# kb

id: institute-of-noetic-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Noetic_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute of Noetic Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Noetic_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:28.991676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-of-noetic-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute of Noetic Sciences (IONS) is an American non-profit parapsychological research institute. It was co-founded in 1973 by former astronaut Edgar Mitchell, the sixth man to walk on the Moon, along with investor Paul N. Temple and others interested in psychic phenomena, in order to encourage and conduct research on noetics and human potentials. The Institute conducts research on topics such as psychic abilities, channeling, mind matter interaction, energy healing, intention, consciousness, and spontaneous remission. They have a long history of studying meditation, alternative healing practices, consciousness-based healthcare, spirituality, human potential, psychokinesis and survival of consciousness after bodily death. The Institute maintains a free database, available on the Internet, with citations to more than 6,500 articles about whether physical and mental health benefits might be connected to meditation and yoga. IONS is now headquartered in Novato, California, after previously being situated on a 200-acre (81 ha) campus in Petaluma that included offices, a research laboratory and a retreat center. Researchers associated with it include Dean Radin, Helané Wahbeh and Rupert Sheldrake. == History == Edgar Mitchell has reported that on his return to Earth, after the 1971 Apollo 14 Moon landing, he had an experience comparable to savikalpa samādhi.


id: insulin-potentiation-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_potentiation_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Insulin potentiation therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin_potentiation_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:30.202029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insulin-potentiation-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Insulin potentiation therapy (IPT) is an unproven alternative cancer treatment using insulin as an adjunct to low-dose chemotherapy. It was promoted by a paper in the controversial and non-peer reviewed journal Medical Hypotheses. It is not an evidence-based cancer treatment, and the costs of IPT are not covered by health insurance. According to Quackwatch, "Insulin Potentiation Therapy (IPT) is one of several unproven, dangerous treatments that is promoted by a small group of practitioners without trustworthy evidence that it works." == History == It was developed by Donato Perez Garcia, MD in 1930. Originally, Garcia targeted syphilis, and later tried the treatment for chronic degenerative diseases and some types of cancer. == Method == Generally, a dose of insulin is injected into a vein, followed by a much lower dose of a chemotherapy drug. Then sugar water is injected to stop the hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) caused by the insulin injection. == Efficacy == IPT has not been proven to work. Lab research indicates that there is not even a theoretical possibility of it being an effective treatment for most cancers. Research over the decades has proved that most cancers grow when exposed to more insulin. One study of men


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-0.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The intelligent design movement is a neo-creationist religious campaign for broad social, academic and political change to promote and support the pseudoscientific idea of intelligent design (ID), which asserts that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection." Its chief activities are a campaign to promote public awareness of this concept, the lobbying of policymakers to include its teaching in high school science classes, and legal action, either to defend such teaching or to remove barriers otherwise preventing it. The movement arose out of the creation science movement in the United States, and is driven by a small group of proponents. The Encyclopædia Britannica explains that ID cannot be empirically tested and that it fails to solve the problem of evil; thus, it is neither sound science nor sound theology. == Purpose == The overall goal of the intelligent design movement is to overthrow materialism and atheism. Its proponents believe that society has suffered "devastating" cultural consequences from adopting materialism and that science is the cause of the decay into materialism because it seeks only natural explanations, and is therefore atheistic. They believe that


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-1.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
To talk of a purposeful or guided evolution is not to talk about evolution at all. That is "slow creation." When you understand it that way, you realize that the Darwinian theory of evolution contradicts not just the book of Genesis, but every word in the Bible from beginning to end. It contradicts the idea that we are here because a Creator brought about our existence for a purpose. That is the first thing I realized, and it carries tremendous meaning. I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call "The Wedge," which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science. One very famous book that's come out of The Wedge is biochemist Michael Behe's book Darwin's Black Box, which has had an enormous impact on the scientific world. Now, the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence, and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, "Well, where might you get truth?"


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-2.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
On December 6, 1993, an article by Meyer was published in The Wall Street Journal, drawing national attention to the controversy over Dean H. Kenyon's teaching of creationism. This article also gained the attention of Discovery Institute co-founder Bruce Chapman. On discovering that Meyer was developing the idea of starting a scientific research center in conversations with conservative political scientist John G. West, Chapman invited them to create a unit within the Discovery Institute called the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture (later renamed the Center for Science and Culture). This center was dedicated to overthrowing "scientific materialism" and "fomenting nothing less than a scientific and cultural revolution." A 1995 conference, "The Death of Materialism and the Renewal of Culture," served as a blueprint for the center. By 1996 they had nearly a million dollars in grants, the largest being from Howard Ahmanson, Jr., with smaller but still large contributions coming from the Stewardship Foundation established by C. Davis Weyerhaeuser and the Maclellan Foundation, and appointed their first class of research fellows. === The wedge strategy === The wedge strategy was formulated by Phillip E. Johnson to combat the "evil" of methodological naturalism. It first came to the


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-3.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
In the movement's sole major case, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, it was represented by the Thomas More Law Center, which had been seeking a test-case on the issue for at least five years. However conflicting agendas resulted in the withdrawal of a number of Discovery Institute Fellows as expert witnesses, at the request of DI director Bruce Chapman, and mutual recriminations with the DI after the case was lost. The Alliance Defense Fund briefly represented the Foundation for Thought and Ethics in its unsuccessful motion to intervene in this case, and prepared amicus curiae briefs on behalf of the DI and FTE in it. It has also made amicus curiae submissions and offered to pay for litigation, in other (actual and potential) creationism-related cases. On a far smaller scale, Larry Caldwell and his wife operate under the name Quality Science Education for All, and have made a number of lawsuits in furtherance of the movement's anti-evolution agenda. In 2005 they brought at least three separate lawsuits to further the intelligent design movement's agenda. One was later abandoned, two were dismissed. == Reception by the public == An August 2005 poll from The Pew Forum on Religion & Public


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-4.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
=== The "big tent" strategy === The movement's strategy as set forth by Phillip E. Johnson states the replacement of "materialist science" with "theistic science" as its primary goal; and, more generally, for intelligent design to become "the dominant perspective in science" and to "permeate our religious, cultural, moral and political life." This agenda is now being actively pursued by the Center for Science and Culture, which plays the leading role in the promotion of intelligent design. Its fellows include most of the leading intelligent design advocates: William A. Dembski, Michael Behe, Jonathan Wells and Stephen C. Meyer. Intelligent design has been described by its proponents as a 'big tent' belief, one in which all theists united by having some kind of creationist belief (but of differing opinions as regards details) can support. If successfully promoted, it would reinstate creationism in the teaching of science, after which debates regarding details could resume. In his 2002 article in Christian Research Journal, Discovery Institute fellow Paul A. Nelson credits Johnson for the 'big tent' approach and for reviving creationist debate since the Edwards v. Aguillard decision. According to Nelson, "The promise of the big tent of ID is to provide a setting


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-5.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Science and Culture, formerly known as the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture, is a division of the Discovery Institute. The Center consists of a tightly knit core of people who have worked together for almost a decade to advance intelligent design as both a concept and a movement as necessary adjuncts of its wedge strategy policy. This cadre includes Phillip E. Johnson, Michael Behe, William A. Dembski and Stephen C. Meyer. They are united by a religious vision which, although it varies among the members in its particulars and is seldom acknowledged outside of the Christian press, is predicated on the shared conviction that America is in need of "renewal" which can be accomplished only by unseating "Godless" materialism and instituting religion as its cultural foundation. In his keynote address at the "Research and Progress in intelligent design" (RAPID) conference held in 2002 at Biola University, William A. Dembski described intelligent design's "dual role as a constructive scientific project and as a means for cultural renaissance." In a similar vein, the movement's hub, the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture had until 2002 been the "Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture."


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-6.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
== Activism == The intelligent design movement primarily campaigns on two fronts: a public relations campaign meant to influence the popular media and sway public opinion; and an aggressive lobbying campaign to cultivate support for the teaching of intelligent design amongst policymakers and the wider educational community. Both these activities are largely funded and directed by the Discovery Institute, from national to grassroots levels. The movement's first goal is to establish an acceptance of intelligent design at the expense of evolution in public school science; its long-term goal is no less than the "renewal" of American culture through the shaping of public policy to reflect conservative Christian values. As the Discovery Institute states, intelligent design is central to this agenda: "Design theory promises to reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview, and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions." The Discovery Institute has also relied on several polls to indicate the acceptance of intelligent design. A 2005 Harris poll identified ten percent of adults in the United States as taking what they called the intelligent design position, that "human beings are so complex that they required a powerful force or intelligent being to help


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-7.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The main battlefield for this culture war has been US regional and state school boards. Courts have also become involved as those campaigns to include intelligent design or weaken the teaching of evolution in public school science curricula are challenged on First Amendment grounds. In Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, the plaintiffs successfully argued that intelligent design is a form of creationism, and that the school board policy thus violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Intelligent design is an integral part of a political campaign by cultural conservatives, largely from evangelical religious convictions, that seek to redefine science to suit their own ideological agenda. Though numerically a minority of Americans, the politics of intelligent design is based less on numbers than on intensive mobilization of ideologically committed followers and savvy public relations campaigns. Political repercussions from the culturally conservative sponsorship of the issue has been divisive and costly to the effected communities, polarizing and dividing not only those directly charged with educating young people but entire local communities. With a doctrine that calls itself science among non-scientists but is rejected by the vast majority of the real practitioners, an amicable coexistence and collaboration between intelligent design advocates


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-8.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticisms of the movement == One of the most common criticisms of the movement and its leadership is that of intellectual dishonesty, in the form of misleading impressions created by the use of rhetoric, intentional ambiguity, and misrepresented evidence. It is alleged that its goal is to lead an unwary public to reach certain conclusions, and that many have been deceived as a result. Critics of the movement, such as Eugenie Scott, Robert T. Pennock and Barbara Forrest, claim that leaders of the intelligent design movement, and the Discovery Institute in particular, knowingly misquote scientists and other experts, deceptively omit contextual text through ellipsis, and make unsupported amplifications of relationships and credentials. Theologian and molecular biophysicist Alister McGrath has a number of criticisms of the Intelligent design movement, stating that "those who adopt this approach make Christianity deeply... vulnerable to scientific progress" and defining it as just another "god-of-the-gaps" theory. He went on to criticize the movement on theological grounds as well, stating "It is not an approach I accept, either on scientific or theological grounds." Such statements commonly note the institutional affiliations of signatories for purposes of identification. But this statement strategically listed either the institution that granted


id: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement-9.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:31.408161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-movement-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == In 2017, theoretical physicist Mano Singham wrote that since the ruling of Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, "little" has been "heard from" the intelligent design movement, adding "Whereas before one heard of ID all over the place, now one has to seek them out by visiting the Discovery Institute which has become kind of a refuge for the last holdouts." == See also == Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center Intelligent design in politics Intelligent design network Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Wedge strategy == Notes == == References == == External links == Center for Science and Culture Discovery Institute "Intelligent Design vs. Evolution" (Flash Video). TVW. Olympia, WA. April 26, 2006. Retrieved 2014-06-06. — Debate between paleontologist Peter Ward and Stephen C. Meyer co-founder of the Discovery Institute Understanding Evolution — A collaborative project of the University of California Museum of Paleontology and the National Center for Science Education Annas, George J. (May 25, 2006). "Intelligent Judging — Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom". The New England Journal of Medicine. 354 (21). Waltham, MA: Massachusetts Medical Society: 2277–2281. doi:10.1056/NEJMlim055660. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 16723620. Dennett, Daniel C. (August 28,


id: interdimensional-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdimensional_UFO_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Interdimensional UFO hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdimensional_UFO_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:32.609595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: interdimensional-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The interdimensional UFO hypothesis (IUH) is the proposal that unidentified flying object (UFO) sightings are the result of experiencing other "dimensions" or "portals" that coexist separately alongside our own. The hypothesis has been advanced by ufologists such as Meade Layne, John Keel, J. Allen Hynek, and Jacques Vallée. Proponents of the interdimensional hypothesis argue that UFOs are a modern manifestation of a phenomenon that has occurred throughout recorded human history, which in prior ages was ascribed to mythological or supernatural creatures. Jeffrey J. Kripal, Chair in Philosophy and Religious Thought at Rice University, writes: "this interdimensional reading, long a staple of Spiritualism through the famous 'fourth dimension', would have a very long life within ufology and is still very much with us today". == History == === Pre-modern history === Concepts similar to ”other dimensions” exist amongst various religious and mystical traditions, such as Islamic mysticism known as Sufism. In this tradition, the concept al-ghayb refers to the hidden, unseen, and invisible, and encompasses a range of important phenomena in Islam and in the everyday lives of Muslims. Within this mystical tradition, there is a concept of a hidden multilayered reality or world known as 'ālam al-mithāl, or “the world


id: intuitive-eating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitive_eating-0.md
category: reference
title: Intuitive eating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuitive_eating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:33.879930+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intuitive-eating-20260505-0
summary:
Intuitive eating is an approach to eating that focuses on the body's response to cues of hunger and satisfaction. It aims to foster a positive relationship with food as opposed to pursuing "weight control". Additionally, intuitive eating aims to change users' views about dieting, health, and wellness, instilling a more holistic approach. It also helps to create a positive attitude and relationship towards food, physical activity, and the body. The term "intuitive eating", coined by registered dietitians Evelyn Tribole and Elyse Resch, first appeared in a 1990s peer-reviewed journal article. In 2012, Tribole's and Resch's book Intuitive Eating: A Revolutionary Program that Works was published, identifying ten components of intuitive eating and reviewing the scientific research that has been conducted on it. == Characteristics == Unlike most diets, intuitive eating does not try to ban or restrict certain foods, with its mindset being that food should not be looked at as "good or bad". Practitioners are instead encouraged to listen to their body and eat what feels right for them. Intuitive eating follows 10 guidelines: Reject the diet mentality Honor your hunger Make peace with food Challenge the food police Feel your fullness Discover the satisfaction factor Cope with your


id: ionized-jewelry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized_jewelry-0.md
category: reference
title: Ionized jewelry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionized_jewelry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:35.075699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ionized-jewelry-20260505-0
summary:
An Ionized bracelet, or ionic bracelet, is a type of metal bracelet jewelry purported to affect the chi of the wearer. No claims of effectiveness made by manufacturers have ever been substantiated by independent sources, and the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has found the bracelets are "part of a scheme devised to defraud". Q-Ray, Balance, Bio-Ray, iRenew, Rayma, and Rico's Bio-Energy brand bracelets are considered to be of the "ionized" family. Other alternative health bracelets, such as magnetic or copper therapy bracelets, are considered a different type of product. == History == In October 1973, corporate websites claim, Manuel L. Polo began investigating the effects of different metals on humans, believing that some metals offered a benefit when worn. This led directly to his creation of the Bio-Ray (Biomagnetic Regulator), the first ionized bracelet. In 1994, Andrew Park bought a Bio-Ray bracelet while visiting Barcelona, Spain. Believing that it had reduced his lower back pain, he was inspired to found QT Inc., which began manufacturing and selling Q-Ray bracelets in the United States by 1996. === Marketing claims === Western interest in the Q-Ray Ionized Bracelet rose as a result of an infomercial campaign by QT Inc., which ran


id: irano-afghan-race-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irano-Afghan_race-0.md
category: reference
title: Irano-Afghan race
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irano-Afghan_race
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:36.208774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: irano-afghan-race-20260505-0
summary:
The Irano-Afghan race or Iranid race is an obsolete racial classification of human beings based on a now-disproven theory of biological race. Some anthropologists of the 20th century classified the populations native to the Iranian plateau as belonging to this race, which was usually seen as a subrace of the Caucasian race or the Mediterranean racial subtype of that race, depending on the authority consulted. == Physiognomy == American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon described the Irano-Afghan race as a branch of the Mediterranean race, describing them as being long-faced, high-headed and leptorrhine (having long and narrow noses). By contrast, Swedish anthropologist Bertil Lundman postulates an "Iranid" subtype of his "Eastern Mediterranean" race. American anthropologist Earnest Hooton in 1946 describes the "Iranian Plateau type" as distinct from the Atlanto-Mediterranean one: particularly in its long, high-bridged, and boldly jutting nasal promontory. It has the same huge dolichocephalic head and massive, usually long face. The great nose may be either straight or convex, more often the latter. According to Italian anthropologist Renato Biasutti the type was defined by: Brunet-white color, very dark hair and eyes, abundant pilosity; medium stature (165), slim body; very long (74) and high head with prominent occiput; long face;


id: iridology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridology-0.md
category: reference
title: Iridology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:50.546586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iridology-20260505-0
summary:
Iridology (also known as iridodiagnosis or iridiagnosis) is an alternative medicine technique whose proponents claim that patterns, colors, and other characteristics of the iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts, which divide the iris into zones that correspond to specific parts of the human body. Iridologists see the eyes as "windows" into the body's state of health. Iridologists claim they can use the charts to distinguish between healthy systems and organs in the body and those that are overactive, inflamed, or distressed. Iridologists claim this information demonstrates a patient's susceptibility towards certain illnesses, reflects past medical problems, or predicts later health problems. As opposed to evidence-based medicine, iridology is not supported by quality research studies and is considered pseudoscience. The features of the iris are one of the most stable features on the human body throughout life. The stability of iris structures is the foundation of the biometric technology which uses iris recognition for identification purposes. == History == Medical practitioners have been searching the eyes for signs of illness since at least 3,000 BCE. The first explicit description of iridological principles, such as homolaterality (without using the


id: iridology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridology-1.md
category: reference
title: Iridology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:50.546586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iridology-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific research into iridology == Well-controlled scientific evaluation of iridology has shown negative results, with all rigorous double blind trials failing to find any statistical significance to its claims. In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance. Iridology was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. A German study from 1957, which took more than 4,000 iris photographs of more than 1,000 people, concluded that iridology was useless as a diagnostic tool. In 1979, Bernard Jensen, a leading American iridologist, and two other iridology proponents failed to establish the basis of their practice when they examined photographs of the eyes of 143 patients in an attempt to determine which ones had kidney impairments. Of the patients, 48 had been diagnosed with kidney disease, and the rest had normal kidney function. Based on their analysis of the patients' irises, the three iridologists could not detect which patients had kidney disease and which did not. One iridologist, for example, decided that 88% of the normal patients had kidney disease, while another


id: irlen-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irlen_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Irlen syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irlen_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:51.734310+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: irlen-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
Irlen syndrome (or scotopic sensitivity syndrome) is a purported medical condition defined by disordered visual processing. It is proposed that it can be treated by wearing colored lenses. The ideas of Irlen syndrome are not supported by scientific evidence, and psychologists and medical professionals have described its treatment as a health fraud. == History == The condition was proposed in the 1980s, by Helen Irlen, an educational psychologist. Irlen found that certain children and adults who had reading difficulties improved upon overlaying coloured acetate sheets on top of the text that was being read. Irlen defines the Syndrome as a light-based visual processing problem. She theorizes that the brain is unable to process light and visual stimuli efficiently, leading to visual stress and poor reading comprehension. The symptoms of Irlen Syndrome can include behavioural difficulties, reading difficulties, headaches, fatigue, and light sensitivity. The diagnostic test for Irlen Syndrome was developed by Irlen, and consists of a questionnaire of 32 questions, a series of visual tasks, and an assessment where coloured lenses are presented to the patient to see if there is any reading improvement when using them. Irlen has not provided any data related to the diagnostic test or released


id: isochronic-tones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochronic_tones-0.md
category: reference
title: Isochronic tones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochronic_tones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:52.921365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isochronic-tones-20260505-0
summary:
Isochronic tones are regular beats of a single tone that are used alongside monaural beats and binaural beats in the process called brainwave entrainment (synchronization of brainwaves). At its simplest level, an isochronic tone is a tone that is being turned on and off rapidly. The sounds are played in both ears. They create sharp, distinctive pulses of sound. Isochronic tones are tones of any frequency that recur at regular intervals, usually rapid. Isochronic tones can quantitatively be distinguished by both the frequency or pitch of the tone itself, and by the interval or frequency of repetition of the tone. While listening to isochronic tones is a technique often employed in the theoretical practice of brainwave entrainment, there has been very little research related to any claims of health benefits by listening to isochronic tones. A form of auditory beats stimulation that uses alternating tones may be considered a derivative of isochronic tones; alternatively, isochronic tones can be considered, along with monaural beats and binaural beats, to be a subtype of auditory beats stimulation. == See also == Audio–visual entrainment Hemi-Sync Trance == References == ‌


id: ivermectin-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic-0.md
category: reference
title: Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:54.136732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ivermectin-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-20260505-0
summary:
Ivermectin is an antiparasitic drug that is well established for use in animals and people. The World Health Organization (WHO), the European Medicines Agency (EMA), the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) all do not advise using ivermectin in an attempt to treat or prevent COVID-19. Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, laboratory research suggested ivermectin might have a role in preventing or treating COVID-19. Online misinformation campaigns and advocacy boosted the drug's profile among the public. While scientists and physicians largely remained skeptical, some nations adopted ivermectin as part of their pandemic-control efforts. Some people, desperate to use ivermectin without a prescription, took veterinary preparations, which led to shortages of supplies of ivermectin for animal treatment. The FDA responded to this situation by saying "You are not a horse. You are not a cow. Seriously, y'all. Stop it", in a tweet to draw attention to the issue, for which they were later sued by three ivermectin-prescribing doctors. Subsequent research failed to confirm the utility of ivermectin for COVID-19, and in 2021 it emerged that many of the studies demonstrating benefit were faulty, misleading, or fraudulent. Nevertheless, misinformation about ivermectin continued to


id: ivermectin-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic-1.md
category: reference
title: Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:54.136732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ivermectin-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-20260505-0
summary:
=== COVID-19 and strongyloidiasis === There is one very specific circumstance in which ivermectin may be useful in the management of COVID-19. People infected with the Strongyloides stercoralis parasite are at risk for strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome (SHS) — a condition with a mortality rate as high as 90% — if given corticosteroids to treat COVID-19. Strongyloidiasis affects as many as 370 million people worldwide, and it is usually subclinical or even asymptomatic. However, it can become fatal in the setting of SHS, which can be triggered by the immunosuppression that results from the administration of corticosteroids. In fact, multiple cases of SHS have been reported after the use of corticosteroids in the management of COVID-19 pneumonia. For this reason, the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) all recommend presumptive treatment for strongyloidiasis with ivermectin in people at high or moderate risk of SHS before or in conjunction with corticosteroids in the management of COVID-19. People who were born, resided, or had long-term travel in Southeast Asia, Oceania, sub-Saharan Africa, South America, or the Caribbean are


id: ivermectin-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic-2.md
category: reference
title: Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:54.136732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ivermectin-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-20260505-0
summary:
== Intellectual property and economics == As the patent on ivermectin has expired, generic drug manufacturers have been able to enjoy significantly increased revenue prompted by the spike in demand. One Brazilian company, Vitamedic Industria Farmaceutica, saw its annual revenue from ivermectin sales increase to $85 million in 2020, a more than fivefold increase. In Australia in 2020 Thomas Borody, a professor and gastroenterologist, announced that he had discovered a "cure" for COVID-19: a combination of ivermectin, doxycycline and zinc. In a media interview Borody stated "The biggest thing about this is no one will make money from this". It later emerged that Topelia Australia, Borody's company, had filed a patent for the drug combination. Borody was accused of not adequately disclosing his conflict of interest. In October 2021 a large network of companies selling hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin was disclosed in the US, targeting primarily right-wing and vaccine-hesitant groups through social media and conspiracy videos by anti-vaccine activists such as Simone Gold. The network had 72,000 customers who collectively paid $15 million for consultations and medications. == Misinformation and advocacy == Ivermectin became a cause célèbre for right-wing figures promoting it as a supposed COVID treatment. Misinformation about ivermectin's efficacy


id: ivermectin-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic-3.md
category: reference
title: Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:54.136732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ivermectin-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Front Line COVID-19 Critical Care Alliance === In December 2020, the chair of the US Senate Homeland Security Committee, Ron Johnson, used a Senate hearing to promote fringe theories about, and unproven treatments for, COVID-19, including ivermectin. Among the witnesses was Pierre Kory, a pulmonary and critical care doctor, who erroneously described ivermectin as "miraculous" and a "wonder drug" to be used against COVID-19. Video footage of his statements went viral on social media, receiving over one million views as of 11 December 2020. In the United States, the use of ivermectin for COVID-19 is championed by an organization led by Kory called Front Line COVID-19 Critical Care Alliance (FLCCC), which promotes "the global movement to move #Ivermectin into the mainstream". The effort went viral on social media, where it was adopted by COVID deniers, anti-vaccination proponents, and conspiracy theorists. A review article by FLCCC members on the efficacy of ivermectin, which had been provisionally accepted by a Frontiers in Pharmacology, was subsequently rejected on account of what the publisher called "a series of strong, unsupported claims based on studies with insufficient statistical significance" meaning that the article did "not offer an objective [or] balanced scientific contribution to the


id: john-major-jenkins-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Major_Jenkins-0.md
category: reference
title: John Major Jenkins
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Major_Jenkins
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:56.584518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-major-jenkins-20260505-0
summary:
John Major Jenkins (4 March 1964 – 2 July 2017) was an American author and pseudoscientific researcher. He is best known for his works that theorize certain astronomical and esoteric connections of the calendar systems used by the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. His writings are particularly associated with 2012 millenarianism and the development of Mayanism in contemporary and popular culture, as an outgrowth from the New Age milieu. He is one of the principal figures who have promoted the idea that the ancient Maya calendar ends on 21 December 2012 and that this portended major changes for the Earth. He has self-published a number of books through his Four Ahau Press. He died on 2 July 2017 from cancer of the kidney at the age of 53. == Alternative view of cosmology == Jenkins considered scientific approaches to cosmology a byproduct of limited thinking. In Tzolkin: Visionary Perspectives and Calendar Studies, he writes, "I primarily wish to promote a visionary approach to these matters, as there is much more to the Sacred Calendar than can be seen with the rational intellect," and that these visionary perspectives "can more closely touch the spirit of the calendar" than does the anthropological


id: jewish-astrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology-0.md
category: reference
title: Jewish astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:57.914324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jewish-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
Astrology in Jewish antiquity (Hebrew: מזלות, romanized: mazzalot) is the belief that celestial bodies can influence the affairs of individuals and of entire nations upon the earth. This involves the study of the celestial bodies' respective energies based on recurring patterns that change by the hour, by the week, month, year or by several years (time categories). In each of these time categories one of the seven planetary spheres, or what are known as the seven classical planets: the Sun, Venus, Mercury, the Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, or Mars, along with the month's current Zodiac constellation, come into play and influence the sublunary world. At times, it involves a complex combination of several of these factors working together. In Judaism this belief is expressed by the biblical affirmation: "Do you know the laws of heaven / Or impose its authority on earth?" (Job 38:33), from which statement the Sages of Israel have inferred, "There is no single herb below without its corresponding star above, that beats upon it and commands it to grow." Complementary to the records of past civilisations, the corpus of Jewish literature has preserved many of the details instructive of the determining factors involved in rendering any astrological


id: jewish-astrology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology-1.md
category: reference
title: Jewish astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:57.914324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jewish-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
== Proscription against idolatry == The rabbis have distinguished between gaining an occult knowledge of the stars' influences on human beings (which is permitted) and the actual worshipping of the stars (which is prohibited), a view that is also met with the Scripture; cf. [the stars and all the host of heaven] "which the Lord thy God hath divided unto all nations" (Deut. 4:19), that is to say, the stars, which God appointed to be the means of governing His creatures, and not the objects of man's worship. The Midrash HaGadol (on Deuteronomy 4:19) clarifies what is meant by, "[And beware] lest you raise your eyes to heaven, etc." It is hereby inferred that you are not to say, 'since these stars and constellations govern the world, and they provide light unto the entire universe, and they serve before their Creator on High, it is fitting that we serve them and bow down unto them, just as the king would want [all] human beings to behave with respect towards his servants and ministers.' For this reason it says, lest you raise your eyes to heaven, beware that you do not err in this manner, on account of what [is written],


id: jewish-astrology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology-2.md
category: reference
title: Jewish astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:57.914324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jewish-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
The observance and reckoning of the movements of the 12 constellations are believed by some scholars to have been learnt from Hellenistic culture, after first being divested of influences that were deemed idolatrous. Accordingly, it was believed that God determined that each of the seven planets be subordinate to the twelve constellations of the Zodiac, and work in conjunction with them. For example, the Sun is directly subservient to the influences emanating from the constellation known as Leo, while the Moon is subservient to the influences emanating from the constellation known as Cancer. Mars is subservient to the influences emanating from two constellations, namely, Aries and Scorpio. The planet Venus is also subservient to the influences emanating from two constellations, namely, Taurus and Libra. The planet Mercury is, likewise, subservient to two constellations, drawing its influences from them, namely, that of Gemini and Virgo. The planet Saturn is subservient to two constellations, those being Capricorn and Aquarius, whence it draws its influences. Finally, the planet Jupiter is directly subordinate to the influences emanating from Sagittarius and Pisces. Weekly nocturnal duties: Each of the seven planets takes turn governing one day of the week, with the active involvement of all the


id: jewish-astrology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology-3.md
category: reference
title: Jewish astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:57.914324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jewish-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
Since the Moon begins its turn of duty in the first hour of every Monday morning, and Jupiter begins its turn of duty in the first hour of every Thursday morning, and since both these planets are considered planets possessing good influences, it follows that Mondays and Thursdays are considered auspicious days in the Jewish calendar.


