# kb

id: bioremediation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation-1.md
category: reference
title: Bioremediation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:17.028374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bioremediation-20260505-0
summary:
Bioremediation can be carried out by bacteria that are naturally present. In biostimulation, the population of these helpful bacteria can be increased by adding nutrients. Bacteria can in principle be used to degrade hydrocarbons. Specific to marine oil spills, nitrogen and phosphorus have been key nutrients in biodegradation. The bioremediation of hydrocarbons suffers from low rates. Bioremediation can involve the action of microbial consortium. Within the consortium, the product of one species could be the substrate for another species. Anaerobic bioremediation can in principle be employed to treat a range of oxidized contaminants including PCE, TCE, DCE, VC), chlorinated ethanes (TCA, DCA), chloromethanes (CT, CF), chlorinated cyclic hydrocarbons, various energetics (e.g., perchlorate, RDX, TNT), and nitrate. This process involves the addition of an electron donor to: 1) deplete background electron acceptors including oxygen, nitrate, oxidized iron and manganese and sulfate; and 2) stimulate the biological and/or chemical reduction of the oxidized pollutants. The choice of substrate and the method of injection depend on the contaminant type and distribution in the aquifer, hydrogeology, and remediation objectives. Substrate can be added using conventional well installations, by direct-push technology, or by excavation and backfill such as permeable reactive barriers (PRB) or biowalls. Slow-release


id: bioremediation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation-2.md
category: reference
title: Bioremediation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:17.028374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bioremediation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pesticides === Of the many ways to deal with pesticide contamination, bioremediation promises to be more effective. Many sites around the world are contaminated with agrichemicals. These agrichemicals often resist biodegradation, by design. Harming all manners of organic life with long term health issues such as cancer, rashes, blindness, paralysis, and mental illness. An example is Lindane which was a commonly used insecticide in the 20th century. Long time exposure poses a serious threat to humans and the surrounding ecosystem. Lindane reduces the potential of beneficial bacteria in the soil such as nitrogen fixation cyanobacteria. As well as causing central nervous system issues in smaller mammals such as seizures, dizziness, and even death. What makes it so harmful to these organisms is how quickly distributed it gets through the brain and fatty tissues. While Lindane has been mostly limited to specific use, it is still produced and used around the world. Actinobacteria has been a promising candidate in situ technique specifically for removing pesticides. When certain strains of Actinobacteria have been grouped together, their efficiency in degrading pesticides has enhanced. As well as being a reusable technique that strengthens through further use by limiting the migration space of these


id: biosurfactant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosurfactant-0.md
category: reference
title: Biosurfactant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosurfactant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:28.527624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biosurfactant-20260505-0
summary:
Biosurfactant usually refers to surfactants of microbial origin. Most of the biosurfactants produced by microbes are synthesized extracellularly and many microbes are known to produce biosurfactants in large relative quantities. Some are of commercial interest. As a secondary metabolite of microorganisms, biosurfactants can be processed by the cultivation of biosurfactant producing microorganisms in the stationary phase on many sorts of low-priced substrates like biochar, plant oils, carbohydrates, wastes, etc. High-level production of biosurfactants can be controlled by regulation of environmental factors and growth circumstances. == Classification == Biosurfactants are usually categorized by their molecular structure. Like synthetic surfactants, they are composed of a hydrophilic moiety made up of amino acids, peptides, (poly)saccharides, or sugar alcohols and a hydrophobic moiety consisting of fatty acids. Correspondingly, the significant classes of biosurfactants include glycolipids, lipopeptides and lipoproteins, and polymeric surfactants as well as particulate surfactants. == Examples == Common biosurfactants include: Bile salts are mixtures of micelle-forming compounds that encapsulate food, enabling absorption through the small intestine. Lecithin, which can be obtained either from soybean or from egg yolk, is a common food ingredient. Rhamnolipids, which can be produced by some species of Pseudomonas, e.g., Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Sophorolipids are produced by various nonpathogenic


id: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company or country adds to the atmosphere. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tonnes of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison. Such units can be, for example, tonnes CO2-eq per year, per kilogram of protein for consumption, per kilometer travelled, per piece of clothing and so forth. A product's carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle. These run from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal. Similarly, an organization's carbon footprint includes the direct as well as the indirect emissions that it causes. The Greenhouse Gas Protocol (for carbon accounting of organizations) calls these Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions. There are several methodologies and online tools to calculate the carbon footprint. They depend on whether the focus is on a country, organization, product or individual person. For example, the carbon footprint of a product could help consumers decide which product to buy if they want to be climate aware. For climate change mitigation activities, the carbon footprint can help distinguish those economic


id: carbon-footprint-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-1.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
The greenhouse gas protocol is a set of standards for tracking greenhouse gas emissions. The standards divide emissions into three scopes (Scope 1, 2 and 3) within the value chain. Greenhouse gas emissions caused directly by the organization such as by burning fossil fuels are referred to as Scope 1. Emissions caused indirectly by an organization, such as by purchasing secondary energy sources like electricity, heat, cooling or steam are called Scope 2. Lastly, indirect emissions associated with upstream or downstream processes are called Scope 3. === Direct carbon emissions (Scope 1) === Direct or Scope 1 carbon emissions come from sources on the site that is producing a product or delivering a service. An example for industry would be the emissions from burning a fuel on site. On the individual level, emissions from personal vehicles or gas-burning stoves are Scope 1. === Indirect carbon emissions (Scope 2) === Indirect carbon emissions are emissions from sources upstream or downstream from the process being studied. They are also known as Scope 2 or Scope 3 emissions. Scope 2 emissions are the indirect emissions related to purchasing electricity, heat, or steam used on site. Examples of upstream carbon emissions include transportation of


id: carbon-footprint-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-2.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
== Underlying concepts for calculations == The calculation of the carbon footprint of a product, service or sector requires expert knowledge and careful examination of what is to be included. Carbon footprints can be calculated at different scales. They can apply to whole countries, cities, neighborhoods and also sectors, companies and products. Several free online carbon footprint calculators exist to calculate personal carbon footprints. Software such as the "Scope 3 Evaluator" can help companies report emissions throughout their value chain. The software tools can help consultants and researchers to model global sustainability footprints. In each situation there are a number of questions that need to be answered. These include which activities are linked to which emissions, and which proportion should be attributed to which company. Software is essential for company management. But there is a need for new ways of enterprise resource planning to improve corporate sustainability performance. To achieve 95% carbon footprint coverage, it would be necessary to assess 12 million individual supply-chain contributions. This is based on analyzing 12 sectoral case studies. The Scope 3 calculations can be made easier using input-output analysis. This is a technique originally developed by Nobel Prize-winning economist Wassily Leontief. === Consumption-based emission


id: carbon-footprint-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-3.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
=== Relationship with other environmental impacts === A focus on carbon footprints can lead people to ignore or even exacerbate other related environmental issues of concern. These include biodiversity loss, ecotoxicity, and habitat destruction. It may not be easy to measure these other human impacts on the environment with a single indicator like the carbon footprint. Consumers may think that the carbon footprint is a proxy for environmental impact. In many cases this is not correct. There can be trade-offs between reducing carbon footprint and environmental protection goals. One example is the use of biofuel, a renewable energy source that can reduce the carbon footprint of the energy supply but can also pose ecological challenges during its production. This is because it is often produced in monocultures with ample use of fertilizers and pesticides. Another example is offshore wind parks, which could have unintended impacts on marine ecosystems. The carbon footprint analysis solely focuses on greenhouse gas emissions, unlike a life-cycle assessment which is much broader and looks at all environmental impacts. Therefore, it is useful to stress in communication activities that the carbon footprint is just one in a family of indicators (e.g. ecological footprint, water footprint, land footprint,


id: carbon-footprint-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-4.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
CO2 emissions of countries are typically measured on the basis of production. This accounting method is sometimes referred to as territorial emissions. Countries use it when they report their emissions, and set domestic and international targets such as Nationally Determined Contributions. Consumption-based emissions on the other hand are adjusted for trade. To calculate consumption-based emissions analysts have to track which goods are traded across the world. Whenever a product is imported, all CO2 emissions that were emitted in the production of that product are included. Consumption-based emissions reflect the lifestyle choices of a country's citizens. According to the World Bank, the global average carbon footprint in 2014 was about 5 tonnes of CO2 per person, measured on a production basis. The EU average for 2007 was about 13.8 tonnes CO2e per person. For the USA, Luxembourg and Australia it was over 25 tonnes CO2e per person. In 2017, the average for the USA was about 20 metric tonnes CO2e per person. This is one of the highest per capita figures in the world. The footprints per capita of countries in Africa and India were well below average. Assuming a global population of around 9–10 billion by 2050, a carbon footprint


id: carbon-rift-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_rift-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbon rift
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_rift
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:31.133510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-rift-20260505-0
summary:
Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems. This is a derivative of Karl Marx's concept of metabolic rift. In practical terms, increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide (or CO2) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption. Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this "rift" has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life. Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled "Carbon Metabolism: Global capitalism, climate change, and the biospheric rift" in the journal Theory and Society. Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that, despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift, it is projected that as long as capitalism continues, there is little hope of reducing the rift. Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels. Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems. There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-0.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is the maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available. The carrying capacity is defined as the environment's maximal load, which in population ecology corresponds to the population equilibrium, when the number of deaths in a population equals the number of births (as well as immigration and emigration). Carrying capacity of the environment implies that the resources extraction is not above the rate of regeneration of the resources and the wastes generated are within the assimilating capacity of the environment. The effect of carrying capacity on population dynamics is modelled with a logistic function. Carrying capacity is applied to the maximum population an environment can support in ecology, agriculture and fisheries. The term carrying capacity had been applied to a few different processes in the past before finally being applied to human population limits in the 1950s. The notion of carrying capacity for humans is covered by the notion of sustainable population. An early detailed examination of global limits on human population was published in the 1972 book Limits to Growth, which has prompted follow-up commentary and analysis,


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-1.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
e is Euler's number, A is a constant determined by the initial population N 0 {\displaystyle N_{0}} via A = K N 0 − 1 {\displaystyle A={K \over N_{0}}-1} . When the initial population is below the carrying capacity, A {\displaystyle A} is positive; when it is above, A {\displaystyle A} is negative. r is the initial exponential growth rate, and K is the carrying capacity. The logistic growth curve depicts how population growth rate and carrying capacity are inter-connected. As illustrated in the logistic growth curve model, when the population size is small, the population increases exponentially. However, as population size nears carrying capacity, the growth decreases and reaches zero at K. What determines a specific system's carrying capacity involves a limiting factor; this may be available supplies of food or water, nesting areas, space, or the amount of waste that can be absorbed without degrading the environment and decreasing carrying capacity. == Population ecology == Carrying capacity is a commonly used concept for biologists when trying to better understand biological populations and the factors which affect them. When addressing biological populations, carrying capacity can be seen as a stable dynamic equilibrium, taking into account extinction and colonization rates.


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-2.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
In fisheries, carrying capacity is used in the formulae to calculate sustainable yields for fisheries management. The maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is defined as "the highest average catch that can be continuously taken from an exploited population (=stock) under average environmental conditions". MSY was originally calculated as half of the carrying capacity, but has been refined over the years, now being seen as roughly 30% of the population, depending on the species or population. Because the population of a species which is brought below its carrying capacity due to fishing will find itself in the exponential phase of growth, as seen in the Verhulst model, the harvesting of an amount of fish at or below MSY is a surplus yield which can be sustainably harvested without reducing population size at equilibrium, keeping the population at its maximum recruitment. However, annual fishing can be seen as a modification of r in the equation -i.e. the environment has been modified, which means that the population size at equilibrium with annual fishing is slightly below what K would be without it. Note that mathematically and in practical terms, MSY is problematic. If mistakes are made and even a tiny amount of fish are


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-3.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
Another issue to consider when applying carrying capacity, especially to humans, is that measuring food resources is arbitrary. This is due to choosing what to consider (e.g., whether or not to include plants that are not available every year), how to classify what is considered (e.g., classifying edible plants that are not usually eaten as food resources or not), and determining if caloric values or nutritional values are privileged. Additional layers to this for humans are their cultural differences in culinary preferences (e.g., some consume flying termites) and individual choices on what to invest their labor into (e.g., fishing vs. farming), both of which vary over time. This leads to the need to determine whether or not to include all food resources or only those the population considered will actually consume. Measuring water resources carrying capacity is likewise highly arbitrary: choices in temporal resolution (e.g., monthly versus annual), spatial resolution (e.g., how subbasins are delineated), and whether to include human activities such as inter-basin water transfers and reservoir storage in the assessment can all lead to vastly different WRCC results. Carrying capacity measurements over large areas also assumes homogeneity in the resources available but this does not account for how


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-4.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ecological footprint accounting === Ecological footprint accounting measures the demands people make on nature and compares them to available supplies, for both individual countries and the world as a whole. Developed originally by Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees, it has been refined and applied in a variety of contexts over the years by Global Footprint Network (GFN). On the demand side, the ecological footprint measures how fast a population uses resources and generates wastes, with a focus on five main areas: carbon emissions (or carbon footprint); land devoted to direct settlement; timber and paper use; food and fiber use; and seafood consumption. It converts these into per capita or total hectares used. On the supply side, national or global biocapacity represents the productivity of ecological assets in a particular nation or the world as a whole; this includes "cropland, grazing land, forest land, fishing grounds, and built-up land." Again the various metrics to capture biocapacity are translated into the single term of hectares of available land. As Global Footprint Network (GFN) states:Each city, state or nation's Ecological Footprint can be compared to its biocapacity, or that of the world. If a population's Ecological Footprint exceeds the region's biocapacity, that


id: climate-restoration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_restoration-0.md
category: reference
title: Climate restoration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_restoration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:33.592291+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climate-restoration-20260505-0
summary:
Climate restoration refers to intentionally restoring preindustrial levels of greenhouse gases by 2050, thereby ending the climate crisis and enabling future generations of humanity and nature to flourish. The climate restoration movement is committed to lowering carbon dioxide (CO2) levels below 300 parts per million (ppm)—the levels at which humans evolved and have thrived. Climate-restoration solutions include large-scale carbon dioxide removal (CDR)) to pull down the excess atmospheric CO2 built up in the air since the industrial revolution. Climate-restoration actions also include restoring pre-industrial atmospheric methane levels by accelerating natural methane oxidation. Climate restoration expands on the legacy climate goal of stabilizing Earth's climate by achieving "net-zero emissions." The movement calls for the transition to clean energy as well as for restoring preindustrial CO2 levels. These levels allowed humanity to develop agriculture and civilizations, so they are considered historically safe. == Mitigation and restoration == Advocates of climate restoration point out that continuing on our current climate trajectory threatens the long-term survival of society, current biodiversity, and humanity itself. They cite a moral imperative to leave a safe climate to our children and future generations. But the current mitigation pathway carries the risk that climatic conditions will worsen beyond our


id: climate-restoration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_restoration-1.md
category: reference
title: Climate restoration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_restoration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:33.592291+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climate-restoration-20260505-0
summary:
levels of climate forcing agents in the atmosphere, especially CO2 and methane for positive forcing and SO2 aerosol for negative forcing; global mean surface temperature (compared to some baseline) and its rate of increase; sea level and the rate that sea level is rising; pH and rate of ocean acidification. Ice levels of the polar ice caps. One of the principal goals for climate restoration is to bring the CO2 level down from current level of ~420 ppm (2022) towards its pre-industrial level of ~280 ppm. Not only will this reduce CO2's global warming effect but also its effect on ocean acidification. The removed carbon would be sequestered or used as a construction material. == Climate restoration open letter == On November 13, 2020, an open letter, put together by the youth organisation Worldward, calling for climate restoration was published in the Guardian newspaper. The letter was signed by prominent scientists and activists, including: Michael E Mann, Dr James Hansen, George Monbiot, Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim, Dr Rowan Williams, Bella Lack, Will Attenborough, Mark Lynas, Chloe Ardijis, Dr Shahrar Ali, and many more. After its publication, the letter was opened up to general signatories, and the signatories published on Worldward's website.


id: climax-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Climax community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:34.903771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climax-community-20260505-0
summary:
In scientific ecology, climax community or climatic climax community is a historic term for a community of plants, animals, and fungi which, through the process of ecological succession in the development of vegetation in an area over time, have reached a steady state. This equilibrium was thought to occur because the climax community is composed of species best adapted to average conditions in that area. The term is sometimes also applied in soil development. Nevertheless, it has been found that a "steady state" is more apparent than real, particularly across long timescales. The idea of a single climax, which is defined in relation to regional climate, originated with Frederic Clements in the early 1900s. The first analysis of succession as leading to something like a climax was written by Henry Cowles in 1899, but it was Clements who used the term "climax" to describe the idealized endpoint of succession. == Frederic Clements' use of "climax" == Clements described the successional development of an ecological community comparable to the ontogenetic development of individual organisms. Clements suggested only comparisons to very simple organisms. Later ecologists developed this idea that the ecological community is a "superorganism" and even sometimes claimed that communities could


id: climax-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax_species-0.md
category: reference
title: Climax species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:36.067235+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climax-species-20260505-0
summary:
Climax species, also called late seral, late-successional, K-selected or equilibrium species, are plant species that can germinate and grow with limited resources; e.g., they need heat exposure or low water availability. They are the species within forest succession that are more adapted to stable and predictable environments, and will remain essentially unchanged in terms of species composition for as long as a site remains undisturbed. The seedlings of climax species can grow in the shade of the parent trees, ensuring their dominance indefinitely. The presence of climax species can also reduce the prevalence of other species within an ecosystem. However, a disturbance, such as fire, may kill the climax species, allowing pioneer or earlier successional species to re-establish for a time. They are the opposite of pioneer species, also known as ruderal, fugitive, opportunistic or R-selected species, in the sense that climax species are good competitors but poor colonizers, whereas pioneer species are good colonizers but poor competitors. Given the prevailing ecological conditions, climax species dominate the climax community. When the pace of succession slows down as the result of ecological homeostasis, the maximum permitted biodiversity is reached. Their reproductive strategies and other adaptive characteristics can be considered more sophisticated


id: coevolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Coevolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:37.344867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coevolution-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution, as well as gene-culture coevolution. Charles Darwin mentioned evolutionary interactions between flowering plants and insects in On the Origin of Species (1859). He used use the similar word coadaptation and suggested how plants and insects could evolve through reciprocal evolutionary changes. Naturalists in the late 1800s studied other examples of how interactions among species could result in reciprocal evolutionary change. Beginning in the 1940s, plant pathologists developed breeding programs that were examples of human-induced coevolution. Development of new crop plant varieties that were resistant to some diseases favored rapid evolution in pathogen populations to overcome those plant defenses. That, in turn, required the development of yet new resistant crop plant varieties, producing an ongoing cycle of reciprocal evolution in crop plants and diseases that continues to this day. Coevolution as a major topic for study in nature expanded rapidly from the 1960s, when Daniel H. Janzen showed coevolution between acacias and ants (see below) and Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven suggested how


id: coevolution-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution-1.md
category: reference
title: Coevolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:37.344867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coevolution-20260505-0
summary:
Hummingbirds and ornithophilous (bird-pollinated) flowers have evolved a mutualistic relationship. The flowers have nectar suited to the birds' diet, their color suits the birds' vision and their shape fits that of the birds' bills. The blooming times of the flowers have also been found to coincide with hummingbirds' breeding seasons. The floral characteristics of ornithophilous plants vary greatly among each other compared to closely related insect-pollinated species. These flowers also tend to be more ornate, complex, and showy than their insect pollinated counterparts. It is generally agreed that plants formed coevolutionary relationships with insects first, and ornithophilous species diverged at a later time. There is not much scientific support for instances of the reverse of this divergence: from ornithophily to insect pollination. The diversity in floral phenotype in ornithophilous species, and the relative consistency observed in bee-pollinated species can be attributed to the direction of the shift in pollinator preference. Flowers have converged to take advantage of similar birds. Flowers compete for pollinators, and adaptations reduce unfavourable effects of this competition. The fact that birds can fly during inclement weather makes them more efficient pollinators where bees and other insects would be inactive. Ornithophily may have arisen for this reason


id: coevolution-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution-2.md
category: reference
title: Coevolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:37.344867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coevolution-20260505-0
summary:
Brood parasitism demonstrates close coevolution of host and parasite, for example in some cuckoos. These birds do not make their own nests, but lay their eggs in nests of other species, ejecting or killing the eggs and young of the host and thus having a strong negative impact on the host's reproductive fitness. Their eggs are camouflaged as eggs of their hosts, implying that hosts can distinguish their own eggs from those of intruders and are in an evolutionary arms race with the cuckoo between camouflage and recognition. Cuckoos are counter-adapted to host defences with features such as thickened eggshells, shorter incubation (so their young hatch first), and flat backs adapted to lift eggs out of the nest. === Antagonistic coevolution === Antagonistic coevolution is seen in the harvester ant species Pogonomyrmex barbatus and Pogonomyrmex rugosus, in a relationship both parasitic and mutualistic. The queens are unable to produce worker ants by mating with their own species. Only by crossbreeding can they produce workers. The winged females act as parasites for the males of the other species as their sperm will only produce sterile hybrids. But because the colonies are fully dependent on these hybrids to survive, it is also


id: coevolution-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution-3.md
category: reference
title: Coevolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:37.344867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coevolution-20260505-0
summary:
=== In management and organisation studies === Since 2000, coevolution has been explored in management and organisation studies, for example in the business ecosystem of partners of the Intel corporation, where Intel both shapes and is shaped by its partners. However, the processes that characterise coevolution in these fields remain unclear, and its applicability is undefined. It has been suggested that when an organisation seeks ideas from external partners, it tends to select and retain partners whose ideas align with its own. This means that far from passively receiving ideas during a search, organisations actively shape the nature of the contributions they can receive in a two-way "coevolutionary lock-in" process. === In political economy === Some scholars have applied coevolution to propose non-linear theories in political economy. The Emergence of Organizations and Markets, by John Padgett and Walter Powell, presents case studies of social networks coevolving with institutions, mainly based on early European history (e.g., commercial networks in 13th century Tuscany). A more contemporary application is How China Escaped the Poverty Trap, by Yuen Yuen Ang, which traces the mutual adaptation of the economy and institution, first in China's development under Deng Xiaoping, and also in Nigeria's film industry and


id: colony-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Colony (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:38.621004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: colony-biology-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, a colony is composed of two or more conspecific individuals living in close association with, or connected to, one another. This association is usually for mutual benefit such as stronger defense or the ability to attack bigger prey. Colonies can form in various shapes and ways depending on the organism involved. For instance, the bacterial colony is a cluster of identical cells (clones). These colonies often form and grow on the surface of (or within) a solid medium, usually derived from a single parent cell. Colonies, in the context of development, may be composed of two or more unitary (or solitary) organisms or be modular organisms. Unitary organisms have determinate development (set life stages) from zygote to adult form and individuals or groups of individuals (colonies) are visually distinct. Modular organisms have indeterminate growth forms (life stages not set) through repeated iteration of genetically identical modules (or individuals), and it can be difficult to distinguish between the colony as a whole and the modules within. In the latter case, modules may have specific functions within the colony. In contrast, solitary organisms – such as jaguars – do not associate with colonies; they are ones in which all individuals


id: colony-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Colony (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:38.621004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: colony-biology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Worker emergence === This is also known as the ergonomic stage. As the eggs laid by the foundresses develop, they give rise to the first generation of workers. These workers can assume various tasks, such as foraging, brood care, and nest maintenance. Initially, the worker population is relatively small, and their tasks are not as specialised. As the colony grows, more workers emerge, and the division of labor becomes more pronounced. Some individuals may specialise in tasks like foraging, defense, or tending to the brood, while others may take on general tasks within the nest. These specialised tasks can change throughout the life of a worker. === Reproductive phase === At a certain point in the colony ontogeny, usually after a period of growth and maturation, the colony produces reproductives, including new virgin queens (princesses) and males. These individuals have the potential to leave the nest and start new colonies, ensuring the transmission of the gene pool of its natal colony. === Colony death === Over time, colonies may go through a senescence phase where the reproductive output declines, and the colony's overall vitality diminishes. Eventually, the colony may die off or be replaced by a new generation of


id: common-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_species-0.md
category: reference
title: Common species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:40.304201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: common-species-20260505-0
summary:
Common species and uncommon species are designations used in ecology to describe the population status of a species. Commonness is closely related to abundance. Abundance refers to the frequency with which a species is found in controlled samples; in contrast, species are defined as common or uncommon based on their overall presence in the environment. A species may be locally abundant without being common. However, "common" and "uncommon" are also sometimes used to describe levels of abundance, with a common species being less abundant than an abundant species, while an uncommon species is more abundant than a rare species. Common species are frequently regarded as being at low risk of extinction simply because they exist in large numbers, and hence their conservation status is often overlooked. While this is broadly logical, there are several cases of once common species being driven to extinction such as the passenger pigeon and the Rocky Mountain locust, which numbered in the billions and trillions respectively before their demise. Moreover, a small proportional decline in a common species results in the loss of a large number of individuals, and the contribution to ecosystem function that those individuals represented. A recent paper argued that because common


id: conservation-status-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status-0.md
category: reference
title: Conservation status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:42.109211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-status-20260505-0
summary:
The conservation status of a group of organisms (for example, a species) indicates whether the group still exists and how likely it is to become extinct in the near future. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation status—not simply the number of individuals remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, and known threats. Various systems of conservation status are in use at international, multi-country, national and local levels, as well as for consumer use such as sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification. The two international systems are by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). == International systems == === IUCN Red List of Threatened Species === The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups set through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation. Also included are species that have gone extinct since


id: conservation-status-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status-1.md
category: reference
title: Conservation status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:42.109211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-status-20260505-0
summary:
== National systems == In Australia, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 IUCN Red List Categories & Criteria (version 2.3). Prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status. The codes for the Western Australian conservation system are given at Declared Rare and Priority Flora List (abbreviated to DECF when using in a taxobox). In Belgium, the Flemish Research Institute for Nature and Forest publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch. In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in some danger of disappearing from Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act (SARA), it is up to the federal government, which is politically accountable, to legally protect species assessed by COSEWIC. In China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book. In


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-0.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
A constructed wetland is an artificial wetland to treat sewage, greywater, stormwater runoff or industrial wastewater. It may also be designed for land reclamation after mining, or as a mitigation step for natural areas lost to land development. Constructed wetlands are engineered systems that use the natural functions of vegetation, soil, and organisms to provide secondary treatment to wastewater. The design of the constructed wetland has to be adjusted according to the type of wastewater to be treated. Constructed wetlands have been used in both centralized and decentralized wastewater systems. Primary treatment is recommended when there is a large amount of suspended solids or soluble organic matter (measured as biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand). Similar to natural wetlands, constructed wetlands also act as a biofilter and/or can remove a range of pollutants (such as organic matter, nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals) from the water. Constructed wetlands are designed to remove water pollutants such as suspended solids, organic matter and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). All types of pathogens (i.e., bacteria, viruses, protozoans and helminths) are expected to be removed to some extent in a constructed wetland. Subsurface wetlands provide greater pathogen removal than surface wetlands. There are two main types


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-1.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
Nitrification is the biological conversion of organic and inorganic nitrogenous compounds from a reduced state to a more oxidized state, based on the action of two different bacteria types. Nitrification is strictly an aerobic process in which the end product is nitrate (NO−3). The process of nitrification oxidizes ammonium (from the wastewater) to nitrite (NO−2), and then nitrite is oxidized to nitrate (NO−3). ==== Denitrification ==== Denitrification is the biochemical reduction of oxidized nitrogen anions, nitrate and nitrite to produce the gaseous products nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen gas (N2), with concomitant oxidation of organic matter. The end product, N2, and to a lesser extent the intermediary by product, N2O, are gases that re-enter the atmosphere. ==== Ammonia removal from mine water ==== Constructed wetlands have been used to remove ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds from contaminated mine water, including cyanide and nitrate. === Phosphorus removal === Phosphorus occurs naturally in both organic and inorganic forms. The analytical measure of biologically available orthophosphates is referred to as soluble reactive phosphorus (SR-P). Dissolved organic phosphorus and insoluble forms of organic and inorganic phosphorus are generally not biologically available until transformed into soluble inorganic forms. In freshwater aquatic ecosystems,


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-2.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
Subsurface flow constructed wetland – this wetland can be either with vertical flow (the effluent moves vertically, from the planted layer down through the substrate and out) or with horizontal flow (the effluent moves horizontally, parallel to the surface) Surface flow constructed wetland (this wetland has horizontal flow) Floating treatment wetland The former types are placed in a basin with a substrate to provide a surface area upon which large amounts of waste degrading biofilms form, while the latter relies on a flooded treatment basin upon which aquatic plants are held in flotation till they develop a thick mat of roots and rhizomes upon which biofilms form. In most cases, the bottom is lined with either a polymer geomembrane, concrete or clay (when there is appropriate clay type) in order to protect the water table and surrounding grounds. The substrate can be either gravel—generally limestone or pumice/volcanic rock, depending on local availability, sand or a mixture of various sizes of media (for vertical flow constructed wetlands). Constructed wetlands can be used after a septic tank for primary treatment (or other types of systems) in order to separate the solids from the liquid effluent. Some constructed wetland designs however do not


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-3.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
==== Comparisons with other types ==== Subsurface wetlands are less hospitable to mosquitoes compared to surface flow wetlands, as there is no water exposed to the surface. Mosquitos can be a problem in surface flow constructed wetlands. Subsurface flow systems have the advantage of requiring less land area for water treatment than surface flow. However, surface flow wetlands can be more suitable for wildlife habitat. For urban applications the area requirement of a subsurface flow constructed wetland might be a limiting factor compared to conventional municipal wastewater treatment plants. High rate aerobic treatment processes like activated sludge plants, trickling filters, rotating discs, submerged aerated filters or membrane bioreactor plants require less space. The advantage of subsurface flow constructed wetlands compared to those technologies is their operational robustness which is particularly important in developing countries. The fact that constructed wetlands do not produce secondary sludge (sewage sludge) is another advantage as there is no need for sewage sludge treatment. However, primary sludge from primary settling tanks does get produced and needs to be removed and treated. ==== Costs ==== The costs of subsurface flow constructed wetlands mainly depend on the costs of sand with which the bed has to be filled.


