist, an ichthyologist, a dentist, and a doctor. A late addition to the crew was topological surveyor Allan Crawford, a British engineer who was recruited by the captain en route to Cape Town, and who would later come to be regarded as a leading authority on Tristan Da Cunha. Based on observations made during the voyage, Christophersen published Tristan da Cunha, the Lonely Isle (1938) and the comprehensive Norwegian Scientific Expedition to Tristan Da Cunha, 1937-1938 (1945), while the Ph.D. students published their work and achieved their degrees. Munch published Sociology of Tristan da


id: operation-drake-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Drake-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Drake
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Drake
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:51.779420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-drake-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Drake (1978–1980) was a round-the-world voyage with the participation of young people from many countries, sailing in the brigantine Eye of the Wind. She left Plymouth in October 1978 and returned to London two years later, in December 1980. Named after Sir Francis Drake, who had circumnavigated the world 400 years earlier on the Golden Hind, Operation Drake was divided into nine ocean- and one land-based phases, each lasting about 3 months. On each phase, a number of Young Explorers aged between seventeen and twenty-four, selected from countries all over the world, worked together on serious scientific exploration, research and community projects. The expedition was mounted by the Scientific Exploration Society, and the expedition leader was Colonel John Blashford-Snell. Charles, Prince of Wales, (now King Charles III), was the Patron of Operation Drake. Amongst the works produced on the voyage were series of specimens, including bats obtained in New Guinea, that were deposited and examined at the British Museum of Natural History. == Books == Blashford-Snell, John (1981). Operation Drake. London: W. H. Allen & Co. ISBN 0-491-02965-9. "In the Eye of the Wind", by Roger Chapman (Hamish Hamilton, London 1982, ISBN 0-241-10764-4) Mitchell, Andrew W. (1982). Operation Drake,


id: operation-hazen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Hazen-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Hazen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Hazen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:52.929040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-hazen-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Hazen was a Canadian programme of meteorological, glaciological and geological work undertaken as part of the International Geophysical Year. The investigations took place between 1957 and 1959 at Lake Hazen on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada. The programme was led by English-born geologist Geoffrey Hattersley-Smith. Organised by the Defence Research Board, twenty scientists took part in the operation, including officers from the Fisheries Research Board, the Geological Survey, the Human History and Natural History branches of the National Museum, the Canadian Wildlife Service, and members of McGill University, the University of Toronto, the University of Alberta, and Michigan State University. == Name == In 1882 American polar explorer Adolphus Greely was the first European to discover Lake Hazen during his 1881–1883 expedition and named the lake in honour of General William Babcock Hazen who had organized the expedition. Operation Hazen took its name from the lake. == 1957–58 == Between 28 April and 3 May the Royal Canadian Air Force flew in seven members of the party. A bulldozer dropped from the first flight was used to clear nine inches of snow to form a 3,500 foot airstrip. Two tractors, two dog teams and 35 tonnes of supplies and equipment


id: operation-sunshine-uss-nautilus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Sunshine_(USS_Nautilus)-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Sunshine (USS Nautilus)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Sunshine_(USS_Nautilus)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:54.239677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-sunshine-uss-nautilus-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Sunshine was a scientific expedition conducted by the United States Navy in the summer of 1958. A crew of just over 100 sailors piloted USS Nautilus (SSN-571) under the North Pole. Nautilus was chosen for the mission because her nuclear reactor allowed her to remain submerged longer than a conventional submarine. The mission was completed successfully on August 3, 1958, when Nautilus and crew crossed under the North Pole. == Vanguard == One of the "fronts" of the Cold War was a technology race between the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union. There was tension between the two governments over nuclear weapons, and a "space race" developed during the late 1950s, in which each government aimed to demonstrate its superiority through demonstrations of scientific and technological advances. Russia celebrated the successful launch of their Sputnik I satellite into orbit in October 1957. Shortly after, the United States attempted to launch their Vanguard I satellite, which exploded before lifting off. Soviet researchers were ahead of their U.S. counterparts in rocket technology, and the American public was aware of this technology gap. There was concern that the Soviet government would be able to use the same rockets that


