# kb

id: body-worlds-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-2.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
==== Hawaii ==== In January 2009, Rep. Marcus Oshiro introduced two bills prompted by presentation of the BODIES Exhibition in that state. HB28 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would add to the prohibition against buying dead human bodies, the selling of dead human bodies and defines the term "dead human body" to include plastinated bodies and body parts. It would increase the fine for buying or selling a dead human body to up to $5,000. HB29 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would prohibit the commercial display of dead human bodies without a permit from the Department of Health. ==== New York ==== In June 2008, New York State Senate passed legislation regulating body exhibits. A bill that was sponsored by Senator Jim Alesi requires anyone showing an exhibit that uses real human bodies in New York museums to produce a permit detailing their origin. BODY WORLDS was hosted at Discovery Times Square in New York City. ==== Pennsylvania ==== Representative Mike Fleck's proposed bill would require evidence of informed consent from the decedent or relatives of all humans whose remains are put on display. BODY WORLDS exhibitions have been hosted in Philadelphia at the Franklin Institute and in Allentown at


id: body-worlds-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-3.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Religious objections === Religious groups, including some rabbis have objected to the display of human remains, stating that it is inconsistent with reverence towards the human body. A group of Catholic Christians voiced their opinions towards the Body Worlds exhibition in a reflection paper written by the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. This was in response to the arrival of the Body Worlds Exhibition in the Milwaukee Public Museum in 2014. The group were largely in favour of the exhibition due to its educational goals. But, the paper also discussed fears surrounding whether the exhibit's educational aims were secondary to the experience of voyeurism. There were also concerns over the display of plastinated fetuses, due to beliefs surrounding abortion. === Sex plastinate === In 2003, while promoting a display in the Hamburg Museum of Erotica, von Hagens announced his intention to create a sex plastinate. In May 2009 he unveiled a plastinate of a couple having sex, intended for a Berlin exhibition. === Lessening donor organ availability === In 2007, the Bishop of Manchester launched a campaign to coincide with the opening of Body Worlds in that city, accusing the exhibitors of being "body snatchers" and "robbing the NHS", arguing that


id: body-worlds-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-4.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Gottfried Bogusch, Renate Graf, Thomas Schnalke. Auf Leben und Tod Beiträge zur Diskussion um die Ausstellung "Körperwelten", Schriften aus dem Berliner Medizinhistorischen Museum, 2003, VII, 136 S. 62 Abb., Softcover ISBN 978-3798514249. Burns, Lawrence (2007). "Gunther Von Hagens' Body Worlds: Selling Beautiful Education". The American Journal of Bioethics. 7 (4): 12–23. doi:10.1080/15265160701220659. PMID 17454986. S2CID 31456090. Archived from the original on 9 December 2008. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: Wissenschaftliche Transzendenz der Körperwelten. Aufhebung der "Beschränkung von Freiheit" durch Leben, Tod und Körper. In: Wolf Gerhard Schmidt (Hg.): Körperbilder in Kunst und Wissenschaft Würzburg 2014, S. 107–138. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: "Ich will in meinem Knochenleben endlich zufrieden und glücklich sein": Eschatologie der Körperwelten. In: Dominik Groß, Brigitte Tag und Christoph Schweikardt (Hg.): Who wants to live forever? Frankfurt, New York 2011, S. 197–218. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: La plastination, une technique d'incarnation des espoirs scientifiques. In : Annette Leibing et Virginie Tournay (Hg.): Les technologies de l'espoir: La fabrique d'une histoire à accomplir. PUL-Presses de l'Université Laval, 2010. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca. Wachsfigur – Mensch – Plastinat. Über die Mitteilbarkeit von Sehen, Nennen und Wissen, Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte (1999), Heft 1. Liselotte Hermes


id: bruce-alberts-award-for-excellence-in-science-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Alberts_Award_for_Excellence_in_Science_Education-0.md
category: reference
title: Bruce Alberts Award for Excellence in Science Education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Alberts_Award_for_Excellence_in_Science_Education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:45.722029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bruce-alberts-award-for-excellence-in-science-education-20260505-0
summary:
The Bruce Alberts Award for Excellence in Science Education is awarded annually by the American Society for Cell Biology. It is awarded to an individual who has demonstrated innovative and sustained contributions to science education, with particular emphasis on the broad local, regional, and/or national impact. == Awardees == 2020 Steven Farber 2020 Jamie Shuda 2019 Mary Pat Wenderoth 2018 Erin Dolan 2017 Kimberly Tanner 2016 David Lopatto 2015 Deborah Harmon Hines 2014 Edison Fowlks 2013 Deborah Allen 2012 L.C. (Cam) Cameron 2011 Peter Bruns 2010 BioQUEST Curriculum Consortium 2009 Manuel Berriozábal and Toby Horn 2008 Wm. David Burns and Karen K. Oates 2007 Patricia J. Pukkila 2006 A. Malcolm Campbell and Sarah C.R. Elgin 2005 Samuel Silverstein 2004 William Wood 2003 Nancy Hutchison 2002 Sandra Mayrand 2001 David Bynum 2000 Virginia Shepherd 1999 Eugenie Scott 1998 Robert DeHaan == References ==


id: canadian-bioinformatics-workshops-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Bioinformatics_Workshops-0.md
category: reference
title: Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Bioinformatics_Workshops
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:46.973813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: canadian-bioinformatics-workshops-20260505-0
summary:
Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops (CBW) are a series of advanced training workshops in bioinformatics offered across Canada since 1999. The program was established in response to a growing need for bioinformatics expertise in the Canadian life sciences sector, identified in policy and workforce reports on biotechnology and computational biology in Canada. The workshops provide intensive short courses combining lectures with hands-on computational training using biological datasets and have trained researchers and students across Canada. == Founding and early workshops in British Columbia (1999–2007) == The Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops series began offering one- and two-week short courses in bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics in 1999, in response to an identified need for a skilled bioinformatics workforce in Canada. In partnership with the Canadian Genetics Diseases Network and Human Resources Development Canada, and under the scientific direction of Director, Francis Ouellette, the CBW series was established. For eight years, the series offered short courses in bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics in various cities across Canada. The courses were taught by top faculty from Canada and the US, and offered small classes and hands-on instruction. == Expansion at the Ontario Institute for Cancer Research (2007–2018) == In 2007, the Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops moved to Toronto and


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-0.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
In 1824 the French military engineer Sadi Carnot laid the foundations of the science of thermodynamics by describing the unsurpassably efficient Carnot engine. His insight has been described as "real genius" and compared to Einstein's, Newton's and Galileo's. Carnot wrote in clear and popular language and meant his theory to be easy to understand. Yet it has been found that, as taught in many academic courses, students have difficulty intuiting his ideas. This article is an introduction for non-specialists. The efficiency of the ideal, or Carnot, engine is surprisingly low. That of real heat engines is worse. == Significance == === Importance === Carnot's innovation has been described as "real genius" and "one of the greatest intellectual achievements of the human mind". For Nobel laureate Richard FeynmanThe science of thermodynamics began with an analysis, by the great engineer Sadi Carnot, of the problem of how to build the best and most efficient engine. In particular it led to the discovery of the Second Law, of which it has been claimed that "Not knowing the Second Law of Thermodynamics is equivalent to never having read a work by Shakespeare". === Clarity === Sadi Carnot died young and published only one work:


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-1.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
== Preliminary outline == Carnot grasped that: all heat engines work by conveying heat from a hotter to a cooler place a heat engine may work in reverse, when it becomes a heat pump the ideally efficient engine would be 100% reversible and it is impossible to have an engine more efficient than that its working substance (steam, air or other fluid) is not critical; on the contrary, the ideal reversible engine's efficiency is limited by its input and output temperatures, and nothing else. He also found the cycle by which the 100% reversible engine could work. It serves as the ideal or benchmark against which all feasible heat engines can be compared. == His reasoning == For Edwin Thompson Jaynes Carnot's reasoning is outstandingly beautiful, because it deduces so much from so little — and with such a sweeping generality that rises above all tedious details — but at the same time with such a compelling logical force. In this respect, I think that Carnot's principle ranks with Einstein's principle of relativity. For historian of science D. S. L. Cardwell, "Nothing unnecessary is included and nothing essential is missed out. It is, in fact, very difficult to think of


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-2.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
The Carnot engine is not one anyone would attempt to build. Its point is that it represents the ideal or extreme limit which cannot be surpassed even in theory. It is a benchmark against which all real engines can be compared. For example, solar cells are heat engines, and "Carnot efficiency appears profusely in the numerous formulae that have been suggested for solar energy conversion". For Carnot, a completely reversible engine has this property. Run forwards as a motor, one cycle can lift a weight a certain distance [generate a certain amount of work] while transferring a certain amount of heat from the hot place to the cool place. Run backwards as a refrigerator, one cycle will exactly restore the original conditions. All real engines fall short of this ideal standard, since along the way they lose a fraction of the heat. The proof is as follows. Suppose there was such a thing as a 'super' engine: one even more efficient than a Carnot engine. Then we could use it to drive a Carnot engine backwards. The Carnot engine would restore the heat from cold to hot place. In effect, the imaginary super engine would be delivering a margin of


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-3.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
For most scientists of Carnot's time the best explanation of heat was the caloric theory. It held that heat is a material fluid that can flow from one place to another: its temperature may vary, but it can never itself be destroyed nor created. The caloric theory was highly developed, mathematically sophisticated, and plausible. The alternative theory, that heat consists in the agitation of a substance's particles — in modern terms, energy — was well known, but did not command much support, mainly for lack of convincing experimental evidence. For historian of science Thomas Kuhn, "To analyze the gas engine Carnot required a developed theory of heat, and in the 1820's the caloric theory was the only one at hand". Several authors have speculated that without the caloric theory and his waterfall analogy Carnot would not have been led to his discovery. Pursuant to this core idea, Carnot taught that all heat entering his engine from the hot source must fall out into the cold sink. But according to new ideas — that were dawning on Carnot himself, and came to be adopted overwhelmingly — this is false. Some of the heat will be consumed on the way: by the


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-4.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
The Carnot cycle as published cannot work since it is wrongly assumed that as much heat should be expelled to the cold sink as came in from the hot source. That is too much: not enough will be left in the engine to complete the cycle. A simple way to correct the mistake was described by James Clerk Maxwell in his Theory of Heat (1871). This was a book meant for "artisans and students" but Maxwell "did not hesitate to include discussions of the latest work in thermodynamics". By that date French engineer Gustave-Adolphe Hirn had confirmed by experiment that, whenever an engine performs mechanical work, less heat emerges from it than goes in. The missing heat is changing into work. But it was easy to see that the quantities (heat in vs. heat out) could not have been equal, said Maxwell. For, supposing they were, how could we explain that the engine, by doing work, can produce yet more heat — e.g. by stirring a liquid to raise its temperature? In that case the engine must somehow be producing more heat than it consumes, contrary to the doctrine that caloric cannot be created. To fix the Carnot cycle, therefore,


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-5.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
Another way to think about entropy is as a measurement of the availability of useful energy in a system. While energy cannot be created or destroyed, as the approaches equilibrium the energy of that system becomes less available for use. The concept entropy, though important in thermodynamics, is not necessary for an intuitive understanding of Carnot's theory. There are many formulations of the Second Law that do not mention entropy at all, including the original Clausius and Thomson versions. == Efficiency == It is sometimes stated that Carnot gave the formula for the efficiency of his engine. He could not have done, since his theory did not embrace the First Law of Thermodynamics, not then known. Carnot himself was able to state that it depended on the temperature difference between the hot source and cold sink, and the temperature of the cold sink.. But he did not give the explicit formula. The efficiency even of the ideal or Carnot engine turns out to be surprisingly poor, and therefore, that of real engines is even worse. It has been said that the Second Law of Thermodynamics imposes an "energy tax", payable to Nature, every time heat is converted to work. ===


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-6.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources == Andrade, E.N. da C (1928). Engines. London: G. Bell. Barnett, Martin K. (1958). "Sadi Carnot and the Second Law of Thermodynamics". Osiris. 13: 327–357. doi:10.1086/368620. JSTOR 301653. Ben-Naim, Arieh (2019). "Entropy and Information Theory: Uses and Misuses". Entropy. 21 (12): 1170. Bibcode:2019Entrp..21.1170B. doi:10.3390/e21121170. PMC 7514515. Ben-Naim, Arieh (2020). "Entropy and time". Entropy. 22 (4): 430.1=430–18. Bibcode:2020Entrp..22..430B. doi:10.3390/e22040430. PMC 7516914. PMID 33286203. Brundage, Mary Jane; Meltzer, David E.; Singh, Chandraleka (2024). "Investigating introductory and advanced students' difficulties with entropy and the second law of thermodynamics using a validated instrument". Physical Review Physics Education Research. 20 (2) 020110. arXiv:2408.00944. Bibcode:2024PRPER..20b0110B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.20.020110. Retrieved 24 April 2026. Bryant, Lynwood (1973). "The Role of Thermodynamics in the Evolution of Heat Engines". Technology and Culture. 14 (2, Part 1): 152–165. doi:10.2307/3102399. JSTOR 3102399. Callendar, H.L. (1912). "The Nature of Heat" (PDF). Science. 36 (924): 321–336. Bibcode:1912Sci....36..321C. doi:10.1126/science.36.924.321. JSTOR 1638548. PMID 17734287. Retrieved 28 March 2026. Čápek, Vladislav; Sheehan, Daniel P. (2005). Challenges to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Theory and Experiment (PDF). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 1-4020-3016-9. Retrieved 23 April 2026. Cardwell, D.S.L (1965). "Power Technologies and the Advance of Science, 1700-1825". Technology and Culture. 6 (2): 188–207. doi:10.2307/3101073. JSTOR 3101073. Cardwell, D.S.L.