id: jewish-astrology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology-4.md
category: reference
title: Jewish astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:57.914324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jewish-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Energies emanating from the seven classical planets === By saying, "on the night of such-and-such a weekday," the sense here is to the idea in Jewish tradition, where nightfall ushers-in a new day, as is written (Gen. 1:5): "And the evening and the morning were the first day." Therefore, the "night of Sunday" is to be understood as beginning on Saturday night, when the first three stars appear in the night sky; the "night of Saturday" is, likewise, to be understood as beginning on Friday night, when the first three stars appear in the night sky, and so forth, and so on. === Other factors taken into consideration === To accurately determine the time in which each of the classical planets are in their respective line of duty, per hour, one must either have access to a printed lunar calendar showing the Jewish months, and know the precise starting point for each day and night, or else be familiar with the ever-changing aspects of the Jewish months, as the planetary influences will change with the conjunction of the moon with the sun, also known as the New Moon (occurring every 29 days, 12 hours and 793 parts of an


id: jewish-astrology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology-5.md
category: reference
title: Jewish astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:57.914324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jewish-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
== Kabbalah == The Kabbalist and rabbi Hayyim ben Joseph Vital explained the seven classical planets in a more conceptual and esoteric sense. While ranking ten spheres (realms) (Hebrew: גלגלים) from the highest to the lowest, he describes the Ninth Sphere as having nothing in it, and which rejects the presence of any star. As for the Eighth Sphere (Hebrew: גלגל השמיני), he states that all the stars of the universe, with the 12 constellations of the Zodiac, are contained therein, being below the Ninth Sphere, while each of the Seven classical planets occupies a space or realm below them: In the Seventh Sphere there is only one planet, Saturn (shabtai); in the Sixth Sphere there is only one planet, Jupiter (tzedek); in the Fifth Sphere there is only one planet, Mars (ma'adim); in the Fourth Sphere there is only one star, the Sun (ḥamah); in the Third Sphere there is only one planet, Venus (nogah); in the Second Sphere there is only one planet, Mercury; and in the First Sphere there is only the Moon (levanah). Hayyim Vital does not speak about their physical distance in relation to the earth, seeing that, besides the Moon (a satellite), the planet


id: jewish-astrology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology-6.md
category: reference
title: Jewish astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:57.914324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jewish-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Bar-Ilan, Meir [in Hebrew] (2010). Astrology and Other Sciences among the Jews in Land of Israel During the Hellenistic-Roman and Byzantine Periods (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Bialik Institute. Charlesworth, J.H. (1977). "Jewish Astrology in the Talmud, Pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Early Palestinian Synagogues". The Harvard Theological Review. 70 (3/4). Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Harvard Divinity School: 183–200. doi:10.1017/S0017816000019908. JSTOR 1509628. S2CID 163300042. Rubenstein, Jeffrey L. (2007). "Talmudic Astrology: Bavli Šabbat 156a–b". Hebrew Union College Annual. 78. Hebrew Union College Press: 109–148. JSTOR 23508945. Schwartz, Dov (1993), "Astrology and Astral Magic in the Writings of Solomon Alconstantin", Jerusalem Studies in Jewish Folklore (in Hebrew), vol. 15, Mandel Institute for Jewish Studies, JSTOR 23356290, OCLC 5542562900 [Solomon Alconstantin (or Alcostantin) is the author of the book Megalleh ʿAmuqot, which exists in manuscript only and consists of two parts. The first and shorter part, written in 1352 in Burgos, defends the legitimacy of astrology; its text appears at the end of this paper]. == External links == Jewish Encyclopedia (1906) – Astrology David Clive Rubin, Astrology in the Torah: A Comparative Study of Astrological Themes in the Hebrew Bible and Babylonian Talmud, Dissertation submitted in


id: journal-of-traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Traditional_Chinese_Medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Traditional_Chinese_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:21:59.109961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-of-traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine was the first English-language journal on the subject of traditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture, herbal medicine, homeopathy, massotherapy, mind-body therapies, palliative care and other topics in complementary and alternative medicine. The journal was original established in Chinese as Chung i tsa chih ying wen pan in 1955. The English edition of the Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine was first published in 1981. It is jointly sponsored and published by the China Association of Chinese Medicine and the China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences. Its headquarters are in Beijing. The journal is also published in German, Italian, Spanish, French and Portuguese editions. == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is abstracted and indexed in the following bibliographic databases: EMBASE MEDLINE Science Citation Index Expanded Scopus == References == == External links == Website of the Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine Archived 2018-06-26 at the Wayback Machine Website of JTCM on Elsevier Archived 2018-06-26 at the Wayback Machine Website of the Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine http://journaltcm.cn


id: juan-baigorri-velar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Baigorri_Velar-0.md
category: reference
title: Juan Baigorri Velar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Baigorri_Velar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:00.268321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: juan-baigorri-velar-20260505-0
summary:
Juan Pedro Baigorri Velar (1891 in Concepción del Uruguay – 24 March 1972 in Buenos Aires) was an Argentine engineer; known for his claims that he had invented a rain-making machine. == Career == His father was a military officer. Raised in Buenos Aires, he studied at the Colegio Nacional. Later, he travelled to Italy, where he attended the University of Milan and received a degree in engineering, with a specialty in geophysics. He worked for several fuel companies, which involved trips to numerous countries, investigating soil composition and exploring for oil. During the course of these trips he made his own instruments, for detecting minerals and electromagnetism. In 1929, he was invited by Enrique Mosconi to join the newly created YPF, a state-owned Argentine energy company. He had been working primarily from the United States but, at that time, he returned to Argentina and settled there permanently. == The Rain-Making Machine == According to the newspaper Crítica, its invention came about accidentally, when he was in Bolivia using his mineral detecting device. When it was connected, a light rain suddenly began to fall. He apparently concluded that was due to the "electromagnetic congestion" it produced. After that, he spent


id: junk-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Junk science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:01.480829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: junk-science-20260505-0
summary:
Junk science is spurious or fraudulent scientific data, research, or analysis. The concept is often invoked in political and legal contexts where facts and scientific results have a great amount of weight in making a determination. It usually conveys a pejorative connotation that the research has been untowardly driven by political, ideological, financial, or otherwise unscientific motives. The concept was popularized in the 1990s in relation to expert testimony in civil litigation. More recently, invoking the concept has been a tactic to criticize research on the harmful environmental or public health effects of corporate activities, and occasionally in response to such criticism. In some contexts, junk science is counterposed to the "sound science" or "solid science" that favors one's own point of view. Junk science has been criticized for undermining public trust in real science. Junk science is not the same as pseudoscience. == Definition == Junk science has been defined as: "science done to establish a preconceived notion—not to test the notion, which is what proper science tries to do, but to establish it regardless of whether or not it would hold up to real testing." "opinion posing as empirical evidence, or through evidence of questionable warrant, based on


id: junk-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Junk science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:01.480829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: junk-science-20260505-0
summary:
Since no such proof is possible [that genetically modified food is harmless], the article in The New York Times was what is called a "bad rap" against the U.S. Department of Agriculture—a bad rap based on a junk-science belief that it's possible to prove a null hypothesis. Agin asks the reader to step back from the rhetoric, as "how things are labeled does not make a science junk science." In its place, he offers that junk science is ultimately motivated by the desire to hide undesirable truths from the public. The rise of open-access (free to read) journals has resulted in economic pressure on academic publishers to publish junk science. Even when the journal is peer-reviewed, the authors, rather than the readers, become the customer and the source of funding for the journal, so the publisher is incentivized to publish as many papers as possible, including those that are methodologically unsound. == Misuse in public relations == John Stauber and Sheldon Rampton of PR Watch say the concept of junk science has come to be invoked in attempts to dismiss scientific findings that stand in the way of short-term corporate profits. In their book Trust Us, We're Experts (2001), they


id: kambo-drug-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambo_(drug)-0.md
category: reference
title: Kambo (drug)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambo_(drug)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:02.677436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kambo-drug-20260505-0
summary:
Kambo, also known as sapo (from Portuguese: sapo, lit. 'toad') or vacina-do-sapo, is substance derived from the natural secretions of an amphibian belonging to the Phyllomedusa family. Commonly the dried skin secretions of the giant leaf frog, known as the kambô in Portuguese, a species of frog, are used for ritualistic purposes with a strong religious and spiritual components. Less commonly it is used as a transdermal medicine, however, evidence for its effectiveness is limited. Kambo is usually used in a group setting, called a kambo circle or kambo ceremony. The effects on humans usually include tachycardia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. A meta-review of 50 studies in which 11 cases of acute intoxication were examined found that extreme cases have included psychosis (occasionally severe), SIADH, kidney damage (including acute renal failure), pancreas damage, liver damage including toxic hepatitis, dermatomyositis, esophageal rupture, and seizures, in some cases leading to death, although such incidents are limited in number and some evidence suggests precipitation by medical contraindications. Kambo, which originated as a folk medicine practice among some indigenous peoples in the Amazon basin, is also administered as a complementary medicine and alternative medicine treatment in the West, often as a pseudoscientific cleanse or


id: kambo-drug-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambo_(drug)-1.md
category: reference
title: Kambo (drug)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambo_(drug)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:02.677436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kambo-drug-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medical claims === Non-indigenous users and practitioners of kambo claim that the alternative medicine helps with a wide variety of issues and conditions. These claims include treating addiction, depression, and chronic pain, reducing fevers, increasing fertility, boosting energy and physical strength, and improving mental clarity. It is also claimed that kambo removes negative energy. There is currently no scientific evidence to support positive health effect claims.. There is no solid medical evidence on how the frog toxins work, whether they are useful for treating anything, and whether they can be used safely: no clinical trials have tested them on humans, as of November 2019. Reports of adverse effects are numerous, including for use with experienced guidance. Kym Jenkins of the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists, in a Sydney Morning Herald article, said "people with mental illness are a more vulnerable group anyway for a variety of reasons. If you're feeling very anxious or very depressed, you're automatically more vulnerable, and you could be more susceptible to people advertising or marketing a quick fix. I do have concerns that people can be preyed upon when they are more vulnerable." The Australian Medical Association (AMA) supports the TGA's


id: kambo-drug-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambo_(drug)-2.md
category: reference
title: Kambo (drug)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kambo_(drug)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:02.677436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kambo-drug-20260505-0
summary:
The frog secretes a range of small chemical compounds of a type called peptides, which have several different effects. Peptides found in the frog secretions include the opioid peptides dermorphin and deltorphin, the vasodilator sauvagine, and dermaseptin, which exhibits antimicrobial properties in vitro. Various other substances such as phyllomedusin, phyllokinin, caerulein, and adrenoregulin are also present. There is active medical research into the peptides found in the skin secretions of Phyllomedusa bicolor, focusing on discovering their biological effects. There have been some preclinical trials in mice and rats, but no phase-1 tests or clinical trials of safety in humans, as of November 2019. Most of the kambo-related bioactive peptides so far characterized have displayed potential applications in medicine, such as phyllocaeruleins with hypotensive properties, tachykinins and phyllokinins as vasodilators, dermorphins and deltorphins with opiate-like properties, and adenoregulins with antibiotic properties. In a clinical trial of a randomized, placebo-controlled study in postoperative pain, dermorphin administered via the intrathecal route was "impressively superior" over the placebo and the reference compound morphine." Due to the numerous biological activities of these substances and the similarities with the amino acid sequences related to mammalian neuropeptides and hormones, many have aroused the interest from a medical


id: keraunography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keraunography-0.md
category: reference
title: Keraunography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keraunography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:03.951919+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: keraunography-20260505-0
summary:
Keraunography or keranography is the belief that lightning, when striking an object (generally a human body), can leave markings which constitute a photographic image of surrounding objects. It is generally considered a myth: lightning can leave markings, called Lichtenberg figures, but they are not photographic. == Origins == Like most folklore, it is impossible to trace the origins of keraunography. However, it seems to have attracted scientific and media attention in England in the early 19th century, and by Victorian times the term "keraunography" had been coined to describe numerous unconnected events. With increasing scientific understanding of electricity and the popularity of photography, the time was right in the 19th century for keraunography, which seems to combine both concepts, to enter the public consciousness. However, it is likely that anecdotal accounts of keraunography had existed long before there was a word for it. == Modern perception == Although to some degree science has still not fully explained all the behaviours of lightning, very few people currently accept keraunography as truth. It is evident that lightning strikes do indeed produce burn marks, and like any basically random shape (clouds, birthmarks, inkblots, etc.) it is human nature to see shapes in them.


id: kimodameshi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimodameshi-0.md
category: reference
title: Kimodameshi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimodameshi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:05.115456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kimodameshi-20260505-0
summary:
Kimodameshi (肝試し or きもだめし, pronounced [kʲimodaꜜmeɕi]; lit. "testing one's liver"), known in English as a test of courage, is a Japanese activity in which people explore frightening and potentially dangerous places to build up courage. At night, usually during the summer, a group of people visits an ominous place such as a cemetery, haunted house, or secluded forest path to carry out specific missions there. The exercise teaches the group that, working together, they can overcome their fear. == History == In Ōkagami, a Japanese historical tale from the early 12th century, it is written that Emperor Kazan sent three of Fujiwara no Kaneie's sons to a house purportedly haunted by oni at 3 o'clock in the morning; only Fujiwara no Michinaga succeeded in visiting the house, returning with a sword-damaged wooden post as evidence. This suggests that the idea of a "test of courage" had existed near the end of Japan's Heian period. == Modern day == Kimodameshi may be overseen and carried out by school clubs or summer camps. In such instances, some preparation may be involved, and others may assume the role of scaring the participants. === Law === Without proper consideration, kimodameshi can result in crimes


id: kirlian-photography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirlian_photography-0.md
category: reference
title: Kirlian photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirlian_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:06.287636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kirlian-photography-20260505-0
summary:
Kirlian photography is a collection of photographic techniques used to capture the phenomenon of electrical coronal discharges. It is named after Soviet inventor and researcher of Armenian descent Semyon Kirlian, who, in 1939, accidentally discovered that if an object on a photographic plate is connected to a high-voltage source, an image is produced on the photographic plate. The technique has been variously known as electrography, electrophotography, corona(l) discharge photography (CDP), bioelectrography, gas discharge visualization (GDV), electrophotonic imaging (EPI), and, in Russian literature, Kirlianography. Kirlian photography has been the subject of scientific research, parapsychology research, and art. Paranormal claims have been made about Kirlian photography, but these claims are rejected by the scientific community. To a large extent, it has been used in alternative medicine research. == History == In 1889, Czech Bartoloměj Navrátil coined the word "electrography". Seven years later in 1896, a French experimenter, Hippolyte Baraduc, created electrographs of hands and leaves. In 1898, Polish-Belarusian engineer Jakub Jodko-Narkiewicz demonstrated electrography at the fifth exhibition of the Russian Technical Society. In 1939, two Czechs, S. Pratt and J. Schlemmer, published photographs showing a glow around leaves. The same year, Soviet electrical engineer Semyon Kirlian and his wife Valentina developed Kirlian


id: kirlian-photography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirlian_photography-1.md
category: reference
title: Kirlian photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirlian_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:06.287636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kirlian-photography-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parapsychology research === In 1968, Thelma Moss, a psychology professor, headed University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)'s Neuropsychiatric Institute (NPI), which was later renamed the Semel Institute. The NPI had a laboratory dedicated to parapsychology research and staffed mostly with volunteers. The lab was unfunded, unsanctioned and eventually shut down by the university. Toward the end of her tenure at UCLA, Moss became interested in Kirlian photography, a technique that supposedly measured the "auras" of a living being. According to Kerry Gaynor, one of her former research assistants, "many felt Kirlian photography's effects were just a natural occurrence." Paranormal claims of Kirlian photography have not been observed or replicated in experiments by the scientific community. The physiologist Gordon Stein has written that Kirlian photography is a hoax that has "nothing to do with health, vitality, or mood of a subject photographed." === Claims === Kirlian believed that images created by Kirlian photography might depict a conjectural energy field, or aura, thought, by some, to surround living things. Kirlian and his wife were convinced that their images showed a life force or energy field that reflected the physical and emotional states of their living subjects. They thought that these images


id: kundali-astrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundali_(astrology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Kundali (astrology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundali_(astrology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:07.479275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kundali-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
Kuṇḍali (also called janmapatra) is the Indian term for the astrological chart or diagram representing the positions of the navagraha-s of Indian astrology at a particular moment like the moment of the birth of a child. The navagraha-s are the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, and the two nodes of the Moon. The nodes of the Moon are the points on the celestial sphere where the orbit of the Moon intersects the orbit of the Sun. At a particular moment the navagraha-s will be at different points in the sky and they will be located in one of the 12 zodiacal signs (rāśi-s in Indian astrology), namely: 1. Meṣa (Aries), 2. Vṛṣabha (Taurus), 3.Mithuna (Gemini), 4. Karka (Cancer), 5. Siṃha (Leo), 6. Kanyā (Virgo), 7. Tulā (Libra), 8. Vṛścika (Scorpio), 9. Dhanuṣa (Sagittarius), 10. Makara (Capricornus), 11. Kumbha (Aquarius), 12. Mīna (Pisces) A kuṇḍali will show diagrammatically which one of the navagraha-s are located in which one of the rāśi-s at a particular moment. A kuṇḍali has twelve cells to represent the 12 zodiacal signs. Practitioners of astrology in different parts of India follow different conventions regarding the exact form in which the kuṇḍali is constructed. Essentially


id: vishen-lakhiani-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishen_Lakhiani-0.md
category: reference
title: Vishen Lakhiani
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishen_Lakhiani
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:08.648006+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vishen-lakhiani-20260505-0
summary:
Vishen Lakhiani (born 14 January 1976) is a Malaysian entrepreneur, author, and motivational speaker of Indian descent. He is the founder and CEO of Mindvalley and author of two books: The Code of the Extraordinary Mind and The Buddha and the Badass. == Career == Born and raised in Kuala Lumpur, Lakhiani attended a Malaysian state school. After graduating from high school, he moved to the United States and attended the University of Michigan, where he received a bachelor's degree in computer engineering. During his university years, he was an active member of AIESEC. After graduating in 2001, he moved to Silicon Valley. === Mindvalley === Mindvalley is an educational technology company co-founded by Lakhiani and Michael Reining that publishes products focused on personal spiritual development and lifelong learning, such as the meditation app Omvana. Founded in New York City in December 2002, Reining and Lakhiani were forced to relocate Mindvalley to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in 2004 when the United States declined to renew Lakhiani's work visa. In late 2020, Mindvalley added a course, hosted by Lakhiani, on the Silva Method for accessing altered states of mind and intuition. === Dealmates === Dealmates was a Malaysia-based e-commerce site that Lakhiani


id: language-secessionism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism-0.md
category: reference
title: Language secessionism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:09.851113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-secessionism-20260505-0
summary:
Language secessionism (also known as linguistic secessionism or linguistic separatism) is an attitude supporting the separation of a language variety from the language to which it has hitherto been considered to belong, in order for this variety to be considered a distinct language. This attitude was first analyzed in Catalan sociolinguistics but it is attested in other parts of the world. == In Arabic == === Sociolinguistic background === The Arab world is characterized by diglossia: local dialects dominate the sphere of daily communication, while Standard Arabic carries high prestige and is used in formal writing and speaking. This situation has important political and social implications. Modern Standard Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries, and enjoys the status of a global language. Standard Arabic is also the lingua sacra of Islam, which further increases its importance. However, a claim could be made that it is no one's first language, since Arab children acquire their local dialect in the natural process of generational language transmission, and learn Standard Arabic later, when they begin formal education. Proficiency in Standard Arabic provides insight into a vast literary tradition spanning over 1,500 years. However, proponents of recognizing local Arabic dialects as


id: language-secessionism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism-1.md
category: reference
title: Language secessionism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:09.851113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-secessionism-20260505-0
summary:
In the Auvernhat dialect, language secessionism has been supported since the 1970s by Pierre Bonnaud, who founded the Bonnaudian norm, the group Cercle Terre d'Auvergne and the review Bïzà Neirà. It has negligible impact in the population, where knowledge of the language is in any case at best residual. Auvernhat cultural circles are divided between the unitary vision of Occitan (associated with the Occitan classical norm) and secessionism (associated with Bonnaudian norm). In the Provençal dialect, language secessionism appeared during the 1970s with Louis Bayle and has been reactivated since the 1990s by Philippe Blanchet and groups like "Union Provençale" and "Collectif Provence". This secessionism supports the Mistralian norm (but it does not represent all Mistralian norm users, since some of them claim traditionally the unity of Occitan). It has little impact in the population, whose knowledge of the language is anyway residual. Provençal cultural circles are divided between the unitary vision (supported by users of both Mistralian norm and classical norm) and the secessionist vision (supported by some users of the Mistralian norm). The Regional Council of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur voted a resolution on 5 December 2003 that approved the principle of the unity of "Occitan or Langue d'Oc" and


id: language-secessionism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism-2.md
category: reference
title: Language secessionism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:09.851113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-secessionism-20260505-0
summary:
Kloss contrasts Ausbau languages not only with Abstand languages but also with polycentric standard languages, i.e. two variants of the same standard, such as Serbo-Croatian, Moldavian and Rumanian, and Portuguese in Brazil and Portugal. In contrast, pairs such as Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian, and Danish and Swedish, are instances of literary standards based on different dialects which, at a pre-literate stage, would have been regarded by linguists as dialects of the same language. On the contrary, the Serbo-Croatian kind of language secessionism is now a strongly consensual and institutional majority phenomenon. Still, this does not make it legitimate to say that such secessionism has led to "Ausbau languages" in the cases of Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin and Serbian, because such diversion has not taken place: The intercomprehension between these standards exceeds that between the standard variants of English, French, German, or Spanish. The four varieties - Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian - are all totally mutually comprehensible [...] What there is, is a common, polycentric standard language - just like, say, French, which has Belgian, Swiss, French, and Canadian variants but is definitely not four different languages. [...] Linguistic scientists are agreed that BCSM is essentially a single language


id: language-secessionism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism-3.md
category: reference
title: Language secessionism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:09.851113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-secessionism-20260505-0
summary:
Portugal, a former southern county split from the Kingdom of Galicia and fief of the Kingdom of León, was created by Afonso I of Portugal in 1126 and expanded towards the Islamic south, like its neighbouring kingdoms. That part of Galicia, named Portugal, became independent while the northern part of the country remained under the Kingdom of León during the 12th century and early 13th century. Northern Galicia would later be ruled by the Kingdom of Castile, which would become the core and ethnic base for the future Spain; but the culture was the same on both sides of the political border. Galician-Portuguese culture attained great prestige during the Low Middle Ages. In the late 15th century, Castilian domination became more severe, banishing their language in all official uses, including the church. Galician-Portuguese survived diglossically for the following centuries among the peasant population, but it experienced a strong Spanish influence and had a different evolution. Meanwhile, the same language (by the reintegrationist view) remained fully official in Portugal and was carried across the world by Portuguese explorers, soldiers and colonists. During the 19th century a revival movement arose. This movement defended the Galician language, and created a provisional norm, with


id: language-secessionism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism-4.md
category: reference
title: Language secessionism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_secessionism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:09.851113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-secessionism-20260505-0
summary:
== In Tagalog == Republic Act No. 7104, approved on August 14, 1991, created the Commission on the Filipino Language, reporting directly to the President and tasked to undertake, coordinate and promote researches for the development, propagation and preservation of Filipino and other Philippine languages. On May 13, 1992, the commission issued Resolution 92-1, specifying that Filipino is the...indigenous written and spoken language of Metro Manila and other urban centers in the Philippines used as the language of communication of ethnic groups. Though the Commission on the Filipino Language recognizes that a lot of the vocabulary of Filipino is based on Tagalog, the latest definition given to the national language tries to evade the use of the term Tagalog. According to some Filipinologists (people who specialize in the study of Filipino as a language), the main reason that Filipino is distinct from Tagalog is that in Filipino, there is a presence of vocabulary coming from other Philippine languages, such as Cebuano (such as bana – husband), Hiligaynon (such as buang – insane) and Ilocano (such as ading – little brother). They also maintain that the term Tagalog is the language of the Tagalog region and puristic in a sense. It


id: laundry-ball-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laundry_ball-0.md
category: reference
title: Laundry ball
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laundry_ball
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:11.012124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laundry-ball-20260505-0
summary:
A laundry ball or washing ball is a product made of solid, insoluble material promoted as a substitute for laundry detergent. Producers of laundry balls often make pseudoscientific claims about their mechanisms of action and exaggerate the extent of their benefits. Washing with laundry balls is as effective or less effective than washing without detergent. Their observed cleaning effects can largely be attributed to the mechanical interactions with the laundry or to using hot water instead of cold. For mechanical agitation, no evidence exists that using a specialized laundry ball is superior to using a different, cheaper solid object, such as a golf ball. The Federal Trade Commission has taken action against manufacturers for making misleading claims, while customer protection organizations have recommended against buying this type of product. == Types == Laundry balls come in several shapes: disks, spheres and toruses (doughnut shapes). Some contain ceramic pieces, magnetic material, or coloured liquid claimed to be "activated water", none of which have been demonstrated to improve effectiveness. Some balls can be refilled with pellets of detergent or other ingredients. In the United States, laundry balls have been sold on home shopping channels or by participants in multilevel marketing. They can


id: laundry-ball-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laundry_ball-1.md
category: reference
title: Laundry ball
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laundry_ball
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:11.012124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laundry-ball-20260505-0
summary:
== Customer protection == In 1997, Amway offered a ceramic washing disk on its catalog but removed it after concluding that it had "no measurable impact on overall cleaning." In 1997, Trade-Net sold a laundry ball product (the Blue Laundry Ball) in various states. Trade-Net claimed that the blue liquid inside their balls was structured water "that emits a negative charge through the walls of the container into your laundry water." "This causes the water molecule cluster to disassociate, allowing much smaller individual water molecules to penetrate the innermost part of the fabric." Dennis Barnum, a professor of inorganic chemistry at Portland State University, said that the liquid was just water with a blue dye and could not possibly have the effect claimed by the manufacturer. Barnum also said that the claims were "gibberish" and used scientific terms in ways that sounded educated to the layman but did not make any real sense. The Oregonian tested the balls and found they washed marginally better than hot water with no detergent and worse than using detergent. After complaints, Trade-Net's claims were investigated by customer protection departments in Utah, Oregon, and Florida, among others, and the company was prohibited from making certain


id: leaky-gut-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Leaky gut syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:12.197286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leaky-gut-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
Leaky gut syndrome is a hypothetical and medically unrecognized condition that is distinct from the scientific phenomenon of increased intestinal permeability commonly known as "leaky gut". Claims for the existence of "leaky gut syndrome" as a distinct medical condition come mostly from nutritionists and practitioners of alternative medicine. Proponents claim that a "leaky gut" causes chronic inflammation throughout the body that results in a wide range of conditions, including myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, migraines, multiple sclerosis, and autism. There is little evidence to support this hypothesis. Stephen Barrett has described "leaky gut syndrome" as a fad diagnosis and says that its proponents use the alleged condition as an opportunity to sell a number of alternative-health remedies – including diets, herbal preparations, and dietary supplements. Promoters of pseudoscience have claimed that the passage of proteins through a "leaky" gut is the cause of autism. Evidence for claims that a leaky gut causes autism is weak and conflicting. Advocates tout various treatments for "leaky gut syndrome", such as dietary supplements, probiotics, herbal remedies, gluten-free foods, and low-FODMAP, low-sugar, and/or antifungal diets, but there is little evidence that the treatments offered are of benefit. None have been adequately tested to


id: learning-pyramid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_pyramid-0.md
category: reference
title: Learning pyramid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_pyramid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:13.417113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: learning-pyramid-20260505-0
summary:
The learning pyramid (also known as “the cone of learning”, “the learning cone”, “the cone of retention”, “the pyramid of learning”, or “the pyramid of retention”) is a pseudoscientific group of ineffective learning models and representations relating different degrees of retention induced from various types of learning. == Description == The earliest such representation is believed to originate in a 1954 book called Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching. A pyramid model was supposedly developed by the National Training Laboratories Institute in the early 1960s, on its main campus in Bethel, Maine, for which the original, internal research is said to have been lost. Despite this, NTL's learning pyramid model became a central representation of this concept with a large number of models drawing from it. NTL's model generally used the following divisions: == Criticisms == Criticism emerged on early versions of the model such as Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience. Critics reported inconsistencies between the pyramid of learning and research. The NTL learning pyramid study being lost, the field largely stands on an unknown methodology of unknown quality, with unknown mitigation of influential parameters such as time, population tested, etc., making the original study's results untrustworthy. == See also == Educational


id: lectin-free-diet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectin-free_diet-0.md
category: reference
title: Lectin-free diet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectin-free_diet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:14.566275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lectin-free-diet-20260505-0
summary:
The Lectin-free diet (also known as the Plant Paradox diet) is a fad diet promoted with the false claim that avoiding all foods that contain high amounts of lectins will prevent and cure disease. There is no clinical evidence the lectin-free diet is effective to treat any disease and its claims have been criticized as pseudoscientific. == Overview == The lectin-free diet forbids all foods that are high in lectins including legumes (beans, chickpeas, lentils, peas), grains, fruit, nightshade vegetables (tomatoes and potatoes), nuts, seeds and many others. The first writer to advocate a lectin-free diet was Peter J. D'Adamo, a naturopathic physician best known for promoting the blood type diet. D'Adamo has argued that lectins may damage people's blood type by interfering with digestion, food metabolism, hormones and insulin production so should be avoided. The lectin-free diet has been popularized by cardiologist and former professor of surgery and pediatrics Steven Gundry, who wrote the book called The Plant Paradox. Gundry claims he has discovered that lectins cause most human diseases, and erroneously claims that his diet will prevent and cure them. His book argues that eating tomatoes incites "a kind of chemical warfare in our bodies, causing inflammatory reactions


id: let-s-trim-our-hair-in-accordance-with-the-socialist-lifestyle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let's_trim_our_hair_in_accordance_with_the_socialist_lifestyle-0.md
category: reference
title: Let's trim our hair in accordance with the socialist lifestyle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let's_trim_our_hair_in_accordance_with_the_socialist_lifestyle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:15.751081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: let-s-trim-our-hair-in-accordance-with-the-socialist-lifestyle-20260505-0
summary:
Let's trim our hair in accordance with the socialist lifestyle (Korean: 사회주의적생활양식에 맞게 머리단장을 하자; alternatively translated as Let us trim our hair in accordance with Socialist lifestyle) was a television program broadcast on state-run Korean Central Television in North Korea between 2004 and 2005 as part of a longstanding government propaganda against haircuts and fashions deemed at odds with "socialist values". The program claimed that long hair could adversely affect human intelligence. == North Korea's fashion restrictions == Such dress and hair standards have long been a fixture of North Korean society. Kim Jong Il was known for his "Speed Battle Cut" crew cut when he first came to prominence in the early 1980s, though he later reverted to the short sided bouffant favored by his father. After Kim Jong Il succeeded his father, some of the state's restrictions on Western fashion were relaxed. Women were allowed permanent waves, men could grow slightly longer hair, and public dancing was allowed. Despite such slight concessions during the early years of Kim Jong Il's rule, obvious emblems of Western fashion such as jeans are occasionally banned, and long hair on men could lead to arrest and forced haircuts. According to the


id: letter-of-three-hundred-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Three_Hundred-0.md
category: reference
title: Letter of Three Hundred
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_Three_Hundred
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:16.967037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: letter-of-three-hundred-20260505-0
summary:
The Letter of Three Hundred (Russian: Письмо трёхсот) was a series of letters sent by Soviet scientists to the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1955, calling for an end to the dominance of Trofim Lysenko's doctrine in Soviet biology. The first and most important of these letters was a 21-page memorandum signed by a large group of Soviet scientists and sent on 11 October 1955. The memorandum assessed the state of biology in the Soviet Union in the mid-1950s and sharply criticized the scientific views and practical activities of Lysenko, who at the time was one of the country’s most influential figures in biological science. It ultimately contributed to Lysenko’s resignation as president of VASKhNIL and to the removal of some of his supporters from other leading posts in the Soviet scientific establishment. The text of the letter, with some cuts, was first openly published in Pravda on 13 January 1989. == Background == In the late 1940s and early 1950s, with the support of the leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Soviet state, Lysenko expanded and promoted his theories through ideological and pseudoscientific rhetoric, advanced


id: leuchter-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchter_report-0.md
category: reference
title: Leuchter report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchter_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:18.136628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leuchter-report-20260505-0
summary:
The Leuchter report is a pseudoscientific document authored by American execution technician Fred A. Leuchter, who was commissioned by Ernst Zündel to defend him at his trial in Canada for distributing Holocaust denial material. Leuchter compiled the report in 1988 with the intention of investigating the feasibility of mass homicidal gassings at Nazi extermination camps, specifically at Auschwitz. He traveled to the camp, collected multiple pieces of brick from the remains of the crematoria and gas chambers (without the camp's permission), brought them back to the United States, and submitted them for chemical analysis. At the trial, Leuchter was called upon to defend the report in the capacity of an expert witness; however, during the trial, the court ruled that he had neither the qualifications nor experience to act as such. Leuchter cited the absence of Prussian blue in the homicidal gas chambers to support his view that they could not have been used to gas people. However, residual iron-based cyanide compounds are not a categorical consequence of cyanide exposure. In addition, the walls and ceilings of the gas chambers were covered with plaster. The Prussian blue would have remained on the surface of the plaster and would not have


id: leuchter-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchter_report-1.md
category: reference
title: Leuchter report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchter_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:18.136628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leuchter-report-20260505-0
summary:
THE COURT: Who determines that? You? Leuchter admitted under oath that he only had a Bachelor of Arts degree and implicitly suggested that an engineering degree was unavailable to him by saying that his college did not offer an engineering degree during his studies. Boston University actually offered three different kinds of such qualification when he was a student there. When asked by the court if the B.A. he obtained was in a field that entitled him to operate as an engineer, he confirmed that this was so, even though his degree was in history. Similarly, Leuchter claimed that he obtained most of his research material on the camps (including original crematoria blueprints) from the Auschwitz and Majdanek camps' archives, and testified that these documents had a far more important role in shaping his conclusions than the physical samples he collected, yet after the trial the director of the Auschwitz museum denied that Leuchter had received any plans or blueprints from them. Judge Ronald Thomas began to label Leuchter's methodology as "ridiculous" and "preposterous", dismissing many of the report's conclusions on the basis that they were based on "second-hand information", and refused to allow him to testify on the effect


id: leuchter-report-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchter_report-2.md
category: reference
title: Leuchter report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchter_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:18.136628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leuchter-report-20260505-0
summary:
The problem with Prussian blue is that it is by no means a categorical sign of cyanide exposure. One factor necessary in its formation is a very high concentration of cyanide. In terms of the difference between amounts measured in the delousing chambers and homicidal gas chambers, critics explain that the exact opposite of what deniers claim is true. Insects have a far higher resistance to cyanide than humans, with concentration levels up to 16,000 ppm (parts per million) and an exposure time of more than 20 hours (sometimes as long as 72 hours) being necessary for them to succumb. In contrast, a cyanide concentration of only 300 ppm is fatal to humans in a matter of minutes. This difference is one of the reasons behind the concentration disparity. Another exceedingly sensitive factor by which very small deviances could determine whether Prussian blue may form is pH. pH could be affected by the presence of human beings. Also, while the delousing chambers were left intact, the ruins of the crematoria at Birkenau had been exposed to the elements for over forty years by the time Leuchter collected his samples. This would have severely affected his results, because unlike Prussian blue


id: leuchter-report-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchter_report-3.md
category: reference
title: Leuchter report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchter_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:18.136628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leuchter-report-20260505-0
summary:
Leuchter incorrectly assumed that the gas chambers were not ventilated. The basement gas chambers of Crematoria II and III were mechanically ventilated via motors in the roof space of the main crematorium structure capable of extracting the remaining gas and renewing the air every three to four minutes. When ventilation was not used such as in Crematoria IV and V (although a ventilation system was later installed in Crematorium V in May 1944), Sonderkommando prisoners wore gas masks when removing the bodies. When presented in court with a document by the chief Auschwitz architect SS-Sturmbannführer Karl Bischoff, Leuchter misconstrued aeration (Belüftung) and ventilation (Entlüftung) as part of the furnace blower systems, when they were actually in reference to the ventilation channels in the walls that straddle the gas chambers. These are visible on blueprints, and can still partly be seen in the ruined east wall of the Crematorium III gas chamber. ==== Body disposal ==== Leuchter was also prepared to act as expert witness regarding crematoria ovens despite admitting during cross examination that he had no expert knowledge. Leuchter presented his own estimate of 156 corpses as the total daily incineration capacity of the installations at Auschwitz. During cross-examination, he


id: levashovism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism-0.md
category: reference
title: Levashovism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:19.278735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: levashovism-20260505-0
summary:
Levashovism is a doctrine and healing system of Rodnovery (Slavic neopaganism) that emerged in Russia, formulated by the physics theorist, occultist and psychic healer Nikolay Viktorovich Levashov (1961–2012), one of the most prominent leaders of Slavic Neopaganism after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The movement was incorporated in 2007 as the Russian Public Movement of Renaissance–Golden Age (Russian: Русское Общественное Движение "Возрождение. Золотой Век"; acronym: РОД ВЗВ, ROD VZV). Levashovite doctrine is based on a mathematical cosmology, a melting of science and spirituality which has been compared to a "Pythagorean" worldview, and is pronouncedly eschatological. Levashovism is influenced by Ynglism, especially sharing the latter's historiosophical narrative about the Slavic Aryan past of the Russians, and like Ynglism it has been formally rejected by mainstream Russian Rodnover organisations. The movement is present in many regions of Russia, as well as in Ukraine, Belarus, Romania, Moldova and Finland. == Overview == Nikolay V. Levashov was educated in advanced physics and quantum mechanics. He began to practise psychic healing in Russia in the 1980s, and in 1990–1991 he held seminars on the subject. In 1991 he moved to California, in the United States, where he lived until 2006 and where he wrote