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-4.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
== History == Primary clarifier effluent was discharged directly to natural wetlands for decades before environmental regulations discouraged the practice. Subsurface flow constructed wetlands with sand filter beds have their origin in China and are now used in Asia in small cities. == Examples == === Austria === The total number of constructed wetlands in Austria is 5,450 (in 2015). Due to legal requirements (nitrification), only vertical flow constructed wetlands are implemented in Austria as they achieve better nitrification performance than horizontal flow constructed wetlands. Only about 100 of these constructed wetlands have a design size of 50 population equivalents or more. The remaining 5,350 treatment plants are smaller than that. === Canada === As part of the remediation efforts to remove contamination from CFB Goose Bay, one of the waste dumps was transformed into an engineered wetland. In 2023, Clearwater County implemented the first biofilter-based wetland wastewater treatment system in the province. The system uses 2 types of subsurface constructed wetlands to conduct both aerobic and anaerobic wastewater treatment. == See also == == References == == External links == Constructed Wetlands – US Environmental Protection Agency — Handbook, studies and related resources Publications on constructed wetlands in the


id: convergence-sustainability-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergence_(sustainability_science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Convergence (sustainability science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergence_(sustainability_science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:44.793521+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: convergence-sustainability-science-20260505-0
summary:
Convergence in sustainability sciences refers to mechanisms and pathways that lead towards sustainability with a specific focus on 'Equity within biological planetary limits'. These pathways and mechanisms explicitly advocate equity and recognise the need for redistribution of the Earth's resources in order for human society to operate enduringly within the Earth's biophysical limits. The term was first introduced by Phillip A. Sharp and Robert Langer in 2011 in the context of biomedical science. They called for a problem-solving approach that integrated knowledge from the fields of engineering, the physical sciences, computer science, and the life sciences to find solutions to human problems. The idea has since been applied in areas including climate change, environmental health, public health, systemic inequities. and sustainability. One strategy is to add “friction” to undesirable practices and make them harder to do, while making the desired practices “frictionless” or easy to do. This use of the term 'convergence' harkens from the concept of contraction and convergence (C&C), taking its core principles of Equity and Survival and applying them beyond the frame of greenhouse gas emissions to the wider sustainability agenda. == References ==


id: critical-habitat-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_habitat-0.md
category: reference
title: Critical habitat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_habitat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:45.990677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: critical-habitat-20260505-0
summary:
Critical habitat refers to specific geographic areas essential to the conservation of a listed endangered species, though the area need not actually be occupied by the species at the time it is designated. Critical habitat is a legal designation of land use defined within the U.S. Endangered Species Act-ESA. Contrary to common belief, designating an area as critical habitat does not preclude that area from development. A critical habitat designation only affects federal agency actions. Such actions include federally funded activities or activities requiring a federal permit that may negatively affect the quality of habitat for a listed species. This law also defines that there may be no "take" of a listed species from the designated area. This land designation aims to protect vital habitat for endangered species by preserving areas that are able to meet the identified needs for the target species. This is a key feature of conservation as outlined in the ESA. == Designation process == Critical habitat must be designated for all threatened species and endangered species under the Endangered Species Act, with certain specified exceptions. Designations of critical habitats must be based on the best scientific information available and follow the procedure as outlined in


id: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)-0.md
category: reference
title: Cumulative effects (environment)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:47.221717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-0
summary:
Cumulative effects, also referred to as cumulative environmental effects and cumulative impacts, can be defined as changes to the environment caused by the combined impact of past, present and future human activities and natural processes. Cumulative effects to the environment are the result of multiple activities whose individual direct impacts may be relatively minor but in combination with others result are significant environmental effects. The multiple impacts of different activities may have an additive, synergistic or antagonistic effect on one another and with natural processes. Cumulative effects can be difficult to predict and manage due to inadequate environmental baseline data, complex ecological processes, and the large scale at which human development occurs. The emergence of cumulative effects in environmental regulations began in the 1970s and has since been increasingly seen as a consideration in environmental impact assessments and land management. However, despite its growing relevance, there are no generally accepted methodologies for cumulative effects assessments and there remains debate surrounding the issue. Many human activities result in direct and indirect impacts that collectively impact the environment. The impacts of activities in combination with natural processes can result in cascading responses in ecosystems that can become unpredictable. Some activities known to


id: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)-1.md
category: reference
title: Cumulative effects (environment)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:47.221717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Land use change === Land use changes can have a range of direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Individual changes to land uses (e.g., clearing vegetation to build a home) may result in negligible impacts, but the accumulation of these changes across a region or landscape may result in major impacts. Land use changes can cause dramatic losses to high quality and intact wildlife habitat. Residential development and road construction, for example, directly result in fragmenting and reducing the quality of wildlife habitat. Other direct impacts on the ecosystem include noise, light, and air pollution from increased human and vehicle traffic and construction. During construction of new projects, native vegetation is often removed, which can result in changes to the composition of wildlife in the surrounding areas. Additionally, the amount of fencing typically increases with more development, which prevents many species from moving freely. Wildlife will change their behaviour as a result of changed land uses; for example, deer have been found to avoid developed areas as far as 1 kilometre. Indirectly, changes to land uses can result in urban growth, increased deforestation as a result of more accessibility, and degradation of soil stability as a result of


id: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)-2.md
category: reference
title: Cumulative effects (environment)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:47.221717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-0
summary:
Move away from project-specific environmental assessments: Cumulative effects are best understood and managed at a policy, program or sector level because of the need for long-term planning. Develop national environmental baseline databases: Agencies and organizations conducting research within nations share their data in a standardized approach that allows for information to be merged and used in various studies. Many practitioners use computer simulations to predict potential impacts of activities and land use change; therefore, an inventory of national environmental baseline data will strengthen the predictive ability of these models. Coordination among jurisdictional agencies: The fragmentation of environmental assessments between jurisdiction inadequately addresses cumulative effects problems. Coordination between agencies at various levels (national, regional, local) can help set environmental objectives, anticipate and plan for future development, and share best practices. Regional Environmental Assessment (REA): Cumulative effects of human activities on the environment are better understood at a regional scale. Because REAs study the effects of developments occurring within a region, they are more capable than conventional environmental assessments at analyzing cumulative effects. They can also help make more strategic decisions for future development by helping strengthen the understanding the environmental state at a regional scale. Considering cumulative effects early: It is


id: deltaic-lobe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltaic_lobe-0.md
category: reference
title: Deltaic lobe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltaic_lobe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:48.539575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deltaic-lobe-20260505-0
summary:
A deltaic lobe is a wetland formation that forms as a river empties water and sediment into other bodies of water. As the sediment builds up from this delta, the river will break away from its single channel and the mouth will be pushed outwards, forming a deltaic lobe. When the rate of water discharge and lobe progradation are sufficiently high, a river can form a deltaic lobe. A single deltaic lobe includes a network of shallow channels called distributaries that make up a distributary network that branches off from the mainstream of the river. These networks can be the blueprint for a future progradational deltaic lobe when the initial deltaic lobe is abandoned. As the deltaic lobe progresses, heavier and coarser sediments settle first. As heavier sediments are deposited at the top of the deltaic lobe, smaller and finer sediments get deposited out, creating the beginning of a deltaic fan. When the alluvium, the smallest sediment carried by the deltaic lobe, is deposited and new land is formed, the resulting formation is considered a delta. Lobes are important in forming river deltas over time by amalgamation of channel avulsions. When a lobe is prograded the frequency of avulsion decreases,


id: desakota-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desakota-0.md
category: reference
title: Desakota
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desakota
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:49.837611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: desakota-20260505-0
summary:
Desakota is a term used in urban geography to describe areas in the extended surroundings of large cities, in which urban and agricultural forms of land use and settlement coexist and are intensively intermingled. == Etymology == The term was coined by the urban researcher Terry McGee of the University of British Columbia around 1990. It comes from Indonesian desa "village" and kota "city". Desakota areas typically occur in Asia, especially South East Asia. Examples can be found in the urbanised regions of Java, the densely populated, delta-shaped areas on the peripheries of the Jakarta agglomeration ("Jabodetabek"), but also the extended metropolitan regions of Bangkok or Manila. Outside South East Asia, areas with comparable features have been described in mainland China, India, Nepal, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea. == Characteristics == Desakota areas are situated outside the periurban zones, from which daily commuting is easily possible, i.e. more than 30 to 50 km (19 to 31 mi) off the city centre. They often sprawl alongside arterial and communication roads, sometimes from one agglomeration to the next. They are characterised by high population density and intensive agricultural use (especially wet-rice cultivation), but differ from densely populated rural areas by more urban-like


id: disturbance-ecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Disturbance (ecology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:51.127287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disturbance-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
In ecology, a disturbance is a change in environmental conditions that causes a pronounced change in an ecosystem. Disturbances often act quickly and with great effect, to alter the physical structure or arrangement of biotic and abiotic elements. A disturbance can also occur over a long period of time and can impact the biodiversity within an ecosystem. Ecological disturbances include fires, flooding, storms, insect outbreaks, trampling, human presence, earthquakes, plant diseases, infestations, volcanic eruptions, impact events, etc. Not only invasive species can have a profound effect on an ecosystem, native species can also cause disturbance by their behavior. Disturbance forces can have profound immediate effects on ecosystems and can, accordingly, greatly alter the natural community’s population size or species richness. Because of these and the impacts on populations, disturbance determines the future shifts in dominance, various species successively becoming dominant as their life history characteristics, and associated life-forms, are exhibited over time. == Definition and types == The scale of disturbance ranges from events as small as a single tree falling, to as large as a mass extinction. Many natural ecosystems experience periodic disturbance that may broadly fall into a cyclical pattern. Ecosystems that form under these conditions are often


id: disturbance-ecology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Disturbance (ecology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:51.127287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disturbance-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Often, when disturbances occur naturally, they provide conditions that favor the success of different species over pre-disturbance organisms. This can be attributed to physical changes in the biotic and abiotic conditions of an ecosystem. Because of this, a disturbance force can change an ecosystem for significantly longer than the period over which the immediate effects persist. With the passage of time following a disturbance, shifts in dominance may occur with ephemeral herbaceous life-forms progressively becoming over topped by taller perennials herbs, shrubs and trees. However, in the absence of further disturbance forces, many ecosystems trend back toward pre-disturbance conditions. Long lived species and those that can regenerate in the presence of their own adults finally become dominant. Such alteration, accompanied by changes in the abundance of different species over time, is called ecological succession. Succession often leads to conditions that will once again predispose an ecosystem to disturbance. Pine forests in western North America provide a good example of such a cycle involving insect outbreaks. The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) plays an important role in limiting pine trees like lodgepole pine in forests of western North America. In 2004 the beetles affected more than 90,000 square kilometres. The beetles


id: disturbance-ecology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Disturbance (ecology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:51.127287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disturbance-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
== Importance == Biological diversity is dependent on natural disturbance. The success of a wide range of species from all taxonomic groups is closely tied to natural disturbance events such as fire, flooding, and windstorm. As an example, many shade-intolerant plant species rely on disturbances for successful establishment and to limit competition. Without this perpetual thinning, diversity of forest flora can decline, affecting animals dependent on those plants as well. A good example of this role of disturbance is in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in the western United States, where surface fires frequently thin existing vegetation allowing for new growth. If fire is suppressed, douglas fir (Pesudotsuga menziesii), a shade tolerant species, eventually replaces the pines. Douglas firs, having dense crowns, severely limit the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor. Without sufficient light new growth is severely limited. As the diversity of surface plants decreases, animal species that rely on them diminish as well. Fire, in this case, is important not only to the species directly affected but also to many other organisms whose survival depends on those key plants. Diversity is low in harsh environments because of the intolerance of all but opportunistic and highly resistant species


id: dpsir-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR-0.md
category: reference
title: DPSIR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:52.516306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dpsir-20260505-0
summary:
DPSIR (drivers, pressures, state, impact, and response model of intervention) is a causal framework used to describe the interactions between society and the environment. It seeks to analyze and assess environmental problems by bringing together various scientific disciplines, environmental managers, and stakeholders, and solve them by incorporating sustainable development. First, the indicators are categorized into "drivers" which put "pressures" in the "state" of the system, which in turn results in certain "impacts" that will lead to various "responses" to maintain or recover the system under consideration. It is followed by the organization of available data, and suggestion of procedures to collect missing data for future analysis. Since its formulation in the late 1990s, it has been widely adopted by international organizations for ecosystem-based study in various fields like biodiversity, soil erosion, and groundwater depletion and contamination. In recent times, the framework has been used in combination with other analytical methods and models, to compensate for its shortcomings. It is employed to evaluate environmental changes in ecosystems, identify the social and economic pressures on a system, predict potential challenges and improve management practices. The flexibility and general applicability of the framework make it a resilient tool that can be applied in


id: dpsir-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR-1.md
category: reference
title: DPSIR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:52.516306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dpsir-20260505-0
summary:
=== Impact === Impact refers to how changes in the state of the system affect human well-being. It is often measured in terms of damages to the environment or human health, like migration, poverty, and increased vulnerability to diseases, but can also be identified and quantified without any positive or negative connotation, by simply indicating a change in the environmental parameters. Impact can be ecologic (e.g.: reduction of wetlands, biodiversity loss), socio-economic (e.g.: reduced tourism), or a combination of both. Its definition may vary depending on the discipline and methodology applied. For instance, it refers to the effect on living beings and non-living domains of ecosystems in biosciences (e.g.: modifications in the chemical composition of air or water), whereas it is associated with the effects on human systems related to changes in the environmental functions in socio-economic sciences (e.g.: physical and mental health). === Response === Response refers to actions taken to correct the problems of the previous stages, by adjusting the drivers, reducing the pressure on the system, bringing the system back to its initial state, and mitigating the impacts. It can be associated uniquely with policy action, or to different levels of the society, including groups and/or individuals


id: dpsir-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR-2.md
category: reference
title: DPSIR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:52.516306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dpsir-20260505-0
summary:
== Applications == Despite its criticisms, DPSIR continues to be widely used to frame and assess environmental problems to identify appropriate responses. Its main objective is to support sustainable management of natural resources. DPSIR structures indicators related to the environmental problem addressed with reference to the political objectives and focuses on supposed causal relationships effectively, such that it appeals to policy actors. Some examples include the assessment of the pressure of alien species, evaluation of impacts of developmental activities on the coastal environment and society, identification of economic elements affecting global wildfire activities, and cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and gross domestic product (GDP) correction. To compensate for its shortcomings, DPSIR is also used in conjunction with several analytical methods and models. It has been used in conjunction with Multiple-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) for desertification risk management, with Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to study urban green electricity power, and with Tobit model to assess freshwater ecosystems. The framework itself has also been modified to assess specific systems, like DPSWR, which focuses on the impacts on human welfare alone, by shifting ecological impact to the state category. Another approach is a differential DPSIR (ΔDPSIR), which evaluates the changes in drivers, pressures and state


id: ecological-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:53.698459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-design-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological design or ecodesign is an approach to designing products and services that gives special consideration to the environmental impacts of a product over its entire lifecycle. Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan define it as "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes." Ecological design can also be defined as the process of integrating environmental considerations into design and development with the aim of reducing environmental impacts of products through their life cycle. The idea helps connect scattered efforts to address environmental issues in architecture, agriculture, engineering, and ecological restoration, among others. The term was first used by Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan in 1996. Ecological design was originally conceptualized as the "adding in "of environmental factor to the design process, but later turned to the details of eco-design practice, such as product system or individual product or industry as a whole. With the inclusion of life cycle modeling techniques, ecological design was related to the new interdisciplinary subject of industrial ecology. == Overview == As the whole product's life cycle should be regarded in an integrated perspective, representatives from advanced product design, production, marketing, purchasing, and project management


id: ecological-design-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecological design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:53.698459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-design-20260505-0
summary:
=== The rise and conceptualization of ecological design === Since the Industrial Revolution, design fields have been criticized for employing unsustainable practices. The architect-designer Victor Papanek (1923–1998) suggested that industrial design has murdered by creating new species of permanent garbage and by choosing materials and processes that pollute the air. Papanek states that the designer-planner shares responsibility for nearly all of our products and tools, and hence, nearly all of our environmental mistakes. To address these issues, R. Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983) demonstrated how design could play a central role in identifying and addressing major world problems. Fuller was concerned with the Earth's finite energy resources and natural resources, and how to integrate machine tools into efficient systems of industrial production. He promoted the principle of "ephemeralization", a term he coined himself to do "more with less" and increase technological efficiency. This concept is key in ecological design that works towards sustainability. In 1986, the design theorist Clive Dilnot argued that design must once again become a means of ordering the world rather than merely of shaping products. Despite rising ecological awareness in the 20th century, unsustainable design practices continued. The 1992 conference "The Agenda 21: The Earth Summit Strategy to


id: ecological-design-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design-2.md
category: reference
title: Ecological design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:53.698459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-design-20260505-0
summary:
== Urban Ecological Design == Related to ecological urbanism, Urban Ecological Design integrates aesthetic, social, and ecological concerns into an urban design framework that seeks to increase ecological functioning, sustainably generate and consume resources, and create resilient built environments and the infrastructure to maintain them. Urban ecological design is inherently interdisciplinary: it integrates multiple academic and professional fields including environmental studies, sociology, justice studies, urban ecology, landscape ecology, urban planning, architecture, and landscape architecture. Urban ecological design aims to solve issues related to multiple large-scale trends including the growth of urban areas, climate change, and biodiversity loss. Urban ecological design has been described as a "process model" contrasted to a normative approach that outlines principles of design. Urban ecological design blends a multitude of frameworks and approaches to create solutions to these issues by improving Urban resilience, sustainable use and management of resources, and integrating ecological processes into the urban landscape. == Applications in design == EcoMaterials, such as the use of local raw materials, are less costly and reduce the environmental costs of shipping, fuel consumption, and CO2 emissions generated from transportation. Certified green building materials, such as wood from sustainably managed forest plantations, with accreditations from companies such


id: ecological-design-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design-3.md
category: reference
title: Ecological design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:53.698459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-design-20260505-0
summary:
== Active systems == These systems use the principle of harnessing the power generated from renewable and inexhaustible sources of energy, for example; solar, wind, thermal, biomass, geothermal, and hydropower energy. Solar power is a widely known and used renewable energy source. An increase in technology has allowed solar power to be used in a wide variety of applications. Two types of solar panels generate heat into electricity. Thermal solar panels reduce or eliminate the consumption of gas and diesel, and reduce CO2 emissions. Photovoltaic panels convert solar radiation into an electric current which can power any appliance. This is a more complex technology and is generally more expensive to manufacture than thermal panels. Biomass is the energy source created from organic materials generated through a forced or spontaneous biological process. Geothermal energy is obtained by harnessing heat from the ground. This type of energy can be used to heat and cool homes. It eliminates dependence on external energy and generates minimum waste. It is also hidden from view as it is placed underground, making it more aesthetically pleasing and easier to incorporate in a design. Wind turbines are a useful application for areas without immediate conventional power sources, e.g.,


id: ecological-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:54.933512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological engineering uses ecology and engineering to predict, design, construct or restore, and manage ecosystems that integrate "human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both". == Origins, key concepts, definitions, and applications == Ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine. Its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. Ecological engineering was introduced by Howard Odum and others as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. The origins of ecological engineering are in Odum's work with ecological modeling and ecosystem simulation to capture holistic macro-patterns of energy and material flows affecting the efficient use of resources. Mitsch and Jorgensen summarized five basic concepts that differentiate ecological engineering from other approaches to addressing problems to benefit society and nature: 1) it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems; 2) it can be the field (or acid) test of ecological theories; 3) it relies on system approaches; 4) it conserves non-renewable energy sources; and 5) it supports ecosystem and biological conservation. Mitsch and Jorgensen were the first to define ecological


id: ecological-engineering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecological engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:54.933512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Ecosystem structure & function are determined by forcing functions of the system; Energy inputs to the ecosystems and available storage of the ecosystem is limited; Ecosystems are open and dissipative systems (not thermodynamic balance of energy, matter, entropy, but spontaneous appearance of complex, chaotic structure); Attention to a limited number of governing/controlling factors is most strategic in preventing pollution or restoring ecosystems; Ecosystem have some homeostatic capability that results in smoothing out and depressing the effects of strongly variable inputs; Match recycling pathways to the rates of ecosystems and reduce pollution effects; Design for pulsing systems wherever possible; Ecosystems are self-designing systems; Processes of ecosystems have characteristic time and space scales that should be accounted for in environmental management; Biodiversity should be championed to maintain an ecosystem's self design capacity; Ecotones, transition zones, are as important for ecosystems as membranes for cells; Coupling between ecosystems should be utilized wherever possible; The components of an ecosystem are interconnected, interrelated, and form a network; consider direct as well as indirect efforts of ecosystem development; An ecosystem has a history of development; Ecosystems and species are most vulnerable at their geographical edges; Ecosystems are hierarchical systems and are parts of a larger landscape;


id: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:56.107504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
The ecological footprint measures human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people and their economies. It tracks human demand on nature through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use to satisfy their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region, nation, or the world (biocapacity). Biocapacity is the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature. Therefore, the metric is a measure of human impact on the environment. As Ecological Footprint accounts measure to what extent human activities operate within the means of our planet, they are a central metric for sustainability. The metric is promoted by the Global Footprint Network which has developed standards to make results comparable. FoDaFo, supported by Global Footprint Network and York University are now providing the national assessments of Footprints and biocapacity. Footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual, regional, national or global scale. Both footprint and demands on biocapacity change every year with number of people, per person consumption, efficiency of production, and productivity of ecosystems. At a global scale, footprint assessments show how big humanity's demand is compared to what Earth can renew.


id: ecological-footprint-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecological footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:56.107504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological footprint accounting is built on the recognition that regenerative resources are the physically most limiting resources of all. Even fossil fuel use is far more limited by the amount of sequestration the biosphere can provide rather than by the amounts left underground. The same is true for ores and minerals, where the limiting factor is how much damage to the biosphere we are willing to accept to extract and concentrate those materials, rather than by how much of them is still left underground. Therefore, the focus of ecological footprint accounting is human competition for regenerative resources. The amount of the planet's regeneration, including how many resources are renewed and how much waste the planet can absorb, is dubbed biocapacity. Ecological footprints therefore track how much biocapacity is needed to provide for all the inputs that human activities demand. It can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a region, a nation, or humanity as a whole. Footprints can be split into consumption categories: food, housing, and goods and services. Or it can be organized by area types occupied: cropland, pasture, forests for forest products, forests for carbon sequestration, marine areas, etc. When


id: ecological-footprint-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint-2.md
category: reference
title: Ecological footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:56.107504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
According to Wackernagel and the organisation he has founded, the Earth has been in "overshoot", where humanity is using more resources and generating waste at a pace that the ecosystem cannot renew, since the 1970s. According to the Global Footprint Network's calculations, currently people use Earth's resources at approximately 171% of capacity. This implies that humanity is well over Earth's human carrying capacity at current levels of affluence. In 2025, Earth Overshoot Day advanced to 24 July. Earth Overshoot Day marks the date when humanity has exhausted nature's budget for the year. For the rest of the year, we are maintaining our ecological deficit by drawing down local resource stocks and accumulating carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Currently, more than 85% of humanity lives in countries that run an ecological deficit. This means their citizens use more resources and generate more waste and pollution than can be sustained by the biocapacity found within their national boundaries. In some cases, countries are running an ecological deficit because their per capita ecological footprints are higher than the hectares of bioproductive land available on average globally (this was estimated at <1.7 hectares per person in 2019). Examples include France, Germany and Saudi Arabia.


id: ecological-footprint-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint-3.md
category: reference
title: Ecological footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:56.107504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
In a 2012 study of consumers acting 'green' vs. 'brown' (where green people are "expected to have significantly lower ecological impact than 'brown' consumers"), "the research found no significant difference between the carbon footprints of green and brown consumers". A 2013 study concluded the same. == Reviews and critiques == Early criticism was published by van den Bergh and Verbruggen in 1999, which was updated in 2014. Their colleague Fiala published similar criticism in 2008. A comprehensive review commissioned by the Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission) was published in June 2008. The European Commission's review found the concept unique and useful for assessing progress on the EU's Resource Strategy. They also recommended further improvements in data quality, methodologies and assumptions. Blomqvist et al.. published a critical paper in 2013. It led to a reply from Rees and Wackernagel (2013), and a rejoinder by Blomqvist et al. (2013). An additional strand of critique is from Giampietro and Saltelli (2014), with a reply from Goldfinger et al., 2014, and a rejoinder by Giampietro and Saltelli (2014). A joint paper authored by the critical researchers (Giampietro and Saltelli) and proponents (various Global Footprint Network researchers) summarized the terms of the controversy in


id: ecological-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:57.302627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological classification or ecological typology is the classification of land or water into geographical units that represent variation in one or more ecological features. Traditional approaches focus on geology, topography, biogeography, soils, vegetation, climate conditions, living species, habitats, water resources, and sometimes also anthropic factors. Most approaches pursue the cartographical delineation or regionalisation of distinct areas for mapping and planning. == Approaches to classifications == Different approaches to ecological classifications have been developed in terrestrial, freshwater and marine disciplines. Traditionally these approaches have focused on biotic components (vegetation classification), abiotic components (environmental approaches) or implied ecological and evolutionary processes (biogeographical approaches). Ecosystem classifications are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of ecosystems: a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy (ecotope). === Vegetation classification === Vegetation is often used to classify terrestrial ecological units. Vegetation classification can be based on vegetation structure and floristic composition. Classifications based entirely on vegetation structure overlap with land cover mapping categories. Many schemes of vegetation classification are in use by the land, resource and environmental management agencies of different national and state jurisdictions. The International Vegetation Classification


id: ecological-succession-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological succession is the process of how species compositions change in an ecological community over time. The two main categories of ecological succession are primary succession and secondary succession. Primary succession occurs after the initial colonization of a newly created habitat with no living organisms. Secondary succession occurs after a disturbance such as fire, habitat destruction, or a natural disaster destroys a pre-existing community. Both consistent patterns and variability are observed in ecological succession. Theories of ecological succession identify different factors that help explain why plant communities change the way they do. Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. Ecological succession was first documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest Indiana by Henry Chandler Cowles during the late 19th century and remains a main ecological topic of study. Over time, the understanding of succession has changed to include a more complex cyclical model that argues organisms do not have fixed roles or relationships. Ecologists and conservationists have since used the theory of succession to aid in developing ecological restoration strategies. == Stages of succession == === Mechanisms === In 1916, Frederic Clements published a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a general ecological concept. The process


id: ecological-succession-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
Monoclimax or Climatic Climax Theory was advanced by Clements (1916) and recognizes only one climax whose characteristics are determined solely by climate (climatic climax). The processes of succession and modification of environment overcome the effects of differences in topography, parent material of the soil, and other factors. The whole area would be covered with uniform plant community. Communities other than the climax are related to it, and are recognized as subclimax, postclimax and disclimax. Polyclimax Theory was advanced by Tansley (1935). It proposes that the climax vegetation of a region consists of more than one vegetation climaxes controlled by soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal activity. Climax Pattern Theory was proposed by Whittaker (1953). The climax pattern theory recognizes a variety of climaxes governed by responses of species populations to biotic and abiotic conditions. According to this theory the total environment of the ecosystem determines the composition, species structure, and balance of a climax community. The environment includes the species' responses to moisture, temperature, and nutrients, their biotic relationships, availability of flora and fauna to colonize the area, chance dispersal of seeds and animals, soils, climate, and disturbance such as fire and wind. The nature of


id: ecological-succession-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-2.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disruptions === Two important perturbation factors today are human actions and climatic change. Additions to available species pools through range expansions and introductions can also continually reshape communities. == Types of succession == === Primary succession === The successional dynamics beginning with colonization of an area with little to no biotic factors is referred to as primary succession. This includes newly exposed rock or sand surfaces, lava flows, and newly exposed glacial tills. The stages of primary succession include pioneer species such as microorganisms, plants (lichens and mosses), grasses, smaller shrubs, and trees. Small animals move into the area when enough suitable habitat has been established. When it is a fully functioning ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage. === Secondary succession === Secondary succession follows severe disturbance or removal of a preexisting community that has remnants of the previous ecosystem. Secondary succession is strongly influenced by pre-disturbance conditions such as soil development, seed banks, remaining organic matter, and residual living organisms. Because of residual fertility and preexisting organisms, community change in early stages of secondary succession can be relatively rapid. Secondary succession is much more commonly observed and studied than primary succession. Particularly common types of secondary


id: ecological-succession-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-3.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
Succession of micro-organisms including fungi and bacteria occurring within a microhabitat is known as microsuccession or serule. In artificial bacterial meta-communities of motile strains on-chip it has been shown that ecological succession is based on a trade-off between colonization and competition abilities. To exploit locations or explore the landscape? Escherichia coli is a fugitive species, whereas Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a slower colonizer but superior competitor. Like in plants, microbial succession can occur in newly available habitats (primary succession) such as surfaces of plant leaves, recently exposed rock surfaces (i.e., glacial till) or animal infant guts, and also on disturbed communities (secondary succession) like those growing in recently dead trees, decaying fruits, or animal droppings. Microbial communities may also change due to products secreted by the bacteria present. Changes of pH in a habitat could provide ideal conditions for a new species to inhabit the area. In some cases the new species may outcompete the present ones for nutrients leading to the primary species demise. Changes can also occur by microbial succession with variations in water availability and temperature. Theories of macroecology have only recently been applied to microbiology and so much remains to be understood about this growing field. A


id: ecological-succession-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-4.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
=== Grassland succession === For a long time, grasslands were thought to be early stages of succession, dominated by weedy species and with little conservation value. However, comparing grasslands that form after recovery from long-term disruptions like agricultural tillage with ancient or "old-growth" grasslands has shown that grasslands are not inherently early-successional communities. Rather, grasslands undergo a centuries-long process of succession, and a grassland that is tilled up for agriculture or otherwise destroyed is estimated to take a minimum of 100 years, and potentially on average 1,400 years, to recover to its previous level of biodiversity. However, planting a high diversity of late-successional grassland species in a disturbed environment can accelerate the recovery of the soil's ability to sequester carbon, resulting in twice as much carbon storage as a naturally recovering grassland over the same period of time. Many grassland ecosystems are maintained by disturbance, such as fire and grazing by large animals, or else the process of succession will change them to forest or shrubland. In fact, it is debated whether fire should be considered disturbance at all for the North American prairie ecosystems, since it maintains, rather than disrupts, an equilibrium state. Many late-successional grassland species have adaptations


id: ecological-succession-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-5.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
An association is not an organism, scarcely even a vegetational unit, but merely a coincidence. Gleason's ideas were, in fact, more consistent with Cowles' original thinking about succession. About Clements' distinction between primary succession and secondary succession, Cowles wrote (1911): This classification seems not to be of fundamental value, since it separates such closely related phenomena as those of erosion and deposition, and it places together such unlike things as human agencies and the subsidence of land. === Eugene Odum === In 1969, Eugene Odum published The Strategy of Ecosystem Development, a paper that was highly influential to conservation and environmental restoration. Odum argued that ecological succession was an orderly progression toward a climax state where "maximum biomass and symbiotic function between organisms are maintained per unit energy flow." Odum highlighted how succession was not merely a change in the species composition of an ecosystem, but also created change in more complex attributes of the ecosystem, such as structure and nutrient cycling. === Modern era === A more rigorous, data-driven testing of successional models and community theory generally began with the work of Robert Whittaker and John Curtis in the 1950s and 1960s. Succession theory has since become less monolithic