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-7.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
Markvart, Tom (2016). "From steam engine to solar cells: can thermodynamics guide the development of future generations of photovoltaics?". WIREs Energy and Environment. 5 (5): 543–569. Bibcode:2016WIREE...5..543M. doi:10.1002/wene.204. Maxwell, J. Clerk (1871). Theory of Heat (1 ed.). London: Longmans Green. Retrieved 30 March 2026. Mendoza, E. (1961). "A sketch for a history of early thermodynamics" (PDF). Physics Today. 14 (2): 32–42. Bibcode:1961PhT....14b..32M. doi:10.1063/1.3057388. Retrieved 15 March 2026. Meyn, Jan-Peter (2024). "A Contemporary View on Carnot's Réflexions". Entropy. 26 (12: 1002): 1002. Bibcode:2024Entrp..26.1002M. doi:10.3390/e26121002. PMC 11675156. PMID 39766632. Norton, John D. (2022). "How analogy helped create the new science of thermodynamics". Synthese. 200 (4) 269: 1–42. doi:10.1007/s11229-022-03708-9. JSTOR 27324886. Nuvolari, Alessandro; Verspagen, Bart (2005). ""Unravelling the duty": Lean's Engine Reporter and Cornish Steam Engineering". Eindhoven Centre for Innovation Studies Working Paper Series. 200514. Retrieved 4 December 2025. Nuvolari, Alessandro (2010). "The theory and practice of steam engineering in Britain and France, 1800-1850". Documents pour l'histoire des techniques [En ligne]. 19: 189–197. doi:10.4000/dht.1439. hdl:11382/305525. Retrieved 5 December 2025. Ortner, Susan (2023). "A review of structural material requirements and choices for nuclear power plant". Frontiers in Nuclear Engineering. 2 (1253974) 1253974: 1–11. doi:10.3389/fnuen.2023.1253974. Perrin, C.E. (1973). "Lavoisier's Table of the Elements: A Reappraisal".


id: center-for-advanced-materials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Advanced_Materials-0.md
category: reference
title: Center for Advanced Materials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Advanced_Materials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:50.847690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-for-advanced-materials-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Advanced Materials (CAM) is a research center at Qatar University that hosts faculty members and researchers involved in advanced materials research. It provides the opportunities for collaborative research projects between academic and industry experts, as well between faculty members and students. The Center for Advanced Materials works under Qatar University's Office of Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies. CAM's research clusters are broadly grouped into the following areas: Metallurgy, Sustainable Materials, Corrosion, Polymer Materials and Renewable Energy Resources. In 2022, the UNESCO established a Chair on desalination at Qatar University and hosted in CAM to study water security in the Gulf region and to adapt to drought due to climate changes; The Chair contributes to capacity development to meet the UN SDG6. == References == == External links == Qatar University Qatar University Newsroom Center for Advanced Materials WISE Initiative


id: clubes-de-ciencia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubes_de_Ciencia-0.md
category: reference
title: Clubes de Ciencia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubes_de_Ciencia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:52.036098+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clubes-de-ciencia-20260505-0
summary:
Clubes de Ciencia is a non-profit organization founded in 2014 that organizes hands-on week-long workshops in STEM to kids in developing countries at no cost. The instructors are PhD volunteers from top universities, such as Harvard, Princeton, MIT who organizes the workshops. By combining hands-on experimental learning, on-line exercises and mentorship, Clubes de Ciencia takes a unique approach to educating the millennials in developing countries. In two years, Clubes de Ciencia grew past its Mexico program, to also work in Colombia and Bolivia. Currently, it also operates in Brazil, Paraguay, Peru and Spain. == 2014 == The first edition of Science Clubs was organized in Guanajuato, Mexico, in January 2014, with the support of Universidad de Guanajuato. == 2017 == In 2017, Science Clubs expanded to three new countries: Paraguay, Peru and Brazil [1] The first edition of the Brazilian Chapter (Clubes de Ciência Brasil) was held at Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, in Belo Horizonte, in July 2017. Four clubs in the areas of epidemiology, stem cells and gene editing, immunology and entrepreneurship were organized by researchers from top Universities from the US and Brazil, including Harvard, Northeastern and UFMG for 80 students from six different states of the


id: college-of-science-university-of-baghdad-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Science_–_University_of_Baghdad-0.md
category: reference
title: College of Science – University of Baghdad
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Science_–_University_of_Baghdad
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:53.221475+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: college-of-science-university-of-baghdad-20260505-0
summary:
The College of Science is one of the Colleges of the University of Baghdad in Baghdad, Iraq. It was the first scientific college established in Iraq. The main academic activities held in this college vary between pure and applied science. Beside its eight departments, the college also holds two research units. Being one of the earliest academic institutes formed in the Republic of Iraq, the College of Science establishment date marks the Day of Science in Iraq. The college was established on March 27, 1949, with the name of (The College of Arts and Science). The college was established with five scientific departments, namely: (Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Pathology and Anatomy). The Pathology and Anatomy departments were later joined together to form the (Department of Biology). Beside these, another four departments were added during the next fifty years, these are: Department of Geology (1953), Department of Computer Science (1983), Department of Astronomy (1998) and Department of Biotechnology (1999). The eight departments cover a wide range of branches of pure and applied sciences, which attracts many students as well as scientific researchers each year. Therefore, this college is considered as the largest scientific academic institute in the Republic of Iraq. == Departments


id: concept-inventory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_inventory-0.md
category: reference
title: Concept inventory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_inventory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:54.449863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: concept-inventory-20260505-0
summary:
A concept inventory is a criterion-referenced test designed to help determine whether a student has an accurate working knowledge of a specific set of concepts. Historically, concept inventories have been in the form of multiple-choice tests in order to aid interpretability and facilitate administration in large classes. Unlike a typical, teacher-authored multiple-choice test, questions and response choices on concept inventories are the subject of extensive research. The aims of the research include ascertaining (a) the range of what individuals think a particular question is asking and (b) the most common responses to the questions. Concept inventories are evaluated to ensure test reliability and validity. In its final form, each question includes one correct answer and several distractors. Ideally, a score on a criterion-referenced test reflects the degrees of proficiency of the test taker with one or more KSAs (knowledge, skills and/abilities), and may report results with one unidimensional score and/or multiple sub-scores. Criterion-referenced tests differ from norm-referenced tests in that (in theory) the former report level of proficiency relative pre-determined level and the latter reports relative standing to other test takers. Criterion-referenced tests may be used to determine whether a student reached predetermined levels of proficiency (i.e., scoring above some


id: conceptual-question-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_question-0.md
category: reference
title: Conceptual question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:55.784093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conceptual-question-20260505-0
summary:
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperature increases decreases stays the same Impossible to


id: constructivism-in-science-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_in_science_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Constructivism in science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_in_science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:57.029256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructivism-in-science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Constructivism has been considered as a dominant paradigm, or research programme, in the field of science education since the 1980s. The term constructivism is widely used in many fields, and not always with quite the same intention. This entry offers an account of how constructivism is most commonly understood in science education. == Description == Science education is now an established field within education, and worldwide has its own journals, conferences, university departments and so forth. Although a diverse field, a major influence on its development was research considered to be undertaken from a constructivist perspective on learning, and supporting approaches to teaching that themselves became labelled constructivist. Thus, this constructivism was largely of a psychological flavour, often drawing on the work of Jean Piaget, David Ausubel, Robert M. Gagné and Jerome Bruner. One influential group of science education researchers were also heavily influenced by George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory. The work of Lev Vygotsky (since being championed in the West by Jerome Bruner) has also been increasingly influential. These workers from psychology informed the first generation of science education researchers. Active research groups developed in centres like the University of Waikato (New Zealand), University of Leeds (UK) and University


id: contexts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contexts-0.md
category: reference
title: Contexts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contexts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:58.307365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contexts-20260505-0
summary:
Contexts: Understanding People in their Social Worlds is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal and an official publication of the American Sociological Association. It is designed to be a more accessible source of sociological ideas and research and has been inspired by the movement towards public sociology. == Sections of the Journal == Backpage Books Culture Feature From the Editors In brief Q&A Teaching and Learning Trends Viewpoints == History == The journal was established in 2002 by Claude Fischer and is published by SAGE Publications; until 2011, it was published by the University of California Press. Fischer was succeeded by Jeff Goodwin and James M. Jasper, who edited the journal from 2005 to 2007, injecting a certain amount of controversial humor such as New Yorker cartoons and a column written by "Harry Green" (actually Jasper) called "The Fool." The current editors are Seth Abrutyn (University of British Columbia) and Amin Ghaziani (University of British Columbia). == Former Editors == 2002: Claude Fischer 2003: Fischer 2004: Fischer 2005: Jeff Goodwin, James M. Jasper 2006: Goodwin, Jasper 2007: Goodwin, Jasper 2008: Doug Hartmann, Chris Uggen 2009: Hartmann, Uggen 2010: Hartmann, Uggen 2011: Hartmann, Uggen 2012: Jodi O'Brien, Arlene Stein 2013: O'Brien, Stein


id: deaf-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_in_STEM_fields-0.md
category: reference
title: Deaf in STEM fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_in_STEM_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:59.585955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deaf-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
summary:
The deaf/Deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) population is underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and math fields (STEM), despite a history of excellence in these fields. The lack of standard American Sign Language (ASL) vocabulary, engaging hands-on learning environments, and DHH mentors seems to contribute largely to the discrepancy. == History == DHH scientists, inventors, engineers, and mathematicians have contributed greatly to the world. The field of astronomy, in particular, has been blessed with many DHH scholars who have immensely advanced the field, including Robert Aitken, Annie Jump Cannon, John Goodricke, Olaf Hassel, and Henrietta Swan Leavitt. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky was one of the founding fathers of astronautics and rocketry. In addition, the Gallaudet Eleven were Deaf research subjects in the 1950s and 1960s, essential for NASA's study of the effects of weightlessness on humans. == DHH statistics in STEM == The DHH population in the U.S. has fewer associate's and bachelor's degrees than their hearing peers (27.7% vs. 43.3% for associate degrees, 18.8% vs. 34% for bachelor's degrees), and this gap has persisted for the last decade across ages, genders, and races. The difference seems due to lower rates of entry into associate's and bachelor's programs, since DHH students complete their bachelor's