id: levashovism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism-1.md
category: reference
title: Levashovism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:19.278735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: levashovism-20260505-0
summary:
==== Seven primary matters ==== Based on the presumed ancient Vedic knowledge of the Slavic Aryans, Levashov theorised that matter itself is differentiated into seven types, or "building blocks" of creation, which he called the "seven primary matters" or "seven primordial matters" (семь первичных материй, sem' pervichnykh materiy), conventionally identified by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F and G, and by the seven colours, respectively red, violet, blue, azure, green, yellow and orange. The seven primary matters are nonphysical, or subtle matter, that is to say not perceivable to the ordinary human state of consciousness. Primordially, they move chaotically in space, "ignoring" each other, but each of them has its own distinctive properties or qualities and a specific energetic potential that allow them to respond to the ever-changing patterns of space. Red matter A is the most important, functioning as a structural and energetic foundation for all the other matters when they coalesce to form entities. Local areas of anisotropy are created by fluctuations in the architectural patterns of space—likened to a stone tossed into water creating ripple effects—and these fluctuations influence the relationship between space itself and the seven primary matters. When the latter find themselves in


id: levashovism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism-2.md
category: reference
title: Levashovism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:19.278735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: levashovism-20260505-0
summary:
Levashovite doctrine tells that reality is orchestrated by gods, cosmic forces which can be either creative and life-giving "Bright Forces" (Светлые Силы, Svetlye Sily) or destructive and life-sucking "Dark Forces" (Темные Силы, Temnye Sily). The influence of either Bright Forces or Dark Forces and the behaviour of people, and the manifestation in them of certain qualities and emotions, depend on which one of the seven primary matters prevails in a given configuration of space–matter. Wherever and whenever—in a given region of space and in the cycle of time—primary matter E dominates, there is a "Day of Svarog" (День Сварога, Den' Svaroga), characterised by the complete development of the third and fourth subtle bodies (the astral and the mental body) of the human being, with the development of consciousness and of high spiritual and moral qualities. Conversely, wherever and whenever primary matter G dominates there is a "Night of Svarog" (Ночь Сварога, Noch' Svaroga), characterised by the hypertrophied development of the second and incomplete third subtle bodies (the ethereal and the lower astral body) of the human being, with a regression of consciousness and the expression of low destructive qualities in human beings (such as aggressiveness, cruelty, greed and envy). During


id: levashovism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism-3.md
category: reference
title: Levashovism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:19.278735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: levashovism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Healing treatment === Any mental or strictly physical illness is due to a disruption of the harmony between the seven bodies, and the latter may be due to genetic defects, infections, karma and environmental factors. To support their healing purpose, the Levashovite healer has to mobilise the appropriate quantity of energetic potential and the correct quality of primary matter, and influence the architectural patterns of the treated subject's microcosm. The healing work should take place first on the six subtle bodies, in order to influence and transform the denser physical body, since the primary matters from the subtle bodies flow down to the physical level and the structures of the subtle bodies are the architectural templates for the physical body. Healing conducted merely on the physical body may afford palliation but not a complete relief, as pathological organisations remain in place on the subtle levels and eventually reassert themselves on the physical level. The healing procedure comprises a phase of scanning and detoxification, in which the healer inspects the treated subject, finds the causes of the problem and cleanses the subject's body from the symptoms of the problem. This is followed by a phase of disintegration and regeneration, in


id: levashovism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism-4.md
category: reference
title: Levashovism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levashovism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:19.278735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: levashovism-20260505-0
summary:
== Levashovite texts == 1. The Final Appeal to Mankind (Последнее Обращение к Человечеству), 1994 2. The Anisotropic Universe (Неоднородная Вселенная), 2002 3. Spirit and Mind. Volume 1 (Сущность и Разум. Том 1), 1999 4. Spirit and Mind. Volume 2 (Сущность и Разум. Том 2), 2003 5. Abilities of Mind (Возможности Разума), 2006 6. Russian History Viewed through Distorted Mirrors (Россия в Кривых Зеркалах), 2007 7. The Mirror of my Soul. Volume 1 (Зеркало моей Души. Том 1), 2006 8. The Mirror of my Soul. Volume 2 (Зеркало моей Души. Том 2), 2008 9. The Tale of the Bright Falcon (Сказ о Ясном Соколе), 2011 10. Revelation (Откровение), 2010, by Levashov's wife Svetlana Levashova == See also == Rodnovery Anastasianism Ivanovism Russian Authentism Ynglism Germanic Heathenry Shamanism == References == === Citations === === Sources === ==== Secondary sources ==== Golikov, I. A. (2019). "О реконструкции летосчисления российского славянского неоязычества" [About the reconstruction of chronology in Russian Slavic Neopaganism] (PDF). Pivovarov Readings (in Russian). Yekaterinburg: Ural Federal University. pp. 181–182. ISBN 9785886872514. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 March 2021. Kondrakov, Igor Mikhaylovich (2015). Учимся познавать мир (20 уроков познания) [Learning to know the world (20 lessons of knowledge)]


id: ley-line-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line-0.md
category: reference
title: Ley line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:20.506063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ley-line-20260505-0
summary:
Ley lines ( or ) are straight alignments drawn between various historic structures, prehistoric sites, and prominent landmarks. The idea was developed in early 20th-century Europe, with ley line believers arguing that these alignments were recognised by ancient societies that deliberately erected structures along them. Since the 1960s, members of the Earth Mysteries movement and other esoteric traditions have commonly believed that such ley lines demarcate "earth energies" and serve as guides for alien spacecraft. Archaeologists and scientists regard ley lines as an example of pseudoarchaeology and pseudoscience. The idea of "leys" as straight tracks across the landscape was put forward by the English antiquarian Alfred Watkins in the 1920s, particularly in his book The Old Straight Track. He argued that straight lines could be drawn between various historic structures and that these represented trade routes created by ancient British societies. Although he gained a small following, Watkins' ideas were never accepted by the British archaeological establishment, a fact that frustrated him. His critics noted that his ideas relied on drawing lines between sites established at different periods of the past. They also argued that in prehistory, as in the present, it was impractical to travel in a straight line


id: ley-line-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line-1.md
category: reference
title: Ley line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:20.506063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ley-line-20260505-0
summary:
His ideas were rejected by most experts on British prehistory at the time, including both the small number of recognised archaeological scholars and local enthusiasts. His critics noted that the straight lines he proposed would have been highly impractical means of crossing hilly or mountainous terrain, and that many of the sites he selected as evidence for the leys were of disparate historical origins. Some of Watkins' other ideas, such as his belief that widespread forest clearance took place in prehistory rather than later, would nevertheless later be recognised by archaeologists. Part of archaeologists' objections was their belief that prehistoric Britons would not have been sophisticated enough to produce such accurate measurements across the landscape. British archaeologists were then overwhelmingly committed to ideas of cultural diffusionism, and thus unwelcoming to ideas about ley lines being an independent British development. In 1926, advocates of Watkins' beliefs established the Straight Track Club. To assist this growing body of enthusiasts who were looking for their own ley lines in the landscape, in 1927, Watkins published The Ley Hunter's Manual. Proponents of Watkins' ideas sent in letters to the archaeologist O. G. S. Crawford, then editor of the Antiquity journal. Crawford filed these letters


id: ley-line-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line-2.md
category: reference
title: Ley line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:20.506063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ley-line-20260505-0
summary:
==== The ley hunting community ==== In 1962, a group of ufologists established the Ley Hunter's Club. Michell's publication was followed by an upsurge in ley hunting as enthusiasts travelled around the British landscape seeking to identify what they believed to be ley lines connecting various historic structures. Parish churches were particularly favoured by the ley hunters, who often worked on the assumption that such churches had almost always been built atop pre-Christian sacred sites. The 1970s and 1980s also saw the increase in publications on the topic of ley lines. One ley lines enthusiast, Philip Heselton, established the Ley Hunter magazine, which was launched in 1965. It was later edited by Paul Screeton, who also wrote the book Quicksilver Heritage, in which he argued that the Neolithic period had seen an idyllic society devoted to spirituality but that this was brought to an end through the introduction of metal technologies in the Bronze Age. He argued that this golden age could nevertheless be restored. Another key book produced among the ley hunting community was Mysterious Britain, written by Janet and Colin Bord. Part of the popularity of ley hunting was that individuals without any form of professional training in


id: ley-line-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line-3.md
category: reference
title: Ley line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:20.506063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ley-line-20260505-0
summary:
Williamson and Bellamy's book brought two different responses from the ley hunter community. Some maintained that even if the presence of earth energies running through ley lines could not be demonstrated with empirical evidence and rational argumentation, this did not matter; for them, a belief in ley lines was an act of faith, and in their view archaeologists were too narrow-minded to comprehend this reality. The other approach was to further engage archaeologists by seeking out new data and arguments to bolster their beliefs in ley lines. Hutton noted that this pulled along "a potential fissure between rationalism and mysticism which had always been inherent in the movement". In 1989, a book that Devereux had co-written with Nigel Pennick, Lines on the Landscape, was published. It laid aside ideas of leys representing channels for earth energy, noting that this was beyond the realm of scientific verification, and instead focused on trying to build a case for ley lines that archaeologists could engage with. In particular, it drew attention to ethnographically recorded beliefs in the importance of lines running through the landscape in various communities around the world, proposing these as ethnographic comparisons for what might have occurred in prehistoric Britain.


id: ley-line-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line-4.md
category: reference
title: Ley line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:20.506063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ley-line-20260505-0
summary:
Ley lines have been characterised as a form of pseudoscience. On The Skeptic's Dictionary, the American philosopher and skeptic Robert Todd Carroll noted that none of the statements about magnetic forces underpinning putative ley lines has been scientifically verified. Williamson and Bellamy characterised ley lines as "one of the biggest red herrings in the history of popular thought". One criticism of Watkins' ley line theory states that given the high density of historic and prehistoric sites in Britain and other parts of Europe, finding straight lines that "connect" sites is trivial and ascribable to coincidence. Johnson stated that "ley lines do not exist". He cited Williamson and Bellamy's work in demonstrating this, noting that their research showed how "the density of archaeological sites in the British landscape is so great that a line drawn through virtually anywhere will 'clip' a number of sites". Other statistical significance tests have shown that supposed ley-line alignments are no more significant than random occurrences and/or have been generated by selection effects. The paper by statistician Simon Broadbent is one such example and the discussion after the article involving a large number of other statisticians demonstrates the high level of agreement that alignments have no


id: lgbtq-chemicals-conspiracy-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_chemicals_conspiracy_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ chemicals conspiracy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_chemicals_conspiracy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:21.699910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-chemicals-conspiracy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Conspiracy theories emerged in the 2010s alleging that governments were introducing endocrine disrupting chemicals into the water supply to increase the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender or queer (LGBTQ) population. The claim was popularized by conspiracy theorist Alex Jones, who cited studies on the herbicide atrazine, known to induce spontaneous sex reversal or hermaphroditism in certain frog species, to assert that the U.S. government was 'putting chemicals in the water that turn the "friggin’ frogs gay" as part of a "chemical warfare operation"'. Spontaneous sex change is a naturally occurring phenomenon in some frog species even in unpolluted environments. In animal studies, exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals during gestation can interfere with prenatal hormones and consequently sex differentiation of the brain. This has led some scientists to speculate about the impact of endocrine disruptor exposure during human pregnancy on later sexual orientation or gender identity, though evidence is currently lacking. == History == Animal testing in the 2000s suggested that the herbicide atrazine, an endocrine disruptor, may have a feminizing effect on male frogs causing them to become hermaphrodites. Other research failed to reproduce these results in frogs, though reports of reproductive impact has been reported for other animals, and a meta-analysis


id: limbic-imprint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_imprint-0.md
category: reference
title: Limbic imprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_imprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:22.836153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: limbic-imprint-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology, limbic imprint refers to the process by which prenatal, perinatal and post-natal experiences imprint upon the limbic system, causing lifelong effects. The term is used to explain how early care of a fetus and newborn is important to lifelong psychological development and has been used as an argument for alternative birthing methods, and against circumcision. Some also refer to the concept as the human emotional map, deep-seated beliefs, and values that are stored in the brain's limbic system. When a fetus or newborn experiences trauma, the brain will register trauma as normal affecting the newborn into adulthood. However, when a fetus or newborn does not experience trauma, the brain will develop healthy coping mechanisms that work effectively into adulthood. This phenomenon, since experienced during prenatal, perinatal and postnatal stages, generally affects children. Different types of perinatal and childhood experiences shape the future experiences of adults. This means that if a child is born under traumatic circumstances, then, as an adult, trauma will register as normal in the brain. Trauma will become expected and because of this early imprinting, adults may be more susceptible to dangerous or abusive situations. This also depends on the circumstance in which they were


id: limbic-imprint-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_imprint-1.md
category: reference
title: Limbic imprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_imprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:22.836153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: limbic-imprint-20260505-0
summary:
== Treatment == There are therapists who recognize that body and emotions - facilitated by experiences - leave imprints in deep neuronal circuits of the limbic brain and use such position to devise psychological interventions such as the therapy within a group setting. Some therapists suggest a course of "limbic repatterning" to consciously rewrite bad limbic imprints and thus improve the patient's overall psychological health. Another suggested therapy is called "Limbic System Therapy". In this therapy, the patients participate in physical experiences that contradict the limbic imprint. For example, an individual that has low self-esteem may be given an activity to deliberately make them feel good about themselves like positive affirmation exercises. The more the patient participates in this "re-wiring" the better they will feel about themselves and thus correcting a negative imprint. According to psychologists, there are many more ways to help with re-coding a negative imprint. These strategies include things such as journaling, talking and sharing feelings, and participating in body therapies like a body massage. Other strategies psychologists suggest are spending time with loved ones, positive thinking, breathing awareness, body awareness, relaxation, meditation, and/or prayer. Regular exercise and warm baths are also suggested by professionals. == Criticisms


id: liquid-oxygen-supplement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_oxygen_supplement-0.md
category: reference
title: Liquid oxygen supplement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_oxygen_supplement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:24.005085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: liquid-oxygen-supplement-20260505-0
summary:
Liquid oxygen supplements are products that claim to add extra oxygen to the human body, most often through a chemical process in the digestive system, like the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide or magnesium peroxide. While the FDA describes these products as being inert, and has penalized some producers who made explicit medical claims, it has not prohibited their sale. == Liquid oxygen == Liquid oxygen is the name of a product that is a solution of hydrogen peroxide and other compounds including sodium chloride (common salt) that claims to help with "jet lag, fatigue, altitude sickness, headaches, hangovers, youthful skin, energy, and insomnia". Professor Ken Harvey, a member of the World Health Organization team that formulated criteria for the promotion of medicinal drugs and a member of Auspharm Consumer Health Watch, states that the product is "no more than salty water", and that most forms of water carry some dissolved oxygen. The Federal Trade Commission has prosecuted some makers of such products for making "blatantly false and unsubstantiated health claims", although it has not banned the sale of such products. The product claims to have an effect through increasing the amount of oxygen in the body but this is unnecessary


id: list-of-acupuncture-points-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_acupuncture_points-0.md
category: reference
title: List of acupuncture points
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_acupuncture_points
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:25.378000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-acupuncture-points-20260505-0
summary:
This article provides a comprehensive list of acupuncture points, locations on the body used in acupuncture, acupressure, and other treatment systems based on Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). == Locations and basis == More than four hundred acupuncture points have been described, with the majority located on one of the twenty main cutaneous and subcutaneous meridians, pathways which run throughout the body and according to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) transport qi. Twelve of these major meridians, commonly referred to as "the primary meridians", are bilateral and practitioners associate them with internal organs. The remaining eight meridians are designated as "extraordinary", and are also bilateral except for three, one that encircles the body near the waist, and two that run along the midline of the body. Only those two extraordinary meridians that run along the midline contain their own points, the remaining six comprise points from the aforementioned twelve primary meridians. There are also points that are not located on the fourteen major meridians but do lie in the complete nexus referred to as Jīngluò (經絡). Such outliers are often referred to as "extra points". There is no anatomical and physiological basis for acupuncture points and meridians. In practice, acupuncture points are


id: live-blood-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_blood_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Live blood analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_blood_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:26.561564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: live-blood-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Live blood analysis (LBA), live cell analysis, Hemaview or nutritional blood analysis is the use of high-resolution dark field microscopy to observe live blood cells. Live blood analysis is promoted by some alternative medicine practitioners, who assert that it can diagnose a range of diseases. It has its origins in the now-discarded theories of pleomorphism promoted by Günther Enderlein, notably in his 1925 book Bakterien-Cyklogenie. There is no scientific evidence that live blood analysis is reliable or effective, and it has been described as a fraudulent means of convincing people that they are ill and should purchase dietary supplements. It is not accepted in laboratory practice and its validity as a laboratory test has not been established. Its practice has been described as a pseudoscientific, bogus and fraudulent, and the medical profession has dismissed it as quackery. The field of live blood microscopy is unregulated; there is no training requirement or recognised qualification for practitioners and no recognised medical validity to the results. Proponents have made false claims about both medical blood pathology testing and their own services, which some have refused to amend when instructed by the Advertising Standards Authority. In January 2014, prominent live blood proponent and teacher


id: live-blood-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_blood_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Live blood analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_blood_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:26.561564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: live-blood-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== Regulatory issues == In 1996, the Pennsylvania Department of Laboratories informed three Pennsylvania chiropractors that Infinity2's "Nutritional Blood Analysis" could not be used for diagnostic purposes unless they maintain a laboratory that has both state and federal certification for complex testing. In 2001, the Health and Human Services Office of the Inspector General issued a report on regulation of "unestablished laboratory tests" that focused on live blood cell analysis and the difficulty of regulating unestablished tests and laboratories. In 2002, an Australian naturopath was convicted and fined for falsely claiming that he could diagnose illness using live blood analysis after the death of a patient. He was acquitted of manslaughter. He subsequently changed his name and was later banned from practice for life. In 2005, the Rhode Island Department of Health ordered a chiropractor to stop performing live blood analysis. An attorney for the State Board of Examiners in Chiropractic Medicine described the test as "useless" and a "money-making scheme... The point of it all is apparently to sell nutritional supplements." A state medical board official said that live blood analysis has no discernible value, and that the public "should be very suspicious of any practitioner who offers this


id: long-island-medium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island_Medium-0.md
category: reference
title: Long Island Medium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island_Medium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:27.796196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-island-medium-20260505-0
summary:
Long Island Medium is an American reality television series starring Theresa Caputo, a self-professed medium who claims she can communicate with the dead. Much of the program, which premiered on September 25, 2011, takes place in Hicksville, New York, though it often follows Caputo as she meets with clients in other areas. Scientific skeptics say mediumship performances are a con, and Caputo's specific claims have been deemed fictitious by critics, including magician James Randi, Inside Edition, and Jezebel. == Synopsis == Each episode focuses on Caputo as she conducts private and group readings with both believers and skeptics. Her husband Larry and two children, Victoria and Larry Jr., have learned to live with her mediumship. In a 2011 interview, Caputo claimed she could communicate with dead people: "Things are just there. When I was younger I used to actually see images and hear things. As I got older and shut down, it has changed. Because it was frightening to see people standing there who actually weren't there." == Reception == Scientific skeptics say mediumship performances are a con, and that Caputo's seemingly paranormal performances are simply the result of well-known exploits like the Forer effect, cold reading, selective editing of


id: long-range-locator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-range_locator-0.md
category: reference
title: Long-range locator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-range_locator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:28.988177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-range-locator-20260505-0
summary:
A long-range locator is a class of fraudulent devices purported to be a type of metal detector, supposedly able to detect a variety of substances, including gold, drugs and explosives; most are said to operate on a principle of resonance with the material being detected. == Theory of operation == Skeptics have examined the internals of many such devices and found those that have been examined to be incapable of operating as advertised, and have dismissed them as overpriced dowsing rods or similarly useless devices. Virtually all such devices claim to operate on a resonant frequency principle where the device is said to emit an electromagnetic signal, either through an antenna or a probe, that will respond to a specific substance such as gold, silver, or sometimes even paper money, and that the device will indicate the presence of such material by indicating a change in direction relative to the operator. This theory of operation is not supported by scientific theory; the devices have not been shown to work in blind testing, and the resonance principle invoked has not been shown to work in laboratories (and is not consistently employed by LRL manufacturers). In addition, the Inverse-Square Law limits the


id: lunar-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Lunar effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:30.169912+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lunar-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The lunar effect is a link between different stages of the 29.5-day lunar cycle and the behavior and physiology of various species, purportedly including humans. The changing phase and position of the Moon in its orbit impacts night lighting and ocean tides on Earth. Various organisms have adapted to this repeating cycle. A considerable number of studies have examined the effect on humans. By the late 1980s, there were at least 40 published studies on the purported lunar-lunacy connection, and at least 20 published studies on the purported lunar-birthrate connection. Literature reviews and metanalyses have found no correlation between the lunar cycle and human biology or behavior. In cases such as the approximately monthly cycle of menstruation in humans (but not other mammals), the coincidence in timing reflects no known lunar influence. The widespread and persistent beliefs about the influence of the Moon may depend on illusory correlation – the perception of an association that does not in fact exist. In a number of marine animals, there is strong evidence for the effects of lunar cycles. Observed effects relating to reproductive synchrony may depend on external cues relating to the presence or amount of moonlight. Corals contain light-sensitive cryptochromes, proteins


id: lunar-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Lunar effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:30.169912+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lunar-effect-20260505-0
summary:
==== Law and order ==== Senior police officers in Brighton, UK, announced in June 2007 that they were planning to deploy more officers over the summer to counter trouble they believe is linked to the lunar cycle. This followed research by the Sussex Police force that concluded there was a rise in violent crime when the Moon was full. A spokeswoman for the police force said "research carried out by us has shown a correlation between violent incidents and full moons". A police officer responsible for the research told the BBC that "From my experience of 19 years of being a police officer, undoubtedly on full moons we do seem to get people with sort of strange behavior – more fractious, argumentative." Police in Ohio and Kentucky have blamed temporary rises in crime on the full Moon. In January 2008, New Zealand's Justice Minister Annette King suggested that a spate of stabbings in the country could have been caused by the lunar cycle. A reported correlation between Moon phase and the number of homicides in Miami-Dade County was found, through later analysis, not to be supported by the data and to have been the result of inappropriate and misleading statistical


id: lunar-effect-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect-2.md
category: reference
title: Lunar effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:30.169912+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lunar-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== In animals === Many animals use moonlight for navigation and to time behavior. As an example of lunar navigation, numerous insect species, such as moths, use moonlight to stabilize their flight paths and maintain consistent trajectories. Corals contain light-sensitive cryptochromes, proteins that are sensitive to different levels of light. Corals at the Great Barrier Reef release their eggs and sperm simultaneously, always after full moon between October and December. Also, the Barau's petrel is known to time their mating season with the full moon. Spawning of coral Platygyra lamellina occurs at night during the summer on a date determined by the phase of the Moon; in the Red Sea, this is the three- to five-day period around the new Moon in July and the similar period in August. Acropora coral time their simultaneous release of sperm and eggs to just one or two days a year, after sundown with a full moon. Dipsastraea speciosa tends to synchronize spawning in the evening or night, around the last quarter moon of the lunar cycle. Another marine animal, the bristle worm Platynereis dumerilii, also spawns a few days after a full moon. It is used as a model for studying cryptochromes and


id: lunar-effect-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect-3.md
category: reference
title: Lunar effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:30.169912+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lunar-effect-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Abell, George (1979). Review of the book The Alleged Lunar Effect by Arnold Lieber, Skeptical Inquirer, Spring 1979, 68–73. Reprinted in Science Confronts the Paranormal, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books, ISBN 0-87975-314-5. Abell, George and Barry Singer (1981). Science and the Paranormal – probing the existence of the supernatural, Charles Scribner's Sons, chapter 5, ISBN 0-684-17820-6. Berman, Bob (2003). Fooled by the Full Moon – Scientists search for the sober truth behind some loony ideas, Discover, September 2003, page 30. Caton, Dan (2001). Natality and the Moon Revisited: Do Birth Rates Depend on the Phase of the Moon?, Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, Vol 33, No. 4, 2001, p. 1371. A summary of the results of the paper. Diefendorf, David (2007), Amazing... But false! Hundreds of "facts" you thought were true, but aren't, Sterling Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4027-3791-6 Foster, Russell G.; Roenneberg, Till (2008). "Human Responses to the Geophysical Daily, Annual and Lunar Cycles". Current Biology. 18 (17): R784–R794. Bibcode:2008CBio...18.R784F. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.003. PMID 18786384. S2CID 15429616. Lunar cycles had, and continue to have, an influence upon human culture, though despite a persistent belief that our mental health and other behaviours are modulated by the phase of the


id: lung-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_(Chinese_medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Lung (Chinese medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_(Chinese_medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:31.305799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lung-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The lungs (Chinese: 肺; pinyin: fèi) is one of the zang organs described in traditional Chinese medicine. It is a functionally defined entity and not equivalent to the anatomical organ of the same name. == In the context of the zang-fu organs == The Lung is a zang organ meaning it is a yin organ. Situated in the thorax, it communicates with the throat and opens into the nose. It occupies the uppermost position among the zang-fu organs, and is known as the "canopy" of the zang-fu organs. Due to the lung's position in the body, toward the back of the chest and in the upper half of the abdomen, it has yin within yang qualities and is more yang than other zang organs besides the heart. Each zang organ is paired with a fu organ, the lung's paired organ is the large intestine. Its meridians connects with the large intestine, with which makes it internally related. The lung and large intestine are connected by two meridians, Yangming large intestine meridian of hand and the Taiyin lung meridian of hand. The Lung and its paired organ are associated with the element of metal and the emotion of grief. Each of


id: lysenkoism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism-0.md
category: reference
title: Lysenkoism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:32.570224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lysenkoism-20260505-0
summary:
Lysenkoism was a pseudoscientific political campaign led by the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko against genetics and science-based agriculture in the mid-20th century, rejecting natural selection in favour of a form of Lamarckism, as well as expanding upon the techniques of vernalization and grafting. More than 3,000 mainstream biologists were dismissed or imprisoned, and numerous scientists were executed in the Soviet campaign to suppress scientific opponents. The president of the Soviet Agriculture Academy, Nikolai Vavilov, who had been Lysenko's mentor, but later denounced him, was sent to prison and died there, while Soviet genetics research was effectively destroyed. Research and teaching in the fields of neurophysiology, cell biology, and many other biological disciplines were harmed or banned. The government of the Soviet Union (USSR) supported the campaign, and Joseph Stalin personally edited a speech by Lysenko in a way that reflected his support for what would come to be known as Lysenkoism, despite his skepticism toward Lysenko's assertion that all science is class-orientated in nature. Lysenko served as the director of the USSR's Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Other countries of the Eastern Bloc including the People's Republic of Poland, the Republic of Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic accepted


id: lysenkoism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism-1.md
category: reference
title: Lysenkoism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:32.570224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lysenkoism-20260505-0
summary:
In 1928, rejecting natural selection and Mendelian genetics, Trofim Lysenko claimed to have developed agricultural techniques which could radically increase crop yields. These included vernalization, species transformation (one species turning into another), inheritance of acquired characteristics, and vegetative hybridization (see below). He claimed in particular that vernalization, exposing wheat seeds to humidity and low temperature, could greatly increase crop yield. He claimed further that he could transform one species, Triticum durum (durum spring wheat), into Triticum vulgare (common autumn wheat), through 2 to 4 years of autumn planting. This species transition he claimed to occur without an intermediate form. However, this was already known to be impossible since T. durum is a tetraploid with 28 chromosomes (4 sets of 7), while T. vulgare is hexaploid with 42 chromosomes (6 sets). This objection did not faze Lysenko, as he claimed that the chromosome number changed as well. Lysenko claimed that the concept of a gene was a "bourgeois invention", and he denied the presence of any "immortal substance of heredity" or "clearly defined species", which he claimed belong to Platonic metaphysics rather than strictly materialist Marxist science. Instead, he proposed a "Marxist genetics" postulating an unlimited possibility of transformation of living


id: lysenkoism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism-2.md
category: reference
title: Lysenkoism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:32.570224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lysenkoism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Peak === From July 31 to August 7, 1948, the Academy of Agricultural Sciences (VASKhNIL) held a week-long session (August 1948 Session of VASKhNIL), organized by Lysenko and approved by Stalin. At the end of it, Lysenkoism was declared as "the only correct theory." As Lysenko performatively spoke at the end, "the Central Committee of the Communist Party has examined my report and approved it". Attendants recognized this as the birth of a new orthodoxy. Of the 8 scientists who advocated genetics during the session, 3 immediately announced repentance. Soviet scientists were required to denounce any work that contradicted Lysenko, and criticism was denounced as "bourgeois" or "fascist". The Ministry of Higher Education commanded all biological institutes to immediately follow the Lysenko orthodoxy:The Central University Administration and the Administration of Cadres are directed to review within two months all departments of biological faculties to free them from all opposed to Michurinist biology and to strengthen them by appointing Michurinists to them. Point 6 of the Order No. 1208 (August 23, 1948)For several months, similar central directives dismissed scientists, withdrew textbooks, and required the removal of any references to heredity in higher education. There was also an order to destroy


id: lysenkoism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism-3.md
category: reference
title: Lysenkoism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:32.570224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lysenkoism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reappearance === In the 21st century, Lysenkoism is again being discussed in Russia, including in respectable newspapers like Kultura and by biologists. The geneticist Lev Zhivotovsky has made the unsupported claim that Lysenko helped found modern developmental biology. Discoveries in the field of epigenetics are sometimes raised as alleged late confirmation of Lysenko's theories, but in spite of the apparent high-level similarity (heritable traits passed on without DNA alteration), Lysenko believed that environment-induced changes are the primary mechanism of heritability. Heritable epigenetic effects have been found, but are minor and unstable compared to genetic inheritance. == Scientific content == Heredity was reformulated as "the property of the living body to demand certain environmental conditions and to react in a certain way to them". Michurin attempted to explain Lamarckian heredity by theorizing that some sort of "heredity" is present all throughout an organism, which reacts to environmental influence. This is incompatible with the Weismann barrier, which leads Lysenkoists to denounce Weismann. Instead, they proposed a "physiological" theory, that the heredity diffused throughout the body is somehow collected in the germ cells, which are "built from molecules, granules, of various organs and parts of the organism", i.e. the pangenesis theory. When


id: lysenkoism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism-4.md
category: reference
title: Lysenkoism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:32.570224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lysenkoism-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Denis Buican, L'éternel retour de Lyssenko, Paris, Copernic, 1978. ISBN 2859840192 Ronald Fisher, "What Sort of Man is Lysenko?" Listener, 40 (1948): 874–875. Contemporary commentary by a British evolutionary biologist (pdf format) Loren Graham, Chapter 6. "Stalinist Ideology and the Lysenko Affair", in Science in Russia and the Soviet Union (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Oren Solomon Harman, "C. D. Darlington and the British and American Reaction to Lysenko and the Soviet Conception of Science." Journal of the History of Biology, Vol. 36 No. 2 (New York: Springer, 2003) David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970). Richard Levins and Richard Lewontin, "Lysenkoism", in The Dialectical Biologist (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1985). Anton Lang, "Michurin, Vavilov, and Lysenko". Science, Vol. 124 No. 3215, 1956) doi:10.1126/science.124.3215.277b Valery N. Soyfer, Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994). ISBN 0813520878 "The Disastrous Effects of Lysenkoism on Soviet Agriculture". Science and Its Times, ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer, Vol. 6. (Detroit: Gale, 2001) == External links == SkepDic.com – 'Lysenkoism', The Skeptic's Dictionary Lysenkoism, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Robert Service, Steve Jones & Catherine Merridale (In


id: macrobiotic-diet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet-0.md
category: reference
title: Macrobiotic diet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:33.731810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macrobiotic-diet-20260505-0
summary:
A macrobiotic diet (or macrobiotics) is a restrictive dietary regime based on ideas about types of food drawn from Zen Buddhism. The diet tries to balance the food elements classified as yin and yang, a practice that also extends to cookware. Major principles of macrobiotic diets are to reduce animal products, eat locally grown foods that are in season, and consume meals in moderation. There is no high-quality clinical evidence that a macrobiotic diet is helpful for people with cancer or other diseases, and it may be harmful. Neither the American Cancer Society nor Cancer Research UK recommends adopting the diet. Deaths have been reported from malnutrition on strict macrobiotic diets. == Conceptual basis == The macrobiotic diet is associated with Zen Buddhism and is based on the idea of balancing yin and yang. The diet proposes ten plans which are followed to reach a supposedly ideal yin:yang ratio of 5:1. The diet was popularized by George Ohsawa in the 1930s and subsequently elaborated on by his disciple Michio Kushi. Medical historian Barbara Clow writes that, in common with many other types of quackery, macrobiotics takes a view of illness and of therapy which conflicts with mainstream medicine. Macrobiotics emphasizes


id: macrobiotic-diet-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet-1.md
category: reference
title: Macrobiotic diet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:33.731810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macrobiotic-diet-20260505-0
summary:
== Cancer == The macrobiotic diet has been advertised as an alternative cancer treatment but is ineffective to treat any type of cancer. Macrobiotics author Michio Kushi argued that conventional cancer treatments are "violent and artificial" and the macrobiotic diet should not be combined with conventional treatment. There is no clinical evidence to support the cancer claims of macrobiotic proponents. The American Cancer Society who reviewed 11 scientific data bases found no peer-reviewed evidence that the macrobiotic diet is effective for treating any type of cancer. The Office of Technology Assessment, examining both published and unpublished macrobiotic literature, failed to verify any claims of cancer cure. The American Cancer Society recommends "low-fat, high-fiber diets that consist mainly of plant products"; however, they urge people with cancer not to rely on a dietary program as an exclusive or primary means of treatment. Cancer Research UK states, "some people think living a macrobiotic lifestyle may help them to fight their cancer and lead to a cure. But there is no scientific evidence to prove this." == Safety == === Regulation === Macrobiotic practitioners are not regulated, and need not have any qualification or training in the United Kingdom. === Complications === One