id: ecological-thinning-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_thinning-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological thinning
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_thinning
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:00.005531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-thinning-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological thinning is a silvicultural technique used in forest management that involves cutting trees to improve functions of a forest other than timber production. Although thinning originated as a man-made forest management tool, aimed at increasing timber yields, the shift from production forests to multifunctional forests brought with it the cutting of trees to manipulate an ecosystem for various reasons, ranging from removing non-native species from a plot to removing poplars growing on a riverside beach aimed at recreational use. Since the 1970s, leaving the thinned trees on the forest floor has become an increasingly common policy: wood can be decomposed in a more natural fashion, playing an important role in increasing biodiversity by providing habitat to various invertebrates, birds and small mammals. Many fungi (e.g. Calocera viscosa) and mosses are saproxylic or epixylic as well (e.g. Marchantiophyta) – some moss species completing their entire life-cycle on a single log. Where trees are managed under a commercial regime, competition is reduced by removing adjacent stems that exhibit less favourable timber quality potential. When left in a natural state trees will "self-thin", but this process can be unreliable in some circumstances. Examples of this can be found in the Buxus–Ironbark forests


id: ecological-trap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_trap-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological trap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_trap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:01.305123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-trap-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological traps are scenarios in which rapid environmental change leads organisms to prefer to settle in poor-quality habitats. The concept stems from the idea that organisms that are actively selecting habitat must rely on environmental cues to help them identify high-quality habitat. If either the habitat quality or the cue changes so that one does not reliably indicate the other, organisms may be lured into poor-quality habitat. == Overview == Ecological traps are thought to occur when the attractiveness of a habitat increases disproportionately in relation to its value for survival and reproduction. The result is preference of falsely attractive habitat and a general avoidance of high-quality but less-attractive habitats. For example, indigo buntings typically nest in shrubby habitat or broken forest transitions between closed canopy forest and open field. Human activity can create 'sharper', more abrupt forest edges and buntings prefer to nest along these edges. However, these artificial sharp forest edges also concentrate the movement of predators which predate their nests. In this way, Buntings prefer to nest in highly altered habitats where their nest success is lowest. While the demographic consequences of this type of maladaptive habitat selection behavior have been explored in the context of the


id: ecosystem-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecosystem model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:02.620003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecosystem-model-20260505-0
summary:
An ecosystem model is an abstract, usually mathematical, representation of an ecological system (ranging in scale from an individual population, to an ecological community, or even an entire biome), which is studied to better understand the real system. Using data gathered from the field, ecological relationships—such as the relation of sunlight and water availability to photosynthetic rate, or that between predator and prey populations—are derived, and these are combined to form ecosystem models. These model systems are then studied in order to make predictions about the dynamics of the real system. Often, the study of inaccuracies in the model (when compared to empirical observations) will lead to the generation of hypotheses about possible ecological relations that are not yet known or well understood. Models enable researchers to simulate large-scale experiments that would be too costly or unethical to perform on a real ecosystem. They also enable the simulation of ecological processes over very long periods of time (i.e. simulating a process that takes centuries in reality, can be done in a matter of minutes in a computer model). Ecosystem models have applications in a wide variety of disciplines, such as natural resource management, ecotoxicology and environmental health, agriculture, and wildlife


id: ecosystem-model-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecosystem model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:02.620003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecosystem-model-20260505-0
summary:
=== Others === The theoretical ecologist Robert Ulanowicz has used information theory tools to describe the structure of ecosystems, emphasizing mutual information (correlations) in studied systems. Drawing on this methodology and prior observations of complex ecosystems, Ulanowicz depicts approaches to determining the stress levels on ecosystems and predicting system reactions to defined types of alteration in their settings (such as increased or reduced energy flow, and eutrophication. Conway's Game of Life and its variations model ecosystems where proximity of the members of a population are factors in population growth. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Khan, M. F.; Preetha, P.; Sharma, A. P. (2015). "Modelling the food web for assessment of the impact of stock supplementation in a reservoir ecosystem in India". Fisheries Management and Ecology. 22 (5): 359–370. Bibcode:2015FisME..22..359K. doi:10.1111/fme.12134. Panikkar, Preetha; Khan, M. Feroz; Desai, V. R.; Shrivastava, N. P.; Sharma, A. P. (2014). "Characterizing trophic interactions of a catfish dominated tropical reservoir ecosystem to assess the effects of management practices". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 98: 237–247. doi:10.1007/s10641-014-0255-6. S2CID 16992082. Panikkar, Preetha; Khan, M. Feroz (2008). "Comparative mass-balanced trophic models to assess the impact of environmental management measures in a tropical reservoir ecosystem".


id: edge-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: Edge effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:03.896436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edge-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== Definition == In ecology, edge effects are changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two or more habitats. These effects transpire since environmental conditions near habitat boundaries differ from those in the interior areas. Habitat boundaries experience conditions like increased wind exposure, light, and temperature fluctuations. Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit especially pronounced edge effects that may extend throughout the range. As the edge effects increase, the boundary habitat can support higher levels of biodiversity than adjacent ecosystems with increased habitat fragmentation because they serve as transitional zones for overlapping environmental conditions. In this way species from each of these two separate ecosystems are able to co-exist in the same general area along with species which have developed adaptations specific to the edge environment. == Biodiversity == Environmental conditions enable certain species of plants and animals to colonize habitat borders. Plants that colonize forest edges tend to be shade-intolerant. These plants also tend to be tolerant of dry conditions, such as shrubs and vines. Animals that colonize tend to be those that require two or more habitats, such as white-tailed and mule deer, elk, cottontail rabbits, blue jays, and robins. Some animals travel


id: edge-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: Edge effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:03.896436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edge-effects-20260505-0
summary:
Introduction of invasives/exotics Agriculture Higher severity and frequency of fires Companion animals (pets) acting as predators and competitors Trails Pollution, erosion Loss of foraging habitats Habitat fragmentation Deforestation and land use == Examples == When edges divide any natural ecosystem and the area outside the boundary is a disturbed or unnatural system, the natural ecosystem can be seriously affected for some distance in from the edge. In 1971, Odum wrote, 'The tendency for increased variety and diversity at community junctions is known as the edge effect... It is common knowledge that the density of songbirds is greater on estates, campuses and similar settings...as compared with tracts of uniform forest'. In a forest where the adjacent land has been cut, creating an open/forest boundary, sunlight and wind penetrate to a much greater extent, drying out the interior of the forest close to the edge and encouraging growth of opportunistic species there. Air temperature, vapor pressure deficit, soil moisture, light intensity and levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) all change at edges. === Amazon rainforest === One study estimated that the amount of Amazon Basin area modified by edge effects exceeded the area that had been cleared. "In studies of Amazon forest


id: environmental-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_data-0.md
category: reference
title: Environmental data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:05.191093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-data-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental data is that which is based on the measurement of environmental pressures, the state of the environment and the impacts on ecosystems. This is usually the "P", "S" and "I" of the DPSIR model where D = Drivers, P = Pressures, S = State, I = Impact, R = Response. Environmental data is typically generated by institutions executing environmental law or doing environmental research. Environment statistics are usually generated by statistical offices and are considered as environmental data, too. Socio-economic data and other statistical data (often the "D" and the "R" of the DPSIR model) are not considered as environmental data. However, they are to be integrated into comprehensive environmental assessments. Usually this kind of data is held by other institutions than the environmental administration (e.g. National Statistical Offices). The same is true for geo-basisdata, which are not considered as environmental data, but have to be available for environmental policies and environmental information. In recent years, environmental data has become increasingly important to investors, prompting Bloomberg L.P. to begin providing Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) data through their terminals. All data generated by the execution of environmental law are to be considered as environmental data. == Environmental Data Management


id: environmental-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Environmental engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:06.373158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental engineering is a professional engineering discipline related to environmental science. It encompasses broad scientific topics like chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, and mathematics to create solutions that will protect and also improve the health of living organisms and improve the quality of the environment. Environmental engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering and chemical engineering. While on the part of civil engineering, the Environmental Engineering is focused mainly on Sanitary Engineering. Environmental engineering applies scientific and engineering principles to improve and maintain the environment to protect human health, protect nature's beneficial ecosystems, and improve environmental-related enhancement of the quality of human life. Environmental engineers devise solutions for wastewater management, water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health. They design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems, and design plans to prevent waterborne diseases and improve sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas. They evaluate hazardous-waste management systems to evaluate the severity of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. They implement environmental engineering law, as in assessing the environmental impact of proposed construction projects. Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the environment, addressing local


id: environmental-engineering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering-1.md
category: reference
title: Environmental engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:06.373158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Many universities offer environmental engineering programs through either the department of civil engineering or chemical engineering and also including electronic projects to develop and balance the environmental conditions. Environmental engineers in a civil engineering program often focus on hydrology, water resources management, bioremediation, and water and wastewater treatment plant design. Environmental engineers in a chemical engineering program tend to focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies, and separation processes. Some subdivisions of environmental engineering include natural resources engineering and agricultural engineering. Courses for students fall into a few broad classes: Mechanical engineering courses oriented towards designing machines and mechanical systems for environmental use such as water and wastewater treatment facilities, pumping stations, garbage segregation plants, and other mechanical facilities. Environmental engineering or environmental systems courses oriented towards a civil engineering approach in which structures and the landscape are constructed to blend with or protect the environment. Environmental chemistry, sustainable chemistry or environmental chemical engineering courses oriented towards understanding the effects of chemicals in the environment, including any mining processes, pollutants, and also biochemical processes. Environmental technology courses oriented towards producing electronic or electrical graduates capable of developing devices and artifacts able to monitor, measure, model and control


id: environmental-impact-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Environmental impact design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:07.741869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-impact-design-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental impact design (EID) is the design of development projects so as to achieve positive environmental objectives that benefit the environment and raise the stock of public goods. == Examples == Examples of EID include: Habitat creation as a result of afforestation projects that can "expand forest resources and reduce the gap between timber production and consumption." An example is the China Afforestation Project. Coastal management projects that strengthens biodiversity and promotes sustainable use of biological resources. Flood defense projects that improve livability in flood-prone areas by reducing future losses. Flood preparedness and mitigation systems can aid in handling periodic flooding. Bridge designs such as concrete bridges that are sustainable, recyclable, durable and can be built quickly, reducing greenhouse gas emissions caused by traffic delays and construction equipment. == Types == Environmental impact design impacts can be broken down into three types: Direct impacts: caused by the project and building process, such as land consumption, erosion and loss of vegetation. Indirect impacts: side-effects of a project such as degradation of surface water quality from erosion of land cleared as a result of a project. Over time, indirect impacts can affect larger geographical areas. Cumulative impacts: synergistic effects such as the


id: escaped-plant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaped_plant-0.md
category: reference
title: Escaped plant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaped_plant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:08.970480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escaped-plant-20260505-0
summary:
An escaped plant is a cultivated plant that has escaped from agriculture, forestry or garden cultivation and has become naturalized in the wild. Usually not native to an area, escaped plants may become invasive. Therefore, escaped plants are the subject of research in invasion biology. All escaped plants belong to the so-called hemerochoric plants. This term is used across the board for plants that have been introduced directly or indirectly by humans. The term also includes the unintentionally introduced plants that were introduced through seed pollution (speirochoric) or through unintentional transport (agochoric). Some ornamental plants have characteristics which allow them to escape cultivation and become weedy in alien ecosystems with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences. Escaped garden plants may be called garden escapes or escaped ornamentals. Sometimes, their origins can even be traced back to botanical gardens. == Dispersal == Plants may escape from cultivation in various ways, including the dumping of green waste in bushland and road reserves and by birds or other animals eating the fruits or seeds and dispersing them. Others are accidental hitchhikers that escape on ships, vehicles, and equipment. Plants can also escape through sending stolons (runners), as stolons are capable of independent growth in


id: escaped-plant-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaped_plant-1.md
category: reference
title: Escaped plant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaped_plant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:08.970480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escaped-plant-20260505-0
summary:
Agriophyte: Refers to plant species that have invaded natural or near-natural vegetation and can survive there without human intervention. Established in their new natural habitats, they remain part of natural vegetation even after human influence has ceased, and are independent of humans in their continued existence. Examples in Central Europe are waterweed, Douglas fir and Japanese knotweed Alien: A non native species introduced by man. Archaeophyte: An alien species introduced by human activity long ago, such as the sweet chestnuts introduced by the Romans in Germany and now part of natural vegetation, and the opium and field poppies. Epecophyte: Species of recent appearance, usually numerous and constant in the country, but confined to artificial habitats, such as meadows and ruderal vegetation. They are dependent on humans for existence that their habitats require constant renewal. Ephemerophyte: Species that are only introduced inconsistently, that die briefly from culture or that would disappear again without constant replenishment of seeds. In other words, they can establish themselves temporarily, but they are not in a position to meet all the conditions relating to the territory. A cold winter, or an unusual drought, can lead to the death of these plants; most of the time, they


id: fire-ecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-0.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Fire ecology is a scientific discipline concerned with the effects of fire on natural ecosystems. Many ecosystems, particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments use fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only endangers these species, but also the animals that depend upon them. Wildfire suppression campaigns in the United States have historically molded public opinion to believe that wildfires are harmful to nature. Ecological research has shown, however, that fire is an integral component in the function and biodiversity of many natural habitats, and that the organisms within these communities have adapted to withstand, and even to exploit, natural wildfire. More generally, fire is now regarded as a 'natural disturbance', similar to flooding, windstorms, and landslides, that has driven the evolution of species and controls the characteristics of ecosystems. Fire suppression, in combination with other human-caused environmental changes, may have resulted in unforeseen consequences for natural ecosystems. Some large wildfires in the United States have been blamed on years of fire suppression and the continuing expansion of people into fire-adapted ecosystems as well as climate change. Land


id: fire-ecology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-1.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Plants have evolved many adaptations to cope with fire. Of these adaptations, one of the best-known is likely pyriscence, where maturation and release of seeds is triggered, in whole or in part, by fire or smoke; this behaviour is often erroneously called serotiny, although this term truly denotes the much broader category of seed release activated by any stimulus. All pyriscent plants are serotinous, but not all serotinous plants are pyriscent (some are necriscent, hygriscent, xeriscent, soliscent, or some combination thereof). On the other hand, germination of seed activated by trigger is not to be confused with pyriscence; it is known as physiological dormancy. In chaparral communities in Southern California, for example, some plants have leaves coated in flammable oils that encourage an intense fire. This heat causes their fire-activated seeds to germinate (an example of dormancy) and the young plants can then capitalize on the lack of competition in a burnt landscape. Other plants have smoke-activated seeds, or fire-activated buds. The cones of the Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) are, conversely, pyriscent: they are sealed with a resin that a fire melts away, releasing the seeds. Many plant species, including the shade-intolerant giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), require fire to make


id: fire-ecology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-2.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
== Fire and ecological succession == Fire behavior is different in every ecosystem and the organisms in those ecosystems have adapted accordingly. One sweeping generality is that in all ecosystems, fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, with areas ranging from those having just been burned to those that have been untouched by fire for many years. This is a form of ecological succession in which a freshly burned site will progress through continuous and directional phases of colonization following the destruction caused by the fire. Ecologists usually characterize succession through the changes in vegetation that successively arise. After a fire, the first species to re-colonize will be those with seeds are already present in the soil, or those with seeds are able to travel into the burned area quickly. These are generally fast-growing herbaceous plants that require light and are intolerant of shading. As time passes, more slowly growing, shade-tolerant woody species will suppress some of the herbaceous plants. Conifers are often early successional species, while broad leaf trees frequently replace them in the absence of fire. Hence, many conifer forests are themselves dependent upon recurring fire. Both natural and human fires affect all ecosystems from peatlands to


id: fire-ecology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-3.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
== Species Richness == Species richness is at its peak post-fire but steadily declines over time. Post-fire endurance for certain species allows for a variety of different life histories to exist at the same time. Fires result in a change of biodiversity by reducing the population for the promotion of growth for species. Disturbances due to fire allow for an alternative recovery process for certain animal populations, which can result in recolonization and population growth. Post-fire has decreased the abundance of species and the result of extinction. The effects of burning depend on the size, timing, and severity of the burn. The increased frequency and the size of a fire can impact how a population recovers between other fire events, which causes a patch between population distributions . Fires have been used to alter species composition, such as suppressing species that are invasive. == Examples of fire in different ecosystems == === Forests === Mild to moderate fires burn in the forest understory, removing small trees and herbaceous groundcover. High-severity fires will burn into the crowns of the trees and kill most of the dominant vegetation. Crown fires may require support from ground fuels to maintain the fire in the


id: fire-ecology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-4.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Grasslands === Grasslands burn more readily than forest and shrub ecosystems, with the fire moving through the stems and leaves of herbaceous plants and only lightly heating the underlying soil, even in cases of high intensity. In most grassland ecosystems, fire is the primary mode of decomposition, making it crucial in the recycling of nutrients. In some grassland systems, fire only became the primary mode of decomposition after the disappearance of large migratory herds of browsing or grazing megafauna driven by predator pressure. In the absence of functional communities of large migratory herds of herbivorous megafauna and attendant predators, overuse of fire to maintain grassland ecosystems may lead to excessive oxidation, loss of carbon, and desertification in susceptible climates. Some grassland ecosystems respond poorly to fire. ==== North American grasslands ==== In North America fire-adapted invasive grasses such as Bromus tectorum contribute to increased fire frequency which exerts selective pressure against native species. This is a concern for grasslands in the Western United States. In less arid grassland presettlement fires worked in concert with grazing to create a healthy grassland ecosystem as indicated by the accumulation of soil organic matter significantly altered by fire. The tallgrass prairie ecosystem in


id: fire-ecology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-5.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Restoration ecology is the name given to an attempt to reverse or mitigate some of the changes that humans have caused to an ecosystem. Controlled burning is one tool that is currently receiving considerable attention as a means of restoration and management. Applying fire to an ecosystem may create habitats for species that have been negatively impacted by fire suppression, or fire may be used as a way of controlling invasive species without resorting to herbicides or pesticides. However, there is debate as to what land managers should aim to restore their ecosystems to, especially as to whether it be pre-human or pre-European conditions. Native American use of fire, along with natural fire, historically maintained the diversity of the savannas of North America. === U.S. Oak Savannas and Oak Woodlands === Oak savannas and oak woodlands historically expanded across the Midwest, creating a transitional zone between the eastern deciduous forested United States and the Great Plains tall grass prairie region. However, due to human impact, these ecosystems are now some of the most degraded ecosystems in the world. Roughly around <1% of original savanna habitats remain in the United States, making conservation and preservation of these habitats extremely important. Management


id: fire-ecology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-6.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Finnish boreal forests === The decline of habitat area and quality has caused many species populations to be red-listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. According to a study on forest management of Finnish boreal forests, improving the habitat quality of areas outside reserves can help in conservation efforts of endangered deadwood-dependent beetles. These beetles and various types of fungi both need dead trees in order to survive. Old growth forests can provide this particular habitat. However, most Fennoscandian boreal forested areas are used for timber and therefore are unprotected. The use of controlled burning and tree retention of a forested area with deadwood was studied and its effect on the endangered beetles. The study found that after the first year of management the number of species increased in abundance and richness compared to pre-fire treatment. The abundance of beetles continued to increase the following year in sites where tree retention was high and deadwood was abundant. The correlation between forest fire management and increased beetle populations shows a key to conserving these red-listed species. === Australian eucalypt forests === Much of the old growth eucalypt forest in Australia is designated for conservation. Management of these forests


id: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms-0.md
category: reference
title: Flexible mechanisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:11.435428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-0
summary:
Flexible mechanisms, also sometimes known as Flexibility Mechanisms or Kyoto Mechanisms, refers to emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation. These are mechanisms defined under the Kyoto Protocol intended to lower the overall costs of achieving its emissions targets. These mechanisms enable Parties to achieve emission reductions or to remove carbon from the atmosphere cost-effectively in other countries. While the cost of limiting emissions varies from region to region, the benefit for the atmosphere is in principle the same, wherever the action is taken. Much of the negotiations on the mechanisms has been concerned with ensuring their integrity. There was concern that the mechanisms do not confer a "right to emit" on Annex 1 Parties or lead to exchanges of fictitious credits which would undermine the Protocol's environmental goals. The negotiators of the Protocol and the Marrakesh Accords therefore sought to design a system that fulfilled the cost-effectiveness promise of the mechanisms, while addressing concerns about environmental integrity and equity. To participate in the mechanisms, Annex 1 Parties must meet the following eligibility requirements: They must have ratified the Kyoto Protocol. They must have calculated their assigned amount, as referred to in Articles 3.7 and 3.8 and Annex


id: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms-1.md
category: reference
title: Flexible mechanisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:11.435428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-0
summary:
== Carbon market == Kyoto provides for a 'cap and trade' system which imposes national caps on the emissions of annex I countries. On average, this cap requires countries to reduce their emissions by 5.2% below their 1990 baseline over the 2008 to 2012 period. Although these caps are national-level commitments, in practice, most countries will devolve their emissions targets to individual industrial entities, such as a power plant or paper factory. One example of a 'cap and trade' system is the 'EU ETS'. Other schemes may follow suit in time. The ultimate buyers of credits are often individual companies that expect emissions to exceed their quota, their assigned allocation units, AAUs or 'allowances' for short. Typically, they will purchase credits directly from another party with excess allowances, from a broker, from a JI/CDM developer, or on an exchange. National governments, some of whom may not have devolved responsibility for meeting Kyoto obligations to industry, and that have a net deficit of allowances, will buy credits for their own account, mainly from JI/CDM developers. These deals are occasionally done directly through a national fund or agency, as in the case of the Dutch government's ERUPT programme, or via collective funds


id: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms-2.md
category: reference
title: Flexible mechanisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:11.435428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-0
summary:
One of the main arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that of cost-effectiveness. The principle of cost-effectiveness is included in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The economic basis of costs being reduced through flexibility is discussed in emissions trading#Applying the economic theory and economics of climate change mitigation#Flexibility. A number of concerns were raised about flexibility in the lead-up to negotiations of the Kyoto Protocol. Two examples of issues raised were that of domestic emissions reductions in the developed countries, and the issue of developed countries effectively taking up all the low-cost emissions reductions in developing countries. The idea behind the first view was that most emissions reductions should occur first in the developed countries - this would encourage the development of low-carbon energy technologies which could then be taken up later on by developing counties. The second idea was that all of the low-cost emissions reductions in developing countries would, in effect, be stolen by the developed countries. Thus, when it came time for developing countries to take on their own commitments to reduce emissions, it would be more costly for them to do so. Differing views on flexibility were summarized in the


id: flood-meadow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood-meadow-0.md
category: reference
title: Flood-meadow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood-meadow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:12.702032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flood-meadow-20260505-0
summary:
A flood-meadow (or floodmeadow) is an area of grassland or pasture beside a river, subject to seasonal flooding. Flood-meadows are distinct from water-meadows in that the latter are artificially created and maintained, with flooding controlled on a seasonal and even daily basis. == Examples == Austria: Hohenau an der March Bosnia and Herzegovina: List of karst polje in Bosnia and Herzegovina Estonia: Emajõe flood-meadow Kasari, Matsalu National Park Finland: Mattholmsfladan, Pargas Levänluhta, Isokyrö Ireland: Shannon Callows United Kingdom: Angel & Greyhound Meadow, Oxford Christchurch Meadows, Reading Christ Church Meadow, Oxford Mill Meadows, Henley-on-Thames Port Meadow, Oxford Mottey Meadows, Staffordshire Riverside Park, St Neots, Cambridgeshire == References == == See also == Coastal plain Field Flooded grasslands and savannas Plain Prairie Riparian zone Wet meadow Floodplain Berm


id: forest-landscape-integrity-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index-0.md
category: reference
title: Forest Landscape Integrity Index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:14.070981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forest-landscape-integrity-index-20260505-0
summary:
The Forest Landscape Integrity Index (FLII) is a global, map-based indicator of forest condition that estimates the degree of anthropogenic modification of forest ecosystems. Developed by an international research team led by the Wildlife Conservation Society, the index integrates spatial data on observed and inferred human pressures and loss of forest connectivity to produce a continuous score from 0 (most modified) to 10 (least modified) for each ~300 m forest pixel. In the study's global map for early 2019, 40.5% of forest area (about 17.4 million km2) was classified as high integrity (FLII ≥ 9.6), 33.9% (14.6 million km2) as medium integrity and 25.6% (11 million km2) as low integrity (FLII ≤ 6.0). High-integrity forests were concentrated in boreal regions of Russia and Canada and in large tropical forest blocks such as the Amazon, Central Africa and New Guinea. FLII has been used in forest-condition monitoring and referenced in policy and research contexts, including discussions of ecosystem integrity indicators under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. == Forest integrity == In ecology, ecological integrity (sometimes ecosystem integrity) refers to the extent to which an ecosystem's structure, species composition and ecological processes fall within their natural range of variation. In forests, integrity


id: fuel-ladder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_ladder-0.md
category: reference
title: Fuel ladder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_ladder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:15.286040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fuel-ladder-20260505-0
summary:
A fuel ladder or ladder fuel is a firefighting term for live or dead vegetation that allows a fire to climb up from the landscape or forest floor into the tree canopy. Common ladder fuels include tall grasses, shrubs, and tree branches, living and dead. The removal of fuel ladders is part of defensible space 'firescaping' practices. == Fire precautions == Potential fuel ladders should be removed to reduce the risk of fire bridging the gap to the canopy. To remove the ladder requires pruning any low limbs up to a minimum of 2.5 m (8 ft), and potentially as high as 5 m (16 ft). The required height depends on how low the branch tips hang, the steepness of slope, and the height and spacing of other nearby vegetation. The desired result is to create a situation in which a low-burning fire could burn to the trunk of a tree, which is protected by its bark, without having thinner, more flammable branches, leaves or needles within easy reach of the fire. == Other fuel ladders == Apart from tree limbs, anything that would help that fire move up into the tree canopy is a fuel ladder. This includes shrubs


id: genetic-pollution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution-0.md
category: reference
title: Genetic pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:16.461995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
Genetic pollution is a term for uncontrolled gene flow into wild populations. It is defined as "the dispersal of contaminated altered genes from genetically engineered organisms to natural organisms, esp. by cross-pollination", but has come to be used in some broader ways. It is related to the population genetics concept of gene flow, and genetic rescue, which is genetic material intentionally introduced to increase the fitness of a population. It is called genetic pollution when it negatively impacts the fitness of a population, such as through outbreeding depression and the introduction of unwanted phenotypes which can lead to extinction. Conservation biologists and conservationists have used the term to describe gene flow from domestic, feral, and non-native species into wild indigenous species, which they consider undesirable. They promote awareness of the effects of introduced invasive species that may "hybridize with native species, causing genetic pollution". In the fields of agriculture, agroforestry and animal husbandry, genetic pollution is used to describe gene flows between genetically engineered species and wild relatives. The use of the word "pollution" is meant to convey the idea that mixing genetic information is bad for the environment, but because the mixing of genetic information can lead to a


id: genetic-pollution-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution-1.md
category: reference
title: Genetic pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:16.461995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
=== Domestic populations === Increased contact between wild and domesticated populations of organisms can lead to reproductive interactions that are detrimental to the wild population's ability to survive. A wild population is one that lives in natural areas and is not regularly looked after by humans. This contrasts with domesticated populations that live in human controlled areas and are regularly, and historically, in contact with humans. Genes from domesticated populations are added to wild populations as a result of reproduction. In many crop populations this can be the result of pollen traveling from farmed crops to neighboring wild plants of the same species. For farmed animals, this reproduction may happen as the result of escaped or released animals. A popular example of this phenomenon is the gene flow between wolves and domesticated dogs. The New York Times cites, from the words of biologist Luigi Boitani, "Although wolves and dogs have always lived in close contact in Italy and have presumably mated in the past, the newly worrisome element, in Dr. Boitani's opinion, is the increasing disparity in numbers, which suggests that interbreeding will become fairly common. As a result, 'genetic pollution of the wolf gene pool might reach irreversible levels',


id: genetic-pollution-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution-2.md
category: reference
title: Genetic pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:16.461995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
==== Preventive measures ==== Since 2005 there has existed a GM Contamination Register, launched for GeneWatch UK and Greenpeace International that records all incidents of intentional or accidental release of organisms genetically modified using modern techniques. Genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs) were developed for the purpose of property protection, but could be beneficial in preventing the dispersal of transgenes. GeneSafe technologies introduced a method that became known as "Terminator." This method is based on seeds that produce sterile plants. This would prevent movement of transgenes into wild populations as hybridization would not be possible. However, this technology has never been deployed as it disproportionately negatively affects farmers in developing countries, who save seeds to use each year (whereas in developed countries, farmers generally buy seeds from seed production companies). Physical containment has also been utilized to prevent the escape of transgenes. Physical containment includes barriers such as filters in labs, screens in greenhouses, and isolation distances in the field. Isolation distances have not always been successful, such as transgene escape from an isolated field into the wild in herbicide-resistant bentgrass Agrostis stolonifera. Another suggested method that applies specifically to protection traits (e.g. pathogen resistance) is mitigation. Mitigation involves linking the


id: global-stocktake-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_stocktake-0.md
category: reference
title: Global stocktake
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_stocktake
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:18.932669+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-stocktake-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Stocktake is a fundamental component of the Paris Agreement which is used to monitor its implementation and evaluate the collective progress made in achieving the agreed goals. The Global Stocktake thus links implementation of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) with the overarching goals of the Paris Agreement, and has the ultimate aim of raising climate ambition. The synthesis report was published in 2023 before COP28. == Background == The Paris Agreement marked a turning point in international climate policy. Binding under international law and global in scope, it not only sets out ambitious global goals, such as limiting the rise in average global temperature to well below 2 °C compared with pre-industrial levels, but also introduces an innovative architecture that gives Parties considerable leeway in setting their own climate change targets. In contrast to common practice under international environmental law, states' individual contributions are not negotiated at international level and achievement of set targets is not binding. To ensure that the targets are implemented nonetheless, international-level review and transparency mechanisms have been made integral to the Agreement. == Role as part of the Paris regime == The Paris Agreement requires its signatory states (known as Parties) to regularly formulate


id: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of invasion biology terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:20.274861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
summary:
The need for a clearly defined and consistent invasion biology terminology has been acknowledged by many sources. Invasive species, or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats. Invasion biology is the study of these organisms and the processes of species invasion. The terminology in this article contains definitions for invasion biology terms in common usage today, taken from accessible publications. References for each definition are included. Terminology relates primarily to invasion biology terms with some ecology terms included to clarify language and phrases on linked articles. == Introduction == Definitions of "invasive non-indigenous species have been inconsistent", which has led to confusion both in literature and in popular publications (Williams and Meffe 2005). Also, many scientists and managers feel that there is no firm definition of non-indigenous species, native species, exotic species, "and so on, and ecologists do not use the terms consistently." (Shrader-Frechette 2001) Another question asked is whether current language is likely to promote "effective and appropriate action" towards invasive species through cohesive language (Larson 2005). Biologists today spend more time and effort on invasive species work because of the rapid spread, economic


id: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of invasion biology terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:20.274861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
summary:
In general, the control of the numbers of one organism as a result of natural predation by another or others. Specifically, the human use of natural predators for the control of pests or weeds. Also applied to the introduction of large numbers of sterilized males of the pest species, whose matings result in the laying of infertile eggs (Allaby 1998). The release of one species to control another (Carlton 2001). The management of weeds using introduced herbivores (often insects) as biological control agents (Booth et al. 2003). Biological invasion or bioinvasion A broad term for both human-assisted introductions and natural range expansions (Carlton 2001). Biological diversity (See biodiversity) Used to describe species richness, ecosystem complexity, and genetic variation (Allaby 1998). Biological control (See Biological pest control) Control method involving a biological control agent that is a natural enemy of a target pest (Heutte and Bella 2003). Bioregion (See Ecoregion) A biological subdivision of the earth's surface delineated by the flora and fauna of the region (Allaby 1998). Biota The organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, algae, etc.) of a specific region or period, or the total aggregation of organisms in the biosphere (Allaby 1998). Casual species (see adventive) This term is


id: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of invasion biology terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:20.274861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
summary:
A synonym for indigenous species A species that occurs naturally in an area, and has not been introduced by humans either intentionally or unintentionally (Allaby 2005). In North America, a species established before the year 500 (Jeschke and Strayer 2005) Native weed (invasive native) A species that is native to an area or bioregion that has increased in number dramatically. In cases of disturbance or change to a landscape, a ruderal species can increase in cover and compete with other native plants, threatening the diversity of a community. In other cases, landscape level changes can cause the increase of the population of a species, such as white-tailed deer in the northeastern part of the United States, which are at the highest levels historically and cause damage to humans, crops, and structures, suffer high disease levels, and pose threats to humans through interactions on roads (Foster and Sandberg 2004). Naturalized species (See Introduced species) A species that was originally introduced from a different country, a different bioregion, or a different geographical area, but now behaves like a native species in that it maintains itself without further human intervention and now grows and reproduces in native communities (Allaby 1998). A non native


id: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of invasion biology terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:20.274861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
summary:
Time between introduction, establishment, and spread of a species (Jeschke and Strayer 2005). The time between when a species is introduced and when its population growth explodes (Booth et al. 2003). Unintentional introduction An introduction of nonindigenous species that occurs as the result of activities other than the purposeful or intentional introduction of the species involved, such as the transport of nonindigenous species in ballast or in water used to transport fish, mollusks or crustaceans for aquaculture or other purposes (EPA 1990). Vector (See Vector (epidemiology)) The physical means or agent by which a species is transported, such as ballast water, ships' hulls, boats, hiking boats, cars, vehicles, packing material, or soil in nursery stock (Carlton 2001). See also pathway. Weed A plant in the wrong place, being one that occurs opportunistically on land or in water that has been disturbed by human activities (see also ruderal species and native weed or invasive native), or on cultivated land, where it competes for nutrients, water, sunlight, or other resources with cultivated plants such as food crops. Under different circumstances the weed plant itself may be cultivated for different purposes (Allaby 1998). A native or introduced species that has a perceived negative