id: developmentally-appropriate-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmentally_appropriate_practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Developmentally appropriate practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmentally_appropriate_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:00.845110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmentally-appropriate-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is a perspective within early childhood education whereby a teacher or child caregiver nurtures a child's social/emotional, physical, and cognitive development. It is also described as a philosophy in child education that is based on child development knowledge where professionals base their instruction and care on research, standards, and recognized theory. == Concept == Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) emphasizes what is known about children and what can be done about individual children as a basis of decision-making when it comes to instruction and care. It recognizes that children's needs and abilities change over time and depend on universal laws governing these to determine the propriety of practice. DAP also holds that children have a natural disposition towards learning; hence, they are capable of constructing their own knowledge through exploration and interaction with others, learning materials, and their environment. For these reasons, early childhood programs look and function differently. The DAP has three core components: knowledge about development and learning; knowledge about individual children; and, knowledge about the social and cultural contexts where children grow and learn. Particularly, the teacher or provider of care bases all practices and decisions on (1) theories of child development, (2) individually


id: dr-rer-nat-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._rer._nat.-0.md
category: reference
title: Dr. rer. nat.
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._rer._nat.
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:02.021358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dr-rer-nat-20260505-0
summary:
Doctor rerum naturalium (Latin for 'Doctor of Natural Sciences', lit. 'Doctor of the Things of Nature'), abbreviated Dr. rer. nat., is a doctoral degree in science awarded by universities in several European countries (e.g., Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic) to graduates in fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, geosciences, computer science, pharmacy, psychology, and other natural sciences. Universities might also award different titles for these fields, depending on the topic of a doctoral thesis and which titles a university can award. In German-speaking Switzerland the equivalent of Dr. rer. nat. is Dr. phil. nat. The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology for example might award a Dr. rer. nat. or a Dr.-Ing. for computer science graduates, differentiating between degrees in theoretical and practical topics. These doctoral degrees are equivalent to the PhD awarded in English-speaking countries. German universities often translate a Dr. rer. nat. to doctorate of natural sciences or Doctor of Science. To start a PhD in Germany, students must typically possess a master's degree in the related field. PhD programs in the natural sciences are often designed to allow graduation in three to five years, with an average graduation time of 4.3 years. The exact requirements for graduation differ


id: ecology-and-evolutionary-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology_and_evolutionary_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecology and evolutionary biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology_and_evolutionary_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:04.439617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecology-and-evolutionary-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Ecology and evolutionary biology is an interdisciplinary field of study concerning interactions between organisms and their ever-changing environment, including perspectives from both evolutionary biology and ecology. This field of study includes topics such as the way organisms respond and evolve, as well as the relationships among animals, plants, and micro-organisms, when their habitats change. Ecology and evolutionary biology is a broad field of study that covers various ranges of ages and scales, which can also help us to comprehend human impacts on the global ecosystem and find measures to achieve more sustainable development. == Examples of current research topics == === Birdsong === There is a number of acoustic research about birds. Birds learn to sing in specific patterns because birdsong conveys information to select partners, which is a result of evolution. However, this evolution is also affected by ecological factors. Research with recorded birdsong of male white-crowned sparrows from different regions found that the birdsongs from the same location have the same traits, while birdsongs from different locations are more likely to have different song types. Birdsongs from areas with dense vegetation tend to only have slow trilling sounds and low frequencies, while birdsongs from more open areas have


id: ecology-and-evolutionary-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology_and_evolutionary_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecology and evolutionary biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology_and_evolutionary_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:04.439617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecology-and-evolutionary-biology-20260505-0
summary:
== Urban evolution == With fast growing cities and high rates of urbanization a whole new kind of environment has emerged. The urban ecosystem is a place of extremities and makes for fast evolution. Higher rates of phenotypic change have been observed in urban areas compared to natural and nonurban anthropogenic systems. A field of study has emerged regarding urban evolution in which the adaptations of animals and plants to urban environments are studied. In tropical regions a certain species of lizards, Anolis cristatellus, lives in both urban and natural areas. These lizards climb on tree trunks, fences and the walls of buildings. In urban areas more slippery and smooth surfaces are found than in natural areas. This creates a higher risk of falling and dying. The lizards in cities were found to have adapted to these slippery surfaces, by developing longer limbs and more lamellae under their feet that help them to run safely on these smooth surfaces. One of the differences between urban areas and natural areas is anthropogenic noise, such as traffic noise. The frequencies of these sounds overlap partly with the frequencies of bird songs. In cities, birds started to sing at higher frequencies than they


id: educational-robotics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_robotics-0.md
category: reference
title: Educational robotics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_robotics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:05.637215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: educational-robotics-20260505-0
summary:
Educational robotics teaches the design, analysis, application and operation of robots. Robots include articulated robots, mobile robots or autonomous vehicles. Educational robotics can be taught from elementary school to graduate programs. Robotics may also be used to motivate and facilitate the instruction other, often foundational, topics such as computer programming, artificial intelligence or engineering design. == Education and training == Robotics engineers design robots, maintain them, develop new applications for them, and conduct research to expand the potential of robotics. Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and high schools, as well as in numerous youth summer camps, raising interest in programming, artificial intelligence and robotics among students. First-year computer science courses at several universities now include programming of a robot in addition to traditional software engineering-based coursework. == Category of Educational robotics == The categories of educational robots seen as having more than one category. It can be alienated into four categories and it is based on their physical design, coding method and educational method is the alienated made. These categories can also be used to determine the type of robot that should be used and it give the needed output for a classroom. Tangibly, coded


id: egg-drop-competition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_drop_competition-0.md
category: reference
title: Egg drop competition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_drop_competition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:06.829862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: egg-drop-competition-20260505-0
summary:
The egg drop contest is an experiment usually performed by college or primary school students. Competitors typically attempt to create a device that can keep a raw chicken egg intact when dropped from a height. Students are asked to build a device made from a limited or unlimited amount of materials to support an egg when dropped from various heights. == Regional competitions == Often schools work together to make larger competitions that pit more students against each other. One of the larger regional egg drop competitions is the Winston-Salem / Forsyth County Egg Drop Competition that takes place during Engineers Week (late February) each year. Egg drop is one of 18 events in the North Carolina Science Olympiad elementary competition. More than 100 teams compete in this annual competition. == Variations == A variation of the egg drop competition is the naked egg drop, in which an exposed raw egg is dropped into a container below that must catch the egg and keep it from breaking. Another common variation is the egg hurl competition, where the containers are thrown by a device such as a trebuchet or air cannon. This variation is often used by schools that lack tall


id: frontiers-for-young-minds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_for_Young_Minds-0.md
category: reference
title: Frontiers for Young Minds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_for_Young_Minds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:09.338182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frontiers-for-young-minds-20260505-0
summary:
Frontiers for Young Minds is an open-access academic journal that publishes articles "edited by kids for kids". Robert T. Knight launched the journal at a 2013 Society for Neuroscience conference. It is published by Frontiers Media. The journal covers STEM research and allows young scientists, from ages 8 to 15 years old, to participate in the publishing process (not as authors). It has won awards for its review process, easy-to-navigate website, informative visual aids including colorful cartoons, and kid-friendly, accessible writing. == Editorial structure == === Editorial process === Established scientists write kid-friendly articles on either core concepts or new discoveries in their fields. To make the scientific research comprehensible for the journal's late elementary and middle school audiences, the articles rely heavily on key words and glossary sections for scientific nomenclature. After the submission passes a preliminary evaluation by an adult editor, subsequently school-aged children decide whether the articles should be published. Alongside a science mentor, a student from the 3rd to 10th grade reviews the articles and provides feedback about the papers' clarity and accessibility. Then, the original writers, science mentors, and adult editors collaborate to revise the article based on the children's comments. According to the journal's


id: fusenet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FuseNet-0.md
category: reference
title: FuseNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FuseNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:10.639429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fusenet-20260505-0
summary:
FuseNet is a nuclear fusion focused educational organization. Between 2008 and 2013 it was funded by a European Union grant under EURATOM: Fusion Energy Research. == The FP7 Project == The purpose of FuseNet is to coordinate and facilitate fusion education, to share best practices, to jointly develop educational tools, to organize educational events. The members of FuseNet have jointly established academic criteria for the award of European Fusion Doctorate and Master Certificates. These criteria are set to stimulate a high level of fusion education throughout Europe. == The Association == FuseNet is the umbrella organization and single voice for the training and education of the next generation fusion engineers and scientists. FuseNet is recognized as such by the European Commission. == References == == External links == FuseNet Website


id: geoscience-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoscience_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Geoscience education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoscience_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:11.849628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoscience-education-20260505-0
summary:
Also known as Earth science education, it is the study of Earth's physical features, processes, and systems, as well as the natural and human-induced events that shape it. It involves disciplines like geology, oceanography, meteorology, climatology, environmental science. Geoscience education is a branch of science education that focuses on the teaching and learning of Earth sciences. It contributes to scientific literacy and environmental awareness, and is associated with sustainable development and the training of future geoscientists, educators and policymakers. The journals on this subject are the Journal of Geoscience education and the Journal of Astronomy and Earth Science Education. == Geoscience education resources and institutions == Geoscience education occurs in formal and informal settings. In addition to classroom-based instruction, learning also takes place in informal environments. Museums, scientific institutions and research groups function as spaces for non-formal education and lifelong learning, providing opportunities for engagement with Earth sciences across different age groups. One example is the Canmore Museum and Geoscience Centre in Canada, which presents exhibits and interactive displays on the geological and cultural history of the Canadian Rockies. The museum includes information on local geology, mining heritage and the history of communities in the region. Another institution in the


id: global-challenge-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Challenge_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Challenge Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Challenge_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:13.004012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-challenge-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Challenge Award is an online science and engineering design program for pre-college school students (e.g. middle school through high school) from all over the world. It is an initiative that started with a partnership with the University of Vermont in collaboration with the National Science Foundation, currently funded by the MacArthur Foundation Digital Media and Learning program as well as other foundations and corporations, wherein students have the opportunity to form teams with international counterparts and work towards a solution to mitigate global warming and help envision the future of renewable energy. The program is an online educational environment that uses game based learning, simulation and Web-based science resources in a global competition. It relies on the personal initiative and creativity of students working in diverse teams. The access to the project via the Web makes it possible for students, parents, homeschooling families, teachers and interested global community members to get involved to help young people with their creative ideas for innovation in new forms of energy, conservation and increased productivity. == History == Founded in 2005 by Craig Deluca and David Rocchio of the Arno Group and Biddle Duke, the publisher of the Stowe Reporter newspaper company


id: global-hands-on-universe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Hands-On_Universe-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Hands-On Universe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Hands-On_Universe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:14.263280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-hands-on-universe-20260505-0
summary:
Global Hands-On Universe (GHOU) is an educational program that enables students to investigate the Universe while applying tools and concepts from science, math, and technology. Using the Internet, GHOU participants request observations from an automated telescope, download images from an image archive, and analyze them with the help of image processing software. == History == The Galileo Teacher Training Program (GTTP) was started by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2009. One important part of GTTP is the Global Hands-On Universe (GHOU). Different regions of the world participate in this program. In Asia, China and Japan are involved under the banner of AS-HOU. In Africa, Kenya leads the AF-HOU part of the program, and they have even begun a new project at a high school in Nairobi. This project is focused on astronomy and astrophysics and it aims to teach students how scientific research works. In Europe, Dr. Ferlet and Dr. A.-L. Melchior lead the Hands-On Universe project. Their work is known as EU-HOU and has received funding from the European Community (EC) between 2004 and 2006 and again from 2008 to 2012. EU-HOU has grown to include 15 European countries, each with their own websites. The educational hub for


id: harlem-children-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Children_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Harlem Children Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Children_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:15.428379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harlem-children-society-20260505-0
summary:
Harlem Children Society (HCS) is a non-profit organization that arranges for students from under-resourced and under-served communities to be placed as interns at academic research labs during a summer research program. In addition to the lab experience, students receive a stipend. Participating institutions include Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York University, and Columbia University. Students undertake their own research, which is presented during a street science fair in their own community, under the guidance of scientists. The students are able to pursue their scientific investigations during the following school semester in an after-school program. Additionally, these students attend weekly lectures on a variety of topics ranging from incorporating science into communities to financing a college education, while also having the option to visit college campuses and to receive help preparing for the SATs. == History and origins == Dr. Sat (Satyajit) Bhattacharya founded HCS on June 5, 2000. By 2010, the program had expanded to 12 countries, serving more than 750 students. Of their mentees in the United States, as of 2010, 40% are African-American, 26% are of Hispanic descent, and 16% are Native Americans. HCS aims to increase awareness in the sciences,