id: red-river-expedition-1806-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Expedition_(1806)-0.md
category: reference
title: Red River Expedition (1806)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Expedition_(1806)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:55.436019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: red-river-expedition-1806-20260505-0
summary:
The Red River Expedition, also known as the Freeman–Custis Expedition, Freeman Red River Expedition, Sparks Expedition, and officially Exploring Expedition of Red River, was one of the first civilian scientific expeditions to explore the Southwestern United States. The 1806 expedition was ordered to find the headwaters of the Red River (Red River of the South) from the Mississippi River as a possible trading route to Santa Fe, which was then under Spanish colonial control in New Mexico; to contact Native American peoples for trading purposes; to collect data on flora, fauna, and topography, and map the country and river; and to assess the land for settlement. The Spanish officials intercepted the expedition 615 miles upriver, in what is now northeastern Texas, and turned it back before the party had achieved all of its goals. == Planning == The third US President, Thomas Jefferson, ranked the Red River Expedition in importance second only to the Lewis and Clark Expedition to reach the Pacific Ocean through the Northwest. The Red River stretches west from its confluence with the Mississippi River across what is now the state of Louisiana and part of south-western Arkansas. Further west, the river forms the present-day southern border


id: red-river-expedition-1806-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Expedition_(1806)-1.md
category: reference
title: Red River Expedition (1806)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Expedition_(1806)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:55.436019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: red-river-expedition-1806-20260505-0
summary:
On April 19, 1806, the now-24-member party (Freeman and his two assistants; Sparks, who commanded the military party, with two officers, seventeen privates, and a servant) pushed off in two flat-bottomed barges and a pirogue from Fort Adams, near Natchez, Mississippi, and turned into the Red River to go upstream to the west. The group gradually took on soldiers along the route in response to rumors of a possible attack by Spanish troops and soon numbered 45. By July 28, the party was 615 miles upriver, near what is now New Boston, Texas, and heard gunfire in the distance that indicated the presence of Spanish troops. "Hoping to provoke an international confrontation for personal gain," U.S. General James Wilkinson of the Louisiana Territory had secretly notified Spain of the Freeman expedition (he had had separate dealings with it earlier) and sent two teams of soldiers to intercept the party. The Freeman party was stopped at what has since been called "Spanish Bluff" on the river. Both the Spanish commander and Freeman undertook a parlay. The Spanish said that they had been ordered to fire on any foreign armed troops passing through Spanish territory. In response, Freeman demanded for the Spanish


id: ross-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Ross expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:56.586532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ross-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Ross expedition was a voyage of scientific exploration of the Antarctic in 1839 to 1843, led by James Clark Ross, with two unusually strong warships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror. It explored what is now called the Ross Sea and discovered the Ross Ice Shelf. On the expedition, Ross discovered the Transantarctic Mountains and the volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, named after each ship. The young botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker made his name on the expedition. The expedition confirmed the existence of the continent of Antarctica, inferred the position of the South Magnetic Pole and made substantial observations of the zoology and botany of the region, resulting in a monograph on the zoology and a series of four detailed monographs by Hooker on the botany, collectively called Flora Antarctica, published in parts between 1843 and 1859. Among the expedition's biological discoveries was the Ross seal, a species confined to the pack ice of Antarctica. The expedition was also the last major voyage of exploration made wholly under sail. == Expedition == === Background === In 1838, the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BA) proposed an expedition to carry out magnetic measurements in the Antarctic. Sir James


id: ross-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Ross expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:56.586532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ross-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Botany === The expedition's botanical discoveries were documented in Joseph Dalton Hooker's four-part Flora Antarctica (1843–1859). It totalled six volumes (parts III and IV each being in two volumes), covered about 3000 species, and contained 530 plates figuring in all 1095 of the species described. It was throughout "splendidly" illustrated by Walter Hood Fitch. The parts were: Part I Botany of Lord Auckland's Group and Campbell's Island (1844–1845) Part II Botany of Fuegia, the Falklands, Kerguelen's Land, Etc. (1845–1847) Part III Flora Novae-Zelandiae (1851–1853) (2 volumes) Part IV Flora Tasmaniae (1853–1859) (2 volumes) Hooker gave Charles Darwin a copy of the first part of the Flora; Darwin thanked him, and agreed in November 1845 that the geographical distribution of organisms would be "the key which will unlock the mystery of species". == Influence == In 1912, the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen wrote of the Ross expedition that "Few people of the present day are capable of rightly appreciating this heroic deed, this brilliant proof of human courage and energy. With two ponderous craft – regular "tubs" according to our ideas – these men sailed right into the heart of the pack [ice], which all previous explorers had regarded as