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-0.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
Gronda lagunare (lagunar eaves) is a term used to indicate the area of the Lagoon of Venice by its mainland shore. The term is derived from the fact that it receives the waters from the rivers and streams which flow into the lagoon from the drainage basin of the plain of the mainland by the lagoon. It is also reached by the tidal flows form he sea. , it is meant to be a belt that forms a transition area between the open lagoon and the mainland. Since it is between the inflow of freshwater form rivers and sea saltwater, in its natural state it would be an area with freshwater wetlands, barene (saltmarshes), velme (mudflats), and lagunar channels which forms a transitional belt between the mainland and the open lagoon rather than forming a fixed boundary, with its conformation changing according to the interplay of the hydrodynamic forces of the lagoon and their hydrodynamic equilibrium. However, this complex hydrologic and environmental system has undergone dramatic changes, both natural and, especially, man-made and has by and large lost it character as a transitional belt. == Hydrologic characteristics of the lagoon and the gronda lagunare == The drainage basin is a


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-1.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
Since the instability of the hydrogeography of the gronda lagunare, which could lead to floods, silting, stagnation of water and the development of wetlands, the Republic of Venice carried out many river diversion works over several centuries. Venice's main concern was to protect the lagoon form silting, which could hamper the navigation of the lagunar channels and the gronda rivers which provided communication routes for her trade with the mainland. Concern about floods in the mainland countryside was not a high priority. As a result, Venice created diversion canals close to the edge to the lagoon as it was cheaper than carrying out such works further inland. Effective flood prevention would have required catching the water of overflowing watercourses further upstream. In addition, the canals further inland would have had a greater incline, guaranteeing a good pace of water flow which would have prevented floods and water stagnation. Instead, canals by the lagoon had an insufficient incline, which meant that they could easily overflow and create floods and pools of stagnant water and wetlands, worsening the hydrologic situation of the gronda lagunare. The Osellino canal was dug between 1510 and 1520 to partially divert the waters of the River Marzenego


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-2.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
The river diversions and the resulting loss of freshwater input into the lagoon also led to a reduction in the areas of freshwater wetlands in the gronda lagunare.


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-3.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
=== The "stiffening" of the gronda lagunare === In Italian the term "stiffening" of a shore or bank refers to the construction of embankments. Such works create rigid structures which make the shore or bank rigid compared to a natural state and constrains its waters. The term comes from the word rigido, rigid. In relation to the gronda lagunare, it indicates the development of artificial shores along the gronda and, through this, the creation of a fixed lagunar boundary which prevents natural fluctuations of its edge with a consequent loss of gronda's character as a transitional area between the open lagoon and the mainland with lagunar deltas and wetlands. Much of the gronda lagunare has been "stiffened" by the above-mentioned river diversions carried out by the Republic of Venice (particularly with the Taglio del Sile, Osellino and Taglio Novissimo canals). It has been accentuated by 20th century developments. This situation started to draw attention in the 1970s, when scientists determined that this exacerbates the risk of flooding in Venice and elsewhere in the lagoon. The river delta which was created in the southern part of the lagoon by the Brenta Nova canal and the nearby areas saw extensive land reclamations


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-4.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
=== Valli da Pesca === The term valli da pesca (sing. valle), or just valli/valle, translates into "fishing valleys." It refers to fish farms. Although in Italian valle means valley, the term originates from the Latin word vallum, which means rampant. This term came into use centuries ago because the valli are separated from the rest of the lagoon by banks. They are located along the gronda lagunare in the southern and northern parts of the lagoon. There are 33 valli which cover c. 92 km2 of the waters of the lagoon (1/6, 17% of the total surface). There are two types, valli with mobile banks and valli with fixed banks. The former was the type which was used for centuries. It started being replaced by the latter from the 19th century. Mobile banks were made of poles, reed mats and rods. In this kind of valle the inner water level was dependent on that of the water outside it. The banks were moved to open the valli to the outside waters when there was a need to raise the inner water level. Fixed banks are earthworks and the valle's water levels are regulated through rolling shutter gates. Since these


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-5.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
The opening of the valli da pesca can also be of great value for the regeneration of the gronda lagunare areas by restoring it as a transition belt with the formation of wetlands and reed beds. In the past 50–60 years there has been an increased appreciation of the value and benefits of wetlands and reed beds. These can improve the geomorphology of the gronda lagunare and also its ecology as they provide an ideal habitat for diverse fauna and flora. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands underlines the ecologic and economic value of wetlands. It notes that wetlands ecosystems can have some of the highest ecosystem service values compared to other ecosystems due to their importance in clean water provision, natural hazards mitigation and carbon storage. A large proportion of the values come from their water-related services. Of particular value to the Lagoon of Venice are: Coastal protection by attenuating and/or dissipating waves and by buffering winds, thus regulating floods and the impact of storms Erosion control by providing sediment stabilisation and soil retention, thus contributing to land formation and increasing resilience to storms Flood protection by regulating and controlling water flows Phytodepuration (the natural treatment of surface water by


id: guild-ecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Guild (ecology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:33.654559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: guild-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
A guild (or ecological guild) is any group of species that exploit the same resources, or that exploit different resources in related ways. It is not necessary that the species within a guild occupy the same, or even similar, ecological niches. == Details == Guilds are defined according to the locations, attributes, or activities of their component species. For example, the mode of acquiring nutrients, the mobility, and the habitat zones that the species occupy or exploit can be used to define a guild. The number of guilds occupying an ecosystem is termed its disparity. Members of a guild within a given ecosystem could be competing for resources, such as space or light, while cooperating in resisting wind stresses, attracting pollinators, or detecting predators, such as happens among savannah-dwelling antelope and zebra. A guild does not typically have strict, or even clearly defined boundaries, nor does it need to be taxonomically cohesive. A broadly defined guild will almost always have constituent guilds; for example, grazing guilds will have some species that concentrate on coarse, plentiful forage, while others concentrate on low-growing, finer plants. Each of those two sub-guilds may be regarded as guilds in appropriate contexts, and they might, in


id: habitat-destruction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-0.md
category: reference
title: Habitat destruction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: habitat-destruction-20260505-0
summary:
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved elsewhere, or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide. Humans contribute to habitat destruction through the use of natural resources, agriculture, industrial production and urbanization (urban sprawl). Other activities include mining, logging and trawling. Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes, climate change, introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient depletion, water and noise pollution are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an initial habitat fragmentation. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of endangered species. == Observations == === By region === Biodiversity hotspots are chiefly tropical regions that feature high concentrations of endemic species and, when all hotspots are combined, may contain over half of the world's terrestrial species. These hotspots are suffering from habitat loss and destruction. Most of the natural habitat on islands and in


id: habitat-destruction-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-1.md
category: reference
title: Habitat destruction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: habitat-destruction-20260505-0
summary:
== Causes due to human activities == Habitat destruction caused by humans includes land conversion from forests, etc. to arable land, urban sprawl, infrastructure development, and other anthropogenic changes to the characteristics of land. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and pollution are aspects of habitat destruction caused by humans that do not necessarily involve over destruction of habitat, yet result in habitat collapse. Desertification, deforestation, and coral reef degradation are specific types of habitat destruction for those areas (deserts, forests, coral reefs). Studies show that deforestation in forests, desertification in drylands, and the degradation of coral reefs in marine environments each contribute to habitat destruction and the loss of biodiversity. === Overarching drivers === The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as drivers of habitat destruction. Demographic, economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural drivers all contribute to habitat destruction. Demographic drivers include the expanding human population; rate of population increase over time; spatial distribution of people in a given area (urban versus rural), ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning, gender, and education status of people in certain areas. Most of the exponential human population growth worldwide is occurring in or close


id: habitat-destruction-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-2.md
category: reference
title: Habitat destruction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: habitat-destruction-20260505-0
summary:
Climate change causes rising sea levels which will threaten natural habitats and species globally. Melting sea ice destroys habitat for some species. For example, the decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty‐first century, with a decline rate of 4.7% per decade (it has declined over 50% since the first satellite records). One well known example of a species affected is the polar bear, whose habitat in the Arctic is threatened. Algae can also be affected when it grows on the underside of sea ice. Warm-water coral reefs are very sensitive to global warming and ocean acidification. Coral reefs provide a habitat for thousands of species. They provide ecosystem services such as coastal protection and food. But 70–90% of today's warm-water coral reefs will disappear even if warming is kept to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). For example, Caribbean coral reefs – which are biodiversity hotspots – will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate. === Habitat fragmentation === == Impacts == === On animals and plants === When a habitat is destroyed, the carrying capacity for indigenous plants, animals, and other organisms is reduced so that populations decline,


id: habitat-destruction-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-3.md
category: reference
title: Habitat destruction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: habitat-destruction-20260505-0
summary:
Habitat destruction can vastly increase an area's vulnerability to natural disasters like flood and drought, crop failure, spread of disease, and water contamination. On the other hand, a healthy ecosystem with good management practices can reduce the chance of these events happening, or will at least mitigate adverse impacts. Eliminating swamps—the habitat of pests such as mosquitoes—has contributed to the prevention of diseases such as malaria. Completely depriving an infectious agent (such as a virus) of its habitat—by vaccination, for example—can result in eradicating that infectious agent. Agricultural land can suffer from the destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via erosion, salinization, compaction, nutrient depletion, pollution, and urbanization. Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as birdwatching, recreational uses like hunting and fishing, and ecotourism usually rely upon relatively undisturbed habitat. Many people value the complexity of the natural world and express concern at the loss of natural habitats and of animal or plant species worldwide. Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many valuable


id: habitat-destruction-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-4.md
category: reference
title: Habitat destruction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: habitat-destruction-20260505-0
summary:
== Solutions == Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments embodied by Sustainable Development Goal 15 "Life on Land" and Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water". However, the United Nations Environment Programme report on "Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals. Tropical deforestation: In most cases of tropical deforestation, three to four underlying causes are driving two to three proximate causes. This means that a universal policy for controlling tropical deforestation would not be able to address the unique combination of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation in each country. Before any local, national, or international deforestation policies are written and enforced, governmental leaders must acquire a detailed understanding of the complex combination of proximate causes and underlying driving forces of deforestation in a given area or country. This concept, along with many other results of tropical deforestation from the Geist and Lambin study, can easily be applied to habitat destruction in general. Shoreline erosion: Coastal erosion is a natural process as storms, waves, tides and other water level changes occur. Shoreline stabilization can be done by barriers between land and


id: hayduke-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayduke-0.md
category: reference
title: Hayduke
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayduke
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:36.242587+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hayduke-20260505-0
summary:
Hayduke is a term and verb used among environmental activists and people who cite cult "revenge" books. It derives from the name of George Washington Hayduke, a fictional character based on Edward Abbey's friend Doug Peacock in Abbey's cult classics The Monkey Wrench Gang and Hayduke Lives!. The Hayduke character personified the "no compromise in defense of the Earth" approach to environmentalism, made real in early Earth First! activism. == Background == A complete series of revenge books using the pseudonym George Hayduke exist, mostly published by the Paladin Press, including The Big Book of Revenge, Get Even, Make 'Em Pay, Up Yours and Screw Unto Others. Each describe various methods of committing mischief and mayhem against those who have wronged others in a manner reminiscent of The Anarchist Cookbook. "Haydukery" refers to committing such acts in general. == See also == Hajduk – a name for highwaymen or guerrilla freedom fighters in parts of Europe during the late 16th to mid 19th century == References ==


id: hemerochory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-0.md
category: reference
title: Hemerochory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:37.619457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hemerochory-20260505-0
summary:
Hemerochory (Ancient Greek ἥμερος, hemeros: 'tame, ennobled, cultivated, cultivated' and Greek χωρίς choris: separate, isolated), or anthropochory, is the distribution of cultivated plants or their seeds and cuttings, consciously or unconsciously, by humans into an area that they could not colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but are able to maintain themselves without specific human help in their new habitat. Hemerochory is one of the main propagation mechanisms of a plant. Hemerochoric plants can both increase and decrease the biodiversity of a habitat. == Categorisation == Hemerochoric plants are classified according to the manner of introduction into, for example: Ethelochory: the conscious introduction by seed or young plants. Speirochory: the unintentional introduction by contaminated seed. Examples are the true chamomile and the cornflower. Agochory: the introduction by unintentional transport with, among other things, ships, trains and cars. These plants are common in port areas, roadsides, stations and railways. === Division === Chronologically the hemerochoric plants are divided in: Archaeophytes: plants that were introduced before the onset of world trade around the year 1500, or before the year 1492 (discovery of America). Neophytes: plants that were introduced later. === Related terms === Anthropochory is often used synonymously but does not


id: hemerochory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-1.md
category: reference
title: Hemerochory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:37.619457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hemerochory-20260505-0
summary:
Ethelochory is intentional transportation of plants or seeds to different regions for agricultural and gardening purposes. Numerous crops that are important for human nutrition have been willingly spread by humans. Wheat, barley, lentil, beans, flax and poppy seeds, for example, are not typical plants for Central Europe, although they are all archaeotypes. People brought them after the beginning of the Neolithic (about 6,500 years ago) gradually from the eastern Mediterranean to central Europe and the rest of the world through the upcoming centuries. In central Europe, it is especially Cyperus esculentus which has been classified since the 1980s among the invasive species, because their tubers have been spread en masse, by sticking to vehicles or machines. Many of the old cultivated plants have spread around the world, primarily through emigrants from Europe. Grown for at least 4,000 years, wheat was introduced to America in the 16th century and Australia in the 19th century. Orange, lemons, apricots and peaches were originally native to China. They probably came via the Silk Road as early as the 3rd century BC. In Asia Minor and from there through the Romans to the Mediterranean. European settlers, in turn, used these species to grow fruit in


id: hyperaccumulator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperaccumulator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:38.913323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperaccumulator-20260505-0
summary:
== Metallophytes == A metallophyte is a type of plant capable of surviving in metal-rich soil. Metallophytes are classified as metal indicators, excluders, or hyperaccumulators. Such plants range between obligate metallophytes and facultative metallophytes. Obligate metallophytes can only survive in the presence of heavy metals while facultative metallophytes can tolerate such conditions but are not confined to them. == Hyperaccumulators == A hyperaccumulator is a category of metallophyte that is capable of growing in soil or water with a higher concentration of metals, absorbing the metals through its roots and storing it in its foliage. The metals are concentrated at levels that are toxic to closely related species not adapted to growing on the metalliferous soils. Approximately 85-90% of hyperaccumulators are obligate metallophytes. Compared to non-hyperaccumulating species, hyperaccumulator roots extract the metal from the soil at a higher rate, transfer it more quickly to their shoots, and store large amounts in leaves and roots. The ability to hyperaccumulate toxic metals compared to related species has been shown to be due to differential gene expression and regulation of the same genes in both plants. Hyperaccumulators are regularly discussed within the context of phytoremediation, although their commercialization remains aspirational. 450 plant species,


id: hyperaccumulator-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-1.md
category: reference
title: Hyperaccumulator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:38.913323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperaccumulator-20260505-0
summary:
=== Genetic basis of hyperaccumulation === An overexpression of a Zn transporter gene, ZNT1, in root and shoot tissue is an essential component of the Zn hyperaccumulation trait in T. caerulescens. This increased gene expression has been shown to be the basis for increased Zn2+ uptake from the soil in T. caerulescens roots, and it is possible that the same process underpins the enhanced Zn2+ uptake into leaf cells.The proteins are coded by genes in the ZIP family, however other families such as the HMA (heavy metal ATPase), MATE, YSL and MTP families have also been observed to be involved. The ZIP gene family encodes Cd, Mn, Fe and Zn transporters. The ZIP family plays a role in supplying Zn to metalloproteins. In one study on Arabidopsis, it was found that the metallophyte Arabidopsis halleri expressed a member of the ZIP family that was not expressed in a non-metallophyte sister species. This gene was an iron-regulated transporter (IRT-protein) that encoded several primary transporters involved with cellular uptake of cations above the concentration gradient. When this gene was transformed into yeast, hyperaccumulation was observed. This suggests that overexpression of ZIP family genes that encode cation transporters is a characteristic genetic feature


id: intact-forest-landscape-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-0.md
category: reference
title: Intact forest landscape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:40.195479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intact-forest-landscape-20260505-0
summary:
An intact forest landscape (IFL) is an unbroken natural landscape of a forest ecosystem and its habitat–plant community components, in an extant forest zone. An IFL is a natural environment with no signs of significant human activity or habitat fragmentation, and of sufficient size to contain, support, and maintain the complex of indigenous biodiversity of viable populations of a wide range of genera and species, and their ecological effects. IFLs are estimated to cover 23 percent of forest ecosystems (13.1 million km2). Two biomes hold almost all of these IFLs: dense tropical and subtropical forests (45 percent) and boreal forests (44 percent), while the proportion of IFLs in temperate broadleaf and mixed forests is very small. IFLs remain in 66 of the 149 countries that could potentially have them. Three of these countries, Canada, Russia, and Brazil, contain 64 percent of the total IFL area in the world. Nineteen percent of the global IFL area is under some form of protection, but only 10 percent is strictly protected, i.e., belongs to IUCN protected areas categories I–III. It is estimated that the planet has lost seven percent of its IFLs since 2000. == History == The term "intact forest landscape" was


id: intact-forest-landscape-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-1.md
category: reference
title: Intact forest landscape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:40.195479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intact-forest-landscape-20260505-0
summary:
Several attempts have been made since the 1990s to map the remaining extent of large natural forests. At the global level, these include: wilderness area maps by McCloskey and Spalding; human footprint map by Sanderson, et al.; and frontier forests map by Bryant, et al. These efforts have generally combined already existing maps and information to identify areas of low human impact at a coarse scale, typically no finer than 1:16 million. The IFL mapping initiatives differ from these by using the IFL definition mentioned above, by using information from satellites in addition to other sources, and by producing results at a much finer scale, approximately 1:1 million. The first regional IFL map was presented by Greenpeace Russia in 2001, covering northern European Russia. The report also contains a complete description of the IFL concept and the mapping algorithm. A number of regional IFL maps were presented in 2002–2006, using similar methods, by a group of scientists and environmental non-governmental organizations under the framework of Global Forest Watch, an initiative of the World Resources Institute. Using the same method, a global IFL map was prepared in 2005–2006 under the leadership of Greenpeace, with contributions from the Biodiversity Conservation Center, International


id: invasive-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-0.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. Since the 20th century, invasive species have become serious economic, social, and environmental threats worldwide. Invasion of long-established ecosystems by organisms is a natural phenomenon, but human-facilitated introductions have greatly increased the rate, scale, and geographic range of invasion. For millennia, humans have served as both accidental and deliberate dispersal agents, beginning with their earliest migrations, accelerating in the Age of Discovery, and accelerating again with the spread of international trade. Notable plant species that are invasive in many parts of the world include the kudzu vine (Pueraria), water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes), common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), and yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis). Notable animal species that are invasive include European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), domestic cats (Felis catus), and red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). == Terminology == Invasive species are the subset of established non-native species that pose a threat to native species and biodiversity. The term "invasive" is poorly defined and often very subjective. Invasive species may be plants, animals, fungi, and microbes; some include native species that have invaded human habitats such as farms and


id: invasive-species-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-1.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
Island ecosystems may be more prone to invasion because their species face few strong competitors and predators, and because their distance from colonizing species populations makes them more likely to have "open" niches. For example, native bird populations on Guam have been decimated by the invasive brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis). However, the geographical distance and open water characteristic of island ecosystems can also delay colonisation by invasive species. For example, island nations such as Australia and the Galapagos have a high proportion of their island ecology consisting of endemic species due to immigration of other species being limited by oceans and their geographical isolation. In New Zealand the first invasive species were the dogs and rats brought by Polynesian settlers around 1300. These and other introductions devastated endemic New Zealand species. The colonization of Madagascar brought similar harm to its ecosystems. Logging has caused harm directly by destroying habitat, and has allowed non-native species such as prickly pear (Opuntia) and silver wattle (Acacia dealbata) to invade. The water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) forms dense mats on water surfaces, limiting light penetration and hence harming aquatic organisms, and creating substantial management costs. The shrub lantana (Lantana camara) is now considered invasive


id: invasive-species-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-2.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
An invasive species might be able to use resources previously unavailable to native species, such as deep water accessed by a long taproot, or to live on previously uninhabited soil types. For example, barbed goatgrass (Aegilops triuncialis) was introduced to California on serpentine soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high magnesium/calcium ratio, and possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to show low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils and crowd out native species. Invasive species may also alter their environment by releasing chemical compounds, modifying abiotic factors, or affecting the behavior of herbivores, all of which can impact other species. Some, like mother of thousands (Kalanchoe daigremontana), produce allelopathic compounds that inhibit competitors. Others like the toad plant (Stapelia gigantea) facilitate the growth of seedlings of other species in arid environments by providing appropriate microclimates and preventing herbivores from eating seedlings. Changes in fire regimens are another form of facilitation. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), originally from Eurasia, is highly fire-adapted. It spreads rapidly after burning, and increases the frequency and intensity of fires by providing large amounts of dry detritus during the fire season in western North America. Where it


id: invasive-species-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-3.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
Many marine organisms can attach themselves to vessel hulls. Such organisms are easily transported from one body of water to another, and are a significant risk factor for a biological invasion event. Controlling for vessel hull fouling is voluntary and there are no regulations currently in place to manage hull fouling. However, the governments of California and New Zealand have announced more stringent control for vessel hull fouling within their respective jurisdictions. Another vector of non-native aquatic species is ballast water taken up at sea and released in port by transoceanic vessels. Some 10,000 species are transported via ballast water each day. Many of these are harmful. For example, freshwater zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) from Eurasia most likely reached the Great Lakes via ballast water. The mussels outcompete native organisms for oxygen and food, and can be transported in the small puddle left in a supposedly empty ballast tank. Regulations attempt to mitigate such risks, not always successfully. Climate change is causing an increase in ocean temperature. These changes to the environment in turn cause range shifts in organisms, creating new species interactions. For example, organisms in a ballast tank of a ship traveling from the temperate zone through tropical


id: invasive-species-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-4.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
Hybrids resulting from invasive species interbreeding with native species can incorporate their genotypes into the gene pool over time through introgression. Similarly, in some instances a small invading population can threaten much larger native populations. For example, cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) was introduced in the San Francisco Bay and hybridized with native California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa). The higher pollen count and male fitness of the invading species resulted in introgression that threatened the native populations due to lower pollen counts and lower viability of the native species. Reduction in fitness is not always apparent from morphological observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal, and preserves constellations of genes and genotypes. An example of this is the interbreeding of migrating coyotes (Canis latrans) with the critically endangered red wolf (Canis rufus), in areas of eastern North Carolina where the red wolf was reintroduced, reducing wolf numbers. === Environmental === In South Africa's Cape Town region, analysis demonstrated that the restoration of priority source water sub-catchments through the removal of thirsty alien plant invasions (such as Australian acacias, pines, eucalyptus, and Australian black wattle) would generate expected annual water gains of 50 billion liters within 5 years compared to the business-as-usual


id: invasive-species-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-5.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
Weeds reduce yield in agriculture. Many weeds are accidental introductions that accompany imports of commercial seeds and plants. Introduced weeds in pastures compete with native forage plants, threaten young cattle (e.g., leafy spurge, Euphorbia virgata) or are unpalatable because of thorns and spines (e.g., yellow starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis). Forage loss from invasive weeds on pastures amounts to nearly US$1 billion in the U.S. A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by honey bees (Apis mellifera) infected by the invasive varroa mite (Varroa destructor). Introduced rats (Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus) have become serious pests on farms, destroying stored grains. The introduction of leaf miner flies (Agromyzidae), including the American serpentine leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii), to California has caused losses in California's floriculture industry, as the larvae of these invasive species feed on ornamental plants. Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can suppress agricultural yields and harm nursery stock. Citrus greening is a bacterial disease vectored by the invasive Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri). As a result, citrus is under quarantine and highly regulated in areas where the psyllid has been found. Invasive species can impact outdoor recreation, such as fishing, hunting,


id: invasive-species-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-6.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cargo inspection and quarantine === The original motivation was to protect against agricultural pests while still allowing the export of agricultural products. In 1994 the first set of global standards were agreed to, including the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). These are overseen by the World Trade Organization. The International Maritime Organization oversees the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (the Ballast Water Management Convention). Although primarily targeted at other, more general environmental concerns, the Convention on Biological Diversity does specify some steps that its members should take to control invasive species. The CBD is the most significant international agreement on the environmental consequences of invasive species; most such measures are voluntary and unspecific. === Slowing spread === Firefighters are becoming responsible for decontamination of their own equipment, public water equipment, and private water equipment, due to the risk of aquatic invasive species transfer. In the United States this is especially a concern for wildland firefighters because quagga (Dreissena bugensis) and zebra (Dreissena polymorpha) mussel invasion and wildfires co-occur in the American West. === Reestablishing species === Island restoration deals with the eradication of invasive species


id: invasive-species-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-7.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gene drive === A gene drive could be used to eliminate invasive species and has, for example, been proposed as a way to eliminate invasive mammal species in New Zealand. Briefly put, an individual of a species may have two versions of a gene, one with a desired coding outcome and one not, with offspring having a 50:50 chance of inheriting one or the other. Genetic engineering can be used to inhibit inheritance of the non-desired gene, resulting in faster propagation of the desired gene in subsequent generations. Gene drives for biodiversity conservation purposes are being explored as part of The Genetic Biocontrol of Invasive Rodents program because they offer the potential for reduced risk to non-target species and reduced costs when compared to traditional invasive species removal techniques. A wider outreach network for gene drive research exists to raise awareness of the value of gene drive research for the public good. Some scientists are concerned that the technique could wipe out species in their original native habitats. The gene could mutate, causing unforeseen problems, or hybridize with native species. === Predicting invasive plants === Accurately predicting the impacts of non-native plants can be an especially effective management option


id: invasive-species-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-8.md
category: reference
title: Invasive species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invasive-species-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticisms of the invasive species discourse == The process of removing and classifying animals as invasive species is not without controversy. Several animal welfare movements have attempted to dissuade the eradication of invasive species. A main point of contention for these activists is the treatment of the invasive species during the eradication process. These proponents argue that the stigma surrounding an invasive species seemingly outweighs the notion that all animals are living beings that deserve respect and care. These activists acknowledge that invasive species contribute to more economic and environmental damage than every natural disaster combined but find the removal process largely unethical and cruel. Other animal activists reject the idea of labeling a species as invasive altogether. These activists posit the labeling of a species as ‘invasive’ constitutes wrongful discrimination that permits systemic violence on the creatures. Proponents of this subset of animal activism profess invasive species labeling is inherently arbitrary and a perpetuator of speciesism, a term coined by Peter Singer to describe the “misguided belief that one species is more important than another.” Once a species is determined to be legally invasive, those animals often fail to be protected by anti-cruelty statutes and inhumane killings of


id: landscape-limnology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_limnology-0.md
category: reference
title: Landscape limnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_limnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:42.892030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: landscape-limnology-20260505-0
summary:
Landscape limnology is the spatially explicit study of lakes, streams, and wetlands as they interact with freshwater, terrestrial, and human landscapes to determine the effects of pattern on ecosystem processes across temporal and spatial scales. Limnology is the study of inland water bodies inclusive of rivers, lakes, and wetlands; landscape limnology seeks to integrate all of these ecosystem types. The terrestrial component represents spatial hierarchies of landscape features that influence which materials, whether solutes or organisms, are transported to aquatic systems; aquatic connections represent how these materials are transported; and human activities reflect features that influence how these materials are transported as well as their quantity and temporal dynamics. Bremigan. 2009. The lake landscape-context framework: linking aquatic connections, terrestrial features and human effects at multiple spatial scales. Verhandlungen Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie. 30:695-700 == Foundation == The core principles or themes of landscape ecology provide the foundation for landscape limnology. These ideas can be synthesized into a set of four landscape ecology themes that are broadly applicable to any aquatic ecosystem type, and that consider the unique features of such ecosystems. A landscape limnology framework begins with the premise of Thienemann (1925). Wiens (2002): freshwater ecosystems can


id: limbing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing-0.md
category: reference
title: Limbing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:45.539083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: limbing-20260505-0
summary:
Limbing or delimbing is the process of removing branches from a standing or fallen tree trunk. In logging, limbing follows felling. Limbing plays a role in fire prevention by removing branches from live trees that can otherwise serve as part of a fuel ladder allowing a fire to climb from the ground into the tree canopy. A California fire prevention guide recommends to "Remove all tree branches at least 6 feet [1.8 meters] from the ground" and "Allow extra vertical space between shrubs and trees." In British English, limbing can be synonymous with snedding. Alternatively, limbing can be used to describe the operation on larger branches, and snedding on smaller. == In logging == Options for cutting off the branches include chain saws, harvesters, stroke delimbers and others. Limbing can happen at the stump in log/tree length systems and cut-to-length systems or at the landing in whole-tree logging. When the tree is lying on the ground, branches may be storing enormous potential energy through mechanical strain. When a branch is cut, often with a chain saw, this energy can be released suddenly and the branch can jump dangerously. In addition, a branch may be supporting the tree, and the tree


id: minimum-viable-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population-0.md
category: reference
title: Minimum viable population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:46.854078+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: minimum-viable-population-20260505-0
summary:
Minimum viable population (MVP) is a lower bound on the population of a species, such that it can survive in the wild. This term is commonly used in the fields of biology, ecology, and conservation biology. MVP refers to the smallest possible size at which a biological population can exist without facing extinction from natural disasters or demographic, environmental, or genetic stochasticity. The term "population" is defined as a group of interbreeding individuals in similar geographic area that undergo negligible gene flow with other groups of the species. Typically, MVP is used to refer to a wild population, but can also be used for ex situ conservation (Zoo populations). == Estimation == There is no unique definition of what constitutes a sufficient population for the continuation of a species, because whether a species survives will depend to some extent on random events. Thus, any calculation of a minimum viable population (MVP) will depend on the population projection model used. A set of random (stochastic) projections might be used to estimate the initial population size needed (based on the assumptions in the model) for there to be, (for example) a 95% or 99% probability of survival 1,000 years into the future.