id: huff-and-puff-apparatus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huff_and_puff_apparatus-0.md
category: reference
title: Huff and puff apparatus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huff_and_puff_apparatus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:16.673880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: huff-and-puff-apparatus-20260505-0
summary:
The huff and puff apparatus is used in school biology and chemistry labs to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is a product of respiration. A sample procedure is as follows: A pupil breathes in and out of the middle tube. The glass tubing is arranged in such a way that one flask bubbles as the pupils breathes in, the other as the pupil breathes out. A suitable carbon dioxide indicator, such as limewater, cabbage juice, or bicarbonate indicator shows the increased presence of carbon dioxide in the outgoing breath. This turns the limewater into milky white substance. == See also == Respiration (physiology) == References ==


id: i-look-like-an-engineer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Look_Like_an_Engineer-0.md
category: reference
title: I Look Like an Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Look_Like_an_Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:17.858189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: i-look-like-an-engineer-20260505-0
summary:
The I Look Like an Engineer movement was created in August 2015 by software developer Isis Anchalee (formerly Isis Wenger) as a response to the backlash the OneLogin recruitment ad in which she was featured received. The movement aspired to break the stereotypes and promote diversity around underrepresented groups, particularly women, POC, and LGBTQ+ individuals in engineering fields. Its primary tactic is the use of the hashtag #ILookLikeAnEngineer on social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, along with pictures of engineers or engineering students. The I Look Like an Engineer movement has sparked other similar movements that also seek to break stereotypes in their industry, such as I Look Like a Surgeon, I Look like a Professor and I Look Like a Civil Engineer. == OneLogin campaign == In the summer of 2015 OneLogin, a software company, created a recruitment campaign aimed at attracting engineers to their home office in San Francisco, California. Four employees were invited to participate, including Anchalee. The ads were placed in the BART public transit stations and showed several OneLogin engineers sharing their experience working for the company. The ad featuring Anchalee went viral on several social media sites. A week after the


id: information-deficit-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_deficit_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Information deficit model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_deficit_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:19.092793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-deficit-model-20260505-0
summary:
In studies of science communication, the information deficit model, also known as the deficit model or science literacy/knowledge deficit model, theorizes that scientific literacy can be improved with increased public engagement by the scientific community. As a result, the public may then be able to make more decisions that are science-informed. The model implies that communication should focus on improving the transfer of information from experts to non-experts. Currently, many studies challenge the information deficit model as it ignores the cognitive, social, and affective factors that influence one's formation of attitude and judgements toward science and technology. == Deficit model of science communication == The original term 'deficit model' was believed to be coined in the 1930s, and sometimes attributed to the work of Jon D. Miller, though his widely cited work on scientific literacy does not employ the term. The deficit model sees the general population as the receiver of information and scientific knowledge. The information they receive, through whatever medium, has been prearranged according to what the distributors believe to be in the public's interest. Due to the recent growth of scientific research and subsequent discoveries, the deficit model suggests that this has led to a decrease in


id: information-deficit-model-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_deficit_model-1.md
category: reference
title: Information deficit model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_deficit_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:19.092793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-deficit-model-20260505-0
summary:
=== Evidence for a deficit affecting opinion === A 2008 meta-analysis of 193 studies sought to interpret the link between science knowledge and attitude towards science. The studies included were taken using nonuniform methods across the world between 1989 and 2004 to provide a cross-cultural analysis. Broad and specific science knowledge and attitude categories were correlated. General science and general biology knowledge was gauged using questions similar to those by the National Science Foundation used to capture "civil scientific literacy". Data on general science and biology knowledge was then compared with attitudes towards general science, nuclear power, genetic medicine, genetically modified food, and environmental science. From the raw data, it was found that a small positive correlation exists between general science knowledge and attitude towards science, indicating that increased scientific knowledge is related to a favorable attitude towards a science topic and that this was not related to the socioeconomic or technological status of a country, but rather the number of individuals enrolled in tertiary education. However, some studies have found that high levels of science knowledge may indicate highly positive and highly negative attitudes towards specific topics such as agriculture biotechnology. Thus knowledge may be a predictor of the


id: innovative-technology-experiences-for-students-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovative_Technology_Experiences_for_Students-0.md
category: reference
title: Innovative Technology Experiences for Students
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovative_Technology_Experiences_for_Students
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:20.349361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovative-technology-experiences-for-students-20260505-0
summary:
Funded by the National Science Foundation, the Innovative Technology Experiences for Students and Teachers (ITEST) program was established in 2003 to address the looming shortage of technology workers in the United States. ITEST engages students and teachers in authentic, hands-on learning experiences in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (commonly referred to as 'STEM' or 'SET' [more common in the U.K.]). As of early 2012, the program is in its ninth year. Over 195 individual projects across 43 states have been funded. It has impacted: over 225,800 students, grades 6–12 over 8,000 teachers over 3,000 parents and caregivers The ITEST Learning Resource Center (ITEST LRC) at Education Development Center assists the projects in building bridges between formal and informal learning by facilitating an inclusive community of practice. Findings and lessons learned are shared nationally to improve policy and practice. Visit the website with the link below, or view a 2-page overview (Snapshot). == External links == https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5467 http://itestlrc.edc.org/ http://itestlrc.edc.org/sites/itestlrc.edc.org/files/Snapshot_2012_Final.pdf


id: international-science-festival-in-gothenburg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg-0.md
category: reference
title: International Science Festival in Gothenburg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:21.512443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-science-festival-in-gothenburg-20260505-0
summary:
The International Science Festival in Gothenburg (Swedish: Vetenskapsfestivalen) is an annual festival in Gothenburg with science activities. == About the festival == The International Science Festival in Gothenburg took place for the first time in April 1997 and is since then an annual recurrent event. The purpose is to communicate science to the public and schools in an easy accessible and in a thought provoking manner. Another objective is to create a positive attitude to research and science which is intended to encourage higher education. About 100 000 visitors come each year. This makes it the largest popular science event in Sweden and one of the largest popular science events in Europe. University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology contributes with the knowledge. The International Science Festival in Gothenburg is a member of the European Science Events Association, EUSCEA. == Theme == Each year a special theme that the festival focuses on is chosen: (translated) 2001: Food and eatables 2002: Travel and science expeditions, Life and Medicine 2003: Love and energy 2004: The meaning of life and sustainable development 2005: Design, physics, Finland 2006: Athletics & health 2007: Passion, pistil and personality 2008: Let's play 2009: Civilization in all


id: iron-science-teacher-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Science_Teacher-0.md
category: reference
title: Iron Science Teacher
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Science_Teacher
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:22.808316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iron-science-teacher-20260505-0
summary:
The Iron Science Teacher is a national competition that celebrates innovation and creativity in science teaching. The competition originated at the Exploratorium in San Francisco. Parodying the cult Japanese TV program, “Iron Chef,” this competition showcases science teachers as they devise classroom activities using a particular ingredient — an everyday item such as a plastic bag, milk carton, or nail. Contestants are currently or formally part of the Exploratorium's Teacher Institute and compete before a live audience for the title of "Iron Science Teacher." Shows are also archived on the Exploratorium's site. Astrophysicist Linda Shore, Director of the Exploratorium Teacher Institute and original host of the competition, says one goal of the Iron Science Teacher is to "provide teachers with ideas about how to teach multimillion dollar state and national science teaching standards using, trash, recyclables, and inexpensive materials" as well as "to allow teachers to receive applause for great teaching." == History == Back in 1997, the Exploratorium's Phyllis C. Wattis Webcast Studio was looking for new shows. During a staff brainstorming session, a fan of the popular Food Network television show, The Iron Chef, suggested naming a secret ingredient for science teachers to use in an experiment to


id: the-joy-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Joy_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The Joy of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Joy_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:24.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-joy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Joy of Science is a popular video and audio course series, consisting of 60 lectures, each 30 minutes long, presented by Robert Hazen of the George Mason University and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The course, first introduced in 2001, is part of The Great Courses series, and is produced and distributed by The Teaching Company, located in Chantilly, Virginia, in the United States. == Background == As the Clarence B. Robinson Professor at George Mason University, Robert Hazen developed innovative courses to promote scientific literacy in both scientists and non-scientists. In a collaboration with physicist James Trefil, he wrote three undergraduate textbooks: The Sciences: An Integrated Approach (1993), The Physical Sciences: An Integrated Approach (1995), and Physics Matters: An Introduction to Conceptual Physics (2004). Hazen used these as the basis for a 60-lecture video and audio course called The Joy of Science. == Description == == See also == == References == == Further reading == Akerlof, Karen (3 March 2008). "Professor Searches for the Genesis of Biological Systems in the Earth's Depths". The Mason Gazette. George Mason University. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2018. Bradley, D. C. (23 December 2014). "Mineral


id: laboratory-rotation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_rotation-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory rotation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_rotation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:25.249007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-rotation-20260505-0
summary:
Laboratory rotations are typically a part of first year graduate school (Ph.D.-oriented) in American universities, especially in the research-oriented areas like biology and chemistry where an incoming student is expected to work in 4 to 6 different laboratories (each is called a "rotation") for durations of about 6 to 8 weeks, before making a final decision regarding which group he or she wishes to join. Laboratory rotations are uncommon in the British university system, where a Ph.D. candidate is accepted into a laboratory soon after joining, and that is partly responsible for shorter duration needed for graduating. == References ==


id: laboratory-safety-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Safety_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory Safety Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Safety_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:26.471898+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-safety-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Laboratory Safety Institute (LSI) is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization based in the United States that supports safety in science education. Founded in 1978 by Dr. James Kaufman to provide safety training for secondary school science teachers, LSI has grown to become "An International Center for Health, Safety and Environmental Affairs." LSI members are science educators and administrators as well as corporate hygiene officers, directors of environmental affairs, chemical handling and storage and waste management personnel. LSI publishes articles and newsletters regarding best practices in laboratory safety as well as safety manuals and teaching tools for teachers and laboratory managers.