id: thayer-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayer_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Thayer Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayer_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:57.724844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thayer-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Thayer Expedition was an American scientific expedition to Brazil, sponsored by Boston businessman Nathaniel Thayer Jr. It was a biological and geological expedition undertaken by multiple scientists, several based at Harvard University, between April 1865 and August 1866. Scientists collected tens of thousands of specimens, some later recognized as new species. Most of the specimens collected during the expedition ended up in the collections of Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology, founded by Louis Agassiz, the leader of the expedition. The Thayer Expedition took place at the end of the American Civil War, with the ocean voyage from New York City to Rio de Janeiro beginning on April 2, just a week prior to Lee's surrender at Appomattox. The expedition sailed on board the S.S. Colorado, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, and docked in Rio de Janeiro on April 23. They explored Brazil from the coast to the Tocantins River and along its tributaries to the borders of Colombia and Peru. == Participants == The expedition included the following named participants: Louis Agassiz, Swiss-American zoologist, ichthyologist, geologist, and leader of the expedition. His primary goal for the expedition was the collection of Brazilian freshwater fish specimens. Elizabeth Cabot


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Whitney South Sea Expedition (1920 - 1941) to collect bird specimens for the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), under the initial leadership of Rollo Beck, was instigated by Dr Leonard C. Sanford and financed by Harry Payne Whitney, a thoroughbred horse-breeder and philanthropist. It was administered by a committee at the AMNH and became a focus for attracting funds for research on the biota of the Pacific islands. The expedition visited islands in the south Pacific region and eventually returned with over 40,000 bird specimens, many plant specimens and an extensive collection of anthropological items and photographs. Using the 75-ton schooner France, with many different scientists and collectors participating over more than a dozen years, the expedition visited thousands of islands throughout Oceania, Micronesia, Polynesia and Melanesia. The France was sold in 1932 when funds ran out. Specimens from the expedition were displayed in a hall at the AMNH funded by Harry Whitney. == Aims of the expedition == The expedition's main aim was to collect birds from various South Pacific islands and the Pacific Ocean, on behalf of the American Museum of Natural History. The AMNH cooperated with the Bishop Museum in Hawaii and the United States


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The expedition was led by Rollo H. Beck (1920–1928), Hannibal Hamlin (1928–1930), William F. Coultas (1930–1935), Lindsay Macmillan (1935–1940), and G. Reid Henry (1941). Beck, an expert bird collector himself, hired Ernest H. Quayle to assist with collecting, including the botanical specimens collected by the expedition. Quayle was a Stanford University graduate with a geology degree. Beck, his wife Ida and Quayle based themselves in Papeete in 1920, and in 1922 Charles Curtis, who had been working on a plantation in Tahiti, joined the expedition as Beck was readying to leave Tahiti in the France. Curtis spent five months with the expedition before returning to his previous job. José Correia and his wife Virginia joined the Whitney South Sea Expedition in 1922 to replace Ernest Quayle, with Correia acting as expedition leader for six months in 1923 while Beck was away in New York. Correia was a cooper by trade. While on a trip to the Antarctic as a cooper in 1911, he had met Dr Robert Murphy of the AMNH, who taught him how to prepare bird specimens. Correia then took part in other AMNH expeditions as a bird collector. The Correias left the Whitney expedition at the end


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-2.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The expedition travelled between island groups by ship, either getting passage on local vessels, using the schooner France that they had purchased, or chartering other vessels such as the Pato, a schooner hired by Coultas in 1933. Bird specimens were collected by various methods. On the ocean, the expedition's ship might pass by a flock of birds which could be shot from on board. On reaching an island, expedition members would go ashore by rowboat to shoot birds along the coast, or walk and climb into the interior of the island to seek out and shoot land birds and other specimens. On inhabited islands, the team would consult the local people to find out about the types and habits of various birds, and would employ local guides to take them to nesting areas. Local people were also paid to collect specimens for the expedition. Specimens had to be processed quickly before they decomposed. Sometimes the expedition members would set up a base on land and process the birds there, but otherwise skinning was typically done by the light of benzine lamps in the hold of the France. Supplies needed for processing birds included arsenic, alum, benzine, cornmeal, needles, bone cutters,