id: mycoremediation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-0.md
category: reference
title: Mycoremediation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:48.181489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mycoremediation-20260505-0
summary:
Mycoremediation (from ancient Greek μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus", and the suffix -remedium, in Latin meaning 'restoring balance') is a form of bioremediation in which fungi-based remediation methods are used to decontaminate the environment. Fungi have been proven to be a cheap, effective and environmentally sound way for removing a wide array of contaminants from damaged environments or wastewater. These contaminants include heavy metals, organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning chemicals and wastewater, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicides in land, fresh water, and marine environments. The byproducts of the remediation can be valuable materials themselves, such as enzymes (like laccase), edible or medicinal mushrooms, making the remediation process even more profitable. Some fungi are useful in the biodegradation of contaminants in extremely cold or radioactive environments where traditional remediation methods prove too costly or are unusable. == Pollutants == Fungi, thanks to their non-specific enzymes, are able to break down many kinds of substances including pharmaceuticals and fragrances that are normally recalcitrant to bacteria degradation, such as paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen). For example, using Mucor hiemalis, the breakdown of products which are toxic in traditional water treatment, such as phenols and pigments


id: mycoremediation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-1.md
category: reference
title: Mycoremediation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:48.181489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mycoremediation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dyes === Dyes are used in many industries, like paper printing or textile. They are often recalcitrant to degradation and in some cases, like some azo dyes, carcinogenic or otherwise toxic. The mechanism by which the fungi degrade dyes is via their lignolytic enzymes, especially laccase, therefore white rot mushrooms are the most commonly used. Mycoremediation has proven to be a cheap and effective remediation technology for dyes such as malachite green, nigrosin and basic fuchsin with Aspergillus niger and Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Congo red, a carcinogenic dye recalcitrant to biodegradative processes, direct blue 14 (using Pleurotus). === Pentachlorophenol === Pentachlorophenol (PCP) has been used worldwide as a wood preservative, biocides and for the bleaching of paper or tissues. PCP toxicity and extensive use has placed it among the worst environmental pollutants, and therefore its microbiological degradation to develop bioremediation techniques has been intensively studied. Microorganisms play an important role in the field of environmental science by degrading and transforming PCP into non-toxic or less toxic forms. Naturally how completely and efficiently PCP degradation occurs depends by microorganisms and the environmental conditions.There are numerous studies that focus research efforts on degradation of PCP by pure and mixed cultures of


id: patch-dynamics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_dynamics-0.md
category: reference
title: Patch dynamics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_dynamics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:49.510606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patch-dynamics-20260505-0
summary:
Patch dynamics is an ecological perspective that the structure, function, and dynamics of ecological systems can be understood through studying their interactive patches. Patch dynamics, as a term, may also refer to the spatiotemporal changes within and among patches that make up a landscape. Patch dynamics is ubiquitous in terrestrial and aquatic systems across organizational levels and spatial scales. From a patch dynamics perspective, populations, communities, ecosystems, and landscapes may all be studied effectively as mosaics of patches that differ in size, shape, composition, history, and boundary characteristics. The idea of patch dynamics dates back to the 1940s when plant ecologists studied the structure and dynamics of vegetation in terms of the interactive patches that it comprises. A mathematical theory of patch dynamics was developed by Simon Levin and Robert Paine in the 1970s, originally to describe the pattern and dynamics of an intertidal community as a patch mosaic created and maintained by tidal disturbances. Patch dynamics became a dominant theme in ecology between the late 1970s and the 1990s. Patch dynamics is a conceptual approach to ecosystem and habitat analysis that emphasizes dynamics of heterogeneity within a system (i.e. that each area of an ecosystem is made up of


id: peatland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-0.md
category: reference
title: Peatland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peatland-20260505-0
summary:
A peatland is a type of wetland whose soils consist of organic matter from decaying plants, forming layers of peat. Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent anoxia. Peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning. The formation of peatlands is primarily controlled by climatic conditions such as precipitation and temperature, although terrain relief is a major factor as waterlogging occurs more easily on flatter ground and in basins. Peat formation typically initiates as a paludification of a mineral soil forest, terrestrialisation of lakes, or primary peat formation on bare soils on previously glaciated areas. A peatland that is actively forming peat is called a mire. All types of mires share the common characteristic of being saturated with water, at least seasonally with actively forming peat, while having their own ecosystem. Peatlands are the largest natural carbon store on land. Covering around 3 million km2 globally, they sequester 0.37 gigatons (Gt) of carbon dioxide (CO2) a year. Peat soils store over 600 Gt of carbon, more than the carbon stored in all other vegetation types,


id: peatland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-1.md
category: reference
title: Peatland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peatland-20260505-0
summary:
Peatlands are found around the globe, although are at their greatest extent at high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Peatlands are estimated to cover around 3% of the globe's surface, although estimating the extent of their cover worldwide is difficult due to the varying accuracy and methodologies of land surveys from many countries. Mires occur wherever conditions are right for peat accumulation: largely where organic matter is constantly waterlogged. Hence the distribution of mires is dependent on topography, climate, parent material, biota and time. The type of mire—bog, fen, marsh or swamp—depends also on each of these factors. The largest accumulation of mires constitutes around 64% of global peatlands and is found in the temperate, boreal and subarctic zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Mires are usually shallow in polar regions because of the slow rate of accumulation of dead organic matter, and often contain permafrost and palsas. Very large swathes of Canada, northern Europe and northern Russia are covered by boreal mires. In temperate zones mires are typically more scattered due to historical drainage and peat extraction, but can cover large areas. One example is blanket bog where precipitation is very high i.e., in maritime climates inland near the coasts


id: peatland-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-2.md
category: reference
title: Peatland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peatland-20260505-0
summary:
Despite accounting for just 3% of Earth's land surfaces, peatlands are collectively a major carbon store containing between 500 and 700 billion tonnes of carbon. Carbon stored within peatlands equates to over half the amount of carbon found in the atmosphere. Peatlands interact with the atmosphere primarily through the exchange of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, and can be damaged by excess nitrogen from agriculture or rainwater. The sequestration of carbon dioxide takes place at the surface via the process of photosynthesis, while losses of carbon dioxide occur through living plants via autotrophic respiration and from the litter and peat via heterotrophic respiration. In their natural state, mires are a small atmospheric carbon dioxide sink through the photosynthesis of peat vegetation, which outweighs their release of greenhouse gases. On the other hand, most mires are generally net emitters of methane and nitrous oxide. Due to the continued CO2 sequestration over millennia, and because of the longer atmospheric lifespan of the CO2 molecules compared with methane and nitrous oxide, peatlands have had a net cooling effect on the atmosphere. The water table position of a peatland is the main control of its carbon release to the atmosphere. When the water


id: peatland-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-3.md
category: reference
title: Peatland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peatland-20260505-0
summary:
== Tropical peatlands == The global distribution of tropical peatlands is concentrated in Southeast Asia where agricultural use of peatlands has been increased in recent decades. Large areas of tropical peatland have been cleared and drained for the production of food and cash crops such as palm oil. Large-scale drainage of these plantations often results in subsidence, flooding, fire and deterioration of soil quality. Small-scale encroachment on the other hand, is linked to poverty and is so widespread that it also has negatively impacts these peatlands. The biotic and abiotic factors controlling Southeast Asian peatlands are interdependent. Its soil, hydrology and morphology are created by the present vegetation through the accumulation of its own organic matter, building a favorable environment for this specific vegetation. This system is therefore vulnerable to changes in hydrology or vegetation cover. These peatlands are mostly located in developing regions with impoverished and rapidly growing populations. These lands have become targets for commercial logging, paper pulp production and conversion to plantations through clear-cutting, drainage and burning. Drainage of tropical peatlands alters the hydrology and increases their susceptibility to fire and soil erosion, as a consequence of changes in physical and chemical compositions. The change in soil


id: peatland-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-4.md
category: reference
title: Peatland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peatland-20260505-0
summary:
Northern peatlands are associated with boreal and subarctic climates. Northern peatlands were mostly built up during the Holocene after the retreat of Pleistocene glaciers, but in contrast tropical peatlands are much older. Total northern peat carbon stocks are estimated to be 1055 Gt of carbon. Of all northern circumpolar countries, Russia has the largest area of peatlands, and contains the largest peatland in the world, The Great Vasyugan Mire. Nakaikemi Wetland in southwest Honshu, Japan is more than 50,000 years old and has a depth of 45 m. The Philippi Peatland in Greece has probably one of the deepest peat layers with a depth of 190 m. == Impacts on global climate == According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, the conservation and restoration of wetlands and peatlands has large economic potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, providing benefits for adaptation, mitigation and biodiversity. Wetlands provide an environment where organic carbon is stored in living plants, dead plants and peat, as well as converted to carbon dioxide and methane. Three main factors give wetlands the ability to sequester and store carbon: high biological productivity, high water table and low decomposition rates. Suitable meteorological and hydrological conditions are necessary to provide


id: peatland-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-5.md
category: reference
title: Peatland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peatland-20260505-0
summary:
Palm oil has increasingly become one of the world's largest crops. In comparison to alternatives, palm oil is considered to be among the most efficient sources of vegetable oil and biofuel, requiring only 0.26 hectares of land to produce 1 ton of oil. Palm oil has therefore become a popular cash crop in many low-income countries and has provided economic opportunities for communities. With palm oil as a leading export in countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia, many smallholders have found economic success in palm oil plantations. However, the land selected for plantations are typically substantial carbon stores that promote biodiverse ecosystems. Palm oil plantations have replaced much of the forested peatlands in Southeast Asia. Estimates now state that 12.9 Mha or about 47% of peatlands in Southeast Asia were deforested by 2006. In their natural state, peatlands are waterlogged with high water tables making for an inefficient soil. To create viable soil for plantation, the mires in tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia are drained and cleared. The peatland forests harvested for palm oil production serve as above- and below-ground carbon stores, containing at least 42,069 million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Exploitation of this land raises many


id: perceptual-trap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_trap-0.md
category: reference
title: Perceptual trap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_trap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:52.183915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perceptual-trap-20260505-0
summary:
A perceptual trap is an ecological scenario in which environmental change, typically anthropogenic, leads an organism to avoid an otherwise high-quality habitat. The concept is related to that of an ecological trap, in which environmental change causes preference towards a low-quality habitat. == History == In a 2004 article discussing source–sink dynamics, James Battin did not distinguish between high-quality habitats that are preferred or avoided, labelling both "sources". The latter scenario, in which a high-quality habitat is avoided, was first recognised as an important phenomenon in 2007 by Gilroy and Sutherland, who described them as "undervalued resources". The term "perceptual trap" was first proposed by Michael Patten and Jeffrey Kelly in a 2010 article. Hans Van Dyck argues that the term is misleading because perception is also a major component in other cases of trapping. == Description == Animals use discrete environmental cues to select habitat. A perceptual trap occurs if change in an environmental cue leads an organism to avoid a high-quality habitat. It differs, therefore, from simple habitat avoidance, which may be a correct decision given the habitat's quality. The concept of a perceptual trap is related to that of an ecological trap, in which environmental change causes


id: permanent-vegetative-cover-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_vegetative_cover-0.md
category: reference
title: Permanent vegetative cover
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_vegetative_cover
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:53.489052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: permanent-vegetative-cover-20260505-0
summary:
Permanent vegetative cover refers to trees, perennial bunchgrasses and grasslands, legumes, and shrubs with an expected life span of at least 5 years. In the United States, permanent cover is required on cropland entered into the Conservation Reserve Program. == References == This article incorporates public domain material from Jasper Womach. Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition (PDF). Congressional Research Service.


id: phytoremediation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation-0.md
category: reference
title: Phytoremediation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:54.822609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phytoremediation-20260505-0
summary:
Phytoremediation technologies use living plants to clean up soil, air and water contaminated with hazardous contaminants. The term is an amalgam of the Greek phyto (plant) and Latin remedium (restoring balance). Bioremediation on the other hand, has proven useful. Phytoremediation is proposed as a sustainable alternative to conventional remediation methods, although it has never been used on scale. Phytoremediation is one form of bioremediation, however bioremediation usually refers to employing microorganisms. == Processes == Major phytoremediation mechanisms include phytoextraction, phytostabilization, phytovolatilization, and phytofiltration. === Phytoextraction === Phytoextraction (or phytoaccumulation or phytosequestration) aims to exploit the ability of some plants to absorb certain contaminants from soil or water. In principle, the roots take up substances from the soil or water and concentrate them above ground in the plant biomass. Organisms that can uptake high amounts of particular metal-containing compounds are called hyperaccumulators. Phytoextraction could also be performed by non-hyperaccumulating plants (e.g. Populus and Salix). Although they take up only low levels of pollutants, owing to their high growth rate, such plants could in principle remove a considerable amount of contaminants from the soil. Hyperaccumulating plants are often metallophytes, i.e. they hyperaccumulate metals. Netallophytes are the basis of phytomining, a proposed technology


id: phytoremediation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation-1.md
category: reference
title: Phytoremediation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:54.822609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phytoremediation-20260505-0
summary:
A plant is said to be a hyperaccumulator if it can concentrate the pollutants in a minimum percentage which varies according to the pollutant involved (for example: more than 1000 mg/kg of dry weight for nickel, copper, cobalt, chromium or lead; or more than 10,000 mg/kg for zinc or manganese). This capacity for accumulation is due to hypertolerance, or phytotolerance: the result of adaptative evolution from the plants to hostile environments through many generations. A number of interactions may be affected by metal hyperaccumulation, including protection, interferences with neighbour plants of different species, mutualism (including mycorrhizae, pollen and seed dispersal), commensalism, and biofilm. Plant growth-promoting bacteria, or PGPB, are soil bacteria in the rhizosphere that enhance plant productivity by increasing nutrient bioavailability, secreting metabolites and hormones that stimulate increased plant growth, and secreting antibiotics that prevent pathogenic infection. PGPB have been shown to assist heavily with enhancing the transport of soil pollutants like heavy metals from the soil into the roots of hyperaccumulators via phytostimulation. PGPB increase transport speed by improving plant metabolic processes and biomass production, and by producing chelating or solubilizing agents that mobilize heavy metals, overall improving phytoremediation efficiency. === Tables of hyperaccumulators === Hyperaccumulators table –


id: plant-litter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-0.md
category: reference
title: Plant litter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:56.129896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-litter-20260505-0
summary:
Plant litter (also leaf litter, tree litter, soil litter, litterfall, or duff) is dead plant material (such as leaves, bark, needles, twigs, and cladodes) that has fallen to the ground. This detritus or dead organic material and its constituent nutrients are added to the top layer of soil, commonly known as the litter layer or O-horizon ("O" for "organic"). Litter is an important factor in ecosystem dynamics, as it is indicative of ecological productivity and may be useful in predicting regional nutrient cycling and soil fertility. == Characteristics and variability == Litterfall is characterized as fresh, undecomposed, and easily recognizable (by species and type) plant debris. This can be anything from leaves, cones, needles, twigs, bark, seeds/nuts, logs, or reproductive organs (e.g. the stamen of flowering plants). Items larger than 2 cm diameter are referred to as coarse litter, while anything smaller is referred to as fine litter or litter. The type of litterfall is most directly affected by ecosystem type. For example, leaf tissues account for about 70 percent of litterfall in forests, but woody litter tends to increase with forest age. In grasslands, there is very little aboveground perennial tissue so the annual litterfall is very low and


id: plant-litter-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-1.md
category: reference
title: Plant litter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:56.129896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-litter-20260505-0
summary:
Many organisms that live on the forest floor are decomposers, such as fungi. Organisms whose diet consists of plant detritus, such as earthworms, are termed detritivores. The community of decomposers in the litter layer also includes bacteria, amoeba, nematodes, rotifer, tardigrades, springtails, cryptostigmata, potworms, insect larvae, mollusks, oribatid mites, woodlice, and millipedes. Even some species of microcrustaceans, especially copepods (for instance Bryocyclops spp., Graeteriella spp.,Olmeccyclops hondo, Moraria spp.,Bryocamptus spp., Atheyella spp.) live in moist leaf litter habitats and play an important role as predators and decomposers. The consumption of the litterfall by decomposers results in the breakdown of simple carbon compounds into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), and releases inorganic ions (like nitrogen and phosphorus) into the soil where the surrounding plants can then reabsorb the nutrients that were shed as litterfall. In this way, litterfall becomes an important part of the nutrient cycle that sustains forest environments. As litter decomposes, nutrients are released into the environment. The portion of the litter that is not readily decomposable is known as humus. Litter aids in soil moisture retention by cooling the ground surface and holding moisture in decaying organic matter. The flora and fauna working to decompose soil litter also


id: plant-litter-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-2.md
category: reference
title: Plant litter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:56.129896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-litter-20260505-0
summary:
== Non-terrestrial litterfall == Non-terrestrial litterfall follows a very different path. Litter is produced both inland by terrestrial plants and moved to the coast by fluvial processes, and by mangrove ecosystems. From the coast Robertson & Daniel 1989 found it is then removed by the tide, crabs and microbes. They also noticed that which of those three is most significant depends on the tidal regime. Nordhaus et al. 2011 find crabs forage for leaves at low tide and if their detritivory is the predominant disposal route, they can take 80% of leaf material. Bakkar et al 2017 studied the chemical contribution of the resulting crab defecation. They find crabs pass a noticeable amount of undegraded lignins to both the sediments and water composition. They also find that the exact carbonaceous contribution of each plant species can be traced from the plant, through the crab, to its sediment or water disposition in this way. Crabs are usually the only significant macrofauna in this process, however Raw et al 2017 find Terebralia palustris competes with crabs unusually vigorously in southeast Asia. == Collection and analysis == The main objectives of litterfall sampling and analysis are to quantify litterfall production and chemical composition


id: pledge-and-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-0.md
category: reference
title: Pledge and review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:57.646150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pledge-and-review-20260505-0
summary:
Pledge and review is a method for facilitating international action against climate change. It involves nations each making a self-determined pledge relating to actions they expect to take in response to global warming, which they submit to the United Nations. Some time after the pledges have been submitted, there is a review process where nations assess each other's progress towards meeting the pledges. Then a further round of enhanced pledges can be made, and the process can further iterate. Pledge and review is sometimes referred to as a bargaining approach; when nations first announce their pledges they may not be set in stone. A nation might strengthen its pledge in response to pledges by its competitors, which can encourage it to increase its climate ambition if it feels it can do so without losing ground to trading rivals. Additionally, sometimes a nation that feels especially threatened by climate change can make non-climate related concessions to a trading partner, in return for them making a stronger pledge. The main way to increase pledges, however, is when the process iterates after the review phase. Each subsequent round of pledges is supposed to involve an increased level of commitment to combat climate change.


id: pledge-and-review-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-1.md
category: reference
title: Pledge and review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:57.646150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pledge-and-review-20260505-0
summary:
== History == The pledge-and-review system was first proposed by Japan in 1991. In December 1990, in response to the threat of climate change, the United Nations established the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change. It had become apparent that getting nations to commit to legally binding emissions targets would be more challenging for greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) than it had been for emissions relating to sulphur pollution and depletion of the ozone layer. With the support of Britain and France, Japan made a proposal for a pledge-and-review system as an alternative. Various nations objected to the idea, however, so only a weakened form of pledge-and-review was included in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) by the time it was signed at the 1992 Earth Summit. The pledge-and-review system was formally rejected at the first Conference of the Parties (COP) which took place in Berlin, 1995. The focus switched to negotiations aimed at legally binding emission reduction targets, as embodied by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto protocol has only aimed to impose emissions reduction targets on Annex parties (largely corresponding to advanced industrialised nations as of the late 20th century, plus some


id: pledge-and-review-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-2.md
category: reference
title: Pledge and review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:57.646150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pledge-and-review-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == In the early 1990s, the pledge-and-review system was heavily criticised by environmental groups; for example, Climate Action Network labelled it "hedge and retreat". It has also been criticised by academics, especially after the system was revived at Copenhagen with some calling it "scientifically inadequate" or "second best". However, other academics described pledge-and-review as an "essential pillar for climate change mitigation". A survey of participants at the 2011 Durban summit found that the biggest concern over pledge-and-review was the gap between what has been pledged and the level of action needed to meet the 2 degree target (limiting global warming to only 2 °C above pre industrial temperatures.). Participants were least concerned about the voluntary nature of the pledges, suggesting that a system that lacked legally binding commitments could still have international legitimacy. Comparing NGOs with actual negotiators, the study found that in the case of Annex 1 NGOs, they were much more critical of pledge-and-review than negotiators from Annex 1 nations. Whereas with non Annex nations (mostly those in the global south), the opposite pattern emerged. Non annex NGOs were less critical about pledge-and-review compared to non Annex negotiators. Economic analyses of pledge-and-review bargaining suggests that the


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
The politics of climate change results from different perspectives on how to respond to climate change. Global warming is driven largely by the emissions of greenhouse gases due to human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels, certain industries like cement and steel production, and land use for agriculture and forestry. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have provided the main source of energy for economic and technological development. The centrality of fossil fuels and other carbon-intensive industries has resulted in much resistance to climate policy, despite widespread scientific consensus that such policy is necessary. Climate change first emerged as a political issue in the 1970s. Efforts to mitigate climate change have been prominent on the international political agenda since the 1990s, and are also increasingly addressed at national and local level. Climate change is a complex global problem. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions contribute to global warming across the world, regardless of where the emissions originate. Yet the impact of global warming varies widely depending on how vulnerable a location or economy is to its effects. Global warming is on the whole having negative impact, which is predicted to worsen as heating increases. Ability to benefit from both fossil fuels


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-1.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Policy debate == Like all policy debates, the political debate on climate change is fundamentally about action. Various distinct arguments underpin the politics of climate change - such as different assessments of the urgency of the threat, and on the feasibility, advantages and disadvantages of various responses. But essentially, these all relate to potential responses to climate change. The statements that form political arguments can be divided into two types: positive and normative statements. Positive statements can generally be clarified or refuted by careful definition of terms, and scientific evidence. Whereas normative statements about what one "ought" to do often relate at least partly to morality, and are essentially a matter of judgement. Experience has indicated that better progress is often made at debates if participants attempt to disentangle the positive and normative parts of their arguments, reaching agreement on the positive statements first. In the early stages of a debate, the normative positions of participants can be strongly influenced by perceptions of the best interests of whatever constituency they represent. In achieving exceptional progress at the 2015 Paris conference, Christiana Figueres and others noted it was helpful that key participants were able to move beyond a competitive mindset


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-2.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
At international level, there are three broad approaches to emissions reduction that nations can attempt to negotiate. Firstly, the adoption of emissions reductions targets. Secondly, setting a carbon price. Lastly, creating a largely voluntary set of processes to encourage emission reduction, which include the sharing of information and progress reviews. These approaches are largely complementary, though at various conferences much of the focus has often been on a single approach. Until about 2010, international negotiations focused largely on emissions targets. The success of the Montreal treaty in reducing emissions that damaged the ozone layer suggested that targets could be effective. Yet in the case of greenhouse gas reductions, targets have not in general led to substantial cuts in emissions. Ambitious targets have usually not been met. Attempts to impose severe penalties that would incentivize more determined efforts to meet challenging targets, have always been blocked by at least one or two nations. In the 21st century, there is widespread agreement that a carbon price is the most effective way to reduce emissions, at least in theory. Generally though, nations have been reluctant to adopt a high carbon price, or in most cases any price at all. One of the main


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-3.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Fossil fuel companies: Traditional fossil fuel corporations stand to lose from stricter global warming regulations, though there are exceptions. The fact fossil fuel companies are engaged in energy trading might mean that their participation in trading schemes and other such mechanisms could give them a unique advantage, so it is unclear whether every traditional fossil fuel companies would always be against stricter global warming policies. As an example, Enron, a traditional gas pipeline company with a large trading desk heavily lobbied the United States government to regulate CO2: they thought that they would dominate the energy industry if they could be at the center of energy trading. Farmers and agribusiness are an important lobby but vary in their views on effects of climate change on agriculture and greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and, for example, the role of the EU Common Agricultural Policy. Financial Institutions: Financial institutions generally support policies against global warming, particularly the implementation of carbon trading schemes and the creation of market mechanisms that associate a price with carbon. These new markets require trading infrastructures, which banking institutions can provide. Financial institutions are also well positioned to invest, trade and develop various financial instruments that they could


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-4.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
==== Reduced influence of climate change denial ==== By 2019, outright climate change denial had become a much less influential force than it had been in previous years. Reasons for this include the increasing frequency of extreme weather events, more effective communication on the part of climate scientists, and the Greta effect. As an example, in 2019 the Cato Institute closed down its program seeking to raise uncertainty about climate science. Studies show that conservatives and liberals are not significantly different in their support for climate solutions; however, the way these solutions are framed can greatly influence their effectiveness. For example, conservatives respond more positively to messages about actions like tree planting when the language avoids explicit references to climate change. ==== Growth of renewable energy ==== Renewable energy is an inexhaustible source of naturally replenishing energy. The major renewable energy sources are wind, hydropower, solar, geothermal, and biomass. In 2020, renewable energy generated 29% of world electricity. In the wake of the Paris Agreement, adopted by 196 Parties, 194 of these Parties have submitted their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), i.e., climate pledges, as of November 2021. There are many different efforts used by these countries to help include renewable


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-5.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
==== Fossil fuel lobby and political spending ==== The largest oil and gas corporations that comprise Big Oil and their industry lobbyist arm, the American Petroleum Institute (API), spend large amounts of money on lobbying and political campaigns, and employ hundreds of lobbyists, to obstruct and delay government action to address climate change. The fossil fuel lobby has considerable clout in Washington, D.C. and in other political centers, including the European Union and the United Kingdom. Fossil fuel industry interests spend many times as much on advancing their agenda in the halls of power than do ordinary citizens and environmental activists, with the former spending $2 billion in the years 2000–2016 on climate change lobbying in the United States. The five largest Big Oil corporations spent hundreds of millions of euros to lobby for its agenda in Brussels. Big Oil companies often adopt "sustainability principles" that are at odds with the policy agenda their lobbyists advocate, which often entails sowing doubt about the reality and impacts of climate change and forestalling government efforts to address them. API launched a public relations disinformation campaign with the aim of creating doubt in the public mind so that "climate change becomes a non-issue."