id: leap-science-and-maths-schools-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEAP_Science_and_Maths_Schools-0.md
category: reference
title: LEAP Science and Maths Schools
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEAP_Science_and_Maths_Schools
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:27.666893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leap-science-and-maths-schools-20260505-0
summary:
LEAP Science and Mathematics Schools or LEAP Schools is a collection of eight low-fee secondary education schools in four provinces in South Africa. The first LEAP school opened in 2004 in rented premises in Observatory, Cape Town and mainly served the township of Langa. LEAP is an independent school mainly funded by small parent contributions, South African Corporates with limited subsidies from the Department of Basic Education. == History == === Langa Education Assistance Program (or LEAP) === John Gilmour was a teacher at Pinelands High School in Cape Town in 1987 when he decided to respond to a call from the South African business community, to contribute to the redress of the devastation of the Bantu Education Act, a segregation law imposed in the education sector by the Apartheid system in 1953. “Africa Week" was then introduced by a team led by John Gilmour to bring black learners under the "Bantu Education" system to spend a week at Pinelands High School, which was then a whites-only school. The program became the precursor for the Langa Education Assistance Program (or LEAP) which aimed at providing one hundred black students from the Langa township with support tuition from Pinelands High teachers


id: learnscapes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learnscapes-0.md
category: reference
title: Learnscapes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learnscapes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:28.837437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: learnscapes-20260505-0
summary:
Learnscapes are defined as “places where a learning program has been designed to permit users to interact with the environment”. Their purpose is to promote and extend environmental awareness, by presenting biodiversity as the basis for environmental conservation and ecologically sustainable development. This is achieved through developing school based curricula that "engage students interactively with their surrounding environment". Ideally, learnscapes incorporate educational, environmental and social outcomes that reflect the character of the community as well as the school site. "A Learnscape feature, whether it be an outdoor classroom, worm farm, bush regeneration, recycling area, frog pond or herb garden, is not a Learnscape itself. It is the collaborative process within which the feature is created and plans for how it will be maintained and used for learning once it is created that make the feature a Learnscape". Learncape programs also have a “calming effect” on classes, by invoking deeper relationships between students and their teachers. == References ==


id: letters-to-a-pre-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters_to_a_Pre-Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Letters to a Pre-Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters_to_a_Pre-Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:30.047492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: letters-to-a-pre-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Letters to a Pre-Scientist (LPS) is a STEM education pen pal program that connects fifth to twelfth grade students in low-income schools with STEM professional volunteers, who write snail mail letters back and forth throughout a school year. The program’s mission is to help students of all backgrounds see themselves as future STEM professionals. As of 2021, the program has reached over 6,000 students in schools across 13 states. == History == Founder Macon Lowman created an informal version of the program in 2010 to help her sixth grade science students connect what they were learning in class to the real world. Together with scientist and co-founder Anna Goldstein, they recruited enough STEM professional pen pals for every student in her class. In 2014, the program expanded to 3 classrooms and has continued to grow, running in 24 classrooms in the 2019-2020 school year. Although the program only runs in U.S. classrooms, STEM professionals living anywhere in the world can participate. The Letters to a Pre-Scientist program became a registered 501(c)(3) non-profit, under the official name Pre-Scientist, Inc. in 2019. == Partnerships == Letters to a Pre-Scientist partnered with Arab Women in STEM during the 2020-2021 school year to increase


id: maker-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Maker education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:31.352143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maker-education-20260505-0
summary:
Maker education (a term coined by Dale Dougherty in 2013) closely associated with STEM learning, is an approach to problem-based and project-based learning that relies upon hands-on, often collaborative, learning experiences as a method for solving authentic problems. People who participate in making often call themselves "makers" of the maker movement and develop their projects in makerspaces, or development studios which emphasize prototyping and the repurposing of found objects in service of creating new inventions or innovations. Culturally, makerspaces, both inside and outside of schools, are associated with collaboration and the free flow of ideas. In schools, maker education stresses the importance of learner-driven experience, interdisciplinary learning, peer-to-peer teaching, iteration, and the notion of "failing forward", i.e. the idea that mistake-based learning is crucial to the learning process and eventual success of a project. == Influences == Maker education is an offshoot of the maker movement, which Time magazine described as "the umbrella term for independent innovators, designers and tinkerers. A convergence of computer hackers and traditional artisans, the niche is established enough to have its own magazine, Make, as well as hands-on Maker Faires that are catnip for DIYers who used to toil in solitude". Dale Dougherty, founder of


id: maker-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Maker education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:31.352143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maker-education-20260505-0
summary:
== Development and expansion == Since 2005, maker education has gained momentum in schools across the United States and around the world. Proponents of the maker movement cite the potential for making to bring more women to STEM fields and close the gender gap. Other potential benefits and goals for making include creating greater educational equity among students in public schools, and the possibility for making to be a driver in educational and societal change. Other educators and innovators have developed offshoot curriculum and technologies related to the intersection of critical thinking and making, called critical making. In school models, such as the Lighthouse Community Charter, a charter school in Oakland, California, Aaron Van der Woorf, the robotics teacher leads the students in Maker Ed. At the Park School, in collaboration with Harvard's Project Zero, students hold a mini maker faire in school that also acts as a fundraiser for the school. Some districts have also adopted maker education district-wide, such as the district of Elizabeth Forward, just south of Pittsburgh, which partnered with Carnegie Mellon to provide professional development for teachers through working with students on Maker Ed. Principals in Albemarle County schools cite Superintendent Pam Moran as instrumental


id: maker-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Maker education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:31.352143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maker-education-20260505-0
summary:
Though maker education has been embraced by thousands of schools and school districts across the United States and abroad, there has also emerged criticism of the movement. Among the critics is Evgeny Morozov, a Belarusian writer and researcher, whose work focuses on the impact, both social and political, of technology. In his article published in The New Yorker, entitled, "Making It: Pick up a spot welder and join the revolution", Morozov criticizes Chris Anderson for "confusing the history of the Web with the history of capitalism and ends by speculating about the future of the maker movement, which, on closer examination, is actually speculation on the future of capitalism". He also criticizes companies and organizations that were once committed to open source software for becoming acquired by for-profit companies and embroiled in copyright and trademark lawsuits. Morozov also criticizes the maker movement's major contributors financial relationship with DARPA, which made a $10 million grant to support maker education for high school students, and $3.5 million to TechShop to establish new makerspaces. While Morozov is one of the more vocal critics of maker education, he is not the only one. Debbie Chachra, associate professor at Olin College of Engineering, in her


id: march-of-progress-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-0.md
category: reference
title: March of Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:32.577516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-of-progress-20260505-0
summary:
The March of Progress, originally titled The Road to Homo Sapiens, is an illustration that presents 25 million years of human evolution. It was created for the Early Man volume of the Life Nature Library, published in 1965, and drawn by the artist Rudolph Zallinger. It has been widely parodied and imitated to create images of progress of other kinds. == Illustration == === Context === The illustration is part of a section of text and images commissioned by Time-Life Books for the Early Man volume (1965) of the Life Nature Library, by F. Clark Howell. The illustration is a foldout entitled "The Road to Homo Sapiens". It shows a sequence of figures, drawn by natural history painter and muralist Rudolph Zallinger (1919–1995). The 15 human evolutionary forebears are lined up as if they were marching in a parade from left to right. The first two sentences of the caption read "What were the stages of man's long march from apelike ancestors to sapiens? Beginning at right and progressing across four more pages are milestones of primate and human evolution as scientists know them today, pieced together from the fragmentary fossil evidence." === Sequence of species === The 15 primate


id: march-of-progress-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-1.md
category: reference
title: March of Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:32.577516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-of-progress-20260505-0
summary:
== Parodies and adaptations == The March of Progress has often been imitated, parodied, or adapted for commercial or political purposes. The cover of the 1972 Doors album Full Circle references the March of Progress, as does the 1985 Supertramp album Brother Where You Bound, while the poster for the 1992 comedy film Encino Man shows an ape evolving into a skateboarder. The December 2005 issue of The Economist depicts hominids progressing up a flight of stairs to transform into a woman in a black dress holding a glass of champagne to illustrate "The Story of Man". == Predecessors == Thomas Henry Huxley's frontispiece to his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature was intended simply to compare the skeletons of apes and humans, but its unintentional left-to-right progressionist sequence has according to the historian Jennifer Tucker "become an iconic and instantly recognizable visual shorthand for evolution". An illustration, with the caption "Evolution", showing two sequences of four images, each illustrating a gradual transformation of an animal into a human, appeared in the 1889 edition of Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. == References == == External links == Media related to March of Progress


id: master-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:33.835488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
A Master of Science (Latin: Magister Scientiae), abbreviated as MS, MSc, SM, or ScM, is a master's degree. It usually focuses on developing advanced knowledge and analytical skills within a specific scientific, technical, or professional field. It typically emphasizes research, quantitative methods, and critical thinking, combining theoretical foundations with practical application to prepare graduates for specialized careers, doctoral study, or professional advancement. The Master of Science degree was first introduced and awarded by the University of Michigan in 1858. == Algeria == Algeria follows the Bologna Process. == Australia == Australian universities commonly have coursework or research-based Master of Science courses for graduate students. They typically run for 1–2 years full-time, with varying amounts of research involved. == Bangladesh == All Bangladeshi private and public universities have Master of Science courses as postgraduate degree. These include most of the major state-owned colleges. A number of private colleges also do offer MS degrees. After passing Bachelor of Science, any student becomes eligible to study in this discipline. == Belgium == Like all EU member states, Belgium follows the Bologna Process. In Belgium, the typical university track involved obtaining two degrees, being a two-year Kandidaat prerequisite track (replaced by Bachelor) followed by


id: master-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:33.835488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== South America == In Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela, the Master of Science or Magister is a postgraduate degree lasting two to four years. The admission to a master's program (Spanish: Licenciatura; Portuguese: Mestrado) requires the full completion of a four to five year long undergraduate degree, bachelor's degree, engineer's degree or a licentiate of the same length. Defense of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees qualify for a doctorate program. Depending on the country, one ECTS credit point can equal on average between 22 and 30 actual study hours. In most of these cases, the number of required attendance hours to the university classes will be at least half of that (one ECTS will mean around 11 to 15 mandatory hours of on-site classes). == Southeastern Europe == In Slavic countries in the European southeast (particularly former Yugoslavian republics), the education system was largely based on the German university system (largely due to the presence and influence of the Austria-Hungary Empire in the region). Prior to the implementation of the Bologna Process, academic university studies comprised a 4–5 year-long graduate diplom program, which could have been followed by a 2–4 year


id: master-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science-2.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:33.835488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Norway == Norway follows the Bologna Process. For engineering, the Master of Science academic degree has been recently introduced and has replaced the previous award forms "Sivilingeniør" (engineer, a.k.a. engineering master) and "Hovedfag" (academic master). Both were awarded after 5 years of university-level studies and required the completion of a scientific thesis. "Siv.ing", is a protected title traditionally awarded to engineering students who completed a five-year education at The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Norwegian: Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, NTNU) or other university programs deemed to be equivalent in academic merit. Historically there was no bachelor's degree involved and today's program is a five years master's degree education. The "Siv.ing" title is in the process of being phased out, replaced by (for now, complemented by) the "M.Sc." title. By and large, "Siv.ing" is a title tightly being held on to for the sake of tradition. In academia, the new program offers separate three-year bachelor and two-year master programs. It is awarded in the natural sciences, mathematics and computer science fields. The completion of a scientific thesis is required. All master's degrees are designed to certify a level of education and qualify for a doctorate program. Master of Science in


id: master-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science-3.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:33.835488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== United Kingdom == The Master of Science (MSc) is typically a taught postgraduate degree, involving lectures, examinations and a project dissertation (normally taking up a third of the program). Master's programs usually involve a minimum of 1 year of full-time study (180 UK credits, of which 150 must be at master's level) and sometimes up to 2 years of full-time study (or the equivalent period part-time). Taught master's degrees are normally classified into Pass, Merit and Distinction (although some universities do not give Merit). Some universities also offer MSc by research programs, where a longer project or set of projects is undertaken full-time; master's degrees by research are normally pass/fail, although some universities may offer a distinction. The more recent Master in Science (MSci) degree (Master of Natural Sciences at the University of Cambridge), is an undergraduate (UG) level integrated master's degree offered by UK institutions since the 1990s. It is offered as a first degree with the first three (four in Scotland) years similar to a BSc course and a final year (120 UK credits) at master's level, including a dissertation. The final MSci qualification is thus at the same level as a traditional MSc. == United States


id: master-of-science-in-information-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Information_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science in Information Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Information_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:35.151697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-in-information-technology-20260505-0
summary:
A Master of Science in Information Technology (abbreviated M.Sc.IT, MScIT or MSIT) is a master's degree in the field of information technology awarded by universities in many countries or a person holding such a degree. The MSIT degree is designed for those managing information technology, especially the information systems development process. The MSIT degree is functionally equivalent to a Master of Information Systems Management, which is one of several specialized master's degree programs recognized by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB). One can become a software engineer and data scientist after completing an MSIT degree. == Curriculum == A joint committee of Association for Information Systems (AIS) and Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) members develop a model curriculum for the Master of Science in Information Systems (MSIT). The most recent version of the MSIS Model Curriculum was published in 2016. == Course and variants == The course of study is concentrated around the Information Systems discipline. The core courses are (typically) Systems analysis, Systems design, Data Communications, Database design, Project management and Security. The degree typically includes coursework in both computer science and business skills, but the core curriculum might depend on the school and result in