id: macrophagic-myofasciitis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophagic_myofasciitis-0.md
category: reference
title: Macrophagic myofasciitis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophagic_myofasciitis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:34.928224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macrophagic-myofasciitis-20260505-0
summary:
Macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF) is a histopathological finding involving inflammatory microphage formations with aluminium-containing crystal inclusions and associated microscopic muscle necrosis in biopsy samples of the deltoid muscle. Based on the presence of aluminium and the common practice of administering vaccines into the deltoid, it has been proposed that the abnormalities are a result of immunisation with aluminium adjuvant-containing vaccines. The findings were observed in a minority of persons being evaluated for "diffuse myalgias, arthralgias or muscle weakness" who underwent deltoid muscle biopsies. The individuals had a history of receiving aluminium-containing vaccines, administered months to several years prior to observation of MMF histopathology. It has been subsequently proposed that macrophagic myofasciitis is in fact a systemic disorder where various diseases develop in association and as consequence of vaccination with aluminium-containing vaccines in susceptible individuals, however, the World Health Organization has concluded that "[t]here is no evidence to suggest that MMF is a specific illness", and that "[t]he current evidence neither establishes nor excludes a generalized disorder affecting other organs." == Description == According to the WHO, "There is no evidence to suggest that MMF is a specific illness. MMF is a lesion containing aluminium salts, identified by histopathological examination, found at


id: christine-maggiore-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Maggiore-0.md
category: reference
title: Christine Maggiore
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Maggiore
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:36.045771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christine-maggiore-20260505-0
summary:
Christine Joy Maggiore (July 25, 1956 – December 27, 2008) was an HIV-positive activist and promoter of HIV/AIDS denialism. She was the founder of Alive & Well AIDS Alternatives, an organization which disputes the link between HIV and AIDS and urges HIV-positive pregnant women to avoid anti-HIV medication. Maggiore authored and self-published the book What If Everything You Thought You Knew about AIDS Was Wrong? Maggiore's promotion of HIV/AIDS denialism had long been controversial, particularly since her 3-year-old daughter, Eliza Jane Scovill, died of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia, which is an AIDS-defining illness. Consistent with her belief that HIV was harmless, Maggiore had not taken medication to reduce the risk of transmission of HIV to her daughter during pregnancy, and she did not have Eliza Jane tested for HIV during her daughter's lifetime. Maggiore herself died on December 27, 2008, after suffering from AIDS-related conditions. == Early life and career == Born in Chicago, Illinois, Maggiore grew up in Southern California. After graduating with honors from Reseda High School, she worked in advertising and marketing in Los Angeles, California until 1984. She traveled through Europe and North Africa in 1984 before settling in Florence, Italy, where she lived from 1985 to


id: christine-maggiore-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Maggiore-1.md
category: reference
title: Christine Maggiore
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Maggiore
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:36.045771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christine-maggiore-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reaction to Eliza Jane's death === Controversy ensued in the wake of Eliza Jane's death; as Eliza Jane had acquired HIV from Maggiore perinatally or via breastfeeding, her HIV infection might have been prevented had Maggiore taken antiretroviral drugs or avoided breastfeeding, and her death may have been preventable with proper medical care. John Moore, a prominent HIV/AIDS researcher speaking at the 16th International AIDS Conference, described Eliza Jane's death as a concrete example of the human harm that can result from pseudoscientific beliefs such as AIDS denialism: ... infants whose HIV infected mothers listen to AIDS denialists never got the chance to make their own decisions. The Maggiore case received wide publicity. Christine Maggiore is a person who’s proselytized against the use of antiretrovirals to prevent HIV/AIDS. She's a classic AIDS denialist, and she gave birth to a child who died at age three late last year of an AIDS-related infection. The coroner’s report clearly reports that the child died of AIDS. That was another unnecessary death. During this controversy, Maggiore had held fast to her views on HIV/AIDS and to Al-Bayati's conclusion. She received support from others in the AIDS-denialist community; journalist Celia Farber wrote an article


id: magnet-motor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_motor-0.md
category: reference
title: Magnet motor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_motor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:37.263393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magnet-motor-20260505-0
summary:
A magnet motor or magnetic motor is a type of perpetual motion machine, which is intended to generate a rotation by means of permanent magnets in stator and rotor without external energy supply. Such a motor is theoretically as well as practically not realizable. The idea of functioning magnetic motors has been promoted by various hobbyists. It can be regarded as pseudoscience. There are frequent references to free energy and sometimes even links to esotericism. Magnet motors are not to be confused with the commonly used permanent magnet motors, which are powered from an external electrical energy supply. == Working principle == A hypothetical magnet motor works with permanent magnets in stator and rotor. By a special arrangement of the attracting and repelling poles, a rotational movement of the rotor is supposedly permanently maintained. Practical implementations fail because there is no substantial energy in magnets that could be employed for propulsion or to compensate for energy losses. The force between permanent magnets is conservative as the magnetic field follows a potential, so that there is no work done over a closed cycle. After a short amount of time, such a motor will stop moving and assume an equilibrium position. Rationalizations


id: magnet-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Magnet therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:38.416476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magnet-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Magnetic therapy is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine practice involving the weak static magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet which is placed on the body. It is similar to the alternative medicine practice of electromagnetic therapy, which uses a magnetic field generated by an electrically powered device. Magnet therapy products may include wristbands, jewelry, blankets, and wraps that have magnets incorporated into them. Practitioners claim that subjecting certain parts of the body to weak electric or magnetic fields has beneficial health effects. These physical and biological claims are unproven and no effects on health or healing have been established. Although hemoglobin, the blood protein that carries oxygen, is weakly diamagnetic (when oxygenated) or paramagnetic (when deoxygenated), the magnets used in magnetic therapy are many orders of magnitude too weak to have any measurable effect on blood flow. This is not to be confused with transcranial magnetic stimulation, a scientifically valid form of therapy, or with pulsed electromagnetic field therapy. == Methods of application == Magnet therapy involves applying the weak magnetic field of permanent magnets to the body, for purported health benefits. Different effects are assigned to different orientations of the magnet. Products include magnetic bracelets and jewelry; magnetic straps


id: magnetic-water-treatment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_water_treatment-0.md
category: reference
title: Magnetic water treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_water_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:39.552197+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magnetic-water-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
Magnetic water treatment (also known as anti-scale magnetic treatment or AMT) is a disproven method of reducing the effects of hard water by passing it through a magnetic field as a non-chemical alternative to water softening. A 1996 study by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory found no significant effect of magnetic water treatment on the formation of scale. As magnets affect water to a small degree, and water containing ions is more conductive than purer water, magnetic water treatment is an example of a valid scientific hypothesis that failed experimental testing and is thus disproven. Any products claiming to utilize magnetic water treatment are absolutely fraudulent. Vendors of magnetic water treatment devices frequently use photos and testimonials to support their claims, but omit quantitative detail and well-controlled studies. Advertisements and promotions generally omit system variables, such as corrosion or system mass balance analyticals, as well as measurements of post-treatment water such as concentration of hardness ions or the distribution, structure, and morphology of suspended particles. == See also == Fouling Laundry ball Magnet therapy Pulsed-power water treatment == References ==


id: male-hysteria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_hysteria-0.md
category: reference
title: Male hysteria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_hysteria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:40.728766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: male-hysteria-20260505-0
summary:
In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, hysteria was a common psychiatric diagnosis made primarily in women. The existence and nature of a purported male hysteria (hysteria masculina) was a debated topic around the turn of the century. It was originally believed that men could not suffer from hysteria because of their lack of uterus. This belief was discarded in the 17th century when discourse identified the brain or mind, and not reproductive organs, as the root cause of hysteria. During World War I, hysterical men were diagnosed with shell shock or war neurosis, which later went on to shape modern theories on PTSD. The notion of male hysteria was initially connected to the post-traumatic disorder known as railway spine; later, it became associated with war neurosis. == History == In the second half of the nineteenth century, hysteria was well-established as a diagnosis for certain psychiatric disorders. Although the original anatomical explanation of hysteria, the so-called wandering womb, was by this point abandoned, the diagnoses remained associated with (gender stereotypes of) females and female sexuality in the minds of physicians. Hysteria was joined in 1866 by a diagnosis for a very similar set of symptoms: railway spine, a nervous


id: male-hysteria-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_hysteria-1.md
category: reference
title: Male hysteria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_hysteria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:40.728766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: male-hysteria-20260505-0
summary:
Toward the end of the century, female hysteria became increasingly an anti-suffragist label in the popular press and came under attack from rising feminism, while the wars of the early twentieth century brought new attention to the male variant. The Boer War and the Russo-Japanese War produced hysterical symptoms in veterans in large enough numbers that in 1907 the label "war neurosis" was introduced to describe their specific condition. For the disorders seen in World War I veterans, additional terms such as shell-shock (coined by Charles Samuel Myers), and (in France) pthiatiques and simulateurs were invented to prevent labeling soldiers with the "feminizing" label of hysteria. Charcot's earlier work, meanwhile, was ignored, and shell-shock sufferers were regarded by their physicians as displaying the symptoms of "womanish, homosexual or childish impulses". == Shell shock and war neurosis == Shell shock or war neurosis are forms of hysteria that manifested in soldiers during war time, especially World War I. Symptoms that were previously considered somatic were reconsidered in a new light; trembling, paralysis, nightmares, mutism and apathy were grouped together in a broad spectrum psychological disorder known as "war neurosis". By 1916 40% of casualties in fighting areas were diagnosed with shell


id: male-hysteria-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_hysteria-2.md
category: reference
title: Male hysteria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_hysteria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:40.728766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: male-hysteria-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lewis Yealland === A Canadian-born medic, Yealland was an aggressive supporter of disciplinary treatment for war neurosis. He worked in Queen's Square during the war and to has been established that he and other medics tortured patients into recovery. He was among the first British physicians to use electric shock treatment and has been criticized heavily for doing so. In Yealland's view, patients were more amenable to the suggestion that they suffered from a physiological disturbance that could be potentially remedied by a physical treatment such as faradism. == Representations in popular culture == === Regeneration by Pat Barker === Regeneration (1991) is the first of a series of novels that deals with the psychological trauma caused by World War I on English officers who fought on the front lines. The plot revolves around the character of Siegfried Sassoon, a decorated officer who is sent to Craiglockhart War Hospital in Edinburgh because he is said to be suffering from "Shell Shock". === Redeployment by Phil Klay === Phil Klay is a graduate of Dartmouth College and a veteran of the U.S. Marine Corps. He served in Iraq's Anbar Province from January 2007 to February 2008 as a Public Affairs


id: mars-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Mars effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:41.924157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mars-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The Mars effect is a purported statistical correlation between athletic eminence and the position of the planet Mars relative to the horizon at time and place of birth. This controversial finding was first reported by the French psychologist and "neo-astrologer" Michel Gauquelin. In his book L'influence des astres ("The Influence of the Stars", 1955), Gauquelin suggested that a statistically significant number of sports champions were born just after the planet Mars rises or culminates. He also divided the plane of the ecliptic into twelve sectors, identifying two "key" sectors of statistical significance. Gauquelin's work was accepted by the psychologist Hans Eysenck among others but later attempts to validate the data and replicate the effect have produced uneven results, chiefly owing to disagreements over the selection and analysis of the data set. Since the phenomenon in question depends upon the daily rotation of the Earth, the availability and accuracy of time and place of birth data is crucial to such studies, as is the criterion of "eminence". Later research claims to explain the Mars effect by selection bias, favouring champions who were born in a key sector of Mars and rejecting those who were not from the sample. == Reception and


id: mars-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Mars effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:41.924157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mars-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Zelen test === In 1975 Paul Kurtz's journal The Humanist published an article on astrology criticizing Gauquelin, to which the latter and his wife Françoise responded. Then Professor Marvin Zelen, a statistician and associate of the recently founded Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP, now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI)), proposed in a 1976 article in the same periodical that, in order to eliminate any demographic anomaly, Gauquelin randomly pick 100 athletes from his data-set of 2,088 and check the birth/planet correlations of a sample of babies born at the same times and places in order to establish a control group, giving the base-rate (chance) expectation for comparison (The 100 random athletes later expanded into a subsample of 303 athletes). In April 1977 CSICOP researcher George O. Abell wrote to Kurtz stating that Zelen's test had come out in the Gauquelins' favour. The Gauquelins also performed the test that Professor Zelen had proposed and carried out and found that the chance Mars-in-key-sector expectation for the general population (i.e., non-champions) was about 17%, significantly less than the 22% observed for athletic champions. However the subsequent article by Zelen, Abell and Kurtz


id: mars-effect-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_effect-2.md
category: reference
title: Mars effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:41.924157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mars-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== Statistical explanation === Some researchers argued that Gauquelin did not adjust the statistical significance of the Mars Effect for multiple comparisons and did not address the issue in his publications. Simplified and illustrative showcase argument is explained here: There are 10 celestial bodies and 12 sectors for them to be in. Furthermore, there are 132 combinations of sector pairs and thus 1320 different combinations of a planet with two sectors. There is about a 25% chance to find at least one such combination (of one planet and two sectors) for a random dataset of the same size as Gauquelin's that would yield a result with apparent statistical significance like the one obtained by Gauquelin. This implies that after adjusting for multiple comparisons, the Mars effect is no longer statistically significant even at the modest significance level of 0.05 and is probably a false positive. But the multiple comparisons argument is countered or weakened if it is proven that an effect shows up in more than one study. Some argue that the latter is the case. Geoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self-reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study


id: medical-astrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_astrology-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:43.106242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
Medical astrology or astrological medicine (traditionally known as iatromathematics) is an ancient applied branch of astrology based mostly on melothesia (Gr. μελοθεσία), the association of various parts of the body, diseases, and drugs with the nature of the sun, moon, planets, and the twelve astrological signs. The underlying basis for medical astrology is considered to be a pseudoscience as there is no scientific basis for its core beliefs. Hippocratic Greek medical training included a doctrine of dies decretorii ("critical days"). Galen believed that heavenly bodies influenced human life but he had his misgivings about the predictions made by "horoscope-casters" (genethliakoi). Astrology was however considered as a foundation for medical practice in ancient Greece and Arabia. In Italy astrological studies as part of a training for medicine was routine in Bologna. The training was not that strong in England but in medical practice astrological circumstances were claimed in cases to absolve surgeons of any blame. In England, Robert Fludd in his Medicina Catholica (Frankfort, 1629) noted that medicine, theology, and astrology formed a single unified discipline. Astrological medicine declined after the 17th century but there were calls for its renewal in 1928 by Rudyard Kipling who considered modern medicine too narrow.


id: medical-intuitive-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_intuitive-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical intuitive
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_intuitive
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:44.275517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-intuitive-20260505-0
summary:
A medical intuitive is an alternative medicine practitioner who is purported to be able to use their intuitive abilities to find the cause of a physical or emotional condition through the use of insight rather than modern medicine. Other terms for such a person include medical clairvoyant or medical psychic. == History == The practice of claiming to use intuition or clairvoyance for medical information dates back to Phineas Parkhurst Quimby (1802–1866), whose intuitive healing practice began in 1854. Edgar Cayce (1877–1945) was known as one of the most well known medical clairvoyants. William M. Branham, the father of the Pentecostal Latter Rain Movement, was said by his followers to be able to discern the health condition of people that attended his services, and in many cases heal them of their affliction. == Reception == Making a formal medical diagnosis is not a practice for many medical intuitives. In a few cases medical intuitives have been hired by hospitals, clinics and medical offices, particularly in California. Many medical professionals and psychologists attribute perceived anecdotal successes by medical intuitives to a combination of wishful thinking, confirmation bias, the placebo effect, and regression fallacy associated with self-limiting conditions. A few educational institutions


id: mediumship-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-0.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
Mediumship is the practice of purportedly mediating communication between familiar spirits or spirits of the dead and living human beings. Practitioners are known as "mediums" or "spirit mediums". There are different types of mediumship or spirit channelling, including séance tables, trance, and ouija. The practice is associated with spiritualism and spiritism. A similar New Age practice is known as channeling. Belief in psychic ability is widespread despite the absence of empirical evidence for its existence. Scientific researchers have attempted to ascertain the validity of claims of mediumship for more than one hundred years and have consistently failed to confirm them. As late as 2005, an experiment undertaken by the British Psychological Society reaffirmed that test subjects who self-identified as mediums demonstrated no mediumistic ability. Mediumship gained popularity during the nineteenth century when ouija boards were used as a source of entertainment. Investigations during this period revealed widespread fraud—with some practitioners employing techniques used by stage magicians—and the practice began to lose credibility. Fraud is still rife in the medium or psychic industry, with cases of deception and trickery being discovered to this day. Several different variants of mediumship have been described; arguably the best-known forms involve a spirit purportedly taking


id: mediumship-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-1.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mental mediumship === "Mental mediumship" is communication of spirits with a medium by telepathy. The medium mentally "hears" (clairaudience), "sees" (clairvoyance), and/or feels (clairsentience) messages from spirits. Directly or with the help of a spirit guide, the medium passes the information on to the message's recipient(s). When a medium is doing a "reading" for a particular person, that person is known as the "sitter". === Trance mediumship === In the 1860s and 1870s, trance mediums, also known as trance speakers, were very popular; this allowed female adherents, many who had strong interests in social justice, to speak in public in an era where doing so went against existing social norms. Many trance mediums delivered passionate speeches on abolitionism, temperance, and women's suffrage. Scholars have described Leonora Piper as one of the most famous trance mediums in the history of Spiritualism. Trance speakers believed that entering a trance gave them access to the spirits and, through them, to knowledge inaccessible in the waking world. Sometimes an assistant would write down the medium's words, such as in the early 20th century collaboration between the trance medium Mrs. Cecil M. Cook of the William T. Stead Memorial Center in Chicago (a religious


id: mediumship-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-2.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientific skepticism === In their book How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age, authors Theodore Schick and Lewis Vaughn have noted that the spiritualist and ESP hypothesis of mediumship "has yielded no novel predictions, assumes unknown entities or forces, and conflicts with available scientific evidence." Scientists who study anomalistic psychology consider mediumship to be the result of fraud and psychological factors. Research from psychology for over a hundred years suggests that where there is not fraud, mediumship and Spiritualist practices can be explained by hypnotism, magical thinking and suggestion. Trance mediumship, which according to Spiritualists is caused by discarnate spirits speaking through the medium, can be explained by dissociative identity disorder. Illusionists, such as Joseph Rinn have staged fake séances in which the sitters have claimed to have observed genuine supernatural phenomena. Albert Moll studied the psychology of séance sitters. According to (Wolffram, 2012) "[Moll] argued that the hypnotic atmosphere of the darkened séance room and the suggestive effect of the experimenters' social and scientific prestige could be used to explain why seemingly rational people vouchsafed occult phenomena." The psychologists Leonard Zusne and Warren Jones in their book Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical


id: mediumship-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-3.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1800s === Many 19th century mediums were discovered to be engaged in fraud. While advocates of mediumship claim that their experiences are genuine, the Encyclopædia Britannica article on spiritualism notes in reference to a case in the 19th century that "...one by one, the Spiritualist mediums were discovered to be engaged in fraud, sometimes employing the techniques of stage magicians in their attempts to convince people of their clairvoyant powers." The article also notes that "the exposure of widespread fraud within the spiritualist movement severely damaged its reputation and pushed it to the fringes of society in the United States." At a séance in the house of the solicitor John Snaith Rymer in Ealing in July 1855, a sitter Frederick Merrifield observed that a "spirit-hand" was a false limb attached on the end of the medium Daniel Dunglas Home's arm. Merrifield also claimed to have observed Home use his foot in the séance room. The poet Robert Browning and his wife Elizabeth attended a séance on July 23, 1855, in Ealing with the Rymers. During the séance a spirit face materialized which Home claimed was the son of Browning who had died in infancy. Browning seized the "materialization" and


id: mediumship-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-4.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
The British medium Francis Ward Monck was investigated by psychical researchers and discovered to be a fraud. On November 3, 1876, during the séance a sitter demanded that Monck be searched. Monck ran from the room, locked himself in another room and escaped out of a window. A pair of stuffed gloves was found in his room, as well as cheesecloth, reaching rods and other fraudulent devices in his luggage. After a trial Monck was convicted for his fraudulent mediumship and was sentenced to three months in prison. In 1876, William Eglinton was exposed as a fraud when the psychical researcher Thomas Colley seized a "spirit" materialization in his séance and cut off a portion of its cloak. It was discovered that the cut piece matched a cloth found in Eglinton's suitcase. Colley also pulled the beard off the materialization and it was revealed to be a fake, the same as another one found in the suitcase of Eglinton. In 1880 in a séance a spirit named "Yohlande" materialized, a sitter grabbed it and was revealed to be the medium Mme. d'Esperance herself. In September 1878 the British medium Charles Williams and his fellow-medium at the time, A. Rita, were


id: mediumship-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-5.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1900s === In March 1902 in Berlin, police officers interrupted a séance of the German apport medium Frau Anna Rothe. Her hands were grabbed and she was wrestled to the ground. A female police assistant physically examined Rothe and discovered 157 flowers as well as oranges and lemons hidden in her petticoat. She was arrested and charged with fraud. Another apport medium Hilda Lewis known as the "flower medium" confessed to fraud. The psychical researchers W. W. Baggally and Everard Feilding exposed the British materialization medium Christopher Chambers as a fraud in 1905. A false moustache was discovered in the séance room which he used to fabricate the spirit materializations. The British medium Charles Eldred was exposed as a fraud in 1906. Eldred would sit in a chair in a curtained off area in the room known as a "séance cabinet". Various spirit figures would emerge from the cabinet and move around the séance room, however, it was discovered that the chair had a secret compartment that contained beards, cloths, masks, and wigs that Eldred would dress up in to pretend to be spirits. The spirit photographer William Hope tricked William Crookes with a fake spirit photograph of his


id: mediumship-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-6.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
In 1910 at a séance in Grenoble, France the apport medium Charles Bailey produced two live birds in the séance room. Bailey was unaware that the dealer he had bought the birds from was present in the séance and he was exposed as a fraud. The psychical researcher Eric Dingwall observed the medium Bert Reese in New York and claimed to have discovered his billet reading tricks. The most detailed account at exposing his tricks (with diagrams) was by the magician Theodore Annemann. The Polish medium Stanisława Tomczyk's levitation of a glass beaker was exposed and replicated in 1910 by the magician William S. Marriott by means of a hidden thread. The Italian medium Lucia Sordi was exposed in 1911, she was bound to a chair by psychical researchers but would free herself during her séances. The tricks of another Italian medium Linda Gazzera were revealed in the same year, she would release her hands and feet from control in her séances and use them. Gazzera would not permit anyone to search her before a séance sitting, as she concealed muslin and other objects in her hair. In 1917, Edward Clodd analyzed the mediumship of the trance medium Gladys Osborne


id: mediumship-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-7.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
The Austrian medium Rudi Schneider was investigated in 1924 by the physicists Stefan Meyer and Karl Przibram. They caught Rudi freeing his arm in a series of séances. Rudi claimed he could levitate objects but according to Harry Price a photograph taken on April 28, 1932, showed that Rudi had managed to free his arm to move a handkerchief from the table. According to Warren Jay Vinton, Schneider was an expert at freeing himself from control in the séance room. Oliver Gatty and Theodore Besterman who tested Schneider concluded that in their tests there was "no good evidence that Rudi Schneider possesses supernormal powers." The spiritualists Arthur Conan Doyle and W. T. Stead were duped into believing Julius and Agnes Zancig had genuine psychic powers. Both Doyle and Stead wrote that the Zancigs performed telepathy. In 1924 Julius and Agnes Zancig confessed that their mind reading act was a trick and published the secret code and all the details of the trick method they had used under the title of Our Secrets!! in a London Newspaper. In 1925, Samuel Soal claimed to have taken part in a series of séances with the medium Blanche Cooper who contacted the spirit of


id: mediumship-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-8.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
In the 1930s Harry Price (director of the National Laboratory of Psychical Research) had investigated the medium Helen Duncan and had her perform a number of test séances. She was suspected of swallowing cheesecloth which was then regurgitated as "ectoplasm". Price had proven through analysis of a sample of ectoplasm produced by Duncan, that it was made of cheesecloth. Helen Duncan would also use a doll made of a painted papier-mâché mask draped in an old sheet which she pretended to her sitters was a spirit. The photographs taken by Thomas Glendenning Hamilton in the 1930s of ectoplasm reveal the substance to be made of tissue paper and magazine cut-outs of people. The famous photograph taken by Hamilton of the medium Mary Ann Marshall depicts tissue paper with a cut out of Arthur Conan Doyle's head from a newspaper. Skeptics have suspected that Hamilton may have been behind the hoax. Psychologists and researchers who studied Pearl Curran's automatic writings in the 1930s came to the conclusion Patience Worth was a fictitious creation of Curran. In 1931 George Valiantine was exposed as a fraud in the séance room as it was discovered that he produced fraudulent "spirit" fingerprints in wax. The


id: mediumship-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-9.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
In 1954, the psychical researcher Rudolf Lambert published a report revealing details about a case of fraud that was covered up by many early members of the Institute Metapsychique International (IMI). Lambert who had studied Gustav Geley's files on the medium Eva Carrière discovered photographs depicting fraudulent ectoplasm taken by her companion Juliette Bisson. Various "materializations" were artificially attached to Eva's hair by wires. The discovery was never published by Geley. Eugéne Osty (the director of the institute) and members Jean Meyer, Albert von Schrenck-Notzing and Charles Richet all knew about the fraudulent photographs but were firm believers in mediumship phenomena so demanded the scandal be kept secret. The fraudulent medium Ronald Edwin confessed he had duped his séance sitters and revealed the fraudulent methods he had used in his book Clock Without Hands (1955). The psychical researcher Tony Cornell investigated the mediumship of Alec Harris in 1955. During the séance "spirit" materializations emerged from a cabinet and walked around the room. Cornell wrote that a stomach rumble, nicotine smelling breath and a pulse gave it away that all the spirit figures were in fact Harris and that he had dressed up as each one behind the cabinet. The British


id: mediumship-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-10.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
The British journalist Ruth Brandon published the book The Spiritualists (1983) which exposed the fraud of the Victorian mediums. The book received positive reviews and has been influential to skeptics of spiritualism. The British apport medium Paul McElhoney was exposed as a fraud during a séance in Osset, Yorkshire in 1983. The tape recorder that McElhoney took to his séances was investigated and a black tape was discovered bound around the battery compartment and inside carnation flowers were found as well as a key-ring torch and other objects. In 1988, the magician Bob Couttie criticized the paranormal author Brian Inglis for deliberately ignoring evidence of fraud in mediumship. Couttie wrote Inglis had not familiarized himself with magician techniques. In 1990 the researcher Gordon Stein discovered that the levitation photograph of the medium Carmine Mirabelli was fraudulent. The photograph was a trick as there were signs of chemical retouching under Mirabelli's feet. The retouching showed that Mirabelli was not levitating but was standing on a ladder which was erased from the photograph. In 1991, Wendy Grossman in the New Scientist criticized the parapsychologist Stephen E. Braude for ignoring evidence of fraud in mediumship. According to Grossman "[Braude] accuses sceptics of ignoring


id: mediumship-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-11.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
Modern spiritualists and psychics keep detailed files on their victims. As might be expected, these files can be very valuable and are often passed on from one medium or psychic to another when one retires or dies. Even if a psychic doesn't use a private detective or have immediate access to driver's license records and such, there is still a very powerful technique that will allow the psychic to convince people that the psychic knows all about them, their problems, and their deep personal secrets, fears, and desires. The technique is called cold reading and is probably as old as charlatanism itself... If John Edward (or any of the other self-proclaimed speakers with the dead) really could communicate with the dead, it would be a trivial matter to prove it. All that would be necessary would be for him to contact any of the thousands of missing persons who are presumed dead—famous (e.g., Jimmy Hoffa, Judge Crater) or otherwise—and correctly report where the body is. Of course, this is never done. All we get, instead, are platitudes to the effect that Aunt Millie, who liked green plates, is happy on the other side. An experiment conducted by the British Psychological


id: mediumship-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship-12.md
category: reference
title: Mediumship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:45.598694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mediumship-20260505-0
summary:
"Over the course of the reading, John comfortably laid down the specifics of Susanna Wilson’s life — he named “Andy” and amazingly knew him to be her twin. He knew that she and her brother grew up in Michigan and that his girlfriend was Maria. He knew about Susanna’s father-in-law and how he died." These details were from the falsified Facebook accounts for the pair which were prepared by a group of skeptics in advance of the reading, and Gerbic and Edward were not aware of the specific information in these accounts. This blinding was done in order to avoid John later being able to claim he obtained the false information by reading Gerbic and Edward's minds. In her report, Gerbic also revealed that during an after-show private event, John disclosed in a group setting that at least one of the people in the audience which he did a reading about was actually his own student. The same week that the Thomas John sting revelation was made in The New York Times, John's claimed mediumship abilities portrayed in the Lifetime reality TV show called Seatbelt Psychic were challenged by Gerbic in an article published by Skeptical Inquirer. In the show,


id: melanin-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Melanin theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:46.789800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: melanin-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Melanin theory is a set of pseudoscientific claims made by some proponents of Afrocentrism, which holds that black people, including ancient Egyptians, have superior mental, physical, and paranormal powers because they have higher levels of melanin, the primary skin pigment in humans. == Claims == Melanin theory posits that individuals' responses to social stimuli are determined by the prevalence of the skin pigment melanin. Historian Stephen Ferguson describes melanin theory as a component of "strong" Afrocentrism, which assigns biological causes to social phenomena such as white supremacy. Proponents of melanin theory ("melanists") argue that insecurity among European males leads to efforts to socially dominate and emasculate African males, taking the form of unemployment, incarceration, and political and social marginalization. Some black supremacists, including professor of black studies Leonard Jeffries and psychologist Frances Cress Welsing, argue without evidence that higher levels of melanin give black people inherently superior qualities to white people, including supernatural abilities such as extrasensory perception. According to Bernard Ortiz de Montellano, "the alleged properties of melanin, mostly unsupported, irrelevant, or distortions of the scientific literature, are [...] used to justify Afrocentric assertions. One of the most common is that humans evolved as blacks in Africa, and that


id: menstruation-hut-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstruation_hut-0.md
category: reference
title: Menstruation hut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstruation_hut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:47.976858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: menstruation-hut-20260505-0
summary:
A menstruation hut is a place of seclusion or isolation used by certain cultures with strong menstrual taboos. The same or a similar structure may be used for childbirth and postpartum confinement, based on beliefs around ritual impurity. These huts are usually built near the family home, have small doors, and are often dilapidated, with poor sanitation and ventilation, and no windows. The Nepali version, the Chhaupadi, is probably the best-known example, but cultural attitudes towards menstruation around the world mean that these huts exist, or existed until recently, in other places as well. The use of menstrual huts continues to be a cause of death, from exposure, dehydration, snake bite, smoke inhalation, and so on. The use of these huts is illegal in some places. == Cultures == === Use in Ethiopia among Jewish women === In Ethiopia's Jewish community, when a woman becomes niddah (impure during menstruation), she may remain in a niddah hut for some of the time. These huts are absent in Israel, but exist in the Ethiopian highlands, known to the Ethiopian Jewish community as margam gojos. The women must stay in the hut, usually located on the margins of the village, for seven days.