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-6.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
==== Wars and tensions ==== "Conflict sensitivity and peacebuilding" are a "key for climate policy-making." Wars and geopolitical tensions harm climate action, including by preventing just distribution of needed resources. Climate change can increase conflicts, creating a vicious cycle. The war in Ukraine seriously disturbed climate action. Military forces are responsible for 5.5% of global emissions and wars diverte resources from climate action. On the other hand, climate policy itself can also function as an arena for positive competition among states engaged in a race to the top. === Technology === The promise of technology is seen as both a threat and a potential boon. New technologies can open up possibilities for new and more effective climate policies. Most models that indicate a path to limiting warming to 2 °C have a big role for carbon dioxide removal, one of the approaches of climate change mitigation. Commentators from across the political spectrum tend to welcome CO2 removal. But some are skeptical that it will be ever be able to remove enough CO2 to slow global warming without there also being rapid cuts in emissions, and they warn that too much optimism about such technology may make it harder for mitigation


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-7.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
The politicization of science in the sense of a manipulation of science for political gains is a part of the political process. It is part of the controversies about intelligent design (compare the Wedge strategy) or Merchants of Doubt, scientists that are under suspicion to willingly obscure findings. e.g. about issues like tobacco smoke, ozone depletion, global warming or acid rain. However, e.g. in case of ozone depletion, global regulation based on the Montreal Protocol was successful, in a climate of high uncertainty and against strong resistance while in case of climate change, the Kyoto Protocol failed. While the IPCC process tries to find and orchestrate the findings of global climate change research to shape a worldwide consensus on the matter it has itself been the object of a strong politicization. Anthropogenic climate change evolved from a mere science issue to a top global policy topic. The IPCC process having built a broad science consensus does not stop governments following different, if not opposing goals. For ozone depletion, global regulation was already being put into place before a scientific consensus was established. So a linear model of policy-making, based on a the more knowledge we have, the better the political


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-8.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
The cross-sectoral nature of climate change: The issue of climate change usually fits into various sectors, which means that the integration of climate change policies into other policy areas is frequently called for. Thus the problem is complicated as it needs to be tackled at multiple scales, with diverse actors involved in the complex governance process. The interaction of these facets leads to political processes with multiple and overlapping conceptualizations, negotiation and governance issues, which requires the understanding of political economy processes. The problematic perception of climate change as simply a "global" issue: Climate change initiatives and governance approaches have tended to be driven from a global scale. While the development of international agreements has witnessed a progressive step of global political action, this globally-led governance of climate change issue may be unable to provide adequate flexibility for specific national or sub-national conditions. Besides, from the development point of view, the issue of equity and global environmental justice would require a fair international regime within which the impact of climate change and poverty could be simultaneously prevented. In this context, climate change is not only a global crisis that needs the presence of international politics, but also a challenge for


id: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-9.md
category: reference
title: Politics of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politics-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Brandt and Svendsen (2003) introduce a political economy framework that is based on the political support function model by Hillman (1982) into the analysis of the choice of instruments to control climate change in the European Union policy to implement its Kyoto Protocol target level. In this political economy framework, the climate change policy is determined by the relative strength of stakeholder groups. By examining the different objective of different interest groups, namely industry groups, consumer groups and environmental groups, the authors explain the complex interaction between the choices of an instrument for the EU climate change policy, specifically the shift from the green taxation to a grandfathered permit system. A report by the Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) (2011) takes a political economy approach to explain why some countries adopt climate change policies while others do not, specifically among the countries in the transition region. This work analyzes the different political economy aspects of the characteristics of climate change policies so as to understand the likely factors driving climate change mitigation outcomes in many transition countries. The main conclusions are listed below: The level of democracy alone is not a major driver of climate change policy adoption, which


id: prometheanism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheanism-0.md
category: reference
title: Prometheanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:00.232981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prometheanism-20260505-0
summary:
Prometheanism is an environmentalist term popularized by the political theorist John Dryzek to describe a perspective which perceives the Earth as a resource whose utility is determined primarily by human needs and interests and whose environmental problems are overcome through human innovation. The term was introduced in Dryzek's work, The Politics of the Earth: Environmental Discourses (1997). In contrast with other environmental perspectives, Prometheanism prioritizes human interests and needs over those of ecosystems (as with deep ecology) or the individual needs of creatures (as in eco-feminism). In his 1992 book Green Delusions: An Environmentalist Critique of Radical Environmentalism, Martin Lewis offered one of the first systematic comparisons of how Promethean environmentalism differs from traditional Arcadian forms of environmentalism such as deep ecology. == See also == Bright green environmentalism Technogaianism == References ==


id: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-0.md
category: reference
title: Psychology of climate change denial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-0
summary:
The psychology of climate change denial is the study of why people deny climate change, despite the scientific consensus on climate change. A study assessed public perception and action on climate change on grounds of belief systems, and identified seven psychological barriers affecting behavior that otherwise would facilitate mitigation, adaptation, and environmental stewardship: cognition, ideological worldviews, comparisons to key people, costs and momentum, disbelief in experts and authorities, perceived risks of change, and inadequate behavioral changes. Other factors include distance in time, space, and influence. Reactions to climate change may include anxiety, depression, despair, dissonance, uncertainty, insecurity, and distress, with one psychologist suggesting that "despair about our changing climate may get in the way of fixing it." The American Psychological Association has urged psychologists and other social scientists to work on psychological barriers to taking action on climate change. The immediacy of a growing number of extreme weather events are thought to motivate people to deal with climate change. == Types of denial == === Expanding the meaning of "denial" === The idea of "soft" or implicit climate change denial became prominent in the mid-2010s, but variations of the same concept originated earlier. An article published by National Center for


id: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-1.md
category: reference
title: Psychology of climate change denial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-0
summary:
== Psychological reasons for denial == Various psychological factors can impact the effectiveness of communication about climate change, driving potential climate change denial. Psychological barriers, such as emotions, opinions and morals refer to the internal beliefs that a person has which stop them from completing a certain action. Psychologist Robert Gifford wrote in 2011 "we are hindered by seven categories of psychological barriers, also known as dragons of inaction: limited cognition about the problem, ideological worldviews that tend to preclude pro-environmental attitudes and behavior, comparisons with other key people, sunk costs and behavioral momentum, discordance toward experts and authorities, perceived risk of change, and positive but inadequate behavior change". A study published in PLOS One in 2024 found that even a single repetition of a claim was sufficient to increase the perceived truth of both climate science-aligned claims and climate change skeptic/denial claims—"highlighting the insidious effect of repetition". This effect was found even among climate science endorsers. Polarization in the climate change debate, with skeptics labeling proponents ‘catastrophists’ and proponents calling skeptics ‘deniers,’ reflects psychological barriers like in-group/out-group bias and confirmation bias, which entrench denial by reinforcing group identities. Skeptics often exhibit confirmation bias by distrusting climate science, while proponents


id: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-2.md
category: reference
title: Psychology of climate change denial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-0
summary:
=== Conspiratorial beliefs === Climate change denial is commonly rooted in a phenomenon commonly known as conspiracy theory, in which people misattribute events to a secret plot or plan by a powerful group of individuals. The development of conspiracy theories is further prompted by the proportionality bias that results from climate change — an event of mass scale and a great deal of significance — being frequently presented as a result of daily small-scale human behavior; often, individuals are less likely to believe large events of this scale can be so easily explained by ordinary details. This inclination is furthered by a variety of possible strong individually and socially grounded reasons to believe in these conspiracy theories. The social nature of being a human holds influential merit when it comes to information evaluation. Conspiracy theories reaffirm the idea that people are part of moral social groups that have the ability to remain firm in the face of deep-seated threats. Conspiracy theories also feed into the human desire and motivation to maintain one's level of self-esteem, a concept known as self-enhancement. With climate change in particular, one possibility for the popularity of climate change conspiracy theories is that these theories knee-cap


id: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-3.md
category: reference
title: Psychology of climate change denial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-0
summary:
Ideologies, including suprahuman powers, technosalvation, and system justification, are all psychological barriers to climate change acceptance. Suprahuman powers describes the belief that humans cannot or should not interfere because they believe a religious deity will not turn on them or will do what it wants to do regardless of their intervention. Technosalvation is the ideology that technologies such as geoengineering will save us from climate change, and so mitigation behavior is not necessary. Another ideological barrier is the ideology of system justification, or the defense and justification of the status quo, so as to not "rock the boat" on a comfortable lifestyle. === Own behaviors, habits, aspirations === People are also very invested in their own behavior. Behavioral momentum, or daily habits, are one of the most important barriers to remove for climate change mitigation. Lastly, conflicting values, goals, and aspirations can interfere with the acceptance of climate change mitigation. Because many of the goals held by individuals directly conflict with climate change mitigation strategies, climate change gets pushed to the bottom of their list of values, so as to minimize the extent of its conflict. One type of limited behavior is tokenism, where after completing one small task or


id: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-4.md
category: reference
title: Psychology of climate change denial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychology-of-climate-change-denial-20260505-0
summary:
Soft climate denial has been ascribed to both liberals and conservatives, as well as proponents of market-based environmental policy instruments. It has also been used in self-criticism against tendencies toward complacency and inaction. Depending on perspective, sources may differ on whether a person engages in "soft" or "hard" denial (or neither). For example, the environmental policy of the Trump administration has been described as both "soft" and "hard" climate denial. In Scientific American, Robert N. Proctor and Steve Lyons described Bret Stephens, a conservative New York Times opinion columnist and self-described "climate agnostic", as a soft denialist: The irony is that Stephens himself seems to presume that climate science must be understood in political terms—as part of a larger struggle between liberals and conservatives. But the reality of climate change has nothing to do with politics: it's an atmospheric fact, not a political fact. And the whole idea of needing to keep 'an open mind' to a legitimate 'controversy' is the very essence of modern 'soft' denialism. It was pointed out in 2017 that all the other current opinion columnists at the New York Times expressed varying degrees of soft denial in their work: "Like many liberals, every current liberal


id: rare-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_species-0.md
category: reference
title: Rare species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:03.055184+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rare-species-20260505-0
summary:
A rare species is a group of organisms that are very uncommon, scarce, or infrequently encountered. This designation may be applied to either a plant or animal taxon, and is distinct from the term endangered or threatened. Designation of a rare species may be made by an official body, such as a national government, state, or province. The term more commonly appears without reference to specific criteria. The International Union for Conservation of Nature does not normally make such designations, but may use the term in scientific discussion. Rarity rests on a specific species being represented by a small number of organisms worldwide, usually fewer than 10,000. However, a species having a very narrow endemic range or fragmented habitat also influences the concept. Almost 75% of known species can be classified as "rare". Rare species are species with small populations. Many will move into the endangered or vulnerable category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. Well-known examples of rare species - because these are large terrestrial animals - include the Himalayan brown bear, Fennec fox, Wild Asiatic buffalo, or the Hornbill. They are not endangered yet, but classified as "at risk", although the frontier between these categories


id: regeneration-sustainability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(sustainability)-0.md
category: reference
title: Regeneration (sustainability)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(sustainability)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:04.402988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regeneration-sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
Regeneration refers to rethinking and reinventing business models, supply chains, and lifestyles to sustain and improve the earth's natural environment and avoid the depletion of natural resources. Regeneration includes widespread environmental practices such as reusing, recycling, restoring, and the use of renewable resources. == History == The modern environmental movement gained traction in the early 1970s following the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, the first time multiple nations joined to discuss the state of the world's environment. On World Environment Day 2007, Dell Inc. chief executive Michael Dell launched a corporate campaign centred on the idea of a “ReGeneration” – consumers committed to recycling, renewable energy, and broader environmental stewardship. Many of the original theories of change came from writers, thinkers, and designers such as Wendell Berry, Buckminster Fuller, David Orr and Frank Lloyd Wright. These individuals saw a shift happening in humanity toward a rekindled connection with nature and inspired monumental changes in our approach and perspectives on topics such as building community, our relationship with agriculture and architecture, as well as the disconnect between modern economics on a finite planet. Thought leaders like Paul Hawken, Kate Raworth, Naomi Klein, David Suzuki, and Bill McKibben have modernized


id: riparian-buffer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer-0.md
category: reference
title: Riparian buffer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:05.774949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: riparian-buffer-20260505-0
summary:
A riparian buffer or stream buffer is a vegetated area (a "buffer strip") near a stream, usually forested, which helps shade and partially protect the stream from the impact of adjacent land uses. It plays a key role in increasing water quality in associated streams, rivers, and lakes, thus providing environmental benefits. With the decline of many aquatic ecosystems due to agriculture, riparian buffers have become a very common conservation practice aimed at increasing water quality and reducing pollution. == Benefits == Riparian buffers act to intercept sediment, nutrients, pesticides, and other materials in surface runoff and reduce nutrients and other pollutants in shallow subsurface water flow. They also serve to provide habitat and wildlife corridors in primarily agricultural areas. They can also be key in reducing erosion by providing stream bank stabilization. Large scale results have demonstrated that the expansion of riparian buffers through the deployment of plantations systems can effectively reduce nitrogen emissions to water and soil loss by wind erosion, while simultaneously providing substantial environmental co-benefits, having limited negative effects on current agricultural production. === Water quality benefits === Riparian buffers intercept sediment and nutrients. They counteract eutrophication in downstream lakes and ponds which can be detrimental


id: riparian-buffer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer-1.md
category: reference
title: Riparian buffer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:05.774949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: riparian-buffer-20260505-0
summary:
== Conservation incentives == The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), a farming assistance program in the United States, provides many incentives to landowners to encourage them to install riparian buffers around water systems that have a high chance of non-point water pollution and are highly erodible. For example, the Nebraska system of Riparian Buffer Payments offers payments for the cost of setup, a sign up bonus, and annual rental payments. These incentives are offered to agriculturists to compensate them for their economic loss of taking this land out of production. If the land is highly erodible and produces little economic gain, it can sometimes be more economic to take advantage of these CRP programs. == Effectiveness == Riparian buffers have undergone much scrutiny about their effectiveness, resulting in thorough testing and monitoring. A study done by the University of Georgia, conducted over a nine-year period, monitored the amounts of fertilizers that reached the watershed from the source of the application. It found that these buffers removed at least 60% of the nitrogen in the runoff, and at least 65% of the phosphorus from the fertilizer application. The same study showed that the effectiveness of the Zone 3 was much greater than


id: secondary-succession-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_succession-0.md
category: reference
title: Secondary succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:07.069042+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secondary-succession-20260505-0
summary:
Secondary succession is the secondary ecological succession of a plant's life. As opposed to the first, primary succession, secondary succession is a process started by an event (e.g. forest fire, harvesting, hurricane, etc.) that reduces an already established ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a wheat field) to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil. Many factors can affect secondary succession, such as trophic interaction, initial composition, and competition-colonization trade-offs. The factors that control the increase in abundance of a species during succession may be determined mainly by seed production and dispersal, micro climate; landscape structure (habitat patch size and distance to outside seed sources); bulk density, pH, and soil texture (sand and clay). Secondary succession is the ecological succession that occurs after the initial succession has been disrupted and some plants and animals still exist. It is usually faster than primary succession as soil is already present, and seeds, roots, and the underground vegetative organs of plants may still survive in the soil. == Examples == === Imperata === Imperata grasslands are caused by human activities such as logging, forest clearing for shifting


id: shifting-baseline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_baseline-0.md
category: reference
title: Shifting baseline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_baseline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:08.501735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shifting-baseline-20260505-0
summary:
A shifting baseline (also known as a sliding baseline) is a type of change to how a system is measured, usually against previous reference points (baselines), which themselves may represent significant changes from an even earlier state of the system that fails to be considered or remembered. The concept arose in landscape architect Ian McHarg's 1969 manifesto Design With Nature in which the modern landscape is compared to that on which ancient people once lived. The concept was then considered by the fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly in his paper "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries". Pauly developed the concept in reference to fisheries management where fisheries scientists sometimes fail to identify the correct "baseline" population size (e.g. how abundant a fish species population was before human exploitation) and thus, wind up working with a shifted baseline. He describes the way that radically depleted fisheries were evaluated by experts who used the state of the fishery at the start of their careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its untouched natural state. Areas that swarmed with a particular species hundreds of years ago, may have experienced long term decline, but it is the level of decades previously


id: solar-canopy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_canopy-0.md
category: reference
title: Solar canopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_canopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:11.354967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solar-canopy-20260505-0
summary:
Solar canopies are solar arrays installed on canopies, which could be a parking lot canopy, carport, gazebo, Pergola, or patio cover. == Solar canopy parking lots == The mounting structure makes solar canopy parking lots 50% to twice as expensive to build as traditional grass field solar arrays, but as distributed energy resources they avoid transmission congestion and losses. The canopies can protect the cars and asphalt from extreme weather. A French law passed in 2023 will require parking lots larger than 50,000 square feet (4,600 m2) to build solar canopies covering half their area. This could result in installed capacity of 6.75–11.25 gigawatts, at a cost of $8.7–14.6 billion. In 2022, the world's largest solar car park canopy opened in the Netherlands with 35 MW capacity. A 17 MW car park canopy opened in Germany in 2025. Rutgers University built 14.5 MW of solar canopies on parking lots in 2023, which will generate 18 GWh annually, in addition to the 32-acre 8.8 MW solar canopy parking lot already installed there in 2013. If Walmart Supercenters installed Solar canopies on their 3,500+ parking lots it would generate 11.1 gigawatts of solar power nameplate capacity. Many canopy projects may use the


id: solar-landfill-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_landfill-0.md
category: reference
title: Solar landfill
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_landfill
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:12.662444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solar-landfill-20260505-0
summary:
A solar landfill, also referred to as a brightfield, is a former landfill site that has been transformed into a solar array or solar farm. Landfills that are no longer in use are often called brownfields due to potential environmental concerns. By repurposing these brownfields into solar fields, they then become brightfields. In the United States, there are more than 10,000 closed or inactive landfills, which have the potential to accommodate over 60 gigawatts of solar installations. == Development == Landfill sites are often suitable locations for solar farms due to their existing infrastructure, including access roads, electric utilities, and systems for using landfill gas. Additionally, these sites are elevated and devoid of objects that could obstruct solar irradiance. Constructing solar projects on landfills may have the added benefit of not requiring the developer to build on or disrupt existing ecosystems, such as would be the case if the project were to be sited on an area that requires clear-cutting. In order to be approved to site a solar project on a brownfield, most states require a measure of rehabilitation to be conducted on the land, including the disposal of on-site hazardous materials as well as ecological restoration such as


id: species-diversity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversity-0.md
category: reference
title: Species diversity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:14.044811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: species-diversity-20260505-0
summary:
Species diversity is the number of different species that are represented in a given community (a dataset). The effective number of species refers to the number of equally abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Meanings of species diversity may include species richness, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity, and/or species evenness. Species richness is a simple count of species. Taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity is the genetic relationship between different groups of species. Species evenness quantifies how equal the abundances of the species are. == Calculation of diversity == Species diversity in a dataset can be calculated by first taking the weighted average of species proportional abundances in the dataset, and then taking the inverse of this. The equation is: q D = 1 ∑ i = 1 S p i p i q − 1 q − 1 {\displaystyle {}^{q}\!D={1 \over {\sqrt[{q-1}]{\sum _{i=1}^{S}p_{i}p_{i}^{q-1}}}}} The denominator equals mean proportional species abundance in the dataset as calculated with the weighted generalized mean with exponent q - 1. In the equation, S is the total number of species (species richness) in the dataset, and


id: stream-restoration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-0.md
category: reference
title: Stream restoration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:15.406052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stream-restoration-20260505-0
summary:
Stream restoration or river restoration, also sometimes referred to as river reclamation, is work conducted to improve the environmental health of a river or stream, in support of biodiversity, recreation, flood management and/or landscape development. Stream restoration approaches can be divided into two broad categories: form-based restoration, which relies on physical interventions in a stream to improve its conditions; and process-based restoration, which advocates the restoration of hydrological and geomorphological processes (such as sediment transport or connectivity between the channel and the floodplain) to ensure a stream's resilience and ecological health. Form-based restoration techniques include deflectors; cross-vanes; weirs, step-pools and other grade-control structures; engineered log jams; bank stabilization methods and other channel-reconfiguration efforts. These induce immediate change in a stream, but sometimes fail to achieve the desired effects if degradation originates at a wider scale. Process-based restoration includes restoring lateral or longitudinal connectivity of water and sediment fluxes and limiting interventions within a corridor defined based on the stream's hydrology and geomorphology. The beneficial effects of process-based restoration projects may sometimes take time to be felt since changes in the stream will occur at a pace that depends on the stream dynamics. Despite the significant number of stream-restoration projects worldwide,


id: stream-restoration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-1.md
category: reference
title: Stream restoration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:15.406052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stream-restoration-20260505-0
summary:
===== Deflectors ===== Deflectors are generally wooden or rock structures installed at a bank toe and extending towards the center of a stream, in order to concentrate stream flow away from its banks. They can limit bank erosion and generate varying flow conditions in terms of depth and velocity, which can positively impact fish habitat. ===== Cross-vanes and related structures ===== Cross-vanes are U-shaped structures made of boulders or logs, built across the channel to concentrate stream flow in the center of the channel and thereby reduce bank erosion. They do not impact channel capacity and provides other benefits such as improved habitat for aquatic species. Similar structures used to dissipate stream energy include the W-weirs and J-Hook vanes. ===== Weirs, step pools and grade-control structures ===== These structures, which can be built with rocks or wood (logs or woody debris), gradually lower the elevation of the stream and dissipate flow energy, thereby reducing flow velocity. They can help limit bed degradation. They generate water accumulation upstream from them and fast flowing conditions downstream from them, which can improve fish habitat. However, they can limit fish passage if they are too high. ===== Engineered log jams ===== An emerging stream


id: stream-restoration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-2.md
category: reference
title: Stream restoration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:15.406052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stream-restoration-20260505-0
summary:
==== Improving connectivity ==== The connectivity of streams to their adjacent floodplain along their entire length plays an important role in the equilibrium of the river system. Streams are shaped by the water and sediment fluxes from their watershed, and any alteration of these fluxes (either in quantity, intensity or timing) will result in changes in equilibrium planform and cross-sectional geometry, as well as modifications of the aquatic and riparian ecosystem. Removal or modification of levees can allow a better connection between streams and their floodplain. Similarly, removing dams and grade control structures can restore water and sediment fluxes and result in more diversified habitats, although impacts on fish communities can be difficult to assess. In streams where existing infrastructures cannot be removed or modified, it is also possible to optimize sediment and water management in order to maximize connectivity and achieve flow patterns that ensure minimum ecosystem requirements. This can include releases from dams, but also delaying and/or treating water from agricultural and urban sources. ==== Implementing a minimum stream corridor width ==== Another method of ensuring the ecological health of streams while limiting impacts on human infrastructures is to delineate a corridor within which the stream is expected


id: surfactant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-0.md
category: reference
title: Surfactant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:16.757055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surfactant-20260505-0
summary:
A surfactant is a chemical compound that decreases the surface tension or interfacial tension between two liquids, a liquid and a gas, or a liquid and a solid. The word surfactant is a blend of "surface-active agent", coined in 1950. As they consist of a water-repellent and a water-attracting part, they are emulsifiers, enabling water and oil to mix. They can also form foam, and facilitate the detachment of dirt. Surfactants are among the most widespread and commercially important chemicals. Private households as well as many industries use them in large quantities as detergents and cleaning agents, but also as emulsifiers, wetting agents, foaming agents, antistatic additives, and dispersants. Surfactants occur naturally in traditional plant-based detergents, e.g. horse chestnuts or soap nuts; they can also be found in the secretions of some caterpillars. Some of the most commonly used anionic surfactants, linear alkylbenzene sulfates (LAS), are produced from petroleum products. However, surfactants are increasingly produced in whole or in part from renewable biomass, like sugar, fatty alcohol from vegetable oils, by-products of biofuel production, and other biogenic material. == Classification == Surfactants are compounds with hydrophilic "heads" and hydrophobic "tails." The "heads" of surfactants are polar and may or may


id: surfactant-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-1.md
category: reference
title: Surfactant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:16.757055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surfactant-20260505-0
summary:
Surfactant molecules have either one tail or two; those with two tails are said to be double-chained. Amino acid-based surfactants are surfactants derived from an amino acid. Their properties vary and can be either anionic, cationic, or zwitterionic, depending on the amino acid used and which part of the amino acid is condensed with the alkyl/aryl chain. Gemini surfactants consist of two surfactant molecules linked together at or near their head groups. Compared to monomeric surfactants, they have much lower critical micelle concentrations. === Classification according to properties / application === == Composition and structure == Surfactants are (usually organic) compounds that are amphiphilic, which means that this molecule each contains a hydrophilic "water-seeking" group (the head), and a hydrophobic "water-avoiding" group (the tail). As a result, a surfactant contains both a water-soluble component and a water-insoluble component. Surfactants diffuse in water and get adsorbed at interfaces between air and water, or at the interface between oil and water in the case where water is mixed with oil. The water-insoluble hydrophobic group may extend out of the bulk water phase into a non-water phase such as air or oil phase, while the water-soluble head group remains bound in the water


id: surfactant-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-2.md
category: reference
title: Surfactant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:16.757055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surfactant-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medicine === Surfactants act to cause the displacement of air from the matrix of cotton pads and bandages so that medicinal solutions can be absorbed for application to various body areas. They also act to displace dirt and debris by the use of detergents in the washing of wounds and via the application of medicinal lotions and sprays to surface of skin and mucous membranes. Surfactants enhance remediation via soil washing, bioremediation, and phytoremediation. Many spermicides contain surfactants (such as nonoxynol-9). === Biochemistry === In solution, detergents help solubilize a variety of chemical species by dissociating aggregates and unfolding proteins. Popular surfactants in the biochemistry laboratory are sodium lauryl sulfate (SDS) and cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). Detergents are key reagents to extract protein by lysis of the cells and tissues: they disorganize the membrane's lipid bilayer (SDS, Triton X-100, X-114, CHAPS, DOC, and NP-40), and solubilize proteins. Milder detergents such as octyl thioglucoside, octyl glucoside or dodecyl maltoside are used to solubilize membrane proteins such as enzymes and receptors without denaturing them. Non-solubilized material is harvested by centrifugation or other means. For electrophoresis, for example, proteins are classically treated with SDS to denature the native tertiary and quaternary structures,


id: surfactant-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-3.md
category: reference
title: Surfactant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:16.757055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surfactant-20260505-0
summary:
== Safety and environmental risks == Most anionic and non-ionic surfactants are non-toxic, having LD50 comparable to table salt. The toxicity of quaternary ammonium compounds, which are antibacterial and antifungal, varies. Dialkyldimethylammonium chlorides (DDAC, DSDMAC) used as fabric softeners have high LD50 (5 g/kg) and are essentially non-toxic, while the disinfectant alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chloride has an LD50 of 0.35 g/kg. Prolonged exposure to surfactants can irritate and damage the skin because surfactants disrupt the lipid membrane that protects skin and other cells. Skin irritancy generally increases in the series non-ionic, amphoteric, anionic, cationic surfactants. Surfactants are routinely deposited in numerous ways on land and into water systems, whether as part of an intended process or as industrial and household waste. Anionic surfactants can be found in soils as the result of sewage sludge application, wastewater irrigation, and remediation processes. Relatively high concentrations of surfactants together with multimetals can represent an environmental risk. At low concentrations, surfactant application is unlikely to have a significant effect on trace metal mobility. In the case of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, unprecedented amounts of Corexit were sprayed directly into the ocean at the leak and on the sea-water's surface. The apparent theory was that the


id: sustainability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-0.md
category: reference
title: Sustainability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
Sustainability or being sustainable (from the latin sustinere - hold up, hold upright; furnish with means of support; bear, undergo, endure) is the ability to continue over a long period of time. In modern usage it generally refers to a state in which the environment, economy, and society will continue to exist over a long period of time. Many definitions emphasize the environmental dimension. This can include addressing key environmental problems, such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, organizational, and individual levels. A related concept is that of sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it." Details around the economic dimension of sustainability are controversial. Scholars have discussed this under the concept of weak and strong sustainability. For example, there will always be tension between the ideas of "welfare and prosperity for all" and environmental conservation, so trade-offs are necessary. It would be desirable to find ways that separate economic growth from harming the environment. This means


id: sustainability-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-1.md
category: reference
title: Sustainability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
The term sustainability is derived from the Latin word sustinere. "To sustain" can mean to maintain, support, uphold, or endure. So sustainability is the ability to continue over a long period of time. In the past, sustainability referred to environmental sustainability. It meant using natural resources so that people in the future could continue to rely on them in the long term. The concept of sustainability, or Nachhaltigkeit in German, goes back to Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645–1714), and applied to forestry. The term for this now would be sustainable forest management. He used this term to mean the long-term responsible use of a natural resource. In his 1713 work Silvicultura oeconomica, he wrote that "the highest art/science/industriousness [...] will consist in such a conservation and replanting of timber that there can be a continuous, ongoing and sustainable use". The shift in use of "sustainability" from preservation of forests (for future wood production) to broader preservation of environmental resources (to sustain the world for future generations) traces to a 1972 book by Ernst Basler, based on a series of lectures at M.I.T. The idea itself goes back a long time: Communities have always worried about the capacity of their environment


id: sustainability-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-2.md
category: reference
title: Sustainability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
Scholars have discussed how to rank the three dimensions of sustainability. Many publications state that the environmental dimension is the most important. (Planetary integrity or ecological integrity are other terms for the environmental dimension.) Protecting ecological integrity is the core of sustainability according to many experts. If this is the case then its environmental dimension sets limits to economic and social development. The diagram with three nested ellipses is one way of showing the three dimensions of sustainability together with a hierarchy: It gives the environmental dimension a special status. In this diagram, the environment includes society, and society includes economic conditions. Thus it stresses a hierarchy. This nested hierarchy has led some scholars and Indigenous thinkers to call for decentering the human in sustainability discourse, arguing that ecological systems should not merely be valued for their utility to humans but as interdependent life systems with intrinsic worth. Another model shows the three dimensions in a similar way: In this SDG wedding cake model, the economy is a smaller subset of the societal system. And the societal system in turn is a smaller subset of the biosphere system. In 2022 an assessment examined the political impacts of the Sustainable Development


id: sustainability-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-3.md
category: reference
title: Sustainability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
=== Economic sustainability === The economic dimension of sustainability is controversial. This is because the term development within sustainable development can be interpreted in different ways. Some may take it to mean only economic development and growth. This can promote an economic system that is bad for the environment. Others focus more on the trade-offs between environmental conservation and achieving welfare goals for basic needs (food, water, health, and shelter). Economic development can indeed reduce hunger or energy poverty, especially in the least developed countries. That is why Sustainable Development Goal 8 calls for economic growth to drive social progress and well-being, where indicators include real GDP per capita growth. However, the challenge is to expand economic activities while reducing their environmental impact. In other words, humanity will have to find ways how societal progress (potentially by economic development) can be reached without excess strain on the environment. The Brundtland report says poverty causes environmental problems. Poverty also results from them. So addressing environmental problems requires understanding the factors behind world poverty and inequality. The report demands a new development path for sustained human progress. It highlights that this is a goal for both developing and industrialized nations. UNEP and


id: sustainability-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-4.md
category: reference
title: Sustainability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
People often debate the relationship between the environmental and economic dimensions of sustainability. In academia, this is discussed under the term weak and strong sustainability. In that model, the weak sustainability concept states that capital made by humans could replace most of the natural capital. Natural capital is a way of describing environmental resources. People may refer to it as nature. An example for this is the use of environmental technologies to reduce pollution. The opposite concept in that model is strong sustainability. This assumes that nature provides functions that technology cannot replace. Thus, strong sustainability acknowledges the need to preserve ecological integrity. The loss of those functions makes it impossible to recover or repair many resources and ecosystem services. Biodiversity, along with pollination and fertile soils, are examples. Others are clean air, clean water, and regulation of climate systems. Weak sustainability has come under criticism. It may be popular with governments and business but does not ensure the preservation of the earth's ecological integrity. This is why the environmental dimension is so important. The World Economic Forum illustrated this in 2020. It found that $44 trillion of economic value generation depends on nature. This value, more than half of