id: meta-academic-company-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_(academic_company)-0.md
category: reference
title: Meta (academic company)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_(academic_company)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:36.427953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-academic-company-20260505-0
summary:
Meta was a Canadian artificial intelligence company that specialized in analyzing and organizing knowledge from the text of scientific literature using machine learning. Founded in 2010 by siblings Sam Molyneux and Amy Molyneux in Toronto, Canada, and backed by institutional venture capital investors, the company developed AI-powered tools. Meta's assets were later transferred to Facebook Inc. to enable its rebranding to Meta Platforms Inc. in 2021 by the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative and shut down in 2021, effective in 2022. == History == History Founding and Early Development Meta Inc. was founded initially as Sciencescape Inc., in Toronto. The idea for the company emerged from Sam Molyneux's experience as a cancer genomics researcher when he discovered that similar research findings had been published while he was working on related projects. The company initially focused on developing AI-powered knowledge tools to help researchers navigate the overwhelming volume of scientific publications. The platform was designed to address information overload in modern scientific research. === Beginning === Meta Inc., formerly Sciencescape Inc., was founded in 2010 by Sam and Amy Molyneux. Before co-founding Meta, Sam Molyneux studied cancer genomics at the Ontario Cancer Institute at Princess Margaret Hospital in Toronto. The service was developed


id: minibeast-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minibeast-0.md
category: reference
title: Minibeast
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minibeast
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:37.754439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: minibeast-20260505-0
summary:
In the context of ecological literacy, arthropods and other small invertebrates are often referred to by informal names such as minibeasts, bugs, creepy crawlies (-ie and -y in the singular), or minifauna (contrasting with megafauna). The term is used for spiders, insects, woodlice, centipedes, slugs, snails, worms and many other animals. == Definition == The United Kingdom–based Young People's Charitable Trust defines them as "small animals" in a factsheet written for young readers. There is a "Minibeast Zooseum" in Michigan dedicated to invertebrates. Minibeasts, as indicated by their name, are generally miniature compared to pets and livestock that people are more often familiar with. The study of minibeasts is common as part of the primary school curriculum. Studying minibeasts is a very effective way to observe many biological concepts first hand, which is not possible with many larger animals. Life cycles, food chains, and bodily structure and function are just some of the basic elements of biological science which can be easily explained using minibeasts. "Bugs Alive!" at Melbourne Museum features a huge number of live minibeasts with detailed information about them, while services such as "Minibeast Wildlife" and "Travelbugs" take live minibeasts to school and provide educational resources. ==


id: mobile-laboratory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_laboratory-0.md
category: reference
title: Mobile laboratory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_laboratory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:39.038938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mobile-laboratory-20260505-0
summary:
A mobile laboratory is a laboratory that is either fully housed within or transported by a vehicle such as a converted bus, RV, or tractor-trailer. Such vehicles can serve a variety of functions, including: Science education Science research Air, water, and soil analysis and monitoring Biosafety == Mobile Teaching Laboratories == A novel use of the mobile laboratory is in science education. In some cases, the mobile laboratory travels to schools, museums, and other community organizations, providing the schools with educational resources which they otherwise lack. The mobile laboratory coalition is a loose partnership of groups that provide such services. In other cases, students must also travel to the mobile lab, such as when the lab takes the form of a boat or a train. Mobile laboratories have recently been gaining favor from the National Institutes of Health, in the form of the particular mobile laboratories such as the Biobus located in New York and Georgia State University's Bio-Bus Program located in Atlanta, GA and the Boston University MobileLab, as a way to develop knowledge and understanding regarding biotechnology and medicine amongst the United States population. The practice of mobile teaching labs exists outside the USA as well with examples,


id: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-0.md
category: reference
title: Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:40.317102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies named after M.V. Lomonosov (traditional abbreviation "MITHT") is one of the oldest universities in the country that offer training in a wide range of specialties in the field of chemical technology. Currently, there are more than 4,500 students in nine areas of undergraduate, 28 master's programs and 23 scientific specialties for training of candidates and doctors of science. In MITHT there are eight dissertation councils for doctoral and PhD theses. Research and teaching activities are performed by more than 400 professors and 158 scientists, including more than 120 doctors of science and professors. Located in Moscow at Vernadsky Avenue, Building 86 (new building complex) and Malaya Pirogovskaya, Building 1 (historic building). == History == History of the university and its continuing operations as a higher education institution begins 1 July 1900 and covers several stages. === Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Moscow Higher Women Courses (1900–1918) === 1 July (14 July, New Style) 1900 was organized the Moscow Higher Women Courses (MHWC). Their structure originally consisted of two departments: History and Philosophy and Physics and Mathematics. On the last one were soon opened two offices: mathematical and natural, and after a few years


id: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-1.md
category: reference
title: Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:40.317102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology (1930–92) === 18 April 1930 by order of the People's Commissariat second MSU was reorganized into three independent institutions: Medical (now RSMU them. Pirogov) Pedagogical (now MPSU), and Chemical Technology (now MITHT). Last transferred to the jurisdiction of the Vsehimprom VSNKh USSR. In addressing this issue directly involved Sergo Ordzhonikidze. 10 May 1931 Chemical and Pharmaceutical Faculty became an independent and received a new name – the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology (MITHT). Historically, the name of the institute is due to the nature of objects that are studied by students: they were small capacity chemical and pharmaceutical technology, technology of platinum group metals and rare-earth elements. From this moment begins a new stage of development of the institution, which is quickly becoming one of the leading universities in the chemical industry. Front of it set the goal of training for high-tech industries of chemical technology. In MITHT the first time in the country began to train engineers on the technology of thin inorganic products, synthetic rubber, thin organic produce synthetic liquid fuels, organometallic compounds and a number of other specialties. In the process of restructuring of education at the institute have


id: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-2.md
category: reference
title: Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:40.317102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology named after M. V. Lomonosov (1992–2011) === In 1992, the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology named after M. V. Lomonosov has received a new, higher educational status – status of the academy. With the name change has changed the status and range of activities of the institute along with old technology, new specialty Humanitarian – Management Profile: "Economics and Management (chemical industry)", "Environmental Protection", "Standardization and Certification". These specialties are subject to major technologies and solve their narrow-profile tasks. Before the transition to a tiered structure the education of students was carried out in one direction, "Chemical Technology and Biotechnology", which consists of seven specialties. After the transition academy led training in seven areas of undergraduate, graduate five areas (including 26 master's programs) and 13 majors (including 25 majors) in full-time and part-correspondence courses, and conducted post-graduate education in 24 specialties and additional education in primary educational programs MITHT. To implement in MITHT a tiered system of higher education were opened new training units. Along with main faculties teaching of students was performed at the Faculty of Natural Science, Faculty of Humanities, Faculty of Management, Economics and Environment, Faculty of Engineering,


id: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-3.md
category: reference
title: Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:40.317102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science === Beregov, Valery Vasilievich (b. 27 February 1942) – Corresponding Member of RAMS, now head of the department in MSMU them. Sechenov. Wolfson, Nicholai Sigizmundovich (18 October 1914, Moscow, Russian Empire – 4 March 1994) – a Russian chemist who developed methods for the synthesis of vitamin A, P, K and chemicals color cinematography. Gekhman, Alexander Efimovich (b. 29 September 1949, Moscow) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Glushkov, Robert Georgievich (b. 10 September 1929) – Academy of Medical Sciences, the leading scientist in the field of chemistry of drugs, laureate of the State Prize of the USSR (1981). Dumaev, Cyril Michailovich (b. 1931) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Evstigneeva, Rima Porfirievna (12 February 1925, Egorevsk – 7 July 2003, Moscow) – a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, an expert in the chemistry of natural compounds, the winner of the State Prize of the USSR (1985). Developed the technology of synthesis of vitamins E and K1. Eremenko, Igor Leonidovich (b. 1950) – Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences. Karabash, Alex Georgievich. (10 February 1912 – 2003, Obninsk, Kaluga region, Russia) – Soviet and Russian chemist, inventor. One of the


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
Nanotechnology education involves a multidisciplinary natural science education with courses such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, and molecular biology. It is being offered by many universities around the world. The first program involving nanotechnology was offered by the University of Toronto's Engineering Science program, where nanotechnology could be taken as an option. Here is a partial list of universities offering nanotechnology education, and the degrees offered (Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, or PhD in Nanotechnology). == Africa == === Egypt === Nile University - master's The American University in Cairo - master's Zewail City of Science and Technology - B.Sc Cairo University - Faculty of Engineering - Masters of Science == Asia == === Hong Kong === Hong Kong University of Science and Technology - MPhil, PhD === India === VIT University, Vellore, Center for Nanotechnology Research, M.Tech. in Nanotechnology Srinivas Institute of Technology, Mangaluru, Karnataka [Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE] - B.E. Nano Technology Desh Bhagat School of Engineering, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab Desh Bhagat University - B.Tech & M.Tech with Nanotechnology Tezpur Central University, Napam, Tezpur (M.Sc & Ph.D in nanoscience and technology) Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore IITs - B.Tech & M.Tech with Nanotechnology Delhi Technological


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pakistan === University of the Punjab, Lahore, Centre of Excellence in Solid State Physics, M.S./Ph.D Program in Nanotechnology Preston Institute Of Nanoscience And Technology (PINSAT), Islamabad, B.S. Nanoscience and Technology University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, Introductory Short Courses Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, master's degree research projects Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad, National Centre for Nanotechnology COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Islamabad, Center for Micro and Nano Devices National University of Science & Technology (NUST), Islamabad, M.S. and Ph.D Nanoscience & Engineering National Institute of Bio Genetic Engineering (NIGBE), Faisalabad, Research Projects Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering & Technology (GIKI), TOPI, KPK, master's/Ph.D degree program Baha-ud-din Zakaria University, Multan Government College University (GCU), Lahore University of Sind, Karachi Peshawar University, Peshawar International Islamic University Bachelor & Master of Science in Nanotechnology === Singapore === National University of Singapore - B.Eng in Engineering Science with Nanoscience & Nanotechnology options, master's and PhD in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Specialization === Sri Lanka === Sri Lanka Institute of Nanotechnology (SLINTEC) - Ph.D & M.Phil === Thailand === Chulalongkorn University - bachelor's degree in engineering (Nano-Engineering) Mahidol University - Center of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology - Master Program Kasetsart University


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Russia === Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology - bachelor's Moscow State University - bachelor's, master's Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) National Research University of Electronic Technology (MIET) - bachelor's, master's Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (PFUR) - master's in engineering & technology: "Nanotechnology and Microsystem Technology" National University of Science and Technology MISIS - bachelor's, master's Samara State Aerospace University - bachelor's, master's Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (TUSUR) Ural Federal University (UrFU) - bachelor's (master's) of Engineering & Technology: "Nanotechnology and Microsystem Technology", "Electronics and Nanoelectronics" (profiles: "Physical Electronics", "Functional Materials of micro-, opto-and nanoelectronics") === Spain === DFA.ua.es, Master en Nanociencia y Nanotecnologia Molecular - master's Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, bachelor's in nanoscience and nanotechnology Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, master's in nanotechnology Rovira i Virgili at Tarragona, master's in nanoscience and nanotechnology === Sweden === KTH Royal Institute of Technology - master's Linköping University - master's Lund University - bachelor's, master's Chalmers University of Technology - bachelor's, master's === Switzerland === Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Zurich - master's, Ph.D University of Basel - bachelor's, master's, Ph.D === United Kingdom === Bangor University - master's University of Birmingham - Ph.D University


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-3.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === Arizona State University - Professional Science master's (PSM) in Nanoscience Boston University - Concentration in Nanotechnology, Minor in Nanotechnology Engineering. [1] Chippewa Valley Technical College - associate degree Cinano.com, International Association of Nano and California Institute of Nano, (CNCP) Certified Nano and Clean technology Professional-Nanotechnology Experience for Engineers College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering - B.S., M.S., Ph.D in Nanoscale Science, Nanoscale Engineering Dakota County Technical College - associate degree Danville Community College - A.A.S. in Nanotechnology Forsyth Technical Community College - Associate of Science George Mason University (Virginia) - Graduate certificate Hudson Valley Community College - associate degree, Electrical Technology: Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana - Associate of Science in Nanotechnology. [2] Johns Hopkins University - M.S. in Materials Science and Engineering with Nanotechnology Option Louisiana Tech University - B.S. Nanosystems Engineering, M.S. Molecular Sciences & Nanotechnology, Ph.D (Micro/Nanotechnology and Micro/Nanoelectronics Emphasis) North Dakota State College of Science - associate degree Northern Illinois University - Certificate in Nanotechnology Oklahoma State University–Okmulgee Institute of Technology - Associate of Technology Penn State University - Minor in Nanotechnology, M.S. Nanotechnology Portland State University - undergraduate/graduate course in support of a Ph.D program in Applied