id: menstruation-hut-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstruation_hut-1.md
category: reference
title: Menstruation hut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstruation_hut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:47.976858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: menstruation-hut-20260505-0
summary:
=== India === In many Indian states, the practice of banishing women and girls is common. It is mostly prevalent among the Gonds which are the largest tribal group in Central India and hail from the states of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa as well as Madiya ethnic groups. These shacks, known locally as "kurma ghar" or "gaokar," lack basic amenities like proper beds, clean water and functional washrooms. Since menstruating women are not permitted to cook, Gaokors lack a kitchen. Those staying inside rely on family members to bring them food and other supplies. The accountability of maintaining such huts lies on no one since they are considered as public property. These shacks are usually located on the outskirts of the village or near a forest. The unsanitary conditions coupled with unhygienic menstrual practices — many women use strips made from mahua leaves covered with paddy chaff as pads, often lead to infections, illnesses, and sometimes even death. The decrepit shacks provide little protection against wild creatures. According to a representative of from a local NGO Sparsh, at least eight women have died in Gadchiroli alone since 2011 as a result of this forced seclusion. Some have died


id: menstruation-hut-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstruation_hut-2.md
category: reference
title: Menstruation hut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menstruation_hut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:47.976858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: menstruation-hut-20260505-0
summary:
=== Others === In Yap (part of Micronesia), after giving birth, women and their newborn babies spend time in a menstruation hut while the father has a holiday. The Yapese women have many taboos and secrets around menstruation. They use the menstrual huts to hide themselves so that they do not embarrass themselves in front of the men. Menstrual huts were also used for childbirth and after childbirth care. The older women teach the younger women and girls skills and practices about health, especially menstruation and childbirth, as well as the other tasks which the Yapese women are required to do. The Yurok women of California lived in menstruation huts built near the main house. The Yurok women were required to stay in a menstruation hut a short way away from the village. There is much taboo and power associated with menstruation in this culture. Those menstruating must remain in the hut and abide by certain rules or there will be consequences for her, the other women, and even the village because she holds so much power. The women are thought by many to be unclean, and anything they use is made unclean as well, but the women believe themselves


id: meridian-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian_(Chinese_medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Meridian (Chinese medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian_(Chinese_medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:49.179404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meridian-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The meridian system (simplified Chinese: 经络; traditional Chinese: 經絡; pinyin: jīngluò; lit. 'meridian and collaterals'), also called channel network, is a pseudoscientific concept from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that alleges meridians are paths through which the life-energy known as "qi" (ch'i) flows. Scientists have found no evidence that supports their existence. One historian of medicine in China says that the term is "completely unsuitable and misguided, but nonetheless it has become a standard translation". Major proponents of their existence have not come to any consensus as to how they might work or be tested in a scientific context. == History == The concept of meridians are first attested in two works recovered from the Mawangdui and Zhangjiashan tombs of the Han-era Changsha Kingdom, the Cauterization Canon of the Eleven Foot and Arm Channels (足臂十一脈灸經, Zúbì Shíyī Mài Jiǔjīng) and the Cauterization Canon of the Eleven Yin and Yang Channels (陰陽十一脈灸經, Yīnyáng Shíyī Mài Jiǔjīng). In the texts, the meridians are referenced as mài (脈) rather than jīngmài. == Main concepts == The meridian network is typically divided into two categories, the jingmai (經脈) or meridian channels and the luomai (絡脈) or associated vessels (sometimes called "collaterals"). The jingmai contain the


id: mesotherapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesotherapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Mesotherapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesotherapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:50.370602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mesotherapy-20260505-0
summary:
Mesotherapy (from Greek mesos, "middle", and therapy from Greek therapeia) is a form of alternative medicine which involves intradermal or subcutaneous injections of pharmaceutical preparations, enzymes, hormones, plant extracts, vitamins, and/or other ingredients such as hyaluronic acid. It has no proven clinical efficacy and poor scientific backing. Mesotherapy injections allegedly target adipose fat cells, apparently by inducing lipolysis, rupture and cell death among adipocytes. The stated aim of mesotherapy is to provide the skin with essential nutrients, hydration, and other beneficial compounds to rejuvenate and revitalize its appearance. The effects of the treatment may vary depending on the individual. Pressurized mesotherapy is a needle-free method that uses an accelerated jet of air to insert the ingredients into the skin tissue. A study on the effect of using a lipolytic substance inserted with needles compared to pressurized injection showed significant fat layer reduction for both methods but even better results with the pressurized injection system. == Usage == In the United States, deoxycholic acid, under the brand name Kybella, is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for reducing moderate-to-severe fat below the chin. When injected into submental fat, deoxycholic acid helps destroy adipocytes (fat cells), which are metabolized by the


id: metabolic-typing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_typing-0.md
category: reference
title: Metabolic typing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_typing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:51.564087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metabolic-typing-20260505-0
summary:
Metabolic typing is a pseudoscience whose proponents believe that each person has a unique metabolism, and that the proportion of macromolecules (proteins, carbohydrates and fats) which are optimal for one person may not be for a second, and could even be detrimental to them. Metabolic typing uses common visible symptoms related to the skin, eyes, and other parts of the body to assess different aspects of a person's metabolism and categorize them into broad metabolic types. In addition, some proponents of metabolic typing use tests such as hair analysis to determine a person's metabolic type. A number of somewhat different metabolic typing diet plans are currently marketed, though the validity and effectiveness of metabolic typing have yet to be established. == Background == Metabolic typing was introduced by William Donald Kelley, a dentist, in the 1960s. Kelley advocated basing dietary choices on the activity of one's sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. In 1970, Kelley was convicted of practicing medicine without a license, as he had diagnosed a patient with lung cancer based on a fingerstick blood test and prescribed nutritional therapy. He continued to promote a metabolic typing diet through the 1980s. The practice has been further developed by others


id: pseudoscientific-metrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology-0.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscientific metrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:52.731343+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscientific-metrology-20260505-0
summary:
Some approaches in the branch of historic metrology are highly speculative and can be qualified as pseudoscience. == Origins == In 1637, John Greaves, professor of geometry at Gresham College, made his first of several studies in Egypt and Italy, making numerous measurements of buildings and monuments, including the Great Pyramid. These activities fuelled many centuries of interest in metrology of the ancient cultures by the likes of Isaac Newton and the French Academy. == Charles Piazzi Smyth == John Taylor, in his 1859 book The Great Pyramid: Why Was It Built? & Who Built It?, claimed that the Great Pyramid of Giza was planned and the building supervised by the biblical Noah, and that it was "built to make a record of the measure of the Earth". A paper presented to the Royal Academy on the topic was rejected. Taylor's theories were, however, the inspiration for the deeply religious archaeologist Charles Piazzi Smyth to go to Egypt to study and measure the pyramid, subsequently publishing his book Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid (1864), claiming that the measurements he obtained from the Great Pyramid indicated a unit of length, the pyramid inch, equivalent to 1.001 British inches, that could


id: pseudoscientific-metrology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology-1.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscientific metrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:52.731343+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscientific-metrology-20260505-0
summary:
== "Megalithic geometry" == One of the first persons to associate megalith builders with geometry was the Scottish academic, Alexander Thom (1894–1985), who never hypothesised any 366-degree geometry himself. Thom believed that the megalith builders used a standard unit of measurement which he dubbed the megalithic yard. According to him, the length of this unit was 2.72 Imperial feet or 82.96 cm. The existence of this measurement is disputed. According to Alan Butler this geometry was based on the Earth's polar circumference. The megalithic degree is the 366th part of it, i.e. 40,008 / 366 = 109.31 km; the megalithic arcminute is the 60th part of the megalithic degree, i.e. 109.31 / 60 = 1.82 km; the megalithic arcsecond is the 6th part of the megalithic minute, i.e. 1.82 / 6 = 0.3036 km; if this megalithic arcsecond is in turn divided into 366 equal segments, the length arrived at is 0.8296 m, which is the presumed length of the megalithic Yard, the supposedly ancient unit of measurement independently discovered by professor Alexander Thom in the 1950s. It is precisely this apparent coincidence that prompted Butler to think that the Megalith builders could have been cognizant with an Earth-based 366-degree


id: pseudoscientific-metrology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology-2.md
category: reference
title: Pseudoscientific metrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:52.731343+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pseudoscientific-metrology-20260505-0
summary:
== Critical reception == Publications in pseudoscientific metrology receive little, if any, attention from mainstream scholarship, by nature of being intended for the popular mass market. French historian Lucien Febvre, criticised Xavier Guichard's publication Eleusis Alesia: Enquête sur les origines de la civilisation européenne as "time and effort lost based on wordplay". Alexander Thom's theories have been criticized by Ian O. Angell. W. R. Knorr, examining the evidence as presented by Thom, finds no real evidence of the Pythagorean theorem, the ellipse, or a standard unit of distance in Neolithic times. Karlene Jones-Bley also denies the existence of such a precise unit of measurement during the Neolithic period: "the suggestion put forth by Thom that there was a 'megalithic yard' uniform to 0.1 mm from Brittany to the Orkneys cannot be accepted". However, for R. J. C. Atkinson, the British prehistorian and archaeologist (1920–1994), the Megalithic yard as defined by Thom is a plausible notion: "An interesting theory is his notion of a megalithic yard and rod, supposedly fairly consistent in Britain and Brittany". According to the analytical methods employed by the British statisticians S.R. Broadbent and D.G. Kendall, Thom's 1955 dataset is unlikely to be the result of chance:


id: mewing-orthotropics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mewing_(orthotropics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Mewing (orthotropics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mewing_(orthotropics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:54.028020+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mewing-orthotropics-20260505-0
summary:
Mewing is an unproven form of oral posture training purported to improve jaw and facial structure. It was named after British orthodontist John Mew, who created the technique as a part of a practice called "orthotropics", together with his son Mike. It involves placing one's tongue at the roof of the mouth and applying pressure, purportedly to modify the structure of the jaws. No credible scientific research has ever proven the efficacy of orthotropics, and most orthodontists do not view mewing as a viable alternative treatment to orthognathic surgery. Mike Mew was expelled from the British Orthodontic Society and faced a misconduct hearing for posing harm to child patients who underwent his treatments. In 2024, Mew was struck from the dental register in the United Kingdom. Since 2019, mewing has received widespread media coverage due to its virality on social media, especially in incel and looksmaxxing subcultures, and has been associated with "brain rot". Data from Google Trends indicates that interest in "mewing" began to rise in January 2019. Its popularity has reportedly also affected school students, with some apparently mewing in class to avoid answering questions when prompted by teachers. == See also == Facial toning The Rizzler ==


id: midbrain-activation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midbrain_activation-0.md
category: reference
title: Midbrain activation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midbrain_activation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:55.188990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: midbrain-activation-20260505-0
summary:
Midbrain activation is a pseudoscientific training method claiming to allow the development of blind vision and to improve memory and concentration. The trick often works by training participants to see through blindfolds to give the illusion that they are reading objects without being able to see. == Controversy == The training programs run by the franchise organisations have generated criticism from rationalists, most notably Narendra Nayak, president of the Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations (FIRA). == References ==


id: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement-0.md
category: reference
title: Miracle Mineral Supplement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:56.438172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-0
summary:
Miracle Mineral Supplement, often referred to as Miracle Mineral Solution, Master Mineral Solution, MMS or the CD protocol, is a branded name for an aqueous solution of chlorine dioxide, an industrial bleaching agent, that has been falsely promoted as a cure for illnesses including HIV, cancer and the common cold. It is made by mixing aqueous sodium chlorite with an acid (such as the juices of citrus fruits or vinegar). This produces chlorine dioxide, a toxic chemical that can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and life-threatening low blood pressure due to dehydration. Sodium chlorite, the main precursor to chlorine dioxide, is itself toxic if ingested. It causes acute kidney failure in high doses. Lower doses (~1 gram) can be expected to cause nausea, vomiting, inflammation of the intestines (producing so-called "rope worms") and even life-threatening reactions in persons with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has set a maximum level of 0.8 mg/L for chlorine dioxide in drinking water. Naren Gunja, director of the New South Wales, Australia Poisons Information Centre, has stated that using the product is "a bit like drinking concentrated bleach" and that users have displayed symptoms consistent with corrosive injuries, such as vomiting, stomach


id: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement-1.md
category: reference
title: Miracle Mineral Supplement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:56.438172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-0
summary:
== Safety and legal issues == The Guardian described MMS as "extremely nasty stuff, and the medical advice given is that anyone who has this product should stop using it immediately and throw it away. In Canada it was banned after causing a life-threatening reaction." In August 2009, a Mexican woman travelling with her American husband on a yacht in Vanuatu took MMS to supposedly prevent malaria. She fell ill within 15 minutes, and died within 12 hours. The island nation's public prosecutor, Kayleen Tavoa, did not press any charges as there were no specific laws banning the importation of MMS, but advised, "While every case is assessed on its own merits, I advise that any person who misuses MMS in Vanuatu in the future would be likely to face prosecution for potentially serious criminal offences. No person should ever give MMS to another person to drink without advising them of what it is they are drinking and of the serious risks to health that may arise if they decide to drink the mixture." In 2008, a 60-year-old Canadian man was hospitalized after a life-threatening response to MMS. Following a May 2010 advisory which indicated that MMS exceeds tolerable levels


id: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement-2.md
category: reference
title: Miracle Mineral Supplement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:56.438172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-0
summary:
==== Bolivia ==== In Bolivia, officials in Cochabamba promoted MMS as a cure for COVID-19 and the Congress passed a bill to authorise the "manufacture, marketing, supply and use of chlorine dioxide solution for the prevention and treatment of coronavirus". At least 15 people were poisoned as a result. == Investigations == In 2015, BBC London conducted an undercover investigation into MMS, with a reporter posing as a family member of a person with autism. The BBC reporter was sold two bottles containing sodium chlorite and hydrochloric acid by a self-styled "reverend" Leon Edwards linked to the Genesis II Church in the United States. Edwards told the reporter that the solutions would cure nearly all illnesses and conditions, including cancer, HIV, malaria, autism and Alzheimer's disease. He recommended 27 drops per day for a baby. Laboratory analysis later showed that the concentration of both bottled solutions was far stronger than advertised. Edwards told the reporter: I put it in my eyes, my nose, my ears, bathe in it, drunk it, breathed it in my lungs. I got injected in my butt with it. ABC News and KABC-TV investigated the MMS phenomenon in 2016, and uncovered an "underground network" centered around


id: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement-3.md
category: reference
title: Miracle Mineral Supplement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:56.438172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-0
summary:
== Judgments == Former Chicagoan Kerri Rivera, who now resides in Mexico, was required by the Illinois Attorney General to sign a document stating that she would no longer promote the use of toxic chlorine dioxide, or "CD", in the state of Illinois. The agreement, which Rivera signed, says, "Respondent [Rivera] makes unsubstantiated health and medical claims regarding the use of chlorine dioxide in the treatment of autism. In truth and fact, Respondent lacks competent and reliable scientific evidence to support her claims that chlorine dioxide can treat autism. Respondent's act of promoting unsubstantiated health and medical claims regarding the use of chlorine dioxide in the treatment of autism constitutes a violation of Section 2 of the Consumer Fraud Act." The agreement continued to bar Rivera from speaking at seminars and selling chlorine dioxide or similar substances for the treatment of autism. However, Rivera publicizes from a website promoting dangerous MMS enemas as an autism treatment, and claiming that the intestinal lining of children expels parasites ("rope worms") – a false concept. Attorney General Lisa Madigan described the case by saying, "You have a situation where there are people, complete quacks, that are out there promoting a very dangerous chemical


id: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement-4.md
category: reference
title: Miracle Mineral Supplement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:56.438172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: miracle-mineral-supplement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Uganda === In May 2019, The Guardian reported that American pastor Robert Baldwin had "trained" around 1,200 clerics in Uganda to distribute MMS as a "miracle cure". Each cleric is estimated to administer MMS to around 50 churchgoers. Baldwin, aged 52 from New Jersey, has been importing in bulk sodium chlorite and citric acid, which are the components of MMS. Baldwin operates under 'Global Healing', the ministry he founded, which uses "the power of Almighty God ... to greatly reduce the loss of life". Baldwin offers smartphones to clerics as an incentive to spread the "miracle cure". The Guardian contacted Baldwin, who said: "We use natural healing therapies to help people—that's something Christians do." Baldwin hung up after The Guardian asked about the dosage of bleach being administered in Africa. Fiona O'Leary, a campaigner against fake medicine, provided The Guardian with a purported call recording of Robert Baldwin where he said: "When you draw attention to MMS you run the risk of getting in trouble with the government or drug companies. You have to do it low key. That's why I set it up through the church ... America and Europe have much stricter laws so you are not


id: moerman-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moerman_Therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Moerman Therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moerman_Therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:57.598611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moerman-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
The Moerman Therapy, also called Moerman Method or Moerman Diet is an alternative cancer treatment from the Dutch practitioner Cornelis Moerman (1893–1988). There is no clinical evidence that it is effective as a cancer treatment. Moerman therapy has been criticized for unsubstantiated health claims and is considered quackery by medical experts. == History == Moerman who experimented with pigeons in the 1930s argued that he had identified "mysterious suppressors" of the cancer cell and there are "eight essential substances" that maintain human health. He claimed that deficiency of these substances leads to metabolic disturbances and anomalies of regeneration tissue that enable microorganisms which he termed "symbionts" to convert healthy cells into cancer cells. The eight substances he identified were vitamins A, B, E, citric acid, iron, iodine and sulphur. He later added Vitamin C. He argued that a high oxidation capacity in pigeons was what protected the birds from getting cancer. Moerman stated that cancer was not a local disease but was a disturbed oxidation from the result of inadequate nutrition which led to loss of "fermentation processes" and vitality in the cell. According to Quackwatch the Moerman diet is a vegetarian diet that "prohibited all meats, all fish and


id: mongoloid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid-0.md
category: reference
title: Mongoloid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:58.765074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mongoloid-20260505-0
summary:
Mongoloid () is an obsolete racial grouping of various peoples indigenous to large parts of Asia, the Americas, and some regions in Europe and Oceania. The term is derived from a now-disproven theory of biological race. In the past, other terms such as "Mongolian race", "yellow", "Asiatic" and "Oriental" have been used as synonyms. The concept of dividing humans into the Mongoloid, Caucasoid, and Negroid races was introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history. It was further developed by Western scholars in the context of racist ideologies during the age of colonialism. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in 'races' as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past." The term Mongoloid has had a second usage referencing people with Down syndrome, now generally regarded as highly offensive. Those affected were often referred to as "Mongoloids" or in terms of "Mongolian idiocy" or "Mongolian imbecility". == History


id: mongoloid-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid-1.md
category: reference
title: Mongoloid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:58.765074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mongoloid-20260505-0
summary:
According to the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–90), peoples included in the Mongoloid race are North Mongol, Chinese and Indochinese, Japanese and Korean, Tibetan and Burmese, Malay, Polynesian, Maori, Micronesian, Eskimo, and Native American. In 1909, a map published based on racial classifications in South Asia conceived by Herbert Hope Risley classified inhabitants of Bengal and parts of Odisha as Mongolo-Dravidians, people of mixed Mongoloid and Dravidian origin. Similarly in 1904, Ponnambalam Arunachalam claimed the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka were a people of mixed Mongolian and Malay racial origins as well as Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Vedda origins. Howard S. Stoudt in The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon (1961) and Carleton S. Coon in The Living Races of Man (1966) classified the Sinhalese as partly Mongoloid. German physical anthropologist Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt, an influential proponent of Rassenkunde (racial studies) in Nazi Germany, classified people from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, East India, parts of Northeast India, western Myanmar and Sri Lanka as East Brachid, referring to people of mixed Indid and South Mongolid origins. Eickstedt also classified the people of central Myanmar, Yunnan, southern Tibet, Thailand and parts of India as Palaungid deriving from the name of the Palaung people of Myanmar. He also


id: mongoloid-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid-2.md
category: reference
title: Mongoloid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:22:58.765074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mongoloid-20260505-0
summary:
After discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, Alan R. Templeton concludes in 2016: "[T]he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no." == Features == === General appearance === The last edition of the German encyclopedia Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1971–79, 25 volumes) lists the following characteristics of the "Mongoloid" populations of Asia: "Flat face with a low nasal root, accentuated zygomatic arches, flat-lying eyelids (which are often slanting), thick, tight, dark hair, dark eyes, yellow-brownish skin, usually short, stocky build." === Skull === In 2004, British anthropologist Caroline Wilkinson gave a description of "Mongoloid" skulls in her book on forensic facial reconstruction: "The Mongoloid skull shows a round head shape with a medium-width nasal aperture, rounded orbital margins, massive cheekbones, weak or absent canine fossae, moderate prognathism, absent brow ridges, simple cranial sutures, prominent zygomatic bones, broad, flat, tented nasal root, short nasal spine, shovel-shaped upper incisor teeth (scooped out behind), straight nasal profile, moderately wide palate shape, arched sagittal contour, wide facial breadth and a flatter face." === Cold adaptation === In 1950, Carleton S. Coon, Stanley M. Garn, and Joseph B. Birdsell proposed that the relative flatness of


id: morgellons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgellons-0.md
category: reference
title: Morgellons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgellons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:01.062151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morgellons-20260505-0
summary:
Morgellons () is the informal name of a self-diagnosed, scientifically unsubstantiated skin condition in which individuals have sores that they believe contain fibrous material. Morgellons is not well understood, but the general medical consensus is that it is a form of delusional parasitosis, on the psychiatric spectrum. The sores are typically the result of compulsive scratching, and the fibers, when analysed, are consistently found to have originated from cotton and other textiles. The condition was named in 2002 by Mary Leitao, a mother who rejected the medical diagnosis of her son's delusional parasitosis. She chose the name from a letter written by a mid-17th-century physician. Leitao and others involved in her Morgellons Research Foundation successfully lobbied members of the U.S. Congress and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to investigate the condition in 2006. CDC researchers issued the results of their multi-year study in January 2012, indicating that no disease organisms were present in the samples from the individuals examined and that the fibers found were likely cotton. The researchers concluded that the condition was "similar to more commonly recognized conditions such as delusional infestation". == Medical description == Morgellons is poorly understood but the general medical


id: morgellons-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgellons-1.md
category: reference
title: Morgellons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgellons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:01.062151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morgellons-20260505-0
summary:
=== Media coverage === In May 2006, a CBS news segment on Morgellons aired in Southern California. The same day, the Los Angeles County Department of Health services issued a statement saying, "No credible medical or public health association has verified the existence or diagnosis of 'Morgellons Disease'", and "at this time there is no reason for individuals to panic over unsubstantiated reports of this disease". In June and July 2006, there were segments on CNN, ABC's Good Morning America, and NBC's The Today Show. In August 2006, a segment of the ABC show Medical Mysteries was devoted to the subject. Morgellons was featured on ABC's Nightline on January 16, 2008, and as the cover story of the January 20, 2008, issue of The Washington Post. The first article to propose Morgellons as a new disease in a scientific journal was a review article co-authored by members of the MRF and published in 2006 by the American Journal of Clinical Dermatology. A 2006 article in the San Francisco Chronicle reported, "There have been no clinical studies" of Morgellons disease. A New Scientist article in 2007 also covered the phenomenon, noting that people are reporting similar symptoms in Europe and Australia.


id: morgellons-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgellons-2.md
category: reference
title: Morgellons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgellons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:01.062151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morgellons-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet and media influence === An active online community and publications "largely from a single group of investigators" have supported the notion that Morgellons is an infectious disease, and propose an association with Lyme disease; these findings are contradicted by the much larger studies conducted by the CDC. People usually self-diagnose Morgellons based on information from the internet and find support and confirmation in online communities of people with similar illness beliefs. In 2006, Waddell and Burke reported the influence of the internet on people self-diagnosed with Morgellons: "physicians are becoming more and more challenged by the many persons who attempt self-diagnosis on-line. In many cases, these attempts are well-intentioned, yet wrong, and a person's belief in some of these oftentimes unscientific sites online may preclude their trust in the evidence-based approaches and treatment recommendations of their physician." Physician Fidel Vila-Rodriguez wrote in a 2008 editorial that the Internet promotes the spreading and supporting of "bizarre" disease beliefs because in online communities, "a belief is not considered delusional if it is accepted by other members of an individual's culture or subculture". Robert Bartholomew, a sociologist who has studied the Morgellons phenomenon, states that the "World Wide Web has become


id: mucoid-plaque-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucoid_plaque-0.md
category: reference
title: Mucoid plaque
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucoid_plaque
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:02.240221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mucoid-plaque-20260505-0
summary:
Mucoid plaque (or mucoid cap or rope) is a pseudo-scientific term used by some natural medicine advocates to describe what is claimed to be a combination of harmful mucus-like material and food residue that they say coats the gastrointestinal tract of most people. The term was coined by Richard Anderson, a naturopath and entrepreneur, who sells a range of products that cleanse the body of such plaques. Many such "colon cleansing" products are promoted to the public on websites that have been described as making misleading medical claims. The presence of laxatives, bentonite clay, and fibrous thickening agents in some of these "cleansing agents" has led to suggestions that the products themselves produce the excreted matter regarded as the plaque. The concept of a 'mucoid plaque' has been dismissed by medical experts as having no anatomical or physiological basis. == History == Various forms of colon cleansing were popular in the 19th and early 20th century. In 1932, Bastedo wrote in the Journal of the American Medical Association about his observation of mucus masses being removed during a colon irrigation procedure: "When one sees the dirty gray, brown or blackish sheets, strings and rolled up wormlike masses of tough mucus


id: mv-media-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV-media-0.md
category: reference
title: MV-media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV-media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:03.400794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mv-media-20260505-0
summary:
MV-media, also known as MV??!!, formerly Mitä Vittua? ("What the Fuck?") and MV-lehti, is a Finnish fake news website founded by Ilja Janitskin. The website publishes disinformation and conspiracy theories with a racist, anti-immigrant, anti-Islam, anti-vaccine, pro-Russian and Eurosceptic agenda. The site has links to the far-right anti-immigrant group Soldiers of Odin. As of 2022, the publication is based in Russian-occupied Eastern Ukraine and regularly shares Russian state propaganda. By March 2015, MV-lehti was the target of five police reports regarding defamation. In January 2016, nine student and youth groups called for advertisers to boycott the site due to "hate speech and repeated lies". Janitskin was suspected of several crimes, including incitement to ethnic or racial hatred, libel and copyright infringement, and was taken into custody by the Andorran police in August 2017. He had several previous convictions for violent crimes between 2000 and 2011. He was later extradited to Finland, and in October 2018, Janitskin was convicted of 16 offences and given a 22-month prison sentence. According to the court, Janitskin was the chief editor and owner of MV-lehti, and as such he was responsible for its content. Among the convictions were defamation of the journalist Jessikka Aro and


id: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator-0.md
category: reference
title: Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:04.548398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-0
summary:
The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-report questionnaire that makes pseudoscientific claims to categorize individuals into 16 distinct psychological types (often called personality types). The test assigns a binary letter value to each of four dichotomous categories: introversion or extraversion, sensing or intuition, thinking or feeling, and judging or perceiving. This produces a four-letter test result, such as "INTJ" or "ESFP", representing one of the 16 types. The original version of the MBTI was constructed during World War II by Americans Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers, inspired by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung's 1921 book Psychological Types. Isabel Myers was particularly fascinated by the concept of "introversion", and she typed herself as an INFP. However, she thought that the book was too complex for the general public and tried to organize the Jungian cognitive functions to make it more accessible. As a psychometric indicator, the test exhibits significant deficiencies, including poor validity, poor reliability, measuring supposedly dichotomous categories that are not independent, and not being comprehensive. Most of the research supporting the MBTI's validity has been produced by the Center for Applications of Psychological Type, an organization run by the Myers–Briggs Foundation, and published in the


id: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator-1.md
category: reference
title: Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:04.548398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-0
summary:
guarded-optimistic (T/F), defiant-compliant (T/F), carefree-worried (T/F), decisive-ambivalent (J/P), intrepid-inhibited (E/I), leader-follower (E/I), and proactive-distractible (J/P). Also included is a composite of these called "strain". There are also scales for type-scale consistency and comfort-scale consistency. Reliability of 23 of the 27 TDI subscales is greater than 0.50, "an acceptable result given the brevity of the subscales". In 1989, a scoring system was developed for only the 20 subscales for the original four dichotomies. This was initially known as "Form K" or "the Expanded Analysis Report". This tool is now called the MBTI Step II. Form J or the TDI included the items (derived from Myers' and McCaulley's earlier work) necessary to score what became known as Step III. (The 1998 MBTI Manual reported that the two instruments were one and the same) Step III was developed in a joint project involving the following organizations: the Myers–Briggs Company, the publisher of all the MBTI works; the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), which holds all of Myers' and McCaulley's original work; and the MBTI Trust headed by Katharine and Peter Myers. CAPT advertised Step III as addressing type development and the use of "perception and judgment" by respondents. == Concepts ==


id: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator-2.md
category: reference
title: Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:04.548398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-0
summary:
The four pairs of preferences or "dichotomies" proposed by Briggs and Myers are shown in the adjacent table. The terms as used in the MBTI may differ from their everyday usage. For example, people who prefer judgment over perception are not necessarily more "judgmental" or less "perceptive", nor does the MBTI instrument attempt to measure aptitude; instead, it attempts to indicate personal preference. Myers considered the direction of the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than the degree of the preference (for example, very clear vs. slight). === Attitudes: extraversion/introversion === Myers–Briggs literature uses the terms extraversion and introversion as Jung first used them. Extraversion means literally outward-turning and introversion, inward-turning. These specific definitions differ somewhat from the popular usage of the words. Extraversion is the spelling used in MBTI publications. === Functions: sensing/intuition and thinking/feeling === Jung identified two pairs of psychological functions: Two perceiving functions: sensation (usually called sensing in MBTI writings) and intuition Two judging functions: thinking and feeling According to Jung's typology model, each person uses one of these four functions more dominantly and proficiently than the other three; however, all four functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances.


id: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator-3.md
category: reference
title: Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:04.548398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-0
summary:
=== Little evidence for dichotomies === As previously stated in the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator § Four dichotomies section, Isabel Myers considered the direction of the preference (for example, E vs. I) to be more important than its degree. This would mean that scores on each MBTI scale would show a bimodal distribution with most people scoring near the ends of the scales, thus dividing people into either, e.g., an extraverted or an introverted psychological type. However, most studies have found that scores on the individual scales were actually distributed in a centrally peaked manner, similar to a normal distribution, indicating that the majority of people were actually in the middle of the scale and were thus neither clearly introverted nor extraverted. But in order for the MBTI to be scored, a cut-off line is used at the middle of each scale and all those scoring below the line are classified as a low type and those scoring above the line are given the opposite type. Thus, psychometric assessment research fails to support the concept of type, but rather shows that most people lie near the middle of a continuous curve. Although we do not conclude that the absence of bimodality


id: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator-4.md
category: reference
title: Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:04.548398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-0
summary:
The interesting – and somewhat alarming – fact about the MBTI is that, despite its popularity, it has been subject to sustained criticism by professional psychologists for over three decades. One problem is that it displays what statisticians call low "test-retest reliability." So if you retake the test after only a five-week gap, there's around a 50% chance that you will fall into a different personality category compared to the first time you took the test. A second criticism is that the MBTI mistakenly assumes that personality falls into mutually exclusive categories. ... The consequence is that the scores of two people labelled "introverted" and "extraverted" may be almost exactly the same, but they could be placed into different categories since they fall on either side of an imaginary dividing line. Within each dichotomy scale, as measured on Form G, about 83% of categorizations remain the same when people are retested within nine months and around 75% when retested after nine months. About 50% of people re-administered the MBTI within nine months remain the same overall type and 36% the same type after more than nine months. For Form M (the most current form of the MBTI instrument), the MBTI


id: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator-5.md
category: reference
title: Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers–Briggs_Type_Indicator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:04.548398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: myers-briggs-type-indicator-20260505-0
summary:
=== South Korea === At the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, MBTI testing became a fad among young South Koreans who were using it in an attempt to find compatible dating partners. The fad originated with a website called 16Personalities.com, which offers a free approximation of the official paid test. Both independent experts and a representative of the MBTI publishing company have cautioned against using the MBTI test for dating, as the test was not designed for this purpose. South Korea experienced a similar trend in the early 2000s with the blood type personality theory. One survey reported that by December 2021, nearly half of the population had taken the MBTI personality test. The MBTI personality test also became an issue in 2022 presidential election. In March 2022, Korea JoongAng Daily reported that "A growing number of Korean companies are asking job candidates to reveal their MBTI personality test results, angering job hunters who argue that the test is an unreasonable standard to screen and evaluate their capabilities." A survey of South Korean job-seekers in their twenties found that 60% opposed the use of the test for such purposes. === China === 16Personalities.com also influenced an MBTI fad in China,


id: myofascial-trigger-point-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myofascial_trigger_point-0.md
category: reference
title: Myofascial trigger point
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myofascial_trigger_point
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:05.800933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: myofascial-trigger-point-20260505-0
summary:
Myofascial trigger points (MTrPs), also known as trigger points, are described as hyperirritable spots in the skeletal muscle. They are associated with palpable nodules in taut bands of muscle fibers. They are a topic of ongoing controversy, as there is limited data to inform a scientific understanding of the phenomenon. Accordingly, a formal acceptance of myofascial "knots" as an identifiable source of pain is more common among bodyworkers, physical therapists, chiropractors, osteopaths, and osteopathic physicians. Nonetheless, the concept of trigger points provides a framework that may be used to help address certain musculoskeletal pain. The trigger point model states that unexplained pain frequently radiates from these points of local tenderness to broader areas, sometimes distant from the trigger point itself. Practitioners claim to have identified reliable referred pain patterns that associate pain in one location with trigger points elsewhere. There is variation in the methodology for diagnosis of trigger points and a dearth of theory to explain how they arise and why they produce specific patterns of referred pain. Compression of a trigger point may elicit local tenderness, referred pain, or local twitch response. The local twitch response is not the same as a muscle spasm. This is because a


id: myofascial-trigger-point-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myofascial_trigger_point-1.md
category: reference
title: Myofascial trigger point
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myofascial_trigger_point
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:05.800933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: myofascial-trigger-point-20260505-0
summary:
=== Risks === Treatment, whether by self or by a professional, has some inherent dangers. It may lead to damage to soft tissue and other organs. The trigger points in the upper quadratus lumborum, for instance, are very close to the kidneys, and poorly administered treatment (particularly injections) may lead to kidney damage. Likewise, treating the masseter muscle may damage the salivary glands superficial to this muscle. Furthermore, some experts believe trigger points may develop as a protective measure against unstable joints. === Efficacy === Studies have shown a moderate level of evidence for manual therapy for short-term relief in the treatment of myofascial trigger points. Dry needling and dry cupping are no more effective than a placebo. There have not been enough in-depth studies to be conclusive about the latter treatment modalities, however. Studies to date on the efficacy of dry needling for MTrPs and pain have been too small to be conclusive. == Overlap with acupuncture == In a June 2000 review, Chang-Zern Hong correlates the MTrP "tender points" to acupunctural "ah shi" ("Oh Yes!") points, and the "local twitch response" to acupuncture's "de qi" ("needle sensation"), based on a 1977 paper by Melzack et al. Peter Dorsher


id: nambudripad-s-allergy-elimination-techniques-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambudripad's_Allergy_Elimination_Techniques-0.md
category: reference
title: Nambudripad's Allergy Elimination Techniques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambudripad's_Allergy_Elimination_Techniques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:07.055942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nambudripad-s-allergy-elimination-techniques-20260505-0
summary:
Nambudripad's Allergy Elimination Techniques (NAET) is a form of alternative medicine which proponents claim can treat allergies and related disorders. The techniques were devised by Devi Nambudripad, a California-based chiropractor and acupuncturist, in 1983, drawing on a combination of ideas from applied kinesiology, acupuncture, acupressure, nutritional management, and chiropractic methods. Clinical research has found no evidence supporting the accuracy of muscle testing to diagnose medical allergies. Supporters of the practice agree that mainstream science has not shown credible evidence for the effectiveness of this method. == History == Devi Nambudripad was a student chiropractor and acupuncturist at the time she developed NAET. Whilst experiencing a reaction to eating carrots she attempted to overcome the reaction through a self-administered acupuncture treatment. After the treatment the reaction to eating carrots did not return. At the time of the acupuncture treatment, a remnant of carrot was on her skin, and Nambudripad concluded from this that the presence of a minute quantity of carrot during the acupuncture treatment was the key to the treatment. She then formulated a hypothesis that contact with a small amount of an allergen during an acupuncture or acupressure session can remove reactions to food and other substances. NAET is