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-3.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
That an extensively equipped foreign collecting expedition on such a scale and with permission to kill the extravagant number of birds allowed should be given entirely unrestricted liberty, except by a few valueless written conditions, amongst our birds, some of which are on the verge of extinction, is unthinkable, a slur on the regard which the people of New Zealand are evincing in the welfare of their heritage, the care of which is entrusted to your department. Your action is also a slight to the operations of this society, and it seems idle and hypocritical for us to continue further work and collect subscriptions from school children and others in the face of such departmental lassitude. We think, moreover, it would only have been courtesy had you consulted us before issuing permits to destroy any of the extremely rare species included in the list to be killed, as, for instance, the Chatham Island bell bird, Auckland Island duck, Chatham Island fern bird and pigeon, sand plover (ten is out of all reason), Chatham Island snipe, Southern Merganser, and half a dozen other species which are on the verge of extinction and should not have been allowed to be killed under


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-4.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
He is unable to work even to the best advantage, or to inspire [the men's] cooperation and loyalty. A feeling of loyalty to the Museum, or to someone else abroad has kept men on this thing, as in the case of sailors a contract, when otherwise they would have made sudden and speedy departure. Drowne also believed that it was important to establish friendly relations with the local people when entering their territory.The France faced gales and storms and high seas in the Pacific Ocean. On 2 June 1926 the expedition met particularly bad weather, which the captain recorded in his logbook: "Sky extremely ugly [...] Squalls at frequent intervals of severe intensity and with heavy rain, hail, lightning and thunder. Sea high and confused.[...] Water spout passed very close ahead.[....] Vessel shipped considerable amount of water [...] Suspect the above, to be passing very close to centre of cyclonic system". Jose Correia used more colourful language to describe the storm: “…we ran into the center of a strong cyclone on June 2nd. Everybody in the ship thought that they were never going to see land again, but God did not forget us in the middle of the furious ocean.”


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-5.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == The expedition was important for several reasons. The specimens and data collected provided a large database for subsequent studies of birds in the Pacific. The expedition was able to confirm the role of geographical isolation in the development of new species, as described by Darwin in his studies of finches in the Galapagos Islands almost a hundred years earlier. In 1938, Murphy stated that the expedition had so far identified 196 new species and sub-species of birds. One of the birds collected during the expedition was Procellaria munda (as named by Kuhl in 1820). A specimen of this bird was collected and sketched during Captain Cook's first world voyage in 1769, but there had been no further documented sightings until Beck saw the bird, a type of shearwater, on 16 February 1926. The expedition was also able to confirm the long-distance migration patterns of various sea birds including the long-tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis taitensis). In 1929, Sanford asked the Whitneys to fund a new wing for the American Museum of Natural History, which would house the many specimens being collected by the South Sea expedition and other expeditions in Africa and South America. Construction of the Whitney Wing


id: polar-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Polar exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:00.463267+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polar-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Polar exploration is the process of exploration of the polar regions of Earth – the Arctic region and Antarctica – particularly with the goal of reaching the North Pole and South Pole, respectively. Historically, this was accomplished by explorers making often arduous travels on foot or by sled in these regions, known as a polar expedition. More recently, exploration has been accomplished with technology, particularly with satellite imagery. From 600 BC to 300 BC, Greek philosophers theorized that the planet was a Spherical Earth with North and South polar regions. By 150 AD, Ptolemy published Geographia, which notes a hypothetical Terra Australis Incognita. However, due to harsh weather conditions, the poles themselves would not be reached for centuries after that. When they finally were reached, the achievement was realized only a few years apart. There are two claims, both disputed, about who were the first persons to reach the geographic North Pole. Frederick Cook, accompanied by two Inuit men, Ahwelah and Etukishook, claimed to have reached the Pole on April 21, 1908, although this claim is generally doubted. On April 6, 1909, Robert Peary claimed to be the first person in recorded history to reach the North Pole, accompanied by