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-4.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
The National Science Teacher Association, which has published a number of textbooks for nanotechnology in K-12 education, including a teacher's guide and an activity manual for hands-on experiences. Nano-Link, a notable program of the Dakota County Technical College, which has developed a variety of nanotech-related hands-on activities supported by toolkits to teach concepts in nanotechnology throughout direct lab experience. Omni Nano, which is developing comprehensive educational resources specifically designed to support a two-semester high school course, both online and in classrooms. Omni Nano also discusses issues in nanotechnology education on its dedicated blog. Nano4Me, which has a good amount of resources for K-12 education, although their program is intended for higher education. Their K-12 resources include introductory level modules and activities, interactive multimedia, and a collection of experiments and hands-on activities. Nanoscale Informal Science Education Network (NISE Network), which has a website of educational products designed to engage the public in nano science, engineering, and technology. The NISE Network also organizes NanoDays, a nationwide festival of educational programs about nanoscale science and engineering and its potential impact on the future. In Egypt, in2nano is a high school outreach program aiming to increase scientific literacy and prepare students for the sweeping


id: national-dinosaur-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Dinosaur_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: National Dinosaur Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Dinosaur_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:45.277460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-dinosaur-museum-20260505-0
summary:
National Dinosaur Museum, located in Gold Creek Village, Nicholls, Canberra, is Australia's largest permanent display of prehistoric specimens. Established in 1993, the museum has grown into one of Canberra's premier tourist attractions. The museum's exhibition takes visitors on a journey through the evolution of life, with a particular focus on dinosaurs. It features captivating indoor and outdoor exhibits with life-size replica dinosaur models, real and replica skeletons, bones, fossils, crystals, meteorites and more.The museum is believed to house the biggest fossil display in the southern hemisphere. The museum provides an engaging and educational experience for visitors of all ages, complemented by a gift shop, Dinosaur garden, and plenty of photo opportunities. With an annual patronage of 100,000 visitors, the museum is one of the most popular attractions in the Australian Capital Territory. The museum is based around the school curriculum and caters for guided tours for school groups, focusing on an interactive "touch and feel" experience. National Dinosaur Museum additionally host birthday parties, dances with dinosaurs, events for young children, private parties, corporate functions and dinosaur sleep overs during school holiday periods. Events are regularly posted to the Museum Facebook page. The National Dinosaur Museum offers an engaging and educational


id: native-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Native Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:46.584743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: native-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
Native Scientists is a non-profit organisation operating in various European countries to broaden the horizons of underserved children (6 to 16 years). It develops and implements programs that establish meaningful connections between pupils and scientists to promote science and language literacy. Other aims include inspiring migrant young people to consider careers in STEM and training scientists to communicate their work to non-scientists. According to their latest internal report, the organization has managed to establish over 20,000 connections (i.e meaningful interactions) between children and scientists through its different programs. == History == Native Scientists was founded in 2013 by two Portuguese scientists, Joana Moscoso, a biologist, and Tatiana Correia, a physicist, who met while studying in the UK. The organization was created to reduce inequalities affecting underserved children in the access to higher education and STEM subjects. In a recent publication in the OECD “The Forum Network”, Joana Moscoso, one of the founders, revealed that this motivation was rooted in personal history: “The odds for me to become a scientist were very slim. I was born a girl in the ‘80s, I grew up in a village far away from scientific or higher education institutions, my native language was not English,


id: nature-exchange-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Exchange-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature Exchange
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Exchange
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:47.871083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-exchange-20260505-0
summary:
The Nature Exchange is a specialized learning environment that encourages people to explore nature and actively observe, collect, study and share the world around them. It is a turn-key exhibit, now used in nature-based institutions around North America. Developed by Science North and AldrichPears Associates, the Nature Exchange is an interactive forum where visitors trade ethically collected natural objects and information about them to learn and engage with the natural world. Visitors earn points for each trade, based on criteria such as quality, rarity and their knowledge of the item. Science centers, nature centers and zoos use Nature Exchanges to raise awareness of key issues in the natural world, and, through personal interaction, changes attitudes and behavior. == Locations == Telus World of Science - Edmonton, Edmonton, Alberta Canadian Bushplane Heritage Centre, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario Chattahoochee Nature Center, Roswell, Georgia BC Wildlife Park, Kamloops, British Columbia Las Vegas Springs Preserve, Nevada Zoomazium, Woodland Park Zoo – Seattle, Washington - CLOSED Tulsa Zoo, Tulsa, Oklahoma Kidspace Children's Museum, Pasadena, California Exploration Place – Prince George, British Columbia Lacerte Family Children's Zoo, Dallas Zoo, Dallas, Texas Science North, Sudbury, Ontario Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, California John P.


id: next-generation-science-standards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_Science_Standards-0.md
category: reference
title: Next Generation Science Standards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_Science_Standards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:49.110151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: next-generation-science-standards-20260505-0
summary:
The Next Generation Science Standards is a multi-state effort in the United States to create new education standards that are "rich in content and practice, arranged in a coherent manner across disciplines and grades to provide all students an internationally benchmarked science education." The standards were developed by a consortium of 26 states and by the National Science Teachers Association, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Research Council, and Achieve, a nonprofit organization that was also involved in developing math and English standards. The public was also invited to review the standards, and organizations such as the California Science Teachers Association encouraged this feedback. The final draft of the standards was released in April 2013. == Goal == The purposes of the standards include; Improve the level of scientific literacy among citizens Creating common standards for teaching in the U.S. Making science and engineering relevant for and accessible to all students Developing greater interest in science among students so that more of them choose to major in science and technology in college. Overall, the guidelines are intended to; Help students deeply understand core scientific concepts, Develop proficiency in the scientific process of developing and testing ideas,


id: one-two-three-infinity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity-0.md
category: reference
title: One Two Three... Infinity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:50.333289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-two-three-infinity-20260505-0
summary:
One Two Three... Infinity: Facts and Speculations of Science is a popular science book by theoretical physicist George Gamow, first published in 1947, but still (as of 2020) available in print and electronic formats. The book explores a wide range of fundamental concepts in mathematics and science, written at a level understandable by middle school students up through "intelligent layman" adults. The book includes many handmade illustrations by Gamow. == Synopsis == The 340-page book has four parts (marked I, II, III, and IV) and eleven chapters. In the preface, the shortness of the last part is attributed to the prior coverage in Gamow's previous books The Birth and Death of the Sun and Biography of the Earth. There are 128 illustrations that Gamow drew, "topologically transformed" from works by "numerous artists and illustrators", thanked by Gamow in the preface. A four-page index is included. In 1961 a new edition was published. In its preface, Gamow says that by luck the 1947 edition was "written just after a number of important scientific advances", so that "relatively few changes and additions were necessary". For example, Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley Williams separated tobacco mosaic virus into lifeless molecules and then recombined them


id: one-two-three-infinity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity-1.md
category: reference
title: One Two Three... Infinity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:50.333289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-two-three-infinity-20260505-0
summary:
Part III is the longest (150 pages) and begins with the "descending staircase" and the classical elements. "Plants take the largest part of the material used in the growth of their bodies ... from the air." Rust is oxidation of iron. The question "How large are the atoms?" calls for an experiment to obtain an oil film just one molecule thick. "1 cu mm of oil can cover 1 sq m of water." The law of definite proportions is stated in plain English (p. 123) as a "fundamental law of chemistry". The molecular structure of matter was uncovered with molecular beams by Otto Stern, and Lawrence Bragg invented "atomic photography" with X-rays. The section "Dissecting the atom" begins by considering oxygen to be doughnut-shaped, fitting the atoms of hydrogen forming water. Dismissing the notion, Gamow asserts that atoms are "complex mechanisms with a large number of moving parts". Through ionization, and reference to J. J. Thomson, the electron is introduced, having mass 1/1840 of the mass of a hydrogen atom. The Rutherford model of the atom, an analogy to the Solar System, is supported with reference to the percentage of mass at the center: 99.87% for the Sun and 99.97%


id: out-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_in_Science,_Technology,_Engineering,_and_Mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Out in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_in_Science,_Technology,_Engineering,_and_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:51.627257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: out-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Out in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, Inc., abbreviated oSTEM, is a 501(c)(3) non-profit professional society dedicated to LGBTQ+ individuals within the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) community. == History == In October of 2005. IBM sponsored a focus group where students from across the United States convened at the Human Rights Campaign headquarters in Washington, D.C. These students discussed topics relevant to LGBTQ+ communities at their colleges and universities. They debated how to structure an organization that serves students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Founded in 2009, the organization was granted 501(c)(3) status in 2010. oSTEM currently consists of more than 100 chapters across the United States and the United Kingdom. == Mission == oSTEM strives to identify, address, and advocate for the needs of LGBTQ+ students and professionals within the STEM fields. oSTEM fulfills these needs by providing networking opportunities, mentorship connections, strategic collaborations, and professional/leadership development, as well as an annual global conference. == Activities == === Conferences === oSTEM hosts annual conferences that discuss LGBTQ+ topics in STEM as well as intelligence fields. Topics discussed include inclusion, outreach, and diversity within the workplace. The goal of workshops, talks, and networking events for LGBTQ+ people


id: out-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_in_Science,_Technology,_Engineering,_and_Mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: Out in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_in_Science,_Technology,_Engineering,_and_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:51.627257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: out-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Region A New Jersey, New York (state), Pennsylvania Region B Delaware, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Ohio, Virginia, Washington, D.C., West Virginia Region C Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia (U.S. state), Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee Region D Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin Region E Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah, Wyoming Region F Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Washington (state) Region G Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont, Toronto, United Kingdom Grad region All graduate student chapters, regardless of geographic location === Professional Chapters === Professional chapters are currently being tested. Given that the organization was founded for students, it is not yet certain that professionals will find a "good fit" within oSTEM. == See also == List of LGBT-related organizations and conferences List of LGBT events == References == == External links == Shawn Wasserman, "National Conference Discusses Being Out in STEM" Archived 2017-09-23 at the Wayback Machine 11/10/2014 Hal Marz, University Programs, "oSTEM 2013 at the Google NYC Office" 2/6/2014 Camille Crittenden, Contributor, "Tech Pride: Celebrations and Challenges for LGBT Members of the Tech Community" 6/19/2017 Sarah Scoles, Science, "HOW QUEER SCIENTISTS ARE SHAPING THEIR FUTURE


id: out-to-innovate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_to_Innovate-0.md
category: reference
title: Out to Innovate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_to_Innovate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:52.864228+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: out-to-innovate-20260505-0
summary:
Out to Innovate, previously known as the National Organization of Gay and Lesbian Scientists and Technical Professionals (NOGLSTP), is a professional society for professionals in science, technology, mathematics, and engineering. Each year, Out to Innovate gives the Walt Westman Award to members who helped make significant contributions to the association's mission. == History == The organization was organized along the lines of earlier organizations of gay scientists in Los Angeles and the Research Triangle area of North Carolina, and arose out of a session at the 1980 American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) meeting. It was formally organized in 1983 and incorporated in California in 1991. The foundation of the organization was in response to issues such as gay scientists not being able to get visas to immigrate to the United States or security clearances to work in government laboratories, the lack of research on LGBT health issues, and loss of productivity due to the stress of stigmatization. Much of the organization's early work related to increasing the visibility of LGBT scientists and opposing homophobia. In the 1990s, it focused on encouraging corporations to adopt nondiscrimination policies and assisted in a 1995 Government Accounting Office report that recommended


id: project-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Project Exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:54.159384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Project Exploration is a not-for-profit educational program whose goal is to "change the face of science" by encouraging interest in science among students—especially girls and minorities—who traditionally have not found effective career routes into scientific disciplines. Its primary method is to create intensive collaborative relationships between students and working field researchers through structured programs involving the University of Chicago and other institutions. In January 2010, it received a Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics and Engineering Mentoring. The organization, founded in 1999, is based in Chicago, Illinois, USA. == Activities == Project Exploration currently serves nearly 1,000 students. It began as an after-school and summer program when Gabrielle Lyon, a teacher at Fiske Elementary School on the South Side of Chicago, decided that students underrepresented in the sciences, primarily girls and minorities, should be given opportunities to collaborate with actual scientists and participate in real-life scientific research. Students design research projects and test them in the field, or work summers at museums demonstrating science to young children. Sisters4Science Sisters4Science is a year-round after-school and field program that combines science exploration with leadership development for approximately 100 minority middle school girls. Girls participate in hands-on science activities led by women