id: narconon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-0.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
Narconon International (commonly known as Narconon) is a Scientology organization which promotes the theories of founder L. Ron Hubbard regarding substance abuse treatment and addiction. Its parent company is the Association for Better Living and Education (ABLE), which is owned and controlled by the Church of Scientology. Headquartered in Hollywood, California, United States, Narconon operates several dozen residential centers worldwide, chiefly in the U.S. and western Europe. The organization was formed in 1966 by Scientologist William Benitez with Hubbard's help, and was incorporated in 1970. The Scientology organization and Narconon state that Narconon is a secular program independent of Hubbard's writings about Scientology, and that it provides legitimate drug education and rehabilitation. The organization has been described by many government reports and former patients as a Scientology front group. Hubbard's writings, which underlie the program, assert that drugs and their metabolites are stored in the body's fatty tissue, causing the addict's cravings when partially released later on, and can be flushed out through a regimen known as Purification Rundown, which involves exercise, sauna and intake of high doses of vitamins. This hypothesis is contradicted by experimental evidence, and is not medically accepted. There are no independently recognized studies that confirm


id: narconon-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-1.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
The treatment in California preyed upon the fears of concerned workers, but served no rational medical function. ... Moreover, the program itself, developed not by physicians or scientists, but by the founder of the Church of Scientology, has no recognized value in the established medical and scientific community. It is quackery. In 2004 and 2005, WISE at Work magazine and International Scientology News each published articles clarifying the relationship between Narconon and Scientology; each placed Narconon in Scientology's "Division 6B", with responsibility for introducing the public to Scientology services. By the end of 2005, according to the International Association of Scientologists (IAS), Narconon was operating 183 rehabilitation centers around the world. New centers opened that year included in Hastings, East Sussex, England (now closed), and in Battle Creek, Michigan. Narconon President Clark Carr asserted that drug prevention lectures "have been given to over 2 million children and adults over several decades... and are currently being delivered across the United States, all New England States, Washington D.C., Georgia, Florida, Oklahoma and surrounding states, Michigan and Illinois, Texas, New Mexico, Idaho, California, Nevada, Hawaii and possibly others" in response to an inquiry from The Humanist. On 17 July 2006, the Narconon center


id: narconon-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-2.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
Since its establishment, Narconon has faced considerable controversy over the safety and effectiveness of its rehabilitation methods and the organization's links to Scientology. Medical professionals have been sharply critical of Narconon's methods, which rely on theories of drug metabolism that are not supported by mainstream toxicology. Narconon teaches that drugs reside in body fat, and remain there indefinitely; and that to recover from drug abuse, addicts can remove the drugs from their fat through saunas and use of vitamins. Experts disagree with this basic understanding of physiology, saying that no significant amount of drugs are stored in fat, and that drugs can't be "sweated out" as Narconon claims. In one 2005 report, experts stated that Narconon's treatment methods "does not reflect accurate, widely accepted medical and scientific evidence." Particular criticism has been directed at the therapy's use of vitamins (including massive doses of niacin) and extended sauna sessions. David Root, an occupational medicine practitioner and a member of the Narconon Scientific Advisory Board, defended the program's validity. He told the San Francisco Chronicle in 1991 that drugs and other poisons "come out through the skin in the form of sebaceous, or fatty, sweat. The material is frequently visible and drips,


id: narconon-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-3.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
The Narconon Program exposes its patients to the risk of delayed withdrawal phenomena such as seizures, delirium and/or hallucinations. ... The Narconon program presents a potential risk to the patients of the Narconon program that delayed withdrawal phenomena such as seizures, delirium or hallucination that are occasionally seen several days after cessation of drugs such as benzodiazepines, may be misinterpreted by Narconon's non-medical staff as the effect of mobilizing the drug from fat during the sauna sweat-out procedure period. There is also a potential risk that the reported re-experience of the abused drugs' effect during the sauna sweat-out program may be the result of misinterpreted symptoms of hyperthermia or electrolyte imbalance ... === Training routines === The remainder of the Narconon course uses Scientology's "Training Routines" or "TRs". They were originally devised by Hubbard to teach communications skills to Scientologists. In the Narconon variant, these courses claim to be designed to rehabilitate drug abusers. These routines sometimes include TR 8, which involves the individual commanding an ashtray to "stand up" and "sit down", and thanking it for doing so, as loudly as they can. Former Scientologists say that the purpose of the drill is for the individual to "beam" their


id: narconon-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-4.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === The UK prisons ombudsman recommended to prison governors that Narconon rehabilitation programs not be used in prisons although some schools in the UK are using these programs; The Sunday Times said this was because schools are less aware of Narconon's links to Scientology. In September 2012, the 149 Church of England schools in the Diocese of London were warned not to accept offers from Narconon to give lectures to their pupils, following complaints from parents. In November 2016, Narconon was reported to have given talks on the dangers of drug addiction in two schools in Camden, London. Elizabeth Kitcatt, Camden School for Girls headteacher, said in a statement that the students found the talk "very useful", while Harry Shapiro, Director of DrugWise, called out the schools for being unaware to the group's ties to Scientology. A Brecknock Primary spokeswoman said: "The school's deputy head was in the room for the whole drug awareness talk and at no point was there any mention of Scientology or any religious connotations. It was marketed as an anti-drug talk and that's exactly what it was". President of Narconon UK Noel Nile claimed that the group was "in the business of


id: narconon-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-5.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
On June 10th 2008 a student was watching a basketball game late in the evening with Brad in his apartment. They consumed tequila and the student gained access to his cash which was supposed to be locked in that apartment. A sad thing happened later in the evening. Two days later we tested Brad and he was dirty for methadone, PCP, cocaine and methamphetamine. === John Cunningham, Watsonville, California, United States (2015) === In July 2015, John Cunningham, a 58-year-old Boeing employee addicted to benzodiazepines, was sent by his sister to Redwood Cliffs, a Narconon facility in Watsonville, California. The staff at Redwood Cliffs sent Cunningham to be detoxed to Bright Futures Recovery, which removed Cunningham from medications he was taking for depression. Cunningham was sent to the "local ER three times in just five days for withdrawal symptoms". On 22 August 2015, he was left alone in his room long enough for him to "hang himself by a belt in his bedroom closet". Cunningham's sister did not know that Narconon was a Scientology outfit until after her brother's death. Represented by attorney H. Gavin Long, Cunningham's family sued Redwood Cliffs and Bright Futures Recovery for $1 million each. The


id: narconon-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-6.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
==== Public and media response ==== Protests over the deaths took place outside Narconon Arrowhead; one protest in late June 2012, planned to include bereaved family members, was disrupted by road resurfacing works outside the facility, paid for by Narconon. Pittsburg County Commission Chairman Gene Rogers explained that, "[Gary Smith] called me and said they might be having a problem with the public that weekend and he wanted help policing the area and he asked about doing overlaying [of the road]". Oklahoma State Senator Tom Ivester commented that, "Clearly something isn't right and we have a moral obligation to do everything in our power to end this predatory business being run by the Church of Scientology disguised as drug treatment", adding, "This is a disgusting business that preys on desperate family members and their sick loved ones, scamming them out of thousands of dollars with the promise of providing hope and new life. It's a disgrace to have these people operating in the state of Oklahoma." In direct response to the Arrowhead deaths, Ivestor introduced legislation to expand Oklahoma's ability to regulate rehab facilities. In response to an NBC Rock Center segment on the facility, Narconon President Clark Carr called


id: narconon-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-7.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
On 17 April 2012, Quebec health officials ordered the Narconon facility in Trois-Rivières to close, and to relocate its 32 residents. After an investigation into Narconon Trois-Rivières' activities by the Centre Québécois d'Agrément (CQA), an independent body that monitors the quality of healthcare, the Mauricie Region's Health and Social Services Agency decided not to re-certify Narconon due to concerns that its methods "may represent a risk to health" of patients. The Agency's director, Marc Latour, said that Narconon Trois-Rivières was dangerous for patients, that it violated many of the criteria governing rehabilitation centres in Quebec, and that there was no medical supervision and no scientific basis to its treatment. He added that at least four clients had been hospitalized in recent months because of methods used at the centre. Narconon Trois-Rivières issued a response, saying, "People with drug problems and their families should have a right to choose the program that works for them as these days there are many good alternative programs". The closure followed a two-year campaign by ex-Narconon patient and staff member David Love, whose negative experiences with the program prompted him to become one of its fiercest critics in Canada. While he was at Narconon Trois-Rivieres,


id: narconon-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-8.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Narconon Georgia closed amid investigation for insurance fraud === In April 2013, agents of the insurance commissioner of the U.S. state of Georgia and the Gwinnett County district attorney's office searched the group's offices in Norcross, Georgia, questioning employees as they arrived at work and impounding more than a dozen computers and boxes full of documents. The insurance commissioner said during the investigation that, "We have credible information that indicates that insurance fraud is taking place with Narconon". The family of one patient said that the group was billing insurance companies for treatments that had never been given, and the doctors for whom the costs were being billed claimed never to have met the patient. State investigators discovered nearly $3 million of insurance fraud at Narconon Georgia; in September 2013, the facility surrendered its state license in order to avoid criminal charges. == Lawsuits == === California === In March 2014, attorney Ryan Hamilton filed two civil lawsuits against Narconon with the state of California. The first civil suit was filed on behalf of Angelo Amato of Illinois, who purchased Narconon's Purification Rundown at Narconon Fresh Start (a.k.a. Sunshine Summit Lodge) in Warner Springs, after Amato searched the Internet


id: narconon-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon-9.md
category: reference
title: Narconon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narconon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:08.283365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narconon-20260505-0
summary:
Blu by the Sea in Emerald Coast, Florida, is the name of the former Narconon Gulf Coast. Droganon was active in Spain in the 1980s and was controlled by the Scientology. Drug Free Ambassadors is a Narconon program targeting schools and youth organizations. Elevate Addiction Services, a group of clinics formerly operating under the name Narconon of Northern California, broke away from Narconon in 2014/2015 after an arbitration where they agreed to no longer use the sauna and vitamin method or teach Narconon/Church of Scientology programs, and would no longer be licensed by Narconon. The name was changed to Halcyon Horizons and several other entities operating under the trade name of Elevate Addiction Services. Still owned by the same Scientologists and using much of the earlier faculty, similar practices are in use. Fresh Start is a pseudonym sometimes used by Narconon's facility in Nevada. Get Off Drugs Naturally is a business name for Narconon's Australian branch. Israel Says No to Drugs is a Scientology-affiliated organization based in Jaffa, Israel. Pur Detox (also Pür Detox with an umlaut) is a Scientology-affiliated clinic in Dana Point, California. The clinic has come under scrutiny due to a lawsuit by one of the former


id: national-institute-for-discovery-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Discovery_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: National Institute for Discovery Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Discovery_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:09.420930+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institute-for-discovery-science-20260505-0
summary:
The National Institute for Discovery Science (NIDSci) was a privately financed research organization based in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, and operated from 1995 to 2004. It was founded in 1995 by real-estate developer Robert Bigelow, who set it up to research and advance serious study of various fringe science and paranormal topics, most notably ufology. Deputy Administrator Colm Kelleher was quoted as saying the organization was not designed to study UFOs only. "We don't study aliens, we study anomalies. They're the same thing in a lot of people's minds, but not in our minds." NIDSci was disbanded in October 2004. == History == The National Institute for Discovery Science, known also as NIDS, was founded by Robert Bigelow serving as a way to channel funds into the scientific study of paranormal phenomena. The NIDS performed research in the areas of cattle mutilation and black triangle reports. The NIDSci bought Skinwalker Ranch after journalist George Knapp first wrote about it in 1996, and Deputy Administrator Colm Kelleher led the investigation for a number of years. A hotline was established in 1999 to receive reports of odd occurrences. Over 5,000 reports made by phone calls and e-mails were received by the organization.


id: natural-news-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_News-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:10.668219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-news-20260505-0
summary:
Natural News (formerly NewsTarget, which is now a separate sister site) is a far-right website that promotes anti-vaccination content, conspiracy theories, fake news, and pseudoscience. The website began publishing articles in 2008 and is based in the United States. As of 2014, Natural News had approximately 7 million unique visitors per month. The site's founder, Michael Allen "Mike" Adams, gained attention after posting a blog entry implying a call for violence against proponents of GMO foods, and then allegedly creating another website with a list of names of alleged supporters. He has been widely criticized and accused of using "pseudoscience to sell his lies". Adams has described vaccines as "medical child abuse". The website sells various dietary supplements, promotes alternative medicine and climate change denial, makes tendentious nutrition and health claims, disseminates fake news, and espouses various conspiracy theories and pro-Donald Trump propaganda. Natural News content has been restricted on various platforms including Google, YouTube, and Facebook. The website launched an AI chatbot called "Enoch" in 2025. == Founder == Michael Allen "Mike" Adams (born 1967 in Lawrence, Kansas) is the founder and owner of Natural News; the domain name was registered in 2005 and began publishing articles in 2008.


id: natural-news-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_News-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:10.668219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-news-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == An article in the journal Vaccine said the site "tend(s) to not only spread irresponsible health information in general (e.g. discouraging chemotherapy or radiation for cancer treatment, antiretrovirals for HIV, and insulin for diabetes), but also have large sections with dubious information on vaccines." According to John Banks, Adams uses "pseudoscience to sell his lies" and is "seen as generally a quack and a shill by science bloggers." Adams is also listed as a "promoter of questionable methods" by Quackwatch. Steven Novella of NeuroLogica Blog characterizes Adams as "a dangerous conspiracy-mongering crank" and called Natural News "a crank alt med site that promotes every sort of medical nonsense imaginable." Novella continued: "If it is unscientific, antiscientific, conspiracy-mongering, or downright silly, Mike Adams appears to be all for it—whatever sells the "natural" products he hawks on his site." Robert T. Carroll at The Skeptic's Dictionary said, "Natural News is not a very good source for information. If you don't trust me on this, go to Respectful Insolence or any of the other bloggers on ScienceBlogs and do a search for Natural News... Hundreds of entries will be found and not one of them will have a good word


id: nature-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:11.878887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Nature therapy, sometimes referred to as ecotherapy, grounding, or earthing, is a practice that describes a broad group of techniques or treatments using nature to improve mental or physical health. Various types of nature therapy include forest therapy, forest bathing, shinrin-yoku, and Sami Lok. Spending time in nature has various physiological benefits such as relaxation and stress reduction. Additionally, it can enhance cardiovascular health and reduce risks of high blood pressure. Recent studies also emphasized its role in supporting mental well-being by improving attention, emotional balance, and overall mood stability. These effects are usually linked to the body's natural stress recovery process, in which contact with nature decreases cortisol levels and heart rate. == History == Scientists in the 1950s looked into the reasons humans chose to spend time in nature. There is relatively recent history of the term Shinrin-yoku (森林浴) or 'forest bathing' gaining momentum as a term and concept within American culture; the term 'forest bathing' and Shrinrin-yoku was first popularized in Japan by the former head of the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Tomohide Akiyama, in 1982 to encourage more people to visit the forests. This initiative was created to promote relaxation and reduce stress


id: nature-therapy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_therapy-1.md
category: reference
title: Nature therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:11.878887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == Recent reviews have noted that results often vary depending on study design and population, which makes it difficult to measure long-term effects of nature-based therapies with consistency. A 2012 systematic review study showed inconclusive results related to the methodology used in studies. Spending time in forests demonstrated positive health effects, but not enough to generate clinical practice guidelines or demonstrate causality. Other scholars have noted that the growing popularity of nature-based therapies sometimes leads to overgeneralized claims, where emotional or cultural meanings of nature are emphasized more than scientific evidence. Additionally, there are concerns from researchers expressing that time spent in nature as a form of regenerative therapy is highly personal and entirely unpredictable. Nature can be harmed in the process of human interaction. While there is growing interest in using nature for mental health treatment, experts warn that more randomized and controlled studies are needed to confirm these effects scientifically. Some reviews also highlight that many studies rely on self-reported feelings instead of objective measurements, which can make the results less reliable. Researchers have also noted that some nature-based studies use very small sample sizes, which limits how confidently the results can be applied to larger


id: naturopathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy-0.md
category: reference
title: Naturopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:13.045899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Naturopathy, or naturopathic medicine, is a form of alternative medicine. A wide array of practices branded as "natural", "non-invasive", or promoting "self-healing" are employed by its practitioners, who are known as naturopaths. These treatments range from the pseudoscientific and thoroughly discredited, such as homeopathy, to the widely accepted, such as certain forms of psychotherapy. The ideology and methods of naturopathy are based on vitalism and folk medicine rather than evidence-based medicine, although practitioners may use techniques supported by evidence. The ethics of naturopathy have been called into question by medical professionals and its practice has been characterized as quackery. Naturopathic practitioners commonly encourage alternative treatments that are rejected by conventional medicine, including resistance to surgery or vaccines for some patients. The diagnoses made by naturopaths often have no basis in science and are often not accepted by mainstream medicine. Naturopaths frequently campaign for legal recognition in the United States. Naturopathy is prohibited in three U.S. states (Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee) and tightly regulated in many others. Some states, however, allow naturopaths to perform minor surgery or even prescribe drugs. While some schools exist for naturopaths, and some jurisdictions allow such practitioners to call themselves doctors, the lack of accreditation,


id: naturopathy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy-1.md
category: reference
title: Naturopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:13.045899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturopathy-20260505-0
summary:
In 2003, a report was presented by Kimball C. Atwood, an American medical doctor and researcher from Newton, Massachusetts, best known as a critic of naturopathic medicine, stating among other criticisms that "The practice of naturopathy is based on a belief in the body's ability to heal itself through a special vital energy or force guiding bodily processes internally". Diagnosis and treatment concern primarily alternative therapies and "natural" methods that naturopaths claim promote the body's natural ability to heal. Many naturopaths in India now use modern diagnostic techniques in their practice. Naturopaths focus on a holistic approach, avoiding the use of surgery and conventional medicines. Naturopaths aim to prevent illness through stress reduction and changes to diet and lifestyle, often rejecting the methods of evidence-based medicine. A consultation typically begins with a comprehensive patient interview assessing lifestyle, medical history, emotional tone, and physical features, as well as physical examination. Many naturopaths present themselves as primary care providers, and some naturopathic physicians may prescribe drugs, perform minor surgery, and integrate other conventional medical approaches such as diet and lifestyle counselling with their naturopathic practice. Traditional naturopaths deal exclusively with lifestyle changes, not diagnosing or treating disease. Naturopaths do not generally recommend


id: naturopathy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy-2.md
category: reference
title: Naturopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:13.045899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Kimball C. Atwood IV writes, in the journal Medscape General Medicine,Naturopathic physicians now claim to be primary care physicians proficient in the practice of both "conventional" and "natural" medicine. Their training, however, amounts to a small fraction of that of medical doctors who practice primary care. An examination of their literature, moreover, reveals that it is replete with pseudoscientific, ineffective, unethical, and potentially dangerous practices. In another article, Atwood writes that "Physicians who consider naturopaths to be their colleagues thus find themselves in opposition to one of the fundamental ethical precepts of modern medicine. If naturopaths are not to be judged "nonscientific practitioners", the term has no useful meaning". A former licensed naturopathic doctor, Britt Marie Hermes, states that "any product that is sold by a naturopath almost guarantees that there is no reliable scientific data to support whatever health claims are made, and that while some naturopaths claim to only practice evidence based medicine, "the problem is, all naturopaths in an accredited naturopathic program are required to extensively study homeopathy, herbal medicine, energy healing, chiropractic techniques, water therapy" and other pseudoscientific practices. Hermes further notes that, while some naturopaths claim that their method can be effective treatments for psychological


id: naturopathy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy-3.md
category: reference
title: Naturopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:13.045899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Practitioners == Naturopath practitioners can generally be categorized into three groups: 1) those with a government issued license; 2) those who practice outside of an official status ("traditional naturopaths"); 3) those who are primarily another kind of health professional who also practices naturopathy. In Switzerland, these divisions fall between those with a federal diploma, those recognized by health insurances, and those with neither federal diploma nor recognition by health insurances. Naturopaths with federal diploma can be divided into four categories: European traditional medicine, Chinese traditional medicine, ayurvedic medicine and homeopathy. The number of listed naturopaths (including traditional healers) in Switzerland rose from 223 in 1970 to 1835 in 2000. === Licensed naturopaths === Licensed naturopaths may be referred to as "naturopathic doctors" or "naturopathic physicians" in 26 US states or territories and 5 Canadian provinces. Licensed naturopaths present themselves as primary care providers. Licensed naturopaths do not receive comparable training to medical doctors in terms of the quality of education or quantity of hours. In British Columbia, legislation permits licensed naturopaths to use the title "doctor" or "physician". However, section 102 of the bylaw of the College of Naturopathic Physicians of British Columbia (CNPBC), the terms "naturopathic" or "naturopathic


id: naturopathy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy-4.md
category: reference
title: Naturopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:13.045899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Traditional naturopaths are represented in the United States by the American Naturopathic Association (ANA), representing about 1,800 practitioners and the American Naturopathic Medical Association (ANMA). The level of naturopathic training varies among traditional naturopaths in the United States. Traditional naturopaths may complete non-degree certificate programs or undergraduate degree programs and generally refer to themselves as naturopathic consultants. These programs often offer online unaccredited degrees, but do not offer comprehensive biomedical education or clinical training. Traditional naturopathic practitioners surveyed in Australia perceive evidence-based medicine to be an ideological assault on their beliefs in vitalistic and holistic principles. They advocate for the integrity of natural medicine practice. Naturopaths graduating from accredited programs argued in 2002 that their training used evidence-based scientific principles unlike traditional naturopathic programs, but this claim remains inaccurate. == Regulation == Naturopathy is practiced in many countries and is subject to different standards of regulation and levels of acceptance. The scope of practice varies widely between jurisdictions, with some covering naturopathy under medical regulation and allowing practitioners to prescribe drugs and perform minor surgery, while other jurisdictions outlaw naturopathy entirely. === Australia === In 1977, a Commonwealth Government inquiry reviewed all colleges of naturopathy in Australia and found that


id: negative-calorie-food-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative-calorie_food-0.md
category: reference
title: Negative-calorie food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative-calorie_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:14.313731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: negative-calorie-food-20260505-0
summary:
A negative-calorie food is food that supposedly requires more food energy to be digested than the food provides. Its thermic effect or specific dynamic action—the caloric "cost" of digesting the food—would be greater than its food energy content. Despite its recurring popularity in dieting guides, there is no evidence supporting the idea that any food is calorically negative. While some chilled beverages are calorically negative, the effect is minimal and requires drinking very large amounts of water, which can be dangerous, as it can cause water intoxication. == Controversy == There is no evidence to show that any of these foods have a negative calorific impact. Foods claimed to be negative in calories are mostly low-calorie fruits and vegetables such as celery, grapefruit, orange, lemon, lime, apple, lettuce, broccoli, and cabbage. However, celery has a thermic effect of around 8%, much less than the 100% or more required for a food to have "negative calories", unless you freeze the celery, but then it would be too hard to chew and you would have to blend it to consume it in smoothie form while it's still at freezing temperature. Diets based on negative-calorie food do not work as advertised but can


id: negroid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negroid-0.md
category: reference
title: Negroid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negroid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:15.584073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: negroid-20260505-0
summary:
Negroid (less commonly called Congoid) is an obsolete racial grouping of various people indigenous to Africa south of the area which stretched from the southern Sahara desert in the west to the African Great Lakes in the southeast, but also to isolated parts of South and Southeast Asia (Negritos). The term is derived from now-disproven conceptions of race as a biological category. The concept of dividing humans into three races called Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid (originally named "Ethiopian") was introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history and further developed by Western scholars in the context of "racist ideologies" during the age of colonialism. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation. It was never accurate in the past, and it remains inaccurate when referencing contemporary human populations." == Etymology == Negroid has Portuguese or Spanish and Ancient Greek etymological roots. It literally translates as "black resemblance" from the Portuguese and Spanish word negro (black) from Latin nigrum, and Greek οειδές -oeidēs, equivalent to -o-


id: negroid-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negroid-1.md
category: reference
title: Negroid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negroid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:15.584073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: negroid-20260505-0
summary:
Darwin's landmark work On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, eight years after Morton's death, significantly changed scientific discourse on the origin of humans. British biologist Thomas Huxley, a strong advocate of Darwinism and a monogenist, counted ten "modifications of mankind", dividing the native populations of sub-Saharan Africa into the "Bushmen" of the Cape region and the "Negroes" of the central areas of the continent. By the end of the 19th century, the influential German encyclopaedia, Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, divided humanity into three major races called Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid, each comprising various sub-races. While the "Hamites" of northern Africa were seen as Caucasoid, "Australians", "Melanesians", and "Negritoes" were seen as Negroid sub-races, although living outside the African continent. The only sub-races attributed to Africa were the "African Negroes" and the "Hottentots". The justification for racist Jim Crow laws was provided by pseudo-scientific opinions on "negro" psychology like those expressed by the entry for "Negro" in the Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition (1910–1911): "Mentally the negro is inferior to the white ... the arrest or even deterioration of mental development [after adolescence] is no doubt very largely due to the fact that after puberty sexual matters take the first place in


id: negroid-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negroid-2.md
category: reference
title: Negroid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negroid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:15.584073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: negroid-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neoteny === Ashley Montagu lists "neotenous structural traits in which ... Negroids [generally] differ from Caucasoids ... flattish nose, flat root of the nose, narrower ears, narrower joints, frontal skull eminences, later closure of premaxillary sutures, less hairy, longer eyelashes, [and] cruciform pattern of second and third molars." He also suggested that in the extinct Negroid group termed the "Boskopoids", pedomorphic traits proceeded further than in other Negroids. Additionally, Montagu wrote that the Boskopoids had larger brains than modern humans (1,700 cubic centimeters cranial capacity compared to 1,400 cubic centimeters in modern-day humans), and the projection of their mouth was less than in other Negroids. He believed the Boskopoids were the ancestors of the Khoisan. === Athleticism === In the context of prominent successes of African-American athletes like Jesse Owens during the 1936 Summer Olympics, the speed advantage of the "Negroid type of calf, foot and heel bone" was discussed. Black Anthropologist W. Montague Cobb joined the debate in the same year, pointing out that "there is not a single physical characteristic, including skin color, which all the Negro stars have in common which definitely classify them as Negroes." Today, suggestions of biological differences in athletic ability between racial


id: neo-creationism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-creationism-0.md
category: reference
title: Neo-creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:16.829563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neo-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
Neo-creationism is a pseudoscientific movement which aims to restate creationism in terms more likely to be well received by the public, by policy makers, by educators and by the scientific community. It aims to re-frame the debate over the origins of life in non-religious terms and without appeals to scripture. In the United States, this comes in response to the 1987 ruling by the Supreme Court in Edwards v. Aguillard that creationism is an inherently religious concept and that advocating it as correct or accurate in public-school curricula violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. One of the principal claims of neo-creationism propounds that ostensibly objective orthodox science, with a foundation in naturalism, is actually a dogmatically atheistic religion. Its proponents argue that the scientific method excludes certain explanations of phenomena, particularly where they point towards supernatural elements, thus effectively excluding religious insight from contributing to understanding the universe. This leads to an open and often hostile opposition to what neo-creationists term "Darwinism", which they generally mean to refer to evolution, but which they may extend to include such concepts as abiogenesis, stellar evolution and the Big Bang theory. Notable neo-creationist organizations include the Discovery Institute and its Center


id: neuro-linguistic-programming-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuro-linguistic programming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:17.977876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuro-linguistic-programming-20260505-0
summary:
Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a pseudoscientific approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy that first appeared in Richard Bandler and John Grinder's book The Structure of Magic I (1975). NLP asserts a connection between neurological processes, language, and acquired behavioral patterns, and that these can be changed to achieve specific goals in life. According to Bandler and Grinder, NLP can treat problems such as phobias, depression, tic disorders, psychosomatic illnesses, near-sightedness, allergy, the common cold, and learning disorders, often in a single session. They also say that NLP can model the skills of exceptional people, allowing anyone to acquire them. NLP has been adopted by some hypnotherapists as well as by companies that run seminars marketed as leadership training to businesses and government agencies. No scientific evidence supports the claims made by NLP advocates, and it has been called a pseudoscience. Scientific reviews have shown that NLP is based on outdated metaphors of the brain's inner workings that are inconsistent with current neurological theory, and that NLP contains numerous factual errors. Reviews also found that research that favored NLP contained significant methodological flaws, and that three times as many studies of a much higher quality failed to reproduce the claims


id: neuro-linguistic-programming-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuro-linguistic programming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:17.977876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuro-linguistic-programming-20260505-0
summary:
My memories about what we thought at the time of discovery (with respect to the classic code we developed—that is, the years 1973 through 1978) are that we were quite explicit that we were out to overthrow a paradigm and that, for example, I, for one, found it very useful to plan this campaign using in part as a guide the excellent work of Thomas Kuhn (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions) in which he detailed some of the conditions which historically have obtained in the midst of paradigm shifts. For example, I believe it was very useful that neither one of us were qualified in the field we first went after—psychology and in particular, its therapeutic application; this being one of the conditions which Kuhn identified in his historical study of paradigm shifts. The philosopher Robert Todd Carroll responded that Grinder has not understood Kuhn's text on the history and philosophy of science, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Carroll replies: (a) individual scientists never have nor are they ever able to create paradigm shifts volitionally and Kuhn does not suggest otherwise; (b) Kuhn's text does not contain the idea that being unqualified in a field of science is a prerequisite


id: neuro-linguistic-programming-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuro-linguistic programming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:17.977876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuro-linguistic-programming-20260505-0
summary:
According to one study by Steinbach, a classic interaction in NLP can be understood in terms of several major stages including establishing rapport, gleaning information about a problem mental state and desired goals, using specific tools and techniques to make interventions, and integrating proposed changes into the client's life. The entire process is guided by the non-verbal responses of the client. The first is the act of establishing and maintaining rapport between the practitioner and the client which is achieved through pacing and leading the verbal (e.g., sensory predicates and keywords) and non-verbal behavior (e.g., matching and mirroring non-verbal behavior, or responding to eye movements) of the client. Once rapport is established, the practitioner may gather information about the client's present state as well as help the client define a desired state or goal for the interaction. The practitioner pays attention to the verbal and non-verbal responses as the client defines the present state and desired state and any resources that may be required to bridge the gap. The client is typically encouraged to consider the consequences of the desired outcome, and how they may affect their personal or professional life and relationships, taking into account any positive intentions of


id: neuro-linguistic-programming-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming-3.md
category: reference
title: Neuro-linguistic programming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:17.977876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuro-linguistic-programming-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other uses === Although the original core techniques of NLP were therapeutic in orientation their generic nature enabled them to be applied to other fields. These applications include persuasion, sales, negotiation, management training, sports, teaching, coaching, team building, public speaking, and in the process of hiring employees. == Scientific criticism == In the early 1980s, NLP was advertised as an important advance in psychotherapy and counseling, and attracted some interest in counseling research and clinical psychology. However, as controlled trials failed to show any benefit from NLP and its advocates made increasingly dubious claims, scientific interest in NLP faded. Numerous literature reviews and meta-analyses have failed to show evidence for NLP's assumptions or effectiveness as a therapeutic method. While some NLP practitioners have argued that the lack of empirical support is due to insufficient research which tests NLP, the consensus scientific opinion is that NLP is pseudoscience and that attempts to dismiss the research findings based on these arguments "[constitute]s an admission that NLP does not have an evidence base and that NLP practitioners are seeking a post-hoc credibility." Surveys in the academic community have shown NLP to be widely discredited among scientists. Among the reasons for considering NLP


id: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm-0.md
category: reference
title: Nibiru cataclysm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:19.340542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-0
summary:
The Nibiru cataclysm is a supposed disastrous encounter between Earth and a large planetary object (either a collision or a near-miss) that certain groups believed would take place in the early 21st century. Believers in this doomsday event usually refer to this object as Nibiru or Planet X. The idea was first put forward in 1995 by Nancy Lieder, founder of the website ZetaTalk. Lieder claims she is a contactee with the ability to receive messages from extraterrestrials from the Zeta Reticuli star system through an implant in her brain. She states that she was chosen to warn mankind that the object would sweep through the inner Solar System in May 2003 (though that date was later postponed) causing Earth to undergo a physical pole shift that would destroy most of humanity. The prediction has subsequently spread beyond Lieder's website and has been embraced by numerous Internet doomsday groups. In the late 2000s, it became closely associated with the 2012 phenomenon. Since 2012, the Nibiru cataclysm has frequently reappeared in the popular media, usually linked to newsmaking astronomical objects such as Comet ISON or Planet Nine. Although the name "Nibiru" is derived from the works of the "ancient astronaut" writer