id: sustainability-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-5.md
category: reference
title: Sustainability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
== Barriers == There are many reasons why sustainability is so difficult to achieve. These reasons have the name sustainability barriers. Before addressing these barriers it is important to analyze and understand them. Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity ("everything is related"). Others arise from the human condition. One example is the value-action gap. This reflects the fact that people often do not act according to their convictions. Experts describe these barriers as intrinsic to the concept of sustainability. Other barriers are extrinsic to the concept of sustainability. This means it is possible to overcome them. One way would be to put a price tag on the consumption of public goods. Some extrinsic barriers relate to the nature of dominant institutional frameworks. Examples would be where market mechanisms fail for public goods. Existing societies, economies, and cultures encourage increased consumption. There is a structural imperative for growth in competitive market economies. This inhibits necessary societal change. Furthermore, there are several barriers related to the difficulties of implementing sustainability policies. There are trade-offs between the goals of environmental policies and economic development. Environmental goals include nature conservation. Development may focus on poverty reduction. There are also trade-offs between short-term


id: sustainability-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-6.md
category: reference
title: Sustainability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
In 2015, the United Nations agreed the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Their official name is Agenda 2030 for the Sustainable Development Goals. The UN described this programme as a very ambitious and transformational vision. It said the SDGs were of unprecedented scope and significance. The UN said: "We are determined to take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path." The 17 goals and targets lay out transformative steps. For example, the SDGs aim to protect the future of planet Earth. The UN pledged to "protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of the present and future generations". == Options for overcoming barriers == === Issues around economic growth === Eco-economic decoupling is an idea to resolve tradeoffs between economic growth and environmental conservation. The idea is to "decouple environmental bads from economic goods as a path towards sustainability". This would mean "using less resources per unit of economic output and reducing the environmental impact of any resources that are used or economic activities that


id: sustainability-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-7.md
category: reference
title: Sustainability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainability-20260505-0
summary:
Sustainable business practices integrate ecological concerns with social and economic ones. One accounting framework for this approach uses the phrase "people, planet, and profit". The name of this approach is the triple bottom line. The circular economy is a related concept. Its goal is to decouple environmental pressure from economic growth. Growing attention towards sustainability has led to the formation of many organizations. These include the Sustainability Consortium of the Society for Organizational Learning, the Sustainable Business Institute, and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Supply chain sustainability looks at the environmental and human impacts of products in the supply chain. It considers how they move from raw materials sourcing to production, storage, and delivery, and every transportation link on the way. === Religious communities === Religious leaders have stressed the importance of caring for nature and environmental sustainability. In 2015 over 150 leaders from various faiths issued a joint statement to the UN Climate Summit in Paris 2015. They reiterated a statement made in the Interfaith Summit in New York in 2014:As representatives from different faith and religious traditions, we stand together to express deep concern for the consequences of climate change on the earth and its people,


id: sustainable-development-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-0.md
category: reference
title: Sustainable development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:19.378917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainable-development-20260505-0
summary:
Sustainable development is an approach to growth and human development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The aim is to have a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining planetary integrity. Sustainable development aims to balance the needs of the economy, environment, and society. Equitable health access is a pillar of social sustainability. The Brundtland Report, published in 1987, helped to make the concept of sustainable development better known. Sustainable development overlaps with the idea of sustainability which is a normative concept. UNESCO formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it." The Rio Process that began at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro has placed the concept of sustainable development on the international agenda. Sustainable development is the foundational concept of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These global goals for the year 2030 were adopted in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA). They address the global challenges, including poverty,


id: sustainable-development-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-1.md
category: reference
title: Sustainable development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:19.378917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainable-development-20260505-0
summary:
Sustainable development has its roots in ideas regarding sustainable forest management, which were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In response to a growing awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, John Evelyn argued, in his 1662 essay Sylva, that "sowing and planting of trees had to be regarded as a national duty of every landowner, in order to stop the destructive over- exploitation of natural resources." In 1713, Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a senior mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published Sylvicultura economics, a 400-page work on forestry. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, von Carlowitz developed the concept of managing forests for sustained yield. His work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of the science of forestry. This, in turn, influenced people like Gifford Pinchot, the first head of the US Forest Service, whose approach to forest management was driven by the idea of wise use of resources, and Aldo Leopold whose land ethic was influential in the development of the environmental movement in the 1960s. Following the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent


id: sustainable-development-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-2.md
category: reference
title: Sustainable development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:19.378917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainable-development-20260505-0
summary:
== Pathways == Six interdependent capacities are deemed to be necessary for the successful pursuit of sustainable development. These are the capacities to measure progress towards sustainable development; promote equity within and between generations; adapt to shocks and surprises; transform the system onto more sustainable development pathways; link knowledge with action for sustainability; and to devise governance arrangements that allow people to work together. During the MDG era (year 2000 to 2015), the key objective of sustainable development was poverty reduction to be reached through economic growth and participation in the global trade system. The SDGs take a much more comprehensive approach to sustainable development than the MDGs did. They offer a more people-centered development agenda. Out of the 17 SDGs, for example, 11 goals contain targets related to equity, equality or inclusion, and SDG 10 is solely devoted to addressing inequality within and among countries. === Improving on environmental sustainability === An unsustainable situation occurs when natural capital (the total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. The concept of sustainable development is intertwined with


id: sustainable-development-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-3.md
category: reference
title: Sustainable development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:19.378917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainable-development-20260505-0
summary:
== Assessments and reactions == The concept of sustainable development has been and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as sustainable use of a non-renewable resource, since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock; this perspective renders the Industrial Revolution as a whole unsustainable. The sustainable development debate is based on the assumption that societies need to manage three types of capital (economic, social, and natural), which may be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be irreversible. Natural capital can not necessarily be substituted by economic capital. While it is possible that we can find ways to replace some natural resources, it is much less likely that they will ever be able to replace ecosystem services, such as the protection provided by the ozone layer, or the climate stabilizing function of the Amazonian forest. The concept of sustainable development has been criticized from different angles. While some see it as paradoxical (or an oxymoron) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved


id: sustainable-remediation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_remediation-0.md
category: reference
title: Sustainable remediation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_remediation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:20.692531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sustainable-remediation-20260505-0
summary:
Sustainable Remediation is a term adopted internationally and encompasses sustainable approaches, as described by the Brundtland Report, to the investigation, assessment and management (including institutional controls) of potentially contaminated land and groundwater. Sustainable remediation brings together the concepts of remediation with the practice of sustainability. This field is quickly expanding with new research coming out frequently. == Definition == The process of identifying sustainable remediation is defined by The UK Sustainable remediation Forum as "the practice of demonstrating, in terms of environmental, economic and social indicators, that the benefit of undertaking remediation is greater than its impact, and that the optimum remediation solution is selected through the use of a balanced decision-making process." This approach is focused on mitigating environmental damage caused by factors like soil degradation, atmospheric pollution, and water contamination in a cost effective, and realistic way. This process can take shape in a wide variety of forms since there is a large range of different remediation projects required to address the critical needs of ecosystems; in fact it is estimated that there are 5 million brown field sites that are in need of remediation, internationally. In the US alone, there are more than 450,000 brown field sites


id: thermal-desorption-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption-0.md
category: reference
title: Thermal desorption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:23.296661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thermal-desorption-20260505-0
summary:
Thermal desorption is an environmental remediation technology that utilizes heat to increase the volatility of contaminants such that they can be removed (separated) from the solid matrix (typically soil, sludge or filter cake sediment). The volatilized contaminants are then either collected or thermally destroyed. A thermal desorption system therefore has two major components; the desorber itself and the offgas treatment system. Thermal desorption is not incineration. == History == Thermal desorption first appeared as an environmental treatment technology in 1985 when it was specified in the Record of Decision for the McKin Company Superfund site within the Royal River watershed in Maine. It is frequently referred to as "low temp" thermal desorption to differentiate it from high temperature incineration. An early direct fired thermal desorption project was the treatment of 8000 tons of toxaphene (a chlorinated pesticide) contaminated sandy soil at the S&S Flying Services site in Marianna Florida in 1990, with later projects exceeding 170,000 tons at the Cape Fear coal tar site in 1999. A status report from the United States Environmental Protection Agency shows that thermal desorption has been used at 69 Superfund sites through FY2000. In addition, hundreds of remediation projects have been completed using thermal


id: thermal-desorption-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption-1.md
category: reference
title: Thermal desorption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:23.296661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thermal-desorption-20260505-0
summary:
== Offgas treatment == There are only three basic options for offgas treatment available. The volatilized contaminants in the offgas can either be discharged to atmosphere, collected or destroyed. In some cases, both a collection and destruction system are employed. In addition to managing the volatilized components, the particulate solids (dust) that exit the desorber must also be removed from the offgas. When a collection system is used, the offgas must be cooled to condense the bulk of the volatilized components into a liquid. The offgas will exit most desorbers in the 350–900 °F range. The offgas is then typically cooled to somewhere between 120 and 40 °F to condense the bulk of the volatilized water and organic contaminants. Even at 40 °F, there may be measurable amounts of non-condensed organics. For this reason, after the condensation step, further treatment of the offgas is usually required. The cooled offgas may be treated by carbon adsorption, or thermal oxidation. Thermal oxidation can be accomplished using a catalytic oxidizer, an afterburner or by routing the offgas to the combustion heat source for the desorber. The volume of gas requiring treatment for indirect fired desorbers is a fraction of that required for a


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-0.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
Urban sprawl (also known as suburban sprawl or urban encroachment) is defined as "the rapid expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns, often characterized by low-density residential housing, single-use zoning, and increased reliance on the private automobile for transportation". Urban sprawl has been described as the unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for very dense urban planning. Urban sprawl refers to a special form of urbanization, and it relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with such development. In modern times some suburban areas described as "sprawl" have less detached housing and higher density than the nearby core city. Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of industrial warfare. Sometimes the urban areas described as the most "sprawling" are the most densely populated. The modern disadvantages and costs of urban sprawl include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside. The revenue for building and maintaining urban infrastructure in these areas are gained mostly through property and sales taxes. Most jobs in the US are now located in suburbs generating much of the


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-1.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
Despite its sprawl, Metropolitan Los Angeles is the densest major urban area (over 1,000,000 population) in the US, being denser than the New York urban area and the San Francisco urban area. Most of metropolitan Los Angeles is built at more uniform low to moderate density, leading to a much higher overall density for the entire region. This is in contrast to New York, San Francisco or Chicago which have compact, high-density cores surrounded by areas of very low-density suburban periphery, such as eastern Suffolk County in the New York metro area and Marin County in the San Francisco Bay Area. Some cases of sprawl challenge the definition of the term and what conditions are necessary for urban growth to be considered sprawl. Metropolitan regions such as Greater Mexico City, Delhi National Capital Region Beijing, and the Greater Tokyo Area are often regarded as sprawling despite being relatively dense and mixed use. == History == Many theories speculate as to the reason for the creation of urban sprawl. The theory of "flight from blight" explains that aspects of living in urban areas, such as high taxes, crime rates, poor infrastructure and school qualities lead to many people moving out of


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-2.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
Sprawl often refers to low-density development. There is no precise definition of "low density", but it might commonly mean single-family detached homes on large lots. Such buildings usually have fewer stories and are spaced farther apart, separated by lawns, landscaping, roads or parking lots. In the United States 2–4 houses per acre (5–10 per hectare) might be considered low-density while in the UK 8–12 per acre (or 20–30 per hectare) would still be considered low-density. Because more automobiles are used in the USA, much more land is designated for parking. The impact of low density development in many communities is that developed or "urbanized" land is increasing at a faster rate than the population is growing. Overall density is often lowered by "leapfrog development". This term refers to the relationship, or lack of it, between subdivisions. Such developments are typically separated by large green belts, i.e. tracts of undeveloped land, resulting in an overall density far lower even than the low density indicated by localized per-acre measurements. This is a 20th and 21st century phenomenon generated by the current custom of requiring a developer to provide subdivision infrastructure as a condition of development. Usually, the developer is required to set


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-3.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
Another prominent form of retail development in areas characterized by sprawl is the shopping mall. Unlike the strip mall, this is usually composed of a single building surrounded by a parking lot that contains multiple shops, usually "anchored" by one or more department stores. The function and size is also distinct from the strip mall. The focus is almost exclusively on recreational shopping rather than daily goods. Shopping malls also tend to serve a wider (regional) public and require higher-order infrastructure such as highway access and can have floorspaces in excess of 1 million sq ft (93,000 m2). Shopping malls are often detrimental to downtown shopping centres of nearby cities since the shopping malls act as a surrogate for the city centre. Some downtowns have responded to this challenge by building shopping centres of their own. Fast food chains are often built early in areas with low property values where the population is expected to boom and where large traffic is predicted, and set a precedent for future development. Eric Schlosser, in his book Fast Food Nation, argues that fast food chains accelerate suburban sprawl and help set its tone with their expansive parking lots, flashy signs, and plastic architecture


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-4.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
=== Health === Sprawl leads to increased driving, which in turn leads to vehicle emissions that contribute to air pollution and its attendant negative impacts on human health. In addition, the reduced physical activity implied by increased automobile use has negative health consequences. Sprawl significantly predicts chronic medical conditions and health-related quality of life, but not mental health disorders. The American Journal of Public Health and the American Journal of Health Promotion, have both stated that there is a significant connection between sprawl, obesity, and hypertension. Loud vehicles can cause stress, prevent sleep, and minimize social interactions in public for people living in cities (especially homeless people). In the years following World War II, when vehicle ownership was becoming widespread, public health officials recommended the health benefits of suburbs due to soot and industrial fumes in the city center. However, air in modern suburbs is not necessarily cleaner than air in urban neighborhoods. In fact, the most polluted air is on crowded highways, where people in suburbs tend to spend more time. On average, suburban residents generate more per capita pollution and carbon emissions than their urban counterparts because of their increased driving, as well as larger homes. Sprawl also


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-5.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
Increased vector-borne disease risk Urban sprawl also leads to the loss of natural habitats and habitat fragmentation, which increases contact between wildlife (including those that carry pathogens) and human populations due to the disruption of their ecosystems. This expansion also creates favorable conditions for the spread of vector-borne diseases. As cities grow, they often develop environments with stagnant water, increased humidity, and higher temperatures—ideal conditions for breeding disease-carrying mosquitoes. These conditions help facilitate the survival of mosquitoes, particularly Aedes species, which have been linked to the transmission of Zika, Malaria, and Chikungunya. Environmental changes and disease emergence Changes in land use are a major driver of emerging infectious diseases, as they influence species distribution, abundance, movement, and interactions—all of which affect the transmission of zoonotic diseases. For example, deforestation reduces the habitat of certain wildlife species, causing them to move closer to human settlements and ultimately increasing the likelihood of disease spillover. One Health and urban sprawl The One Health framework emphasizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. Addressing the risks of zoonotic diseases in the context of urban sprawl requires an integrated approach that considers the health of all three domains. Effective public health strategies must involve


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-6.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
Whether urban sprawl increases the problems of automobile dependency or not, policies of smart growth have been fiercely contested issues over several decades. An influential study in 1989 by Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy compared 32 cities across North America, Australia, Europe and Asia. The study has been criticised for its methodology, but the main finding, that denser cities, particularly in Asia, have lower car use than sprawling cities, particularly in North America, has been largely accepted, although the relationship is clearer at the extremes across continents than it is within countries where conditions are more similar. Within cities, studies from across many countries (mainly in the developed world) have shown that denser urban areas with greater mixture of land use and better public transport tend to have lower car use than less dense suburban and ex-urban residential areas. This usually holds true even after controlling for socio-economic factors such as differences in household composition and income. This does not necessarily imply that suburban sprawl causes high car use, however. One confounding factor, which has been the subject of many studies, is residential self-selection: people who prefer to drive tend to move towards low density suburbs, whereas people who prefer


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-7.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
=== Proposed alternatives === Many critics concede that sprawl produces some negative externalities; however there is some dispute about the most effective way to reduce these negative effects. Gordon & Richardson for example argue that the costs of building new public transit is disproportionate to the actual environmental or economic benefits, that land use restrictions will increase the cost of housing and restrict economic opportunity, that infill possibilities are too limited to make a major difference to the structure of American cities, and that the government would need to coerce most people to live in a way that they do not want to in order to substantially change the impact of sprawl. They argue that the property market should be deregulated to allow different people to live as they wish, while providing a framework of market based fees (such as emission fees, congestion charging or road pricing) to mitigate many of the problems associated with sprawl such as congestion and increased pollution. Several cities have adopted strategies to curb urban sprawl effectively. Portland, Oregon, established an Urban Growth Boundary (UGB) to contain development within a designated area, promoting higher-density, walkable neighborhoods and preserving surrounding farmland. Singapore has pioneered Transit-Oriented Development


id: urban-sprawl-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-8.md
category: reference
title: Urban sprawl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-sprawl-20260505-0
summary:
People living the closest to these business districts on average have more money to spend locally because they spend less on their cars. Because such people rely more on bicycling, walking, and transit than on driving, they tend to focus more of their commerce on locally owned neighborhood businesses that are convenient for them to reach. Walkability is a measure of how friendly an area is to walking. Walkability has many health, environmental, and economic benefits. However, evaluating walkability is challenging because it requires the consideration of many subjective factors. Factors influencing walkability include the presence or absence and quality of footpaths, sidewalks, or other pedestrian right-of-ways, traffic and road conditions, land use patterns, building accessibility, and safety, among others. Walkability is an important concept in sustainable urban design. Land use policies are one potential avenue to reduce the effects of urban sprawl. These policies take the form of boundaries to urban growth, regional development rights, and development centralized in urban areas. Housing policies, such as inclusionary zoning, rental vouchers in suburban areas, and a focus on employer-assisted housing are another approach to combatting urban sprawl. Gasoline taxes and increased funding towards the construction of public transportation also help to


id: vegetation-and-slope-stability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-0.md
category: reference
title: Vegetation and slope stability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:25.862847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vegetation-and-slope-stability-20260505-0
summary:
Vegetation and slope stability are interrelated by the ability of the plant life growing on slopes to both promote and hinder the stability of the slope. The relationship is a complex combination of the type of soil, the rainfall regime, the plant species present, the slope aspect, and the steepness of the slope. Knowledge of the underlying slope stability as a function of the soil type, its age, horizon development, compaction, and other impacts is a major underlying aspect of understanding how vegetation can alter the stability of the slope. There are four major ways in which vegetation influences slope stability: wind throwing, the removal of water, mass of vegetation (surcharge), and mechanical reinforcement of roots. == Wind throwing == Wind throw is the toppling of a tree due to the force of the wind, this exposes the root plate and adjacent soil beneath the tree and influences slope stability. Wind throw is a factor when considering one tree on a slope; however, it is of lesser importance when considering general slope stability for a body of trees as the wind forces involved represent a smaller percentage of the potential disturbing forces and the trees which are in the centre


id: vegetation-and-slope-stability-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-1.md
category: reference
title: Vegetation and slope stability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:25.862847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vegetation-and-slope-stability-20260505-0
summary:
=== Root reinforcement model === The root Reinforced Earth root model is the result of the root elongation across a potential slip plane which produces a tensile root force which is transferred to the soil by cohesive and frictional contacts between the root and the soil. === Tensile root strength contribution and pull out resistance === The pull out resistance of a root is the measured resistance of root structure to be pulled out of the ground and is likely to be only a little less than the measured tensile strength of the root which is the roots resistance to breaking as measured in the laboratory. In the cases where there is no pull out data available the tensile strength data maybe used as a rough guide to the maximum pull out resistance available. The tensile root strength of a range of diameters over a range of species has been tested in the laboratory and has been found to be approximately 5–60 MN/m2. In order for the root to actually enhance slope stability the root must have sufficient embedment and adhesion with the soil. The way that roots interact with the soil is intricate but for engineering purposes the available


id: vegetation-and-slope-stability-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-2.md
category: reference
title: Vegetation and slope stability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:25.862847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vegetation-and-slope-stability-20260505-0
summary:
=== Limitation of surface erosion === Vegetation can also control water erosion by limiting surface processes such as sheet wash and overland flow. Vegetation can contribute considerably to slope stability through enhancing soil cohesion. This cohesion is dependent upon the morphological characteristics of root systems and the tensile strength of single roots. There is considerable evidence of fine roots resisting surface erosion. The role of fine roots in general slope stability is not fully understood. Fine roots are thought to help keep the surface soil together and prevent surface erosion. The fine root network may have an apparent enhanced cohesion, which is comparable to geosynthetic mesh elements. The limitation of surface erosion processes is particularly apparent in areas of shrub and grass where the fine root distribution is consistent and clearly defined; however, cohesion is generally limited to the top 1 m (3.3 ft) of soil. == See also == Landslide Mudslide Surface runoff Tillage erosion == References == Sources British Broadcasting Corporation 2007, Biology, viewed 10 June 2007, www.bbc.co.uk/.../gcsebitesize/img/bi05006.gif Greenwood, J.; Norris, J. & Wint, J. 2007, ‘Discussion: Assessing the contribution of vegetation to slope stability’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 160, no. 1, pp. 51–53.


id: veteran-tree-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veteran_tree-0.md
category: reference
title: Veteran tree
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veteran_tree
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:27.117605+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: veteran-tree-20260505-0
summary:
A veteran tree is one that has ancient features but not the great age of an ancient tree, and is a tree of great cultural, landscape, or biodiversity value due to its ecological and habitat features. == Definition == Ancient trees exist in many forms and sizes, with ages ranging according to species and environment, with some lasting for hundreds of years; smaller trees, such as in orchards, can exhibit veteran characteristics after only a few decades. A girth of more than 3 meters at 1.5 meters could be used as a measure to identify if a tree is a veteran. However, other veteran tree characteristics may be taken into account, and alternative girths may be established for different tree species. Ancient trees often have features of particularly high nature conservation value, such as dead limbs, hollows, rot holes, water pools, seepages, woodpecker holes, splits, loose bark, limbs reaching the ground, and epiphytic plants and lichens. Few of these features are found on younger trees, and they provide habitats and foraging grounds for many species of animals and fungi, some of which are rare. Such features are sometimes removed or damaged by pruning or other arboricultural practices. Ancient trees can


id: list-of-waste-management-acronyms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of waste management acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-waste-management-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
The following article contains a list of acronyms and initials used in the waste management industry. == A == AATF Approved Authorised Treatment Facility ABPO Animal By-Products Order ABPR Animal By-Products Regulations ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ACE Alliance of Beverage Cartons and the Environment ACL Approved Carriers List ACM Asbestos Containing Material ACoP Approved Code of Practice ACP Advisory Committee on Packaging AD Anaerobic Digestion ADBA Anaerobic Digestion & Biogas Association ADI Acceptable Daily Intake ADR Accord Europeen Relatif aux Transport International des Marchandises Dangereuses par Route, a European treaty concerned with the international carriage of dangerous goods by road AE Approved Exporter AfOR Association for Organics Recycling ALANI Association of Local Authorities in Northern Ireland ALARP As Low As Reasonably Practicable ALCO Association of London Cleansing Officers ANPR Automatic Number Plate Recognition APC Air Pollution Control APCR Air Pollution Control Residue APSRG Associate Parliamentary Sustainable Resource Group AR Accredited Reprocessor ARF Advanced Recycling Fee ARM Alternative Raw Material ASBO Anti Social Behaviour Order ASR Automotive Shredder Residue ASSURE Association for Sustainable Use and Recovery of Resources ATEX Atmosphères Explosives Directive 94/9/EC ATF Authorised Treatment Facility (e.g. for the treatment of end-of-life vehicles (see ELV) and waste electrical and electronic


id: list-of-waste-management-acronyms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-1.md
category: reference
title: List of waste management acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-waste-management-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
== E == EA Enforcement Agency EBRA European Battery Recycling Association ECN European Compost Network EDIE Environmental Data Interactive Exchange eDoC Electronic Duty of Care EEA European Environment Agency EfW Energy-from-Waste EGSB Expanded Granular Sludge Bed EHO Environmental health officer EHS Environment & Heritage Service (Northern Ireland) EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EIC Environmental Industries Commission EIR Environmental Information Regulations ELSEF East London Sustainable Energy Facility ELV End of Life Vehicles ELWA East London Waste Authority EMAS Eco-Management and Audit Scheme EMS Environmental Management System ENTRUST The European Trust Scheme Regulatory Body ENCAMS Environmental Campaigns (umbrella name for former Going for Green and Tidy Britain Group) EP Environmental Permit EPA Environmental Protection Act or Environmental Protection Agency EPERN Electronic Packaging Waste Export Recovery Notes EPOW European Pathway to Zero Waste EPR Environmental Permitting Regulations EPRN Electronic Packaging Waste Recovery Notes EPS Expanded Polystyrene ERFO European Recovered Fuels Organisation ERI Energy Recovery Incineration ES Environmental Statement ESA Environmental Services Association ESWET European Suppliers of Waste-to-Energy Technology ETBC Electronics TakeBack Coalition ETRMA European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers' Association ETS Emissions Trading Scheme ETSU Energy Technology Support Unit EUHWL EU Hazardous Waste List (now incorporated into EWC) EUROPEN European Organization for Packaging and the


id: list-of-waste-management-acronyms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-2.md
category: reference
title: List of waste management acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-waste-management-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
== O == OBB Old Boxboard OCC Old Corrugated Containers ODPM Office of the Deputy Prime Minister ODS Ozone Depleting Substance OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OFGEM Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Great Britain) OFWAT Office of Water Services (England and Wales) OJEU Official Journal of the European Union OMA Operator Monitoring Assessment OPRA Operator Pollution Risk Appraisal ORA Oil Recycling Association OWP Oxfordshire Waste Partnership == P == PAFA Packaging and Films Association pams Periodicals and Magazines PAS Publicly Available Specification PAYT Pay As You Throw PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl PCS Producer Compliance Scheme PELVs Premature End of Life Vehicles (relatively new cars which have not survived the expected life span that most vehicle manufacturers build into their vehicles) PERN Packaging Export Recovery Note PET Polyethylene Terephthalate PFI Private Finance Initiative PIU Performance and Innovation Unit PM Particulate Matter, airborne (e.g. PM 10 ~ particles under 10 micrometres) PP Polypropylene PP Proximity Principle PPC Pollution Prevention and Control Act PPE Personal Protective Equipment PPG Planning Policy Guidance Notes (e.g. PPG 10 for waste management) PPP Public Private Partnership or Polluter-pays principle PPS Planning Policy Statement PR Producer Responsibility PRF Plastics Reclamation Facility PRN Packaging Recovery Note PS


id: water-footprint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-0.md
category: reference
title: Water footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state, or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise, or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service. Traditionally, water use has been approached from the production side, by quantifying the following three columns of water use: water withdrawals in the agricultural, industrial, and domestic sector. While this does provide valuable data, it is a limited way of looking at water use in a globalised world, in which products are not always consumed in their country of origin. International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect creates a global flow of virtual water, or embodied water (akin to the concept of embodied energy). In


id: water-footprint-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-1.md
category: reference
title: Water footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
== History == The concept of a water footprint was coined in 2002, by Arjen Hoekstra, Professor in water management at the University of Twente, Netherlands, and co-founder and scientific director of the Water Footprint Network, whilst working at the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, as a metric to measure the amount of water consumed and polluted to produce goods and services along their full supply chain. Water footprint is one of a family of ecological footprint indicators, which also includes carbon footprint and land footprint. The water footprint concept is further related to the idea of virtual water trade introduced in the early 1990s by Professor John Allan (2008 Stockholm Water Prize Laureate). The most elaborate publications on how to estimate water footprints are a 2004 report on the Water footprint of nations from UNESCO-IHE, the 2008 book Globalization of Water, and the 2011 manual The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard. Cooperation between global leading institutions in the field has led to the establishment of the Water Footprint Network in 2008. === Water Footprint Network (WFN) === The Water Footprint Network is an international learning community (a non-profit foundation under Dutch law) which serves as a


id: water-footprint-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-2.md
category: reference
title: Water footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
=== Industrial sector === The water footprint of a business, the 'corporate water footprint', is defined as the total volume of freshwater that is used directly or indirectly to run and support a business. It is the total volume of water use to be associated with the use of the business outputs. The water footprint of a business consists of water used for producing/manufacturing or for supporting activities and the indirect water use in the producer's supply chain. The Carbon Trust argue that a more robust approach is for businesses to go beyond simple volumetric measurement to assess the full range of water impact from all sites. Its work with leading global pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) analysed four key categories: water availability, water quality, health impacts, and licence to operate (including reputational and regulatory risks) in order to enable GSK to quantitatively measure, and credibly reduce, its year-on-year water impact. The Coca-Cola Company operates over a thousand manufacturing plants in about 200 countries. Making its drink uses a lot of water. Critics say its water footprint has been large. Coca-Cola has started to look at its water sustainability. It has now set out goals to reduce its water footprint such


id: water-footprint-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-3.md
category: reference
title: Water footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
The water footprint of a nation is the amount of water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of that nation. Analysis of the water footprint of nations illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution, by showing that several countries rely heavily on foreign water resources and that (consumption patterns in) many countries significantly and in various ways impact how, and how much, water is being consumed and polluted elsewhere on Earth. International water dependencies are substantial and are likely to increase with continued global trade liberalisation. The largest share (76%) of the virtual water flows between countries is related to international trade in crops and derived crop products. Trade in animal products and industrial products contributed 12% each to the global virtual water flows. The four major direct factors determining the water footprint of a country are: volume of consumption (related to the gross national income); consumption pattern (e.g. high versus low meat consumption); climate (growth conditions); and agricultural practice (water use efficiency). ==== Production or consumption ==== The assessment of total water use in connection to consumption can be approached from both ends of the supply chain. The water footprint of production


id: water-footprint-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-4.md
category: reference
title: Water footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
==== Asia ==== In south India the state Tamil Nadu is one of the main agricultural producers in India and it relies largely in groundwater for irrigation. In ten years, from 2002 to 2012, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment calculated that the groundwater reduced in 1.4 m yr−1, which "is nearly 8% more than the annual recharge rate." == Environmental water use == Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the "Water footprint of products" section above), and much "green water" is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in California, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of "dedicated water use" in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture). Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc. == Criticism == === Insufficient consideration of consequences of proposed water saving policies to farm households === According to Dennis Wichelns of the International Water Management Institute: "Although one goal of virtual water analysis


id: water-footprint-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-5.md
category: reference
title: Water footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
=== Effects of Location and Globalization on Water Footprints === Water footprints also have difficulties when attempting to trace the total environmental impact on a global scale, as opposed to the effect in a singular area. With the globalization of the economy and how multiple processes are involved in the creation of a product, different procedures may have different impacts on the environment. However, these processes can not be measured using general metrics, as the procedures that one facility may use to complete that process, be through necessity or efficiency, may not necessarily be the same as another facility tasked with the same procedure. This introduces spatiality - that is, the location from which waste originates - as another axis of consideration in the problem of evaluating water footprints. These implications apply to water footprints, as the environmental effects and contribution to scarcity similarly can not be assessed through generalization. The spatial effects can also be observed when looking at the concepts of direct and indirect water footprints. Direct water footprint can be defined as water that is used at a specific site to generate or maintain conditions necessary to create a given product. Indirect water footprint can be defined