id: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Arctic exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:01.610599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Arctic exploration is the physical exploration of the Arctic region of the Earth. It refers to the historical period during which mankind has explored the region north of the Arctic Circle. Historical records suggest that humankind have explored the northern extremes since 325 BC, when the ancient Greek sailor Pytheas reached a frozen sea while attempting to find a source of the metal tin. Dangerous oceans and poor weather conditions often fetter explorers attempting to reach polar regions, and journeying through these perils by sight, boat, and foot has proven difficult. == Ancient history == === Indo-European hypothesis === A controversial hypothesis, often regarded as pseudohistory, sets the home of the mythical people Hyperboreans in the Arctic. The scientist and author John G. Bennett talked about it in his research paper "The Hyperborean Origin of the Indo-European Culture" (1963). The theory was originally put forth by William F. Warren, the first President of Boston University, in his Paradise Found or the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. Later, Indian independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak resurrected Warren's theory in his The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903), which was dedicated to philologist and indologist Max Müller, with whom


id: arctic-exploration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration-1.md
category: reference
title: Arctic exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:01.610599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Exploration to the north of the Arctic Circle in the Renaissance was both driven by the rediscovery of the Classics and the national quests for commercial expansion, and hampered by limits in maritime technology, lack of stable food supplies, and insufficient insulation for the crew against extreme cold. === Renaissance advancements in cartography === A seminal event in Arctic exploration occurred in 1409, when Ptolemy's Geographia was translated into Latin, thereby introducing the concepts of latitude and longitude into Western Europe. As a result navigators were better able to chart their positions. The Inventio Fortunata, a lost book, describes in a summary written by Jacobus Cnoyen but only found in a letter from Gerardus Mercator, voyages as far as the North Pole. One widely disputed claim is that two brothers from Venice, Niccolo and Antonio Zeno, allegedly made a map of their journeys to that region, which were published by their descendants in 1558. === Northwest Passage === The Northwest Passage connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans via the Arctic Ocean. Since the discovery of the American continent was the product of the search for a route to Asia, exploration around the northern edge of North America continued for the


id: arctic-exploration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration-2.md
category: reference
title: Arctic exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:01.610599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
In the first half of the 19th century, parts of the Northwest Passage were explored separately by a number of different expeditions, including those by John Ross, William Edward Parry, James Clark Ross; and overland expeditions led by John Franklin, George Back, Peter Warren Dease, Thomas Simpson, and John Rae. Sir Robert McClure was credited with the discovery of the Northwest Passage by sea in 1851 when he looked across M'Clure Strait from Banks Island and viewed Melville Island. However, the strait was blocked by young ice at this point in the season, and not navigable to ships. The only usable route, linking the entrances of Lancaster Sound and Dolphin and Union Strait was first used by John Rae in 1851. Rae used a pragmatic approach of traveling by land on foot and dog sled, and typically employed less than ten people in his exploration parties. At this time, Arctic exploration was catching the interest of the public, notably in Britain, and many articles and images circulated among the many journals interested in travelogues. The Northwest Passage was not completely conquered by sea until 1906, when the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, who had sailed just in time to escape creditors


id: arctic-exploration-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration-3.md
category: reference
title: Arctic exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:01.610599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Farthest North List of polar explorers List of Arctic expeditions List of Arctic exploration vessels List of firsts at the Geographic North Pole Great Northern Expedition List of Antarctic expeditions Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration List of Antarctic exploration ships from the Heroic Age, 1897–1922 History of Antarctica History of research ships List of Russian explorers Timeline of European exploration Drifting ice station Deep-sea exploration Space exploration Nikolai Pinegin == Notes == === Bibliography === Berton, Pierre (1989) [1988]. The Arctic Grail: The Quest for the North West Passage and the North Pole, 1818-1909. New York, NY: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-011680-9. Edinger, Ray (2014). Love and Ice: The Tragic Obsessions of Dr. Elisha Kent Kane, Arctic Explorer. Savannah, Georgia: Frederic C. Beil. ISBN 978-1-929490-38-7. McCannon, John (2012). A History of the Arctic: Nature, Exploration and Exploitation. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-076-4. McCannon, John (1998). Red Arctic: Polar Exploration and the Myth of the North in the Soviet Union, 1932-1939. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511436-2. Robinson, Michael F. (2006). The Coldest Crucible: Arctic Exploration and American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-72187-3. Sale, Richard (2002). To the Ends of the Earth: The History