id: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm-1.md
category: reference
title: Nibiru cataclysm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:19.340542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-0
summary:
Though Lieder herself has not specified a new date for the object's return, many groups have taken up her idea and cited their own dates. One frequently cited date was December 21, 2012. This date had many apocalyptic associations, as it was the end of a cycle (bʼakʼtun) in the long count in the Maya calendar. Several writers published books connecting the encounter with 2012. Despite that date having passed, many websites still contend that Nibiru/Planet X is en route to Earth. In 2012, Lieder claimed that U.S. President Barack Obama futilely attempted to announce the presence of Nibiru near the Sun. After 2012, she claimed that several world leaders had intended to announce the presence of Nibiru near the Sun on October 20, 2014. Two weeks after the supposed date of announcement, she claimed that it did not occur because of consternation amongst the establishment. === 2017 revival === In 2017, a conspiracy theorist and self-proclaimed "Christian numerologist" named David Meade revived the Nibiru cataclysm by tying it to various passages from the Bible. Meade declared that these passages contained secret numerological codes, which revealed the exact date on which Nibiru would arrive. He also based his predictions on


id: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm-2.md
category: reference
title: Nibiru cataclysm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:19.340542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific rejection == Astronomers reject the idea of Nibiru and have made efforts to inform the public that there is no threat to Earth. They point out that such an object so close to Earth would be easily visible to the naked eye and would cause noticeable effects in the orbits of the outer planets. Most photographs purporting to show "Nibiru" beside the Sun are lens flares, false images of the Sun caused by reflections within the lens. Claims that the object has been concealed behind the Sun are untenable. An orbit like that of Nibiru (within the planetary region of the Solar System) is inconsistent with celestial mechanics. David Morrison, a NASA space scientist, explains that after just one previous flyby of Earth, such as proponents claim happened in Sumerian times, Earth itself would no longer be in its current near-circular orbit and would be likely to have lost its Moon. If Nibiru were a brown dwarf it would have even worse effects, as brown dwarfs are far more massive. Since Pluto is now frequently observed by backyard telescopes, any giant planet beyond Pluto would be easily observed by an amateur astronomer, and if such an object existed


id: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm-3.md
category: reference
title: Nibiru cataclysm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:19.340542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-0
summary:
=== Planet X === Lieder drew the name Planet X from the hypothetical planet once searched for by astronomers to account for discrepancies in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune. In 1894, Bostonian astronomer Percival Lowell became convinced that the planets Uranus and Neptune had slight discrepancies in their orbits. He concluded that they were being tugged by the gravity of another, more distant planet, which he called "Planet X". However, nearly a century of searching failed to turn up any evidence for such an object (Pluto was initially believed to be Planet X, but was later determined to be too small). The discrepancies remained through to the 1990s when the astronomer Robert Harrington put forward his hypothesis for an extra planet beyond Neptune with, as one example, a semi-major axis 101.2 AU and eccentricity 0.411 which makes its perihelion 59.60, so the closest to the Sun it would get is one and a half times the distance to Pluto. Six months before Harrington died of throat cancer in 1992, astronomer E. Myles Standish showed that the supposed discrepancies in the planets' orbits were illusory, the product of overestimating the mass of Neptune. When Neptune's newly determined mass was used


id: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm-4.md
category: reference
title: Nibiru cataclysm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:19.340542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-0
summary:
Some associated Nibiru with Comet Elenin, a long-period comet discovered by Russian astronomer Leonid Elenin on December 10, 2010. On October 16, 2011, Elenin made its closest approach to Earth at a distance of 0.2338 AU (34,980,000 km; 21,730,000 mi), which is slightly closer than the planet Venus. Nevertheless, in the leadup to its closest approach, claims spread on conspiracy websites concluded that it was on a collision course, that it was as large as Jupiter or even a brown dwarf, and even that the name of the discoverer, Leonid Elenin, was in fact code for ELE, or an Extinction Level Event. Although the sizes of comets are difficult to determine without close observation, Comet Elenin is likely to be less than 10 km in diameter. Elenin himself estimates that the comet nucleus is roughly 3–4 km in diameter. This would make it millions of times smaller than the supposed Nibiru. Comet hysteria is not uncommon. Attempts have been made to correlate Elenin's alignments with the 2011 Japan earthquake, the 2010 Canterbury earthquake, and 2010 Chile earthquake; however, even discounting Elenin's tiny size, earthquakes are driven by forces within the earth, and cannot be triggered by the passage of nearby


id: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm-5.md
category: reference
title: Nibiru cataclysm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:19.340542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nibiru-cataclysm-20260505-0
summary:
The impact of the public fear of the Nibiru cataclysm has been especially felt by professional astronomers. In 2008, Mike Brown said that Nibiru was the most common pseudoscientific topic he was asked about. Before his retirement after 2012, David Morrison, director of the SETI Institute, CSI Fellow and Senior Scientist at NASA's Astrobiology Institute at Ames Research Center, said he received 20 to 25 emails a week about the impending arrival of Nibiru: some frightened, others angry and naming him as part of the conspiracy to keep the truth of the impending apocalypse from the public, and still others asking whether or not they should kill themselves, their children or their pets. Half of these emails were from outside the US. Science writer Govert Schilling noted, "Planetary scientists are being driven to distraction by Nibiru. ... And it is not surprising; you devote so much time, energy and creativity to fascinating scientific research, and find yourself on the tracks of the most amazing and interesting things, and all the public at large is concerned about is some crackpot theory about clay tablets, god-astronauts and a planet that doesn't exist." Similarly, Professor Brian Cox posted on Twitter in 2012 that,


id: ni-a-de-las-peras-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niña_de_las_Peras-0.md
category: reference
title: Niña de las Peras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niña_de_las_Peras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:20.516221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ni-a-de-las-peras-20260505-0
summary:
The Niña de las Peras (in English: Pear Girl) is one of the most popular Canarian legends, and although it has undergone many transformations over time, its basic premise has remained the same. This legend is believed to have originated between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, specifically between 1890 and 1910. The story takes place in the town of Güímar on the island of Tenerife, where parents sent their young daughter to the nearby barranco de Badajoz to look for fruit, but the girl disappeared. A frantic search by the local residents began, but to no avail. After a while, the girl was considered unrecoverable, and the neighbors returned to their daily routines. Several decades later, the girl knocked on the door of her parents' house, looking the same as the day she disappeared. Her parents, who had already grown old, could not hide their surprise and amazement at what had happened. The girl told her parents what had happened: after reaching the ravine, exhausted, she had fallen asleep at the foot of a pear tree, until a very tall being dressed in white woke her. This being asked the girl to accompany him into a cave, and


id: nobel-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Nobel disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:21.663212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nobel-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Nobel disease or Nobelitis is an informal term for the embrace of strange or scientifically unsound ideas by some Nobel Prize winners, usually later in life. Use of the term embodies an attitude that has been illustrated and exemplified by the author Thomas Kuhn in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, which describes the friction opposed by those operating within an incumbent scientific paradigm to the motion imparted by those proposing new ideas and perspectives, which may herald a paradigm shift. It has been argued that the effect results, in part, from a tendency for Nobel winners to feel empowered by the award to speak on topics outside their specific area of expertise, although it is unknown whether Nobel Prize winners are more prone to this tendency than other individuals. Paul Nurse, co-winner of the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, warned later laureates against "believing you are expert in almost everything, and being prepared to express opinions about most issues with great confidence, sheltering behind the authority that the Nobel Prize can give you". Nurse also noted that media play a role in reinforcing this tendency, observing that after receiving his Nobel Prize, journalists had begun to


id: nobel-disease-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_disease-1.md
category: reference
title: Nobel disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:21.663212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nobel-disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Kary Mullis === Kary Mullis won the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for development of the polymerase chain reaction. Mullis disagreed with the scientifically accepted view that AIDS is caused by HIV, claiming that the virus is barely detectable in people with the disease. He also expressed doubt in the evidence for human-caused climate change. In his autobiography, Mullis professed a belief in astrology and wrote about an encounter with a fluorescent, talking raccoon that he suggested might have been an extraterrestrial alien. === Louis J. Ignarro === Louis J. Ignarro was one of three winners of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on nitric oxide as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system, which led to the development of new medications to treat cardiovascular disease, as well as of Viagra. In 2003, he became a consultant for Herbalife (which has been investigated for various kinds of dishonesty about its products). As a member of their Scientific Advisory Board, he helped to promote dubious dietary supplements. He studied the effects of his pet invention, Niteworks, on mice, and is known for saying, "What's good for mice is good for humans," an unverified statement. ===


id: non-contact-thermography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-contact_thermography-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-contact thermography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-contact_thermography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:22.839355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-contact-thermography-20260505-0
summary:
Non-contact thermography, thermographic imaging, or medical thermology is the field of thermography that uses infrared images of the human skin to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Medical thermology is sometimes referred to as medical infrared imaging or tele-thermology and utilizes thermographic cameras. According to the American Academy of Thermology, Medical Thermology practitioners are licensed health care practitioners who utilize IR imaging in consistent with medically established paradigms of care. Non-medically licensed alternative practitioners who are not held to the same standard may offer thermography services but that should not be confused with the field of medical thermology. Restated, medical thermology is the use of infrared (IR) imaging to assess skin temperature as an extension of the clinician's physical exam to aid in the formation of a medical diagnosis or treatment plan. Medical Thermology does not condone those who purport that "Thermography" can find disease by looking for areas of the body that have abnormal heat or irregular blood flow. IR imaging simply does not have the ability to assess temperature beyond the surface of the skin. Thermography is a physiologic study and is not a replacement for structural studies such as X-Ray, MRI, or Mammography. As


id: noni-juice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noni_juice-0.md
category: reference
title: Noni juice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noni_juice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:24.039954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: noni-juice-20260505-0
summary:
Noni juice is derived from the fruit of the Morinda citrifolia tree indigenous to Southeast Asia and Australasia. It has been promoted, illegally in several cases, as a cure for a number of human diseases. However, there is no evidence to support any claims of therapeutic benefit. == Regulatory warnings == === Tahitian Noni (Morinda, Inc.) === On August 26, 1998, the Attorneys General of Arizona, California, New Jersey, and Texas announced a multi-state settlement with Morinda, Inc. following charges that the company had made "unsubstantiated claims in consumer testimonials and other promotional material indicating that its Tahitian Noni juice could treat, cure or prevent numerous diseases such as diabetes, clinical depression, hemorrhoids and arthritis." Such claims rendered the beverage an unapproved new drug under state and federal food and drug laws and should not have been sold until it received approval. Under the terms of the agreement, Morinda agreed to: No longer make drug claims, or claims that the product can cure, treat, or prevent any disease until "Tahitian Noni" is approved and cleared for those uses by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Not make any other claims, whether health claims or others, regarding the benefits of Tahitian


id: oasis-of-hope-hospital-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasis_of_Hope_Hospital-0.md
category: reference
title: Oasis of Hope Hospital
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasis_of_Hope_Hospital
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:25.264029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oasis-of-hope-hospital-20260505-0
summary:
The Oasis of Hope Hospital is a clinic in Tijuana, Mexico providing alternative cancer treatments to its customers. The clinic was founded by the physician Ernesto Contreras. After his death in 2003, the management of the hospital was taken over by his son, Francisco Contreras, and nephew, Daniel Kennedy. Since the 1960s, it has administered amygdalin to its patients. The clinic has been characterized by Quackwatch as "dubious." == History == The Oasis of Hope hospital is based in Tijuana, Mexico. The city is significant as there is a concentration of more than 60 cancer treatment centres in the city, making it one of the largest concentrations of this type of treatment in the world. The Guardian reported in 2005 that the reason for the concentration is that most methods used by the hospitals are "discouraged by conventional medical science" and because health regulations aren't as strict as the United States, it is a logical place for them to operate. Tijuana is home to the largest concentration of cancer treatment centres offering unorthodox therapies anywhere in the world. More than 60 hospitals, clinics and semi-clandestine offices offer to cure or help control the disease in ways ranging from the unconventional


id: oasis-of-hope-hospital-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasis_of_Hope_Hospital-1.md
category: reference
title: Oasis of Hope Hospital
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasis_of_Hope_Hospital
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:25.264029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oasis-of-hope-hospital-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Edzard Ernst, a former professor at The University of Exeter stated that Britons in particular were attracted to Tijuana clinics "because the clinics there are famous." According to Quackwatch, the Oasis of Hope Hospital is a "dubious cancer clinic". Richard Sullivan of Cancer Research UK has said, "the Tijuana clinics are essentially set up to deceive and it's a disgrace." Barrie R. Cassileth commented on a small longterm follow-up study that had been carried out on patients of Mexican clinics, including those taking the Contreras treatments. She said that most patients did not know what stage their cancer was at, but that the mean survival time – of 7 months – was enough to conclude that "Contreras therapy is ineffective in treating late-stage cancer patients". The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center lists "Contreras Therapy" alongside other alternative nutrition-based cancer treatments like the Gerson Therapy which "show no evidence of efficacy". == See also == List of ineffective cancer treatments Quackery Clinica 0-19 == References == == Further reading == Petersen, J. C.; Markle, G. E. (1979). "Politics and Science in the Laetrile Controversy" (PDF). Social Studies of Science. 9 (2): 139–66. doi:10.1177/030631277900900201. PMID 11645793. S2CID 14579797. "Unproven methods


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Objections to evolution have been raised since evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, his theory of evolution (the idea that species arose through descent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven by natural selection) initially met opposition from scientists with different theories, but eventually came to receive near-universal acceptance in the scientific community. The observation of evolutionary processes occurring (as well as the modern evolutionary synthesis explaining that evidence) has been uncontroversial among mainstream biologists since the 1940s. Since then, criticisms and denials of evolution have come from religious groups, rather than from the scientific community. Although many religious groups have found reconciliation of their beliefs with evolution, such as through theistic evolution, other religious groups continue to reject evolutionary explanations in favor of creationism, the belief that the universe and life were created by supernatural forces. The U.S.-centered creation–evolution controversy has become a focal point of perceived conflict between religion and science. Several branches of creationism, including creation science, neo-creationism, geocentric creationism and intelligent design, argue that the idea of life being directly designed by a god or intelligence is


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-1.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the early 19th century with the theory (developed between 1800 and 1822) of the transmutation of species put forward by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829). The scientific community initially opposed the idea of evolution, with notable criticism from Georges Cuvier (1769–1832). The idea that laws control nature and society gained vast popular audiences with George Combe's The Constitution of Man of 1828 and with the anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation of 1844. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arise through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from common ancestors, but while most scientists accepted natural selection as a valid and empirically testable hypothesis, Darwin's view of it as the primary mechanism of evolution was rejected by some. Darwin's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based upon fossil evidence, and the X Club (operative from 1864 to 1893) formed to defend the concept of evolution against opposition from the church and wealthy amateurs. At that time the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided – natural selection – was actively disputed by scientists


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-2.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Creationists have appealed to democratic principles of fairness, arguing that evolution is controversial and that science classrooms should therefore "Teach the Controversy". These objections to evolution culminated in the intelligent-design movement in the 1990s and early 2000s that unsuccessfully attempted to present itself as a scientific alternative to evolution.


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-3.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
== Defining evolution == A major source of confusion and ambiguity in any creation–evolution debate arises from the definition of evolution itself. In the context of biology, evolution is genetic changes in populations of organisms over successive generations. The word also has a number of different meanings in different fields, from evolutionary computation to molecular evolution to sociocultural evolution to stellar and galactic evolution. Evolution in colloquial contexts can refer to any sort of "progressive" development or gradual improvement, and a process that results in greater quality or complexity. When misapplied to biological evolution this common meaning can lead to frequent misunderstandings. For example, the idea of devolution ("backwards" evolution) is a result of erroneously assuming that evolution is directional or has a specific goal in mind (cf. orthogenesis). In reality, the evolution of a biological organism has no "objective" and is only showing increasing ability of successive generations to survive and reproduce in their environment; and increased suitability is only defined in relation to this environment. Biologists do not regard any one species (such as humans) as more highly evolved or advanced than another. Certain sources have been criticized for indicating otherwise due to a tendency to evaluate nonhuman


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-4.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
An objection is often made in the teaching of evolution that evolution is controversial or contentious. Unlike past creationist arguments which sought to abolish the teaching of evolution altogether, this argument makes the claim that evolution should be presented alongside alternative views since it is controversial, and students should be allowed to evaluate and choose between the options on their own. This objection forms the basis of the "Teach the Controversy" campaign by the Discovery Institute, a think tank based in Seattle, Washington, to promote the teaching of intelligent design in U.S. public schools. This goal followed the Institute's "wedge strategy", an attempt to gradually undermine evolution and ultimately to "reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview, and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions." Several other attempts were made to insert intelligent design or creationism into the U.S. public school curriculum, including the failed Santorum Amendment in 2001. Scientists and U.S. courts have rejected this objection on the grounds that science is not based on appeals to popularity, but on evidence. The scientific consensus of biologists determines what is considered acceptable science, not popular opinion or fairness, and although evolution is controversial in


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-5.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Assuming for the purposes of argument, however, that evolution is a religion or religious tenet, the remedy is to stop the teaching of evolution, not establish another religion in opposition to it. Yet it is clearly established in the case law, and perhaps also in common sense, that evolution is not a religion and that teaching evolution does not violate the Establishment Clause, Epperson v. Arkansas, supra, Willoughby v. Stever, No. 15574-75 (D.D.C. May 18, 1973); aff'd. 504 F.2d 271 (D.C. Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 420 U.S. 924 (1975); Wright v. Houston Indep. School Dist., 366 F. Supp. 1208 (S.D. Tex 1978), aff.d. 486 F.2d 137 (5th Cir. 1973), cert. denied 417 U.S. 969 (1974). A related claim is that evolution is atheistic (see the Atheism section below); creationists sometimes merge the two claims and describe evolution as an "atheistic religion" (cf. humanism). This argument against evolution is also frequently generalized into a criticism of all science; it is argued that "science is an atheistic religion", on the grounds that its methodological naturalism is as unproven, and thus as "faith-based", as the supernatural and theistic beliefs of creationism. === Unfalsifiability === A statement is considered falsifiable if there is an


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-6.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lack of observation === A common claim of creationists is that evolution has never been observed. Challenges to such objections often come down to debates over how evolution is defined (see the Defining evolution section above). Under the conventional biological definition of evolution, it is a simple matter to observe evolution occurring. Evolutionary processes, in the form of populations changing their genetic composition from generation to generation, have been observed in different scientific contexts, including the evolution of fruit flies, mice, and bacteria in the laboratory, and of tilapia in the field. Such studies on experimental evolution, particularly those using microorganisms, are now providing important insights into how evolution occurs, especially in the case of antibiotic resistance. In response to such examples, creationists say there are two major subdivisions of evolution to be considered, microevolution and macroevolution, and it is questionable if macro-evolution has been physically observed to occur. Most creationist organizations do not dispute the occurrence of short-term, relatively minor evolutionary changes, such as that observed even in dog breeding. Rather, they dispute the occurrence of major evolutionary changes over long periods of time, which by definition cannot be directly observed, only inferred from microevolutionary processes and the


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-7.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Critics of evolution commonly appeal to past scientific hoaxes such as the Piltdown Man forgery. It is argued that because scientists have been mistaken and deceived in the past about evidence for various aspects of evolution, the current evidence for evolution is likely to also be based on fraud and error. Much of the evidence for evolution has been accused of being fraudulent at various times, including Archaeopteryx, peppered moth melanism, and Darwin's finches; these claims have been subsequently refuted. It has also been claimed that certain former pieces of evidence for evolution which are now considered out-of-date and erroneous, such as Ernst Haeckel's 19th-century comparative drawings of embryos, used to illustrate his recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"), were not merely errors but frauds. Molecular biologist Jonathan Wells criticizes biology textbooks by alleging that they continue to reproduce such evidence after it has been debunked. In response, the National Center for Science Education notes that none of the textbooks reviewed by Wells makes the claimed error, as Haeckel's drawings are shown in a historical context with discussion about why they are wrong, and the accurate modern drawings and photos used in the textbooks are misrepresented by Wells. === Unreliable chronology


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-8.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Supporters of evolution generally respond by arguing that this objection is simply an argument by lack of imagination, or argument from incredulity: a certain explanation is seen as being counterintuitive, and therefore an alternate, more intuitive explanation is appealed to instead. In actuality, evolution is not based on "chance", but on predictable chemical interactions: natural processes, rather than supernatural beings, are the "designer". Although the process involves some random elements, it is the non-random selection of survival-enhancing genes that drives the evolution of complex and ordered patterns. The fact that the results are ordered and seem "designed" is no more evidence for a supernatural intelligence than the appearance of complex non-living phenomena (e.g. snowflakes). It is also argued that there is insufficient evidence to make statements about the plausibility or implausibility of abiogenesis, that certain structures demonstrate poor design, and that the implausibility of life evolving exactly as it did is no more evidence for an intelligence than the implausibility of a deck of cards being shuffled and dealt in a certain random order. It has also been noted that arguments against some form of life arising "by chance" are really objections to nontheistic abiogenesis, not to evolution. Indeed, arguments


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-9.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
There's got to be a series of advantages all the way in the feather. If you can't think of one, then that's your problem not natural selection's problem... It's perfectly possible feathers began as fluffy extensions of reptilian scales to act as insulators... The earliest feathers might have been a different approach to hairiness among reptiles keeping warm. Creationist arguments have been made such as "What use is half an eye?" and "What use is half a wing?". Research has confirmed that the natural evolution of the eye and other intricate organs is entirely feasible. Creationist claims have persisted that such complexity evolving without a designer is inconceivable and this objection to evolution has been refined in recent years as the more sophisticated irreducible complexity argument of the intelligent design movement, formulated by Michael Behe. Biochemist Michael Behe has argued that current evolutionary theory cannot account for certain complex structures, particularly in microbiology. On this basis, Behe argues that such structures were "purposely arranged by an intelligent agent". Irreducible complexity is the idea that certain biological systems cannot be broken down into their constituent parts and remain functional, and therefore that they could not have evolved naturally from less complex


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-10.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
A recent objection of creationists to evolution is that evolutionary mechanisms such as mutation cannot generate new information. Creationists such as William A. Dembski, Werner Gitt, and Lee Spetner have attempted to use information theory to dispute evolution. Dembski has argued that life demonstrates specified complexity, and proposed a law of conservation of information that extremely improbable "complex specified information" could be conveyed by natural means but never originated without an intelligent agent. Gitt asserted that information is an intrinsic characteristic of life and that an analysis demonstrates the mind and will of their Creator. These claims have been widely rejected by the scientific community, which asserts that new information is regularly generated in evolution whenever a novel mutation or gene duplication arises. Dramatic examples of entirely new and unique traits arising through mutation have been observed in recent years, such as the evolution of nylon-eating bacteria which developed new enzymes to efficiently digest a material that never existed before the modern era. There is no need to account for the creation of information when an organism is considered together with the environment it evolved in. The information in the genome forms a record of how it was possible to


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-11.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
In 1917, Vernon Kellogg published Headquarters Nights: A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium, which asserted that German intellectuals were totally committed to might-makes-right due to "whole-hearted acceptance of the worst of Neo-Darwinism, the Allmacht of natural selection applied rigorously to human life and society and Kultur." This strongly influenced the politician William Jennings Bryan, who saw Darwinism as a moral threat to America and campaigned against evolutionary theory; his campaign culminated in the Scopes Trial, which effectively prevented teaching of evolution in most public schools until the 1960s. R. Albert Mohler, Jr., president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky, wrote August 8, 2005, in NPR's Taking Issue essay series, that "Debates over education, abortion, environmentalism, homosexuality and a host of other issues are really debates about the origin — and thus the meaning — of human life. ...evolutionary theory stands at the base of moral relativism and the rejection of traditional morality." Henry M. Morris, engineering professor and founder of the Creation Research Society and the Institute of Creation Research, claims that evolution was part of a pagan religion that emerged after the Tower of Babel,


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-12.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Another charge leveled at evolutionary theory by creationists is that belief in evolution is either tantamount to atheism, or conducive to atheism. It is commonly claimed that all proponents of evolutionary theory are "materialistic atheists". On the other hand, Davis A. Young argues that creation science itself is harmful to Christianity because its bad science will turn more away than it recruits. Young asks, "Can we seriously expect non-Christians to develop a respect for Christianity if we insist on teaching the brand of science that creationism brings with it?" However, evolution neither requires nor rules out the existence of a supernatural being. Philosopher Robert T. Pennock makes the comparison that evolution is no more atheistic than plumbing. H. Allen Orr, professor of biology at University of Rochester, notes that: Of the five founding fathers of twentieth-century evolutionary biology—Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane, Ernst Mayr, and Theodosius Dobzhansky—one was a devout Anglican who preached sermons and published articles in church magazines, one a practicing Unitarian, one a dabbler in Eastern mysticism, one an apparent atheist, and one a member of the Russian Orthodox Church and the author of a book on religion and science. In addition, a wide


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-13.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Behe, Michael J. (1996). Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-684-82754-4. LCCN 96000695. OCLC 34150540. Bowler, Peter J. (1992) [Original hardback edition published 1983]. The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades Around 1900 (Johns Hopkins Paperbacks ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4391-4. LCCN 82021170. OCLC 611262030. Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23693-6. LCCN 2002007569. OCLC 49824702. Butterfield, Nicholas J. (2001). "Ecology and evolution of Cambrian plankton". In Zhuravlev, Andrey Yu.; Riding, Robert (eds.). The Ecology of the Cambrian Radiation. Critical Moments in Paleobiology and Earth History Series; Perspectives in Paleobiology and Earth History Series. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10613-9. LCCN 00063901. OCLC 44869047. Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st ed.). London: John Murray. LCCN 06017473. OCLC 741260650. The book is available from The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. Retrieved 2015-03-30. Darwin, Charles (1866). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured


id: objections-to-evolution-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution-14.md
category: reference
title: Objections to evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:26.533990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: objections-to-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Young, David A. (1988) [Originally published 1982; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan]. Christianity and the Age of the Earth. Thousand Oak, CA: Artisan Publishers. ISBN 978-0-934666-27-5. LCCN 81016266. OCLC 20135091. Meyer, Stephen C., and Mark Terry. "Darwin's doubt: The explosive origin of animal life and the case for intelligent design Archived 2024-06-13 at the Wayback Machine." New York (2013). == Further reading == Coleman, Simon; Carlin, Leslie, eds. (2004). The Cultures of Creationism: Anti-Evolution in English-Speaking Countries. Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-0912-4. LCCN 2003045172. OCLC 51867865. Denton, Michael (1986) [Originally published in Great Britain in 1985 by Burnett Books Limited]. Evolution: A Theory in Crisis (1st U.S. ed.). Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler. ISBN 978-0-917561-05-4. LCCN 85013556. OCLC 12214328. == External links == Video (10:56) − "Raising Doubts About Evolution... in Science Class" on YouTube − (NYT / Retro Report; November 2017)


id: odic-force-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odic_force-0.md
category: reference
title: Odic force
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odic_force
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:27.771379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: odic-force-20260505-0
summary:
Odic force (also called Od , Odyle, Önd, Odes, Odylic, Odyllic, or Odems) was a hypothetical vital energy or life force believed in by some in the mid-19th century. The name was coined by Baron Carl von Reichenbach in 1845 in reference to the Germanic god Odin. == History == As von Reichenbach was investigating the manner in which the human nervous system could be affected by various substances, he conceived the existence of a new force allied to electricity, magnetism, and heat, a force which he thought was radiated by most substances, and to the influence of which different people are variously sensitive. He named this vitalist concept Odic force. Proponents say that Odic force permeates all plants, animals, and humans. Believers in Odic force said that it was visible in total darkness as colored auras surrounding living things, crystals, and magnets, but that viewing it required hours first spent in total darkness, and only very sensitive people had the ability to see it. They also said that it resembles the Asian concepts prana and qi. However, they regarded the Odic force as not associated with breath (like India's prana and the qi of Chinese martial arts) but rather


id: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People-0.md
category: reference
title: Of Pandas and People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:28.944697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-0
summary:
Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins is a controversial 1989 (2nd edition 1993) school-level supplementary textbook written by Percival Davis and Dean H. Kenyon, edited by Charles Thaxton and published by the Texas-based Foundation for Thought and Ethics (FTE). The textbook endorses the pseudoscientific notion of intelligent design – the argument that life shows evidence of being designed by an intelligent agent. Although this agent is not named specifically in the book, proponents understand that it refers to the Christian God. They present various polemical arguments against the scientific theory of evolution. Before publication, early drafts used cognates of "creationist". After the Edwards v. Aguillard Supreme Court ruling that creationism is religion and not science, these were changed to refer to "intelligent design". The overview chapter was written by young Earth creationist Nancy Pearcey. The second edition published in 1993 included a contribution written by Michael Behe. A third edition of the book was published in 2007 under the title The Design of Life: Discovering Signs of Intelligence in Biological Systems. The book argues that the origin of new organisms is "in an immaterial cause: in a blueprint, a plan, a pattern, devised by an intelligent


id: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People-1.md
category: reference
title: Of Pandas and People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:28.944697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-0
summary:
Creation means that the various forms of life began abruptly through the agency of an intelligent creator with their distinctive features already intact. Fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, and wings, etc. A 1987 draft entitled Biology and Origins made only minor grammatical alterations to these statements. The FTE sought a publisher for the book, sending a Boston firm a prospectus which indicated that the draft had been sent to school districts for testing as well as to prospective publishers. In the prospectus, Buell stated that a "new independent scientific poll... shows almost half of the nation's biology teachers include some creation in their view of biological origins. Many more who don't still believe it should be included in science curriculum." Additionally, he enclosed projections showing expected revenue of over $6.5 million in five years based upon "modest expectations for the market." If creationist teaching in schools was explicitly permitted by the Supreme Court of the United States in the Louisiana "Balanced Treatment Act" case that was then ongoing, the FTE's founder Jon Buell wrote that "you can throw out these projections, the nationwide market would be explosive!" === From creationism to intelligent design: Pandas and "cdesign


id: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People-2.md
category: reference
title: Of Pandas and People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:28.944697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-0
summary:
=== Publication and promotion === Of Pandas and People was published in 1989 by "Haughton Publishing Co." This was the assumed name of a Mesquite, Texas, printing firm, Horticultural Printers, Inc., which mainly served the agricultural industry and had no other books in print, nor any in-house writers or science advisors. (It should not be confused with the well-known children's and school textbook publisher, Houghton Mifflin). Printing costs were met by donations to the FTE, whose members were told in a December 1988 fundraising letter that donors would receive an enameled box with a panda on the lid as a gift. The box would "become a pleasant reminder to pray for our work", as Buell put it. Following the book's publication in 1989, the FTE embarked on a lengthy campaign to get the book into use in schools across the United States. Previous creationist efforts to dilute or overturn the teaching of evolutionary theory had relied largely on a "top-down" approach of pro-creationist legislators passing laws to regulate science education in schools. However, these had repeatedly failed to survive court challenges. The FTE took a "bottom-up" approach instead, mobilizing local Christian conservative groups to push school boards and individual teachers


id: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People-3.md
category: reference
title: Of Pandas and People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:28.944697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-0
summary:
== Analysis == Many of the book's arguments are identical to those raised by creationists, which have been dismissed by the scientific community. A comparison of an early draft of Of Pandas and People to a later 1987 draft showed how in hundreds of instances the word "creationism" had been replaced by "intelligent design" and "creationist" replaced by "intelligent design proponent", while "creator" was replaced by "agency" or "designer". In his 2007 book Monkey Girl Edward Humes describes how this change was made after Edwards v. Aguillard settled that teaching "Creation Science" in public schools was unconstitutional. Scientific and education professional groups have strongly criticized Of Pandas and People and have opposed its use in schools. Science educator Gerald Skoog described it as "a vehicle to advance sectarian tenets and not to improve science education" and said "This book has no potential to improve science education and student understanding of the natural world." A review of Of Pandas and People by paleontologist Kevin Padian of the University of California at Berkeley for the National Center for Science Education's Bookwatch Reviews in 1989 called the book a "wholesale distortion of modern biology", and says that FTE's writers had misrepresented such topics


id: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People-4.md
category: reference
title: Of Pandas and People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:28.944697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1994–1998 === In September 1994, residents of Louisville, Ohio, voted 121–2 to urge the local school board to adopt Of Pandas and People. Creationism had been taught openly in district schools until a lawsuit forced a change of policy in 1993. In the wake of the decision, the district was given 150 copies of the book. In October 1994, school officials in St. Lucie County, Florida, distributed copies of the book to every high school and one middle school in the county to be reviewed by teachers and principals for use as a possible supplement for science classes. The response from teachers was negative but county school officials still planned to distribute the books to school libraries so teachers and students could use it as a resource. According to the local Civic, Business and Ministry Coalition, copies of the book were purchased by the Coalition from the Institute for Creation Research in San Diego, California, and were sent to school administrators on the grounds that it was "a good, science-based text appropriate for school children". The Coalition was reported to have met administrators on several occasions to promote creation science. However, the county school board did not find out


id: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People-5.md
category: reference
title: Of Pandas and People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:28.944697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: of-pandas-and-people-20260505-0
summary:
Of Pandas and People became the focus of a litigation and controversy in Dover, Pennsylvania in 2004 after the Dover Area School Board endorsed it as a reference book. The ensuing court case was dubbed the "Panda Trial" by the media in an allusion to the famous "Monkey Trial" of 1925. Although the board did not actually purchase the book, 60 copies were donated to the district by an anonymous party. It was revealed in court that a school board member asked his church for donations for the purchase of those books although that board member had denied all knowledge of the source of donation in an earlier deposition. Amid an international controversy, the board also became the first in the US to promote the teaching of intelligent design in the classroom, sparking a lawsuit, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, by the American Civil Liberties Union and other plaintiffs. The FTE became involved in the Dover controversy when it became clear that Of Pandas and People would be a major focus of litigation. The foundation filed a motion to join the defending side in June 2005, arguing that a finding that intelligent design was religious would destroy FTE's ability