id: water-footprint-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-6.md
category: reference
title: Water footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
== Sectoral distributions of withdrawn water use == Several nations estimate sectoral distribution of use of water withdrawn from surface and groundwater sources. For example, in Canada, in 2005, 42 billion m3 of withdrawn water were used, of which about 38 billion m3 were freshwater. Distribution of this use among sectors was: thermoelectric power generation 66.2%, manufacturing 13.6%, residential 9.0%, agriculture 4.7%, commercial and institutional 2.7%, water treatment and distribution systems 2.3%, mining 1.1%, and oil and gas extraction 0.5%. The 38 billion m3 of freshwater withdrawn in that year can be compared with the nation's annual freshwater yield (estimated as streamflow) of 3,472 billion m3. Sectoral distribution is different in many respects in the US, where agriculture accounts for about 39% of fresh water withdrawals, thermoelectric power generation 38%, industrial 4%, residential 1%, and mining (including oil and gas) 1%. Within the agricultural sector, withdrawn water use is for irrigation and for livestock. Whereas all irrigation in the US (including loss in conveyance of irrigation water) is estimated to account for about 38 percent of US withdrawn freshwater use, the irrigation water used for production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent,


id: water-meadow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow-0.md
category: reference
title: Water-meadow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:31.105255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-meadow-20260505-0
summary:
A water-meadow (also water meadow or watermeadow) is an area of grassland subject to controlled irrigation to increase agricultural productivity. Water-meadows were mainly used in Europe from the 16th to the early 20th centuries. Working water-meadows have now largely disappeared, but the field patterns and water channels of derelict water-meadows remain common in areas where they were used, such as parts of Northern Italy, Switzerland and England. Derelict water-meadows are often of importance as wetland wildlife habitats. Water-meadows should not be confused with flood-meadows, which are naturally covered in shallow water by seasonal flooding from a river. "Water-meadow" is sometimes used more loosely to mean any level grassland beside a river. == Types == Two main types of water-meadow were used. === Catchwork water-meadow === The simplest form of downward floated water meadow is the catchwork (also known as a 'catch meadow' or 'field gutter'system). Catchworks used spring water or hill-side streams to irrigate valley or hill slopes. If neither of these water sources was available rainwater and farmyard run-off was collected in a specially constructed feeder pond. Water was diverted from the source into a contour-following ditch or 'gutter' which skirted the top of the meadow. When the gutter


id: water-meadow-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow-1.md
category: reference
title: Water-meadow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:31.105255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-meadow-20260505-0
summary:
== Working water-meadows == Derelict water-meadows can be transformed into wildlife protection and conservation areas by repairing and operating the irrigation, as is the case of Josefov Meadows in the Czech Republic. By imitating the natural river flooding which is rare in modern straightened and dammed rivers, a rich biodiversity can be restored and attract and sustain many rare and protected wetland species. == See also == Flood-meadow Coastal plain Field Flooded grasslands and savannas Grassland Paddy field Pasture Plain Prairie Riparian zone Wet meadow Floodplain Berm == References == == Further reading == Hadrian Cook and Tom Williamson (eds.), Water Management in the English Landscape: Field, Marsh and Meadow. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999. == External links == "Irrigation § II. Water Meadows" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 842–846. Includes detailed description of bedwork and catchwork water-meadows. Upper Test Valley Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Description of the upper River Test valley in southern England, including description of catchwork water-meadows. Harnham Water Meadows Includes animation of water flow. Water Meadows: The lush pastures of the river valleys Description, terminology and diagrams of floated water-meadows. Nitrogen Transformations in Wetlands: Effects of Water Flow Patterns—PhD thesis


id: wetland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-0.md
category: reference
title: Wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wetland-20260505-0
summary:
A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor (anoxic) processes taking place, especially in the soils. Wetlands form a transitional zone between waterbodies and dry lands, and are different from other terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems due to their vegetation's roots having adapted to oxygen-poor waterlogged soils. They are considered among the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as habitats to a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and animals, with often improved water quality due to plant removal of excess nutrients such as nitrates and phosphorus. Wetlands exist on every continent, except Antarctica. The water in wetlands is either freshwater, brackish or saltwater. The main types of wetlands are defined based on the dominant plants and the source of the water. For example, marshes are wetlands dominated by emergent herbaceous vegetation such as reeds, cattails, and sedges. Swamps are dominated by woody vegetation, such as trees and shrubs (although reed swamps in Europe are dominated by reeds, not trees). Mangrove forests are wetlands with mangroves and halophytic woody plants that have evolved to tolerate salty water. Examples of


id: wetland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-1.md
category: reference
title: Wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wetland-20260505-0
summary:
Wetlands can be tidal (inundated by tides) or non-tidal. The water in wetlands is either freshwater, brackish, saline, or alkaline. There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog, and fen (bogs and fens being types of peatlands or mires). Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types. Sub-types include mangrove forests, carrs, pocosins, floodplains, peatlands, vernal pools, sinks, and many others. The following three groups are used within Australia to classify wetland by type: Marine and coastal zone wetlands, inland wetlands and human-made wetlands. In the US, the best known classifications are the Cowardin classification system and the hydrogeomorphic (HGM) classification system. The Cowardin system includes five main types of wetlands: marine (ocean-associated), estuarine (mixed ocean- and river-associated), riverine (within river channels), lacustrine (lake-associated) and palustrine (inland nontidal habitats). ==== Peatlands ==== Peatlands are a unique kind of wetland where lush plant growth and slow decay of dead plants (under anoxic conditions) results in organic peat accumulating; bogs, fens, and mires are different names for peatlands. === Wetland names === Variations of names for wetland systems: Some wetlands have localized names unique to a region such as the prairie potholes of North


id: wetland-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-2.md
category: reference
title: Wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wetland-20260505-0
summary:
== Biology == The life forms of a wetland system includes its plants (flora) and animals (fauna) and microbes (bacteria, fungi). The most important factor is the wetland's duration of flooding. Other important factors include fertility and salinity of the water or soils. The chemistry of water flowing into wetlands depends on the source of water, the geological material that it flows through and the nutrients discharged from organic matter in the soils and plants at higher elevations. Plants and animals may vary within a wetland seasonally or in response to flood regimes. === Flora === There are four main groups of hydrophytes that are found in wetland systems throughout the world. Submerged wetland vegetation can grow in saline and fresh-water conditions. Some species have underwater flowers, while others have long stems to allow the flowers to reach the surface. Submerged species provide a food source for native fauna, habitat for invertebrates, and also possess filtration capabilities. Examples include seagrasses and eelgrass. Floating water plants or floating vegetation are usually small, like those in the Lemnoideae subfamily (duckweeds). Emergent vegetation like the cattails (Typha spp.), sedges (Carex spp.) and arrow arum (Peltandra virginica) rise above the surface of the water.


id: wetland-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-3.md
category: reference
title: Wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wetland-20260505-0
summary:
=== Groundwater replenishment === Groundwater replenishment can be achieved for example by marsh, swamp, and subterranean karst and cave hydrological systems. The surface water visibly seen in wetlands only represents a portion of the overall water cycle, which also includes atmospheric water (precipitation) and groundwater. Many wetlands are directly linked to groundwater and they can be a crucial regulator of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetlands that have permeable substrates like limestone or occur in areas with highly variable and fluctuating water tables have especially important roles in groundwater replenishment or water recharge. Substrates that are porous allow water to filter down through the soil and underlying rock into aquifers which are the source of much of the world's drinking water. Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when the surrounding water table is low and as a discharge zone when it is high. === Shoreline stabilization and storm protection === Mangroves, coral reefs, salt marsh can help with shoreline stabilization and storm protection. Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones. Coral reefs provide a protective barrier to coastal shoreline. Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and will migrate


id: wetland-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-4.md
category: reference
title: Wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wetland-20260505-0
summary:
=== Additional services and uses of wetlands === Some types of wetlands can serve as fire breaks that help slow the spread of minor wildfires. Larger wetland systems can influence local precipitation patterns. Some boreal wetland systems in catchment headwaters may help extend the period of flow and maintain water temperature in connected downstream waters. Pollination services are supported by many wetlands which may provide the only suitable habitat for pollinating insects, birds, and mammals in highly developed areas. == Disturbances and human impacts == Wetlands, the functions and services they provide as well as their flora and fauna, can be affected by several types of disturbances. The disturbances (sometimes termed stressors or alterations) can be human-associated or natural, direct or indirect, reversible or not, and isolated or cumulative. Disturbances include exogenous factors such as flooding or drought. Humans are disturbing and damaging wetlands for example by oil and gas extraction, building infrastructure, overgrazing of livestock, overfishing, alteration of wetlands including dredging and draining, nutrient pollution and water pollution. Disturbance puts different levels of stress on an environment depending on the type and duration of disturbance. Predominant disturbances of wetlands include: Disturbances can be further categorized as follows: Minor disturbance:


id: wetland-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-5.md
category: reference
title: Wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wetland-20260505-0
summary:
=== Balancing wetland conservation with the needs of people === Wetlands are vital ecosystems that enhance the livelihoods for the millions of people who live in and around them. Studies have shown that it is possible to conserve wetlands while improving the livelihoods of people living among them. Case studies conducted in Malawi and Zambia looked at how dambos – wet, grassy valleys or depressions where water seeps to the surface – can be farmed sustainably. Project outcomes included a high yield of crops, development of sustainable farming techniques, and water management strategies that generate enough water for irrigation. === Ramsar Convention === The Ramsar Convention (full title: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat), is an international treaty designed to address global concerns regarding wetland loss and degradation. The primary purposes of the treaty are to list wetlands of international importance and to promote their wise use, with the ultimate goal of preserving the world's wetlands. Methods include restricting access to some wetland areas, as well as educating the public to combat the misconception that wetlands are wastelands. The convention works closely with five International Organisation Partners (IOPs). These are: Birdlife International, the IUCN, the International


id: wetland-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-6.md
category: reference
title: Wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wetland-20260505-0
summary:
=== Greenhouse gas emissions === In Southeast Asia, peat swamp forests and soils are being drained, burnt, mined, and overgrazed, contributing to climate change. As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon that had built up over thousands of years and is normally under water is suddenly exposed to the air. The peat decomposes and is converted into carbon dioxide (CO2), which is then released into the atmosphere. Peat fires cause the same process to occur rapidly and in addition create enormous clouds of smoke that cross international borders, which now happens almost yearly in Southeast Asia. While peatlands constitute only 3% of the world's land area, their degradation produces 7% of all CO2 emissions. === Climate change mitigation === Studies have favorably identified the potential for coastal wetlands (also called blue carbon ecosystems) to provide some degree of climate change mitigation in two ways: by conservation, reducing the greenhouse gas emissions arising from the loss and degradation of such habitats, and by restoration, to increase carbon dioxide drawdown and its long-term storage. However, CO2 removal using coastal blue carbon restoration has questionable cost-effectiveness when considered only as a climate mitigation action, either for carbon-offsetting or for inclusion in


id: wetland-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-7.md
category: reference
title: Wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wetland-20260505-0
summary:
=== Inventory === Although developing a global inventory of wetlands has proven to be a large and difficult undertaking, many efforts at more local scales have been successful. Current efforts are based on available data, but both classification and spatial resolution have sometimes proven to be inadequate for regional or site-specific environmental management decision making. Identifying small, long, and narrow wetlands within the landscape is difficult. Many of today's remote sensing satellites do not have sufficient spatial and spectral resolution to monitor wetland conditions, although multispectral IKONOS and QuickBird data may offer improved spatial resolutions once it is 4 m or higher. Most of the pixels are just mixtures of several plant species or vegetation types. They are difficult to isolate, translating into an inability to classify the vegetation that defines the wetland. The growing availability of 3D vegetation and topography data from LiDAR has partially addressed the limitation of traditional multispectral imagery, as demonstrated in some case studies worldwide. === Monitoring and mapping === A wetland needs to be monitored over time to assess whether it is functioning at an ecologically sustainable level or whether it is becoming degraded. Degraded wetlands will suffer a loss in water quality, loss


id: wildland-urban-interface-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-0.md
category: reference
title: Wildland–urban interface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:33.715060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wildland-urban-interface-20260505-0
summary:
The wildland–urban interface (WUI) is a zone of transition between wilderness (unoccupied land) and land developed by human activity – an area where a built environment meets or intermingles with a natural environment. Human settlements in the WUI are at a greater risk of catastrophic wildfire. The wildland-urban interface poses challenges to public health, causes environmental impacts, and facilitates the transmission of zoonotic diseases. == Definitions == In the United States, the wildland–urban interface (WUI) has two definitions. The US Forest Service defines the wildland–urban interface qualitatively as a place where "humans and their development meet or intermix with wildland fuel." Communities that are within 0.5 miles (0.80 km) of the zone are included. A quantitative definition is provided by the Federal Register, which defines WUI areas as those containing at least one housing unit per 40 acres (16 ha). The Federal Register definition splits the WUI into two categories based on vegetation density: Intermix WUI, or lands that contain at least one housing unit per 40 acres (16 ha) in which vegetation occupies more than 50% of terrestrial area; a heavily vegetated intermix WUI is as an area in which vegetation occupies over 75% of terrestrial area (at least


id: wildland-urban-interface-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-1.md
category: reference
title: Wildland–urban interface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:33.715060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wildland-urban-interface-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ecological effects === Housing growth in WUI regions can displace and fragment native vegetation. The introduction of non-native species by humans through landscaping can change the wildlife composition of interface regions. Pets can kill large quantities of wildlife. Forest fragmentation is another impact of WUI growth, which can lead to unintended ecological consequences. For instance, increased forest fragmentation can lead to an increase in the prevalence of Lyme disease. White-footed mice, a primary host of the Lyme tick, thrive in fragmented habitats. Increased urbanisation has a variety of effects on plant life. Depending on the influences that are present, some plant traits like woodiness and height may increase while many other traits either show mixed responses or are not well studied. Additionally, disease vectors in isolated patches can undergo genetic differentiation, increasing their survivability as a whole. Increases in wildfire risk pose a threat to conservation in WUI growth regions. Ecological change driven by human influence and climate change has often resulted in more arid and fire-prone WUI. Factors include climate change driven vegetation growth and introduction of non-native plants, insects, and plant diseases. In North America, Chile, and Australia, unnaturally high fire frequencies due to exotic annual grasses


id: wildland-urban-interface-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-2.md
category: reference
title: Wildland–urban interface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:33.715060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wildland-urban-interface-20260505-0
summary:
==== Risk simulations ==== Wildfire spread is commonly simulated with a Minimum Travel Time (MTT) algorithm. Prior to MTT algorithms, fire boundaries were modeled through an application of Huygens' principle; boundaries are treated as wave fronts on a two-dimensional surface. Minimum Travel Time (MTT) methods build on Huygens' principle to find a minimum time for fire to travel between two points. MTT assumes nearly-constant factors such as environmental factors for wind direction and fuel moisture. The MTT is advantageous over Huygens in scalability and algorithm speed. However, factors are dynamic and a constant representation comes at a cost of a limited window and thus MTT is only applicable to short-timescale simulations. === Risk management === Structure and vegetation flammability is reduced through community-focused risk management through reduction of community vulnerabilities. The degree of control of vulnerability to wildfires is measured with metrics for responsibilities and zones of defenses. ==== Reducing risk through responsibility distribution ==== The probability of catastrophic WUI wildfire is controlled by assignment of responsibility for three actionable WUI objectives: controlling potential wildfire intensity, reducing ignition sources, and reducing vulnerability. When these objectives are met, then a community is a fire-adapted community. The U.S. Forest Service defines fire-adapted


id: wildlife-management-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-0.md
category: reference
title: Wildlife management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:35.066640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wildlife-management-20260505-0
summary:
Wildlife management is the management process influencing interactions among and between wildlife, its habitats and people to achieve predefined impacts. Wildlife management can include wildlife conservation, population control, gamekeeping, wildlife contraceptive and pest control. Wildlife management aims to halt the loss in the Earth's biodiversity, by taking into consideration ecological principles such as carrying capacity, disturbance and succession, and environmental conditions such as physical geography, pedology and hydrology. Most wildlife biologists are concerned with the conservation and improvement of habitats; although rewilding is increasingly being undertaken. Techniques can include reforestation, pest control, nitrification and denitrification, irrigation, coppicing and hedge laying. Gamekeeping is the management or control of wildlife for the well-being of game and may include the killing of other animals which share the same niche or predators to maintain a high population of more profitable species, such as pheasants introduced into woodland. Aldo Leopold defined wildlife management in 1933 as the art of making land produce sustained annual crops of wild game for recreational use. == History == The history of wildlife management begins with the game laws, which regulated the right to kill fish and wildlife game. === United Kingdom === In Great Britain game laws developed out


id: wildlife-management-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-1.md
category: reference
title: Wildlife management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:35.066640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wildlife-management-20260505-0
summary:
The profession of wildlife management was established in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s by Aldo Leopold and others who sought to transcend the purely restrictive policies of the previous generation of conservationists, such as anti-hunting activist William T. Hornaday. Leopold and his close associate Herbert Stoddard, who had both been trained in scientific forestry, argued that modern science and technology could be used to restore and improve wildlife habitat and thus produce abundant "crops" of ducks, deer, and other valued wild animals. The institutional foundations of the profession of wildlife management were established in the 1930s, when Leopold was granted the first university professorship in wildlife management (1933, University of Wisconsin, Madison), when Leopold's textbook 'Game Management' was published (1933), when The Wildlife Society was founded, when the Journal of Wildlife Management began publishing, and when the first Cooperative Wildlife Research Units were established. Conservationists planned many projects throughout the 1940s. Some of which included the harvesting of female mammals such as deer to decrease rising populations. Others included waterfowl and wetland research. The Fish and Wildlife Management Act was put in place to urge farmers to plant food for wildlife and to provide cover for them.


id: wildlife-management-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-2.md
category: reference
title: Wildlife management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:35.066640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wildlife-management-20260505-0
summary:
== Hunting limitations == Wildlife management studies, research and lobbying by interest groups help designate times of the year when certain wildlife species can be legally hunted, allowing for surplus animals to be removed. In the United States, hunting season and bag limits are determined by guidelines set by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service for waterfowl and other migratory gamebirds. The hunting season and bag limits for state regulated game species such as deer are determined by State game Commissions, which are made up of representatives from various interest groups and wildlife biologists. Open season is when wildlife is allowed to be hunted by law and is usually not during the breeding season. Hunters may be restricted by sex, age or class of animal, for instance there may be an open season for any male deer with 4 points or better on at least one antler. Closed season is when wildlife is protected from hunting and is usually during its breeding season. Closed season is enforced by law, any hunting during closed season is punishable by law and termed as illegal hunting or poaching. Open and closed season on deer in the United Kingdom is legislated for in


id: wildlife-management-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-3.md
category: reference
title: Wildlife management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:35.066640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wildlife-management-20260505-0
summary:
== Opposition == The control of wildlife through killing and hunting has created an opposition to hunting by animal rights and animal welfare activists. Critics object to the real or perceived cruelty involved in some forms of wildlife management. They also argue against the deliberate breeding of certain animals by environmental organizations—who hunters pay money to kill—in pursuit of profit. Additionally, they draw attention to the attitude that it is acceptable to kill animals in the name of ecosystem or biodiversity preservation, yet it is seen as unacceptable to kill humans for the same purpose; asserting that such attitudes are a form of discrimination based on species-membership i.e. speciesism. Environmentalists have also opposed hunting where they believe it is unnecessary or will negatively affect biodiversity. Critics of game keeping note that habitat manipulation and predator control are often used to maintain artificially inflated populations of valuable game animals (including introduced exotics) without regard to the ecological integrity of the habitat. Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom claim it to be necessary for wildlife conservation as the amount of countryside they look after exceeds by a factor of nine the amount in nature reserves and national parks. == References == == External


id: abstract-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space-0.md
category: reference
title: Abstract space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:39.743891+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abstract-space-20260505-0
summary:
Abstract space, in geography, is a hypothetical space characterized by equal and consistent properties; a geographic space that is completely homogeneous. All movement and activity would be equally easy or difficult in all directions and all locations within this space. This concept is useful for modeling or analyzing spatial activity and behavior by limiting or eliminating extraneous variables, such as terrain. For example, if researchers want to study the relationship between culture and trade, they don't want their model to be overwhelmed or influenced by factors such as mountainous barriers and rivers because these would detract from the purpose of modeling how culture alone effects trade. == See also == Central Place Theory == References ==


id: activity-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space-0.md
category: reference
title: Activity space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:40.952263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: activity-space-20260505-0
summary:
In social science, the activity space designates the "set of places individuals encounter as a result of their routine activities in everyday life." The activity space can include all relevant locations that an individual routinely go to, such as the place of residence, the workplace (or the place of study), but also gyms, supermarkets, or cinemas. == Definition == Activity space research started in the field of geography and urban planning, where scholars investigated the effect of urban spatial structure on individual behavior. Horton and Reynolds define the activity space "as the subset of all urban locations with which the individual has direct contact as the result of day-to-day activities." They consider the activity space as a subset of one's "action space," which they define as "the collection of all urban locations about which the individual has information and the subjective utility or preference he associates with these locations". The "action space" is often use synonymously with the terms "awareness space," "mental map," and "cognitive map." The emergence of the cognitive science has broadened the scope of activity space beyond the realm of physicality. Scientists like David Kirsh define activity space as the blend of several components. These components include:


id: alfoz-territory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)-0.md
category: reference
title: Alfoz (territory)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:42.153703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfoz-territory-20260505-0
summary:
The geographical term alfoz (plural alfoces) was used in the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages to describe the rural territory, including subordinate hamlets, under the jurisdiction of a corresponding town (villa in Spanish). The villa and its alfoz, under the authority of the town's local council (concejo), sometimes underpinned what was called a Comunidad de Villa y Tierra, an autonomous political division. At the center of this community, the town (or sometimes a city) comprised an urban area and usually boasted of a castle and a fortified wall. By the 12th century, the alfoces had fiscal, judicial and military functions. Furthermore, they lent themselves to the communal use of land for silvopastoral agriculture; however, in the year 1100, monarchs began to allocate portions of land to the Church and the nobility, an act that undermined the very purpose of the alfoz. The alfoz and its villa formed what would later be known as a municipality. The word alfoz comes from the Arabic al-hawz, meaning "rural district". It is currently preserved in several placenames in Spain as well as is occasionally used as a modern-day common noun. == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Martínez Sopena, Pascual (2005).


id: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-0.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial fan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
summary:
An alluvial fan is an accumulation of sediments that fans outwards from a concentrated source of sediments, such as a narrow canyon emerging from an escarpment. They are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but are also found in more humid environments subject to intense rainfall and in areas of modern glaciation. They range in area from less than 1 square kilometer (0.4 sq mi) to almost 20,000 square kilometers (7,700 sq mi). Alluvial fans typically form where a flow of sediment or rocks emerge from a confined channel and are suddenly free to spread out in many directions. For example, many alluvial fans form when steep mountain valleys meet a flat plain. The transition from a narrow channel to a wide open area reduces the carrying capacity of flow and results in deposition of sediments. The flow can take the form of infrequent debris flows like in a landslide, or can be carried by an intermittent stream or creek. The reduction of flow is key to the formation of alluvial fans. If a river exits a mountain valley without any reduction in flow, it is more common to see the formation of an alluvial plain. The


id: alluvial-fan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-1.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial fan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
summary:
=== Debris flow === Debris flow fans receive most of their sediments in the form of debris flows. Debris flows are slurry-like mixtures of water and particles of all sizes, from clay to boulders, that resemble wet concrete. They are characterized by having a yield strength, meaning that they are highly viscous at low flow velocities but become less viscous as the flow velocity increases. This means that a debris flow can come to a halt while still on moderately tilted ground. The flow then becomes consolidated under its own weight. Debris flow fans occur in all climates but are more common where the source rock is mudstone or matrix-rich saprolite rather than coarser, more permeable regolith. The abundance of fine-grained sediments encourages the initial hillslope failure and subsequent cohesive flow of debris. Saturation of clay-rich colluvium by locally intense thunderstorms initiates slope failure. The resulting debris flow travels down the feeder channel and onto the surface of the fan. Debris flow fans have a network of mostly inactive distributary channels in the upper fan that gives way to mid- to lower-level lobes. The channels tend to be filled by subsequent cohesive debris flows. Usually only one lobe is active


id: alluvial-fan-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-2.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial fan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
summary:
== Occurrences == Alluvial fans are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but are also found in more humid environments subject to intense rainfall and in areas of modern glaciation. They have also been found on other bodies of the Solar System. === Terrestrial === Alluvial fans are built in response to erosion induced by tectonic uplift. The upwards coarsening of the beds making up the fan reflects cycles of erosion in the highlands that feed sediments to the fan. However, climate and changes in base level may be as important as tectonic uplift. For example, alluvial fans in the Himalayas show older fans entrenched and overlain by younger fans. The younger fans, in turn, are cut by deep incised valleys showing two terrace levels. Dating via optically stimulated luminescence suggests a hiatus of 70,000 to 80,000 years between the old and new fans, with evidence of tectonic tilting at 45,000 years ago and an end to fan deposition 20,000 years ago. Both the hiatus and the more recent end to fan deposition are thought to be connected to periods of enhanced southwest monsoon precipitation. Climate has also influenced fan formation in Death Valley, California, US, where


id: alluvial-fan-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-3.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial fan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
summary:
=== Flood hazards === Alluvial fans are subject to infrequent but often very damaging flooding, whose unusual characteristics distinguish alluvial fan floods from ordinary riverbank flooding. These include great uncertainty in the likely flood path, the likelihood of abrupt deposition and erosion of sediments carried by the flood from upstream sources, and a combination of the availability of sediments and of the slope and topography of the fan that creates extraordinary hazards. These hazards cannot reliably be mitigated by elevation on fill (raising existing buildings up to a meter (three feet) and building new foundations beneath them). At a minimum, major structural flood control measures are required to mitigate risk, and in some cases, the only alternative is to restrict development on the fan surface. Such measures can be politically controversial, particularly since the hazard is not obvious to property owners. In the United States, areas at risk of alluvial fan flooding are marked as Zone AO on flood insurance rate maps. Alluvial fan flooding commonly takes the form of short (several hours) but energetic flash floods that occur with little or no warning. They typically result from heavy and prolonged rainfall, and are characterized by high velocities and capacity


id: alluvial-plain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain-0.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial plain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:44.931749+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-plain-20260505-0
summary:
An alluvial plain is a plain (an essentially flat landform) created by the deposition of sediment over a long period by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A floodplain is part of the process, being the smaller area over which the rivers flood at a particular time. In contrast, the alluvial plain is the larger area representing the region over which the floodplains have shifted over geological time. As the highlands erode due to weathering and water flow, the sediment from the hills is transported to the lower plain. Various creeks will carry the water further to a river, lake, bay, or ocean. As the sediments are deposited during flood conditions in the floodplain of a creek, the elevation of the floodplain will be raised. As this reduces the channel floodwater capacity, the creek will, over time, seek new, lower paths, forming a meander (a curved path). The leftover higher locations, typically natural levees at the margins of the flood channel, will be eroded by lateral stream erosion, local rainfall, and possibly wind transport if the climate is arid and does not support soil-holding grasses. These processes, over geologic time, will form the


id: americas-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Americas (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:46.319434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: americas-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
The Americas, also known as America, are lands of the Western Hemisphere, composed of numerous entities and regions variably defined by geography, politics, and culture. The Americas are recognized in the English-speaking world to include two separate continents: North America and South America. In parts of Europe and Latin America, America is considered to be a single continent, within which North and South America are subcontinents. == Physical geography == North America—the continent and associated islands of the Northern Hemisphere and (chiefly) Western Hemisphere. It lies northwest of South America and is bounded by the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific Oceans. Middle America—the territory between the southern Rocky Mountains and the northern tip of the Andes. This isthmus marks the transition between North and South America. It may also include the Caribbean. Central America—the narrow southern portion of mainland North America connecting with South America, extending from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Isthmus of Panama; alternatively, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt may delimit the region on the north. Caribbean—the region between southeastern North America and northern South America, consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (most of which enclose the sea), and the surrounding coasts. The islands—composed of the Greater Antilles,


id: americas-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Americas (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:46.319434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: americas-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Linguistic/cultural regions === Anglo-America—the region of the Americas having significant historical, linguistic, and cultural links to England or the British Isles, i.e., Anglophone; often just Canada and the United States. Latin America—the region of the Americas where Romance languages derived from Latin–namely Spanish, Portuguese, and variably French–are officially or primarily spoken. Though French is spoken in Quebec, it is typically not included due to Canada's links to Britain. Ibero-America—the region of the Americas having significant historical, linguistic, and cultural links to Spain or Portugal (both on the Iberian Peninsula), i.e., Hispanophone and Lusophone. Hispanic America (also Spanish America)—those countries inhabited by Spanish-speaking populations. French America—the Francophone region. Mesoamerica—a region of the Americas extending from central Mexico southeast to Nicaragua and Costa Rica; a term used especially in archaeology and ethnohistory for the region where an array of civilizations had flourished during the pre-Columbian era, and which shared a number of historical and cultural traditions. Mesoamerican Linguistic Area—a sprachbund, or linguistic region, defined as the area inhabited by speakers of a set of indigenous languages which have developed certain similarities as a result of their historic and geographical connections; roughly co-terminate with the archaeological/ethnohistorical Mesoamerica. Aridoamerica—an archaeological/ethnohistorical regional division, essentially


id: anatopism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatopism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:47.579101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatopism-20260505-0
summary:
An anatopism (from the Ancient Greek ἀνά, "against," and τόπος, "place") is something that is out of its proper place. The concept of anatopism is less widely familiar than that of anachronism, perhaps because much that is anatopic is also anachronistic. Yet the distinction is a valid one; not all that is anatopic is necessarily also anachronistic. The online Collins English Dictionary gives a synonym for "anatopism": anachorism (from Greek: ana- + khōros, "place"): "a geographical misplacement; something located in an incongruent position". == Examples == Catherine Hardwicke's 2006 film The Nativity Story shows a field of maize in a Nazareth farming scene. Maize is native to Mesoamerica, not to the Middle East, and in pre-Columbian times was grown only in the Americas. The use of maize in this film is an anatopism as well as an anachronism. The same anatopism appears in the first part ("The Warrior Pharaohs") of a three-part 2002 PBS documentary series on "Egypt's Golden Empire" depicting the history of ancient Egypt's New Kingdom: ears of maize corn are shown in a scene recreating the battle and siege of Megiddo in the 15th century BC. Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, set in 180 AD, features Roman