id: bothie-dog-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bothie_(dog)-0.md
category: reference
title: Bothie (dog)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bothie_(dog)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:02.803408+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bothie-dog-20260505-0
summary:
Bothie, also known as Bothie the Polar Dog, was a long-haired Jack Russell Terrier who was the only dog to travel to both the South and North Poles. Bothie was owned by Ranulph Fiennes and Ginny Fiennes and accompanied the team on the circumpolar Transglobe Expedition from 1979 to 1982. == Expedition == The Transglobe Expedition (1979–1982) was the first successful longitudinal (north–south) circumnavigation of the Earth using only surface transport, traversing both the South and North Poles. The expedition was conceived by Ginny Fiennes and led by her husband Ranulph Fiennes. Bothie, a stray long-haired brown-and-white Jack Russell Terrier, was given to the Fiennes couple in 1977, two years before the expedition. He was flown to join the Transglobe crew following the Africa segment, which was considered too hot for him. Bothie accompanied Ginny Fiennes throughout the rest of the expedition. This included enduring an Antarctic winter during his nine-month stay on the continent, and spending six weeks at the pole. During this period Bothie participated in the first cricket match ever held at the South Pole. To help him with the cold temperatures Bothie was kitted with tailor-made red coat, balaclava facemask, and boots, though he was said


id: mile-danco-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Émile_Danco-0.md
category: reference
title: Émile Danco
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Émile_Danco
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:04.853104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mile-danco-20260505-0
summary:
Émile Danco (29 November 1869 - 5 June 1898) was a Belgian polar explorer. He was a lieutenant in the Belgian artillery and trained at the Royal Military Academy in Brussels, Belgium. He was a personal friend of Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery and became the first recruit for the Belgian Antarctic Expedition aboard the Belgica. Danco took part in several excursions during the first period in Antarctica, notably in early February 1898, when he joined de Gerlache, Amundsen, Cook and Arctowski on the expedition’s first camping trip, to an island west of the Antarctic Peninsula they named Brabant Island. He served as the geophysicist for the expedition, which became the first to overwinter in Antarctica. Émile Danco died of a heart condition aboard the Belgica on 5 June, 1898. His observations and work were taken up by Georges Lecointe, the Belgica's second in command. == Honors == Danco Island in the Gerlache Strait was named by Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery for Émile Danco The asteroid (9812) Danco was named for him == References == == External links == Media related to Émile Danco at Wikimedia Commons


id: explorer-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_(film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Explorer (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:06.011368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: explorer-film-20260505-0
summary:
Explorer is a 2022 biographical documentary film about the life and exploits of British explorer Sir Ranulph Fiennes, directed by Matthew Dyas. It was critically acclaimed as a "compelling portrait" of Fiennes. == Synopsis == The film includes both contemporary and archive footage and covers many of aspects of Fiennes' life including self-amputation of his fingers due to frostbite, involvement in the Dhofar Rebellion, leading the Transglobe expedition, being booted out of the SAS, running 7 marathons on 7 days on 7 continents, auditioning for James Bond, and reflections on his personal and family life. == Cast == Ranulph Fiennes as himself Anton Bowring as himself HM King Charles III as himself == Release == === Box office === Explorer was released to theatres on 14 July 2022. It was released to video on 30 August 2022. === Critical reception === On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a 100% rating based on reviews from 16 critics. On Metacritic it has score of 81 out of 100 based on reviews from 5 critics "universal acclaim". It has a 3 star review by Cath Clarke for the Guardian and a 5 star review by Robbie Collin for the Telegraph. Wendy Ide of


id: global-warrior-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Warrior_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Warrior Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Warrior_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:07.192383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-warrior-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Warrior Project (formerly Ice Warrior Project) is an organisation founded in 2001 by the explorer Jim McNeill. Its remit is to develop people from all walks of life and echelons of society into modern-day explorers; to discover change in the world’s most remote and extreme regions under the guidance of partner leading scientific authorities; and deliver these discoveries in an engaging, human manner to audiences around the globe. The organisation provides raw, scientific data for others to go on and interpret in order to monitor these regions, which were described by Nobel peace prize nominee Sheila Watt-Cloutier as "clearly one of the most important regions when it comes to climate change." The project's founder Jim McNeill maintains that without such knowledge humans cannot be true guardians of the planet and we cannot establish whether the actions we are taking to mitigate climate change are having any lasting impact. As an organisation it has an altruistic project side which relies on corporate sponsorship and involves charitable work and also an underpinning commercial side. Global Warrior Project is made up of 5 extreme environments - Ice, Ocean, Desert, Mountain and Jungle. == See also == Jim McNeill - the founder