id: offender-profiling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling-0.md
category: reference
title: Offender profiling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:30.090119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: offender-profiling-20260505-0
summary:
Offender profiling, also known as criminal profiling, is an investigative strategy used by law enforcement agencies to identify likely suspects and has been used by investigators to link cases that may have been committed by the same perpetrator. There are multiple approaches to offender profiling, including the FBI's typological method, geographic profiling, and investigative psychology, each utilizing different techniques to analyze offender behavior. Profiling is primarily applied in cases involving violent crimes such as serial murder, sexual offenses, and arson, where behavioral patterns may provide investigative leads. Despite its use in law enforcement, offender profiling remains controversial, with critics arguing that it often lacks empirical validation, relies heavily on subjective interpretation, and may contribute to cognitive biases in criminal investigations. Advances in forensic psychology and data-driven methodologies continue to shape the field, integrating psychological theories with statistical analysis to improve reliability and accuracy. The originator of modern profiling was FBI agent Robert Ressler. He defined profiling as the process of identifying all psychological characteristics of an individual and forming a general description of their personality based on an analysis of crimes they have committed. == History == The earliest reference to the use of profiling, according to R.S. Feldman, is


id: offender-profiling-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling-1.md
category: reference
title: Offender profiling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:30.090119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: offender-profiling-20260505-0
summary:
=== Modern developments === Offender profiling was first introduced to the FBI in the 1960s, when several classes were taught to the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors. In 1972, after the death of J. Edgar Hoover, who was skeptical of psychiatry, the Behavioral Science Unit (BSU) of the FBI was formed by Patrick Mullany and Howard Teten in 1972, leading to the rapid development of the field. At the BSU, Robert Ressler and John Douglas began an informal series of ad hoc interviews with 36 convicts starting in early 1978. The BSU later became the Behavioral Analysis Unit. It led to the establishment of the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime in 1984, of which the BAU is now a part, after Douglas and Ressler created a typology of sexually motivated violent offenders. The Violent Criminal Apprehension Program was launched in 1985. The March 1980 issue of the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin invited local police to request profiles from the FBI. An article in the April 1980 issue, "The Lust Murderer," introduced the dichotomy of "organized" and "disorganized" offenders. The August 1985 issue described a third, "mixed" category. Investigations of serial killers Ted Bundy and Gary Ridgway


id: offender-profiling-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling-2.md
category: reference
title: Offender profiling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:30.090119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: offender-profiling-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lack of regulation === The profession of criminal profiling is unregulated. There is no governing body which determines who is and who is not qualified to be a criminal profiler, and therefore those who identify themselves as criminal profilers may range from someone with minimal experience to someone with extensive experience in the realm of criminal investigation. In addition to the lack of criteria as to what makes an expert in the field of criminal profiling, there is little empirical evidence supporting the accuracy of criminal profiling. There is an abundance of anecdotal support for criminal profiling, much of which originates from reports made by police officers and investigators regarding the performance of criminal profilers. Law enforcement agents have been found to greatly support the use of criminal profiling, but studies have shown that detectives are poor profilers themselves. One study presented police officers with two different profiles for the same perpetrator, each of which varied greatly from the officers' own description. It was found that the officers were unable to determine whether one profile was more accurate than the other, and felt that all profiles accurately described the perpetrator. Officers were able to find truth in whichever profile


id: offender-profiling-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling-3.md
category: reference
title: Offender profiling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:30.090119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: offender-profiling-20260505-0
summary:
1. Obtaining data from multiple sources. 2. Reviewing the data and identifying significant features of each crime across the series. 3. Classifying the significant features as either modus operandi or ritualistic. 4. Comparing the combination of modus operandi and ritual or fantasy-based features across the series to determine if a signature exists. 5. Compiling a written report highlighting the findings. === FBI method === There are six stages to developing a criminal profile: profiling inputs, decision process models, crime assessment, criminal profiling, investigation, and apprehension. The FBI and BAU tend to study specific categories of crimes such as white collar and serial murder. == Popularity == Profiling has continuously gotten more accurate throughout the years. In 2008, only 42% of cases were solved using criminal profiling. In 2019 the FBI was able to solve 56% of the cases that were not solved back in the year 2008. Profiling as an investigative tool has a high level of acceptance among both the general public and police. In the United States, between 1971 and 1981, the FBI had only profiled cases on 192 occasions. By 1986, FBI profilers were requested in 600 investigations in a single year. By 1996, 12 FBI profilers


id: offender-profiling-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling-4.md
category: reference
title: Offender profiling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:30.090119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: offender-profiling-20260505-0
summary:
Alison, Laurence; Rainbow, Lee (2011). Professionalizing Offender Profiling: Forensic and Investigative Psychology in Prectice. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66878-1. Canter, David; Youngs, Donna (2008). Principles of Geographical Offender Profiling. New York: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-754-62549-0 Douglas, John; Olshaker, Mark (1997). Journey Into Darkness: The FBI's Premier Investigator Penetrates the Minds and Motives of the Most Terrifying Serial Killers. London: Arrow Books. ISBN 978-1-439-19981-7 Evans, Colin (1996). The Casebook of Forensic Detection: How Science Solved 100 of the World's Most Baffling Crimes. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-07650-6. Jeffers, H. Paul (1991). Profiles in Evil: Chilling Case Histories from the FBI's Violent Crime Unit. London: Warner Books. ISBN 978-0-708-85449-5. Ressler, Robert; Schachtman, Tom (1992). Whoever Fights Monsters: The True Story of the Brilliant FBI Detective Behind Silence of the Lambs. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0-671-71561-8. Further reading Turvey, Brent E. (2022). Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis (5th ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 9780128155837. == External links == Criminal Investigative Research and Analysis (CiR&A) Group: Current research on evidence-based behavioural investigative practice in police investigations Swiss scientific research site on criminal profiling University of Liverpool Forensic Psychology – with articles History of Criminal Profiling – with


id: oil-constant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_constant-0.md
category: reference
title: Oil constant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_constant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:31.259857+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oil-constant-20260505-0
summary:
The term crude oil constant (Erdölkonstante in German) has been used as an inside joke and pun in the German petroleum industry, pointing out that the reserves-to-production ratio has been observed as roughly constant in the past decades, whereas oil constant (Ölkonstante in German) is a term describing various material properties of (vegetable and mineral) oils. == Reasons for reserve expansion == The so-called crude oil constant refers to the approximately constant estimate of available petroleum reserves to production ratio R/P. The estimated duration until the available petroleum reserves are depleted at current production has remained around 40 years since the late 80s. Prewar and immediately postwar estimates were sometimes lower, in 1919 as low as 9 years (USA) and in 1948 around 20 years (world) and rose up to 35 years until the 1970s. However, since then the duration value of static production T=R/P has been rather constant for decades despite rising oil consumption. === Price elasticity of reserves === One factor contributing to the apparent constancy of the R/P ratio is a neglect or misunderstanding of the fact that the term "proven reserves" does not refer to some absolute quantity of remaining oil that is thought to exist,


id: oil-pulling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_pulling-0.md
category: reference
title: Oil pulling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_pulling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:32.675756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oil-pulling-20260505-0
summary:
Oil pulling is an alternative medical practice in which an edible oil is swished around the mouth for a period of time and then spat out, similar to mouthwash. It originates from Ayurvedic medicine. Practitioners of oil pulling claim it is capable of improving oral health. Its promoters claim it works by pulling out toxins, but there is no credible evidence to support this. == History == Oil pulling stems from traditional Ayurvedic medicine, whose practitioners may use sunflower oil, coconut oil, olive oil, or other herbal oils. == Criticism == There is no high-quality research on oil pulling, no understanding of a possible mechanism explaining how it would work, and no evidence that it provides any benefit. The American Dental Association agrees that there are no reliable scientific studies supporting the practice of oil pulling for any benefit to oral hygiene or overall wellbeing. The Canadian Dental Association assessed the practice of oil pulling in 2014 stating: "We sense oil pulling won't do any harm, we're not convinced there are any particular benefits to it." == See also == Traditional medicine List of topics characterized as pseudoscience == References == == Further reading == Dunning, Brian (8 April 2014).


id: ontogenetic-depth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontogenetic_depth-0.md
category: reference
title: Ontogenetic depth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontogenetic_depth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:33.924994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ontogenetic-depth-20260505-0
summary:
Ontogenetic depth is a pseudoscientific idea proposed in February 2003 by Paul Nelson, an American philosopher of science, young Earth creationist and intelligent design advocate; he is employed by the Discovery Institute. Basically, Nelson concludes in his 'hypothesis' that developmental complexity is unbreakable, and that if he shows Cambrian organisms to be complex, then it is therefore impossible for them to have evolved. Nelson proposes 'ontogenetic depth' as evidence of specified complexity, and a reliable marker of design by an intelligent agent, in opposition to modern evolutionary theory. Nelson subsequently stated that ontogenetic depth is "Currently Impossible to Measure". == Criticism == Biologist PZ Myers, who works in the field of evolutionary developmental biology, dismissed the concept, stating in 2010 that "Nelson is a creationist who made up this wacky claim of "ontogenetic depth", saying he had a way of objectively measuring the complexity of the developmental process in organisms with a number that described the distance from egg to adult. Unfortunately, he forgot to tell us how one calculated this number, or how it actually accounted for the complexity of a network, or even how we'd get a number that was different for a sponge and a cat. But


id: onychomancy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onychomancy-0.md
category: reference
title: Onychomancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onychomancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:35.089672+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: onychomancy-20260505-0
summary:
Onychomancy or onymancy (from Greek onychos, 'fingernail', and manteia, 'fortune-telling') is an ancient form of divination using fingernails as a "crystal ball" or "scrying mirror" and is considered a subdivision of palmistry (also called chiromancy). As with palmistry, the contradictions between different interpretations and the lack of evidence for the predictions have led onychomancy to be viewed as a pseudoscience by academics. It consists of gazing in bright sunlight at one's own fingernails or another person's fingernails that often are coated in oil and then interpreting the "symbols" that appear on them. In medieval times onychomancy was performed by gazing at the fingernails of a prepubescent (unspoiled) boy. The symbols are interpreted in relation to chakra points, reflexology points, astrological planetary interpretations or tarot card representations. The fingers on which symbols appear and the position of the symbols on the fingernails are interpreted as indications of health conditions, changes in fortune and wealth, the character of the person being "read" and other typical subjects covered by divinations. A separate subdivision of onychomancy interprets personalities based on the artificial nails the person has chosen to wear. == Interpretation == Practitioners of onychomancy relate patterns observed on the fingernails with chakras, reflexology


id: optography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optography-0.md
category: reference
title: Optography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:36.341609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: optography-20260505-0
summary:
Optography is the process of viewing or retrieving an optogram, an image on the retina of the eye. A belief that the eye "recorded" the last image seen before death was widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and was a frequent plot device in fiction of the time, to the extent that police photographed the victims' eyes in several real-life murder investigations, in case the theory was true. The concept has been repeatedly debunked as a forensic method. == Scientific basis == Much of the scientific work on optography was performed by the German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne. Inspired by Franz Christian Boll's discovery of rhodopsin (or "visual purple")—a photosensitive pigment present in the rods of the retina—Kühne discovered that, under ideal circumstances, the rhodopsin could be "fixed" like a photographic negative. Kühne experimented on numerous animals to refine the process and determine the chemicals used to fix the image on the retina. His most successful optogram was obtained from an albino rabbit, with its head fastened to face a barred window. The rabbit's head was covered for several minutes to allow rhodopsin to accumulate on the retina. It was then uncovered for three minutes to expose it


id: optography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optography-1.md
category: reference
title: Optography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:36.341609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: optography-20260505-0
summary:
== Optography in fiction == The first apparent description of optography in fiction was in Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam's 1867 short story "Claire Lenoir", later expanded into the novel Tribulat Bonhomet in 1887. Like the reference in Rudyard Kipling's 1891 short story "At the End of the Passage", Villiers de l'Isle-Adam's story portrays the optogram in a metaphysical sense, rather than scientific. Jules Verne's 1902 novel, Les Frères Kip (The Brothers Kip), contains a reference to optography as a key plot point. The Kip brothers of the title are arrested and imprisoned for the murder of a ship's captain. When the victim's son examines an enlarged photograph of his late father's head, he discerns in the eyes the faces of the true murderers—two of the captain's shipmates—and the brothers are exonerated. Verne explained the scientific basis of the conclusion in the book's final chapter: For some time now it has been known—as a result of various interesting ophthalmological experiments done by certain ingenious scientists, authoritative observers that they are—that the image of exterior objects imprinted upon the retina of the eye are conserved there indefinitely. The organ of vision contains a particular substance, retinal purple, on which is imprinted in


id: orgone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgone-0.md
category: reference
title: Orgone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:37.581532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orgone-20260505-0
summary:
Orgone ( OR-gohn) is a pseudoscientific concept variously described as an esoteric energy or hypothetical universal life force. Originally proposed in the 1930s by Wilhelm Reich, and developed by Reich's student Charles Kelley after Reich's death in 1957, orgone was conceived as the anti-entropic principle of the universe, a creative substratum in all of nature comparable to Mesmer's animal magnetism (1779), to the Odic force (1845) of Carl Reichenbach and to Henri Bergson's élan vital (1907). Orgone was seen as a massless, omnipresent substance, similar to luminiferous aether, but more closely associated with living energy than with inert matter. It could allegedly coalesce to create organization on all scales, from the smallest microscopic units—called "bions" in orgone theory—to macroscopic structures like organisms, clouds, or even galaxies. Reich argued that deficits or constrictions in bodily orgone were at the root of many diseases, most prominently cancer, much as deficits or constrictions in the libido could produce neuroses in Freudian theory. Reich founded the Orgone Institute ca. 1942 to pursue research into orgone energy after he immigrated to the US in 1939; he used it to publish literature and distribute material relating to the topic for over a decade. Reich designed special


id: orgone-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgone-1.md
category: reference
title: Orgone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:37.581532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orgone-20260505-0
summary:
Reich took an increasingly bioenergetic view of libido, perhaps influenced by his tutor Paul Kammerer and another biologist, Otto Heinrich Warburg. In the early 20th century, when molecular biology was in its infancy, developmental biology in particular still presented mysteries that made the idea of a specific life energy respectable, as was articulated by theorists such as Hans Driesch. As a psycho-analyst, Reich aligned such theories with the Freudian libido, while as a materialist, he believed such a life force must be susceptible to physical experiments. Reich wrote in his best-known book, The Function of the Orgasm: "Between 1919 and 1921, I became familiar with Driesch's 'Philosophie des Organischen' and his 'Ordnungslehre'… Driesch's contention seemed incontestable to me. He argued that, in the sphere of the life function, the whole could be developed from a part, whereas a machine could not be made from a screw… However, I couldn't quite accept the transcendentalism of the life principle. Seventeen years later I was able to resolve the contradiction on the basis of a formula pertaining to the function of energy. Driesch's theory was always present in my mind when I thought about vitalism. The vague feeling I had about the irrational


id: orion-correlation-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_correlation_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Orion correlation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_correlation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:38.746320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orion-correlation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Orion correlation theory is a fringe theory in Egyptology attempting to explain the arrangement of the Giza pyramid complex. It posits that there is a correlation between the location of the three largest pyramids of the Giza pyramid complex and Orion's Belt of the constellation Orion, and that this correlation was intended as such by the original builders of the Giza pyramid complex. The stars of Orion were associated with Osiris, the god of rebirth and afterlife by the ancient Egyptians. Depending on the version of the idea, additional pyramids can be included to complete the picture of the Orion constellation, and the Nile river can be included to match with the Milky Way. The idea was first published in 1989 in Discussions in Egyptology, volume 13. It was the subject of the book The Orion Mystery, in 1994, as well as a BBC documentary, The Great Pyramid: Gateway to the Stars (February 1994), and appears in some New Age books. == History == The Orion correlation theory was put forward by Robert Bauval, and mentioned that Mintaka, the dimmest and most westerly of the stars making up Orion's belt, was offset slightly from the others. Bauval then made


id: orion-correlation-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_correlation_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Orion correlation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_correlation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:38.746320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orion-correlation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== BBC documentary == On 4 November 1999, the BBC broadcast a documentary entitled Atlantis Reborn which tested the ideas of Robert Bauval and his colleague, Graham Hancock. Bauval and Hancock afterwards complained to the Broadcasting Standards Commission (BSC) that they had been treated unfairly. A hearing followed and in November 2000 the BSC ruled in favour of the documentary makers on all but one of the ten principal complaints brought by Hancock and Bauval. The one complaint upheld regarded the omission of their rebuttal of a specific argument against the Orion Correlation Theory. In regard of the nine remaining principal complaints, the BSC ruled against Hancock and Bauval, concluding that they had not been treated unfairly in the criticism of their theories concerning carbon-dating, the Great Sphinx of Egypt, Cambodia's Angkor temples, Japan's Yonaguni formation and the mythical land of Atlantis. The BBC offered to broadcast a revised version of the documentary, which was welcomed by Hancock and Bauval. It was broadcast as Atlantis Reborn Again on 14 December 2000. The revised documentary continued to present serious doubts about Bauval and Hancock's ideas, as held by astronomer Anthony Fairall, Ed Krupp of the Griffith Observatory, Egyptologist Kate Spence of


id: osteopathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy-0.md
category: reference
title: Osteopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:40.057202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: osteopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Osteopathy is a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine that emphasizes physical manipulation of the body's muscle tissue and bones. In most countries, practitioners of osteopathy are not medically trained and are referred to as osteopaths. It is distinct from osteopathic medicine, which is a branch of the medical profession in the United States. Osteopathic manipulation is the core set of techniques in osteopathy. Parts of osteopathy, such as craniosacral therapy, have been described by Quackwatch as having no therapeutic value and have been labeled by them as pseudoscience and quackery. The techniques are based on an ideology created by Andrew Taylor Still (1828–1917) that posits the existence of a "myofascial continuity"—a tissue layer that "links every part of the body with every other part". Osteopaths attempt to diagnose and treat what was originally called "the osteopathic lesion", but which is now named "somatic dysfunction", by manipulating a person's bones and muscles. Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment (OMT) techniques are most commonly used to treat back pain and other musculoskeletal issues. Osteopathic manipulation is still included in the curricula of osteopathic physicians or Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) training in the US; however, the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree became a medical degree


id: osteopathy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy-1.md
category: reference
title: Osteopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:40.057202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: osteopathy-20260505-0
summary:
The practice of osteopathy (from Ancient Greek ὀστέον (ostéon) 'bone' and πάθος (páthos) 'pain, suffering') began in the United States in 1874. The profession was founded by Andrew Taylor Still, a 19th-century American physician (MD), Civil War surgeon, and Kansas territorial and state legislator. He lived near Baldwin City, Kansas, during the American Civil War and it was there that he founded the practice of osteopathy. Still claimed that human illness was rooted in problems with the musculoskeletal system, and that osteopathic manipulations could solve these problems by harnessing the body's own self-repairing potential. Still's patients were forbidden from treatment by conventional medicine, as well as from other practices such as drinking alcohol. These practices derive from the belief, common in the early 19th century among proponents of alternative medicine, that the body's natural state tends toward health and inherently contains the capacity to battle any illness. This was opposed to orthodox practitioners, who held that intervention by a physician was necessary to restore health in the patient. Still established the basis for osteopathy, and the division between alternative medicine and traditional medicine had already been a major conflict for decades. The foundations of this divergence may be traced back


id: osteopathy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy-2.md
category: reference
title: Osteopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:40.057202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: osteopathy-20260505-0
summary:
According to the American Osteopathic Association (AOA), osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT) is considered to be only one component of osteopathic medicine and may be used alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy, rehabilitation, surgery, patient education, diet, and exercise. OMT techniques are not necessarily unique to osteopathic medicine; other disciplines, such as physical therapy or chiropractic, use similar techniques. Indeed, many DOs do not practice OMT at all, and, over time, DOs in general practice use OMT less and less and instead apply the common medical treatments. One integral tenet of osteopathy is that problems in the body's anatomy can affect its proper functioning. Another tenet is the body's innate ability to heal itself. Many of osteopathic medicine's manipulative techniques are aimed at reducing or eliminating the impediments to proper structure and function so the self-healing mechanism can assume its role in restoring a person to health. Osteopathic medicine defines a concept of health care that embraces the concept of the unity of the living organism's structure (anatomy) and function (physiology). The AOA states that the four major principles of osteopathic medicine are the following: The body is an integrated unit of mind, body, and spirit. The body possesses self-regulatory mechanisms,


id: osteopathy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy-3.md
category: reference
title: Osteopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:40.057202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: osteopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Effectiveness == A 2005 Cochrane review of osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT) in asthma treatment concluded that there was insufficient evidence that OMT can be used to treat asthma. In 2013, a Cochrane review reviewed six randomized controlled trials which investigated the effect of four types of chest physiotherapy (including OMT) as adjunctive treatments for pneumonia in adults and concluded that "based on current limited evidence, chest physiotherapy might not be recommended as routine additional treatment for pneumonia in adults." Techniques investigated in the study included paraspinal inhibition, rib raising, and myofascial release. The review found that OMT did not reduce mortality and did not increase cure rate, but that OMT slightly reduced the duration of hospital stay and antibiotic use. A 2013 systematic review of the use of OMT for treating pediatric conditions concluded that its effectiveness was unproven. In 2014, a systematic review and meta-analysis of 15 randomized controlled trials found moderate-quality evidence that OMT reduces pain and improves functional status in acute and chronic nonspecific low back pain. The same analysis also found moderate-quality evidence for pain reduction for nonspecific low back pain in postpartum women and low-quality evidence for pain reduction in nonspecific low back pain


id: osteopathy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy-4.md
category: reference
title: Osteopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:40.057202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: osteopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Regulation and legal status == The osteopathic profession has evolved into two branches: non-physician manual medicine osteopaths and full-scope medical practice osteopathic physicians. The two groups are so distinct that in practice they function as separate professions. The regulation of non-physician manual medicine osteopaths varies greatly between jurisdictions. In Australia, Denmark, New Zealand, Switzerland, the UAE and the UK, non-physician manual medicine osteopaths are regulated by statute; their practice of osteopathy requires registration with the relevant regulatory authority. The Osteopathic International Alliance (OIA) publishes a country guide that details registration and practice rights, while the International Osteopathic Association maintains a list of all accredited osteopathic colleges. Several international and national organizations are involved in osteopathic education and political advocacy. The OIA is an international body that oversees national osteopathic and osteopathic medical associations, statutory regulators, and universities or medical schools offering osteopathic and osteopathic medical education. The following sections describe the legal status of osteopathy and osteopathic medicine in each country listed. === Australia === A majority of osteopaths work in private practice, with osteopaths working within aged care, traffic and workers compensation schemes or co-located with medical practitioners. Osteopaths are not considered physicians or medical doctors in Australia,


id: osteopathy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy-5.md
category: reference
title: Osteopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:40.057202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: osteopathy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Egypt and the Middle East === Hesham Khalil introduced osteopathy in the Middle East at a local physical therapy conference in Cairo, Egypt in 2005 with a lecture titled "The global Osteopathic Concept / Holistic approach in Somatic Dysfunction". Since then he has toured the Middle East to introduce osteopathy in other Middle Eastern and North African countries, including Sudan, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, Kuwait and Oman. In December 2007 the first Workshop on Global osteopathic approach was held at the Nasser Institute Hospital for Research and Treatment, sponsored by the Faculty of Physical Therapy, University of Cairo, Egypt. On 6 August 2010, the Egyptian Osteopathic Society (OsteoEgypt) was founded. OsteoEgypt promotes a two-tier model of osteopathy in Egypt and the Middle East. The event was timed to coincide with the birthday of A.T. Still. === European Union === There is no European regulatory authority for the practice of osteopathy or osteopathic medicine within the European Union; each country has its own rules. The UK's General Osteopathic Council, a regulatory body set up under the country's Osteopaths Act 1993, issued a position paper on European regulation of osteopathy in 2005. ==== Belgium ==== Since the early 1970s, osteopaths


id: osteopathy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy-6.md
category: reference
title: Osteopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:40.057202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: osteopathy-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === The British School of Osteopathy (now the University College of Osteopathy) was the first school of osteopathy in Britain, established in London in 1917 by John Martin Littlejohn, a pupil of A.T. Still, who had been Dean of the Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine. After many years of existing outside the mainstream of health care provision, the osteopathic profession in the United Kingdom was accorded formal recognition by Parliament by the Osteopaths Act 1993. This legislation provides the profession of osteopathy with the same legal framework of statutory self-regulation as other healthcare professions, such as medicine and dentistry. The Act provides for "protection of title": a person who expressly or implicitly describes themself as an osteopath, osteopathic practitioner, osteopathic physician, osteopathist, osteotherapist, or any kind of osteopath, is guilty of an offence unless registered as an osteopath. The General Osteopathic Council (GOsC) regulates the practice of osteopathy under the terms of the Act. Under British law, an osteopath must be registered with the GOsC to practice in the United Kingdom. More than 5,300 osteopaths were registered in the UK as of 2021. The GOsC has a statutory duty to promote, develop and regulate the profession of


id: ozone-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Ozone therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:41.272056+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ozone-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Ozone therapy is an alternative medical treatment that introduces ozone or ozonides to the body. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prohibits all medical uses of ozone "in any medical condition for which there is no proof of safety and effectiveness", stating "ozone is a toxic gas with no known useful medical application in specific, adjunctive, or preventive therapy. For ozone to be germicidal, it must be present in a concentration far greater than that which can be safely tolerated by man and animals." Ozone therapy has been sold as an unproven treatment for various illnesses, including cancer, a practice which has been characterized as "pure quackery". The therapy can cause serious adverse effects, including death. == Proposed uses == Ozone therapy consists of the introduction of ozone into the body via various methods, usually involving its mixture with various gases and liquids before injection, with potential routes including the vagina, rectum, into a muscle, under the skin, or directly into a vein. Ozone can also be introduced via autohemotherapy, in which blood is drawn from the patient, exposed to ozone, and re-injected into the patient. This therapy has been proposed as a primary or adjunct therapy for


id: ozone-therapy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_therapy-1.md
category: reference
title: Ozone therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:41.272056+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ozone-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
The FDA prohibits the medical use of ozone "in any medical condition for which there is no proof of safety and effectiveness", stating that "ozone is a toxic gas with no known useful medical application in specific, adjunctive, or preventive therapy. For ozone to be germicidal, it must be present in a concentration far greater than that which can be safely tolerated by man and animals." Beginning in 1991 the FDA has prosecuted and sent to jail several people presenting themselves as medical doctors and selling ozone therapy products as a medical cure or operating medical clinics using ozone therapy for healing human illness. Arrests following similar activity have been made in other countries as well, including Uganda and Thailand. Ozone therapy is sold as an expensive alternative cancer treatment in Germany. David Gorski has described the practice as "pure quackery". Proponents of the therapy falsely claim it is a recognized therapy there, but the German medical establishment has not approved ozone therapy. In 2009, a panel of experts consulted by Forbes recommended that ozone therapy be included on a "list of the most egregious, dangerous, aggressively marketed health scams." Ozone therapy was banned in Malaysia in 2017. The Malaysian


id: salvatore-pais-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore_Pais-0.md
category: reference
title: Salvatore Pais
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore_Pais
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:42.498554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: salvatore-pais-20260505-0
summary:
Salvatore Cezar Pais (born September 7, 1967) is a Romanian-American aerospace engineer and inventor. He currently works for the United States Space Force, having previously been employed at the Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division (NAWCAD) at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, the U.S. Navy's Strategic Systems Programs (SSP), and the United States Air Force. Beginning in 2015, Pais filed a series of patent applications on behalf of the U.S. Navy describing technologies with radical claims, including a room temperature superconductor, a compact fusion reactor, an inertial mass reduction device, and a high-frequency gravitational wave generator. Collectively dubbed the "UFO patents" in the media, these inventions attracted widespread attention for their potential energy and military applications, but also significant skepticism from physicists who questioned their scientific basis. The Navy spent over $500,000 testing Pais's core concept, the "Pais Effect," from 2016 to 2019, but NAWCAD concluded that the effect could not be proven. No working prototype of any of the patented inventions was ever produced, and multiple physicists consulted by journalists described the patents as containing pseudoscientific language. Some commentators have speculated that the patents may constitute disinformation intended to mislead the United States' strategic adversaries about the direction of


id: salvatore-pais-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore_Pais-1.md
category: reference
title: Salvatore Pais
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore_Pais
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:42.498554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: salvatore-pais-20260505-0
summary:
Electromagnetic field generator (filed 2015, granted November 20, 2018): A device to generate high-energy electromagnetic fields, with a principal stated application of deflecting asteroids on collision courses with Earth. The patent is assigned to the United States Secretary of the Navy. Craft using an inertial mass reduction device (filed 2016, granted December 4, 2018): A patent describing a conical "hybrid aerospace/undersea craft" that could purportedly "engineer the fabric of our reality at the most fundamental level" by utilizing an inertial mass reduction device. The patent was initially rejected, but was granted after James Sheehy, the Naval Aviation Enterprise's chief technology officer, wrote to the United States Patent and Trademark Office asserting that the invention was operable and warning that the Chinese military were developing similar technology. This patent expired on January 9, 2023, due to non-payment of maintenance fees. Piezoelectricity-induced room temperature superconductor (filed 2017, published February 21, 2019): A device purportedly capable of achieving superconductivity at room temperature, which would enable "the transmission of electrical power with no losses." The Institution of Engineering and Technology noted that no evidence was presented to demonstrate that the device worked, and that the highest-temperature superconductors achieved at that time operated at approximately


id: salvatore-pais-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore_Pais-2.md
category: reference
title: Salvatore Pais
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore_Pais
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:42.498554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: salvatore-pais-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientific reception === The patents have been met with widespread skepticism from the physics community. The Drive reported that every physicist its journalists consulted over a two-year period asserted that the "Pais Effect" had no scientific basis in reality and that the patent language was filled with pseudoscientific jargon. Despite this, Pais maintained confidence in his work. In a November 2019 email to The Drive, he stated that his work "culminates in the enablement of the Pais Effect" and that "as far as the doubting SMEs (Subject Matter Experts) are concerned, my work shall be proven correct one fine day." In comments quoted by Vice, Pais argued that publication of his compact fusion reactor paper in IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science supported the importance and credibility of his underlying concepts. Forbes contributor Ariel Cohen, writing about the patents in 2021, outlined several possible explanations: that the technologies could be genuine breakthroughs, that they could be disinformation intended to send adversaries like China on a "wild goose chase" (analogous to Reagan's "Star Wars" initiative), or that they could be related to other classified programs. Pais said his paper The Plasma Compression Fusion Device had been cited in at least four


id: paleolithic-diet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic_diet-0.md
category: reference
title: Paleolithic diet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic_diet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:43.730781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleolithic-diet-20260505-0
summary:
The Paleolithic diet, Paleo diet, caveman diet, or Stone Age diet is a modern fad diet consisting of foods thought by its proponents to mirror those eaten by humans during the Paleolithic era. The diet avoids food processing and typically includes vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots, and meat and excludes dairy products, grains, sugar, legumes, processed oils, salt, alcohol, and coffee. Historians can trace the ideas behind the diet to "primitive" diets advocated in the 19th century. In the 1970s, Walter L. Voegtlin popularized a meat-centric "Stone Age" diet; in the 21st century, the best-selling books of Loren Cordain popularized the "Paleo diet". As of 2019 the Paleolithic diet industry was worth approximately US$500 million. In the 21st century, the sequencing of the human genome and DNA analysis of the remains of anatomically modern humans have found evidence that humans evolved rapidly in response to changing diet. This evidence undermines a core premise of the Paleolithic diet—that human digestion has remained essentially unchanged over time. Paleoanthropological evidence has indicated that prehistoric humans ate plant-heavy diets that regularly included grains and other starchy vegetables, in contrast to the claims made by proponents of the Paleolithic diet. Advocates promote the Paleolithic diet as


id: paleolithic-diet-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic_diet-1.md
category: reference
title: Paleolithic diet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic_diet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:43.730781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleolithic-diet-20260505-0
summary:
Adopting the Paleolithic diet assumes that modern humans can reproduce the hunter-gatherer diet. Molecular biologist Marion Nestle argues that "knowledge of the relative proportions of animal and plant foods in the diets of early humans is circumstantial, incomplete, and debatable and that there are insufficient data to identify the composition of a genetically determined optimal diet. The evidence related to Paleolithic diets is best interpreted as supporting the idea that diets based largely on plant foods promote health and longevity, at least under conditions of food abundance and physical activity." Ideas about Paleolithic diet and nutrition are at best hypothetical. The data for Cordain's book came from six contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, mainly living in marginal habitats. One of the studies was on the !Kung, whose diet was recorded for a single month, and one was on the diet of the Inuit. Due to these limitations, the book has been criticized as painting an incomplete picture of the diets of Paleolithic humans. It has been noted that the rationale for the diet does not adequately account for the fact that, due to the pressures of artificial selection, most modern domesticated plants and animals differ drastically from their Paleolithic ancestors; likewise, their


id: paleolithic-diet-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic_diet-2.md
category: reference
title: Paleolithic diet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic_diet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:43.730781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleolithic-diet-20260505-0
summary:
The stated rationale for the Paleolithic diet is that human genes today are not different from human genes of 10,000 years ago, and that the diet of that time is therefore the best fit with humans today. Loren Cordain has described the paleo diet as "the one and only diet that ideally fits our genetic makeup". The argument is that modern humans have not been able to biologically adapt to contemporary circumstances. According to Cordain, before the agricultural revolution, hunter-gatherer diets rarely included grains, and obtaining milk from wild animals would have been "nearly impossible". Advocates of the diet argue that the increase in diseases of affluence after the dawn of agriculture was caused by these changes in diet. Others, however, have countered that it may be that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers did not suffer from the diseases of affluence because they did not live long enough to develop them. According to the model from the evolutionary discordance hypothesis, "many chronic diseases and degenerative conditions evident in modern Western populations have arisen because of a mismatch between Stone Age genes and modern lifestyles." Advocates of the modern paleo diet have formed their dietary recommendations based on this hypothesis. They argue that modern