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:55.401778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Public awareness of science (PAS) is a comprehensive concept encompassing all aspects of the awareness, attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and activities that comprise the relations between the general public or lay society as a whole and scientific knowledge and organization. This concept is also known as public understanding of science (PUS), or more recently, public engagement with science and technology (PEST). This approach is a recent development in the field of science communication research, which aims to explore the intricate relationships and interconnections between science, technology, and innovation on the one hand, and the general public on the other. Initially, research in this domain concentrated on enhancing the public's understanding of scientific subjects, adhering to the principles of the information deficit model of science communication. However, this model has since been largely disregarded by researchers in the field of science communication. Instead, there is an increasing emphasis on understanding how the public chooses to use scientific knowledge and on the development of interfaces to mediate between expert and lay understandings of an issue. Newer frameworks of communicating science include the dialogue and the participation models. The dialogue model aims to create spaces for conversations between scientists and non-scientists to occur while


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:55.401778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Civic science model === Some scholars have identified a new era of "post-normal science" (PNS) in which many scientific discoveries carry high stakes if risks are estimated incorrectly within a broader social context that has a high degree of uncertainty. This PNS era requires a new approach to public engagement efforts and requires a reevaluation of the underlying assumptions of "public engagement", especially with emerging science and technology issues, like CRISPR gene editing, that have the potential to become "wicked problems". These "wicked" issues often require regulatory and policy decisions that have no single correct solution and often involve numerous interest groups – none of whom are clearly positioned to decide and resolve the problem. Policy and regulatory decisions around these scientific issues are inherently political and must balance trade-offs between the scientific research, perceptions of risk, societal needs, and ethical values. While scientists can provide factual answers to research questions and mathematical estimates of risk, many considerations surrounding these wicked science and technology issues have no factual answer. The unidirectional deficit model of simply educating the public on theses issues is insufficient to address these complex questions, and some scholars have proposed scientists adopt a culture of civic


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:55.401778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Project example == Government and private-led campaigns and events, such as Dana Foundation's "Brain Awareness Week", are becoming a strong focus of programmes which try to promote public awareness of science. The UK PAWS Foundation dramatically went as far as establishing a Drama Fund with the BBC in 1994. The purpose was to encourage and support the creation of new drama for television, drawing on the world of science and technology. The Vega Science Trust was set up in 1994 to promote science through the media of television and the internet with the aim of giving scientists a platform from which to communicate to the general public. The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science chair at The University of Oxford was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. Mathematician Marcus du Sautoy has held the chair since Dawkins' retirement in 2008. Similar professorships have since been created at other British universities. Professorships in the field have been held by well-known academics including Richard Fortey and Kathy Sykes at the University of Bristol, Brian Cox at Manchester University, Tanya Byron at Edge Hill University, Jim Al-Khalili at the University of Surrey,


id: researchchannel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ResearchChannel-0.md
category: reference
title: ResearchChannel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ResearchChannel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:57.875837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: researchchannel-20260505-0
summary:
ResearchChannel was an American educational cable television network operated by a consortium of universities, foundations, government agencies, corporations, and learned societies. It began broadcasting in 1996, and discontinued operations in 2010. == History == ResearchChannel was established in 1996 under the name Research TV by a group of American universities. Its studios were physically located at the University of Washington's Kane Hall throughout its existence. Participating institutions produced and provided original programming highlighting their research and innovations to air on the station and also provided funding. During its early existence, a period which predated YouTube, ResearchChannel partnered with Google to make its programs available for free download. It also collaborated with companies such as Microsoft to help advance what were then new video technologies, such as high definition web streaming. In March 2010 the University of Washington – which had heavily subsidized the network by providing its physical space, satellite uplink, website maintenance, and studio staff – announced it would end its support of ResearchChannel. The network went off-air at the end of August 2010. == Availability == ResearchChannel was carried on channel 9400 of the Dish Network as well as cable television channels in select American markets. It also


id: richard-dawkins-foundation-for-reason-and-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins_Foundation_for_Reason_and_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins_Foundation_for_Reason_and_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:59.075578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-dawkins-foundation-for-reason-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science (RDFRS or RDF) is a division of Center for Inquiry (CFI) founded by British biologist Richard Dawkins in 2006 to promote scientific literacy and secularism. Originally a non-profit based in Washington, D.C., the organization merged with CFI in 2016. == History == After Richard Dawkins' success with the book The God Delusion, he created the foundation with its headquarters in the United States to work toward a world in which religion no longer interferes with the advance of science and in which people use their critical thinking skills to evaluate theist claims about the nature of reality. Dawkins complained of the difficulty he faced in gaining tax-free status, which he attributes to the secular nature of the organization. In contrast to the presumption by officials that religious organizations benefit humanity without evidence (for instance Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption), he points to a letter he received from the British Charity Commission requesting evidence for the claim that the advancement of science is connected to the public good. Theist author Marion Ledwig suggests that the foundation may have been set up as an atheist counterpart to the John Templeton Foundation, an organization which


id: robot-combat-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-0.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Robot combat is a type of robot competition in which custom-built machines fight using various methods to incapacitate each other. The machines have generally been remote-controlled vehicles rather than autonomous robots. Robot combat competitions have been made into television series, including Robot Wars in the United Kingdom and BattleBots in the United States. These shows were originally broadcast in the late 1990s to early 2000s and experienced revivals in the mid-2010s. As well as televised competitions, smaller robot combat events are staged for live audiences such as those organized by the Robot Fighting League. Robot builders are generally hobbyists and the complexity and cost of their machines can vary substantially. Robot combat uses weight classes, with the heaviest robots able to exert more power and destructive capabilities. The rules of competitions are designed for the safety of the builders, operators, and spectators while also providing an entertaining spectacle. Robot combat arenas are generally surrounded by a bulletproof screen. Competitor robots come in a variety of designs, with different strategies for winning fights. Robot designs typically incorporate weapons for attacking opponents, such as axes, hammers, flippers, and spinning devices. Rules almost always prohibit gun-like weapons as well as other strategies not


id: robot-combat-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-1.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
== Rules == Robot combat involves remotely controlled robots fighting in a purpose-built arena. A robot loses when it is immobilized, which may be due to damage inflicted by the other robot, being pushed into a position where it cannot drive (though indefinite holds or pins are typically not permitted), or being removed from the arena. Fights typically have a time limit, after which, if no robot is victorious, a judge or judges evaluate the performances to decide upon a winner. === Weight classes === Similar to human combat sports, robot combat is conducted in weight classes though with maximum limits even in the heaviest class. Heavier robots can exert more power and have stronger armor and are generally more difficult and expensive to build. Class definitions vary between competitions. The below table shows classifications for two organizations: the UK-based Fighting Robots Association (FRA) and the North American SPARC. There are also competitions specifically for Lego combat robots. Most televised events are heavyweights. It's worth noting that the definitions of each weight category have changed over time - with European (FRA) rules for heavyweights advancing from 80 kg, to 100 kg, to 110 kg over time. Currently Battlebots has a


id: robot-combat-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-2.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Rammer – Robots employing high-power drive trains and heavy armour can use their speed and manoeuvrability to crash into their opponent repeatedly with the hope of damaging weapons and vital components. Their pushing power may also be used to shove their opponent into arena traps. Rammers (AKA 'Bricks') typically have four or six wheels for traction and stability and are often designed to be fully operational when inverted. Because many modern rulesets require all robots to have a moving weapon, modern rammers are often equipped with other weapon types. Robot Wars Series 6 champion Tornado and Series 7 runner-up Storm II were effective rammers. The former used interchangeable weaponry (usually a small spinning drum) while the latter opted for a lifting arm to avoid disqualification. Battlebots 3.0 superheavyweight champion Vladiator was a rammer armed with a small lifting spike. Wedge – Similar in concept to a rammer, the wedge uses a low-clearance inclined ramp or scoop to move in under an opponent and break its contact with the arena floor – decreasing its mobility and rendering it easy to push off into a wall or trap. The wedge is also useful in deflecting attacks by other robots. Small wedge-lets are


id: robot-combat-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-3.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Vertical Spinner – A vertical disc or bar spinner consists of a thick circular disc or flat bar mounted on a horizontal axis. Rather than many small teeth to cut like a saw, most spinners have few large teeth to catch opponents and either throw them into the air or rip off chunks of armour. Vertical spinners are ubiquitous at all levels of competition, especially in the US. A majority of BattleBots competitors use spinning vertical discs or bars, and it is the most successful weapon type in the show. Notable robots using vertical spinners include 1.0 lightweight champion Backlash, its heavyweight brother Nightmare, 2018 and 2019 champion Bite Force, and 2021 champion End Game, among many others. 2022 BattleBots champion Tantrum bears a "puncher", with a small vertical spinner mounted on a sliding mechanism. Vertical spinners are less common in Robot Wars, with Series 5–6 competitor S3, Series 7 grand-finalist X-Terminator, and Series 9–10 competitor Aftershock as three notable exceptions. Drum Spinner – Drum spinners are a variant of vertical spinners, consisting of a thick, short cylinder resembling a steamroller's wheel with teeth spinning on a horizontal axis. Drum spinners can accelerate faster than vertical discs or bars, but


id: robot-combat-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-4.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Horizontal Spinner – Horizontal spinners rotate around a vertical axis, with the rotating blade or disc typically mounted below, under, or at mid-height on the front of the robot. Undercutters have a spinner low enough almost to scrape the ground. Thanks to their broad reach, horizontal spinners can impart large impacts and may throw other robots across the arena floor. Tombstone, a spinner armed with a horizontal bar, was the champion of BattleBots 2016, and its sister machine Last Rites has been a renowned competitor in RoboGames since 2005. Notable British horizontal spinners include Hypno-Disc (a grand finalist in Robot Wars series 3–5) and Carbide (champion of Robot Wars series 9). Some robots have a bar-shaped horizontal spinner mounted above the center of a low rectangular chassis. Horizontal spinners with this design include three-time BattleBots middleweight champion Hazard, American mid–late 2000s competitor Brutality, and modern Battlebots competitors Icewave and Bloodsport. Full Body Spinner – Taking the concept of the spinner to the extreme, a full-body spinner rotates a massive horizontally spinning mechanism around the entire circumference of the robot as a stored energy weapon. Other robot components (batteries, weapon motor casing) may be attached to the shell to increase the


id: robot-combat-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-5.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Flipper – Although mechanically resembling a lifter, the flipper uses much higher levels of pneumatic power to launch a lifting arm or panel upward at high acceleration similar to a catapult. An effective flipper can throw opponents end-over-end through the air, causing damage from the landing impact or, in Robot Wars, toss it completely out of the arena. Flippers use a large volume of compressed gas and often have a limited number of effective attacks before their supply runs low. CO2-powered flippers are among the most abundant weapon types in UK heavyweight competitions. The two-time Robot Wars champion Chaos 2 used a flipping plate powerful enough to throw other robots out of the arena. Other successful Robot Wars flippers include Series 5 runner-up Bigger Brother, Series 8 champion Apollo, and Series 10 champion Eruption, among many others. Behemoth, armed with a flipping scoop, has been competing continuously since Series 2 in 1998 and finally reached joint 3rd place in Series 10 in 2017. Some British flippers have been significantly more successful in untelevised competitions, such as Ripper, Kronic, and the Iron Awe series. British flippers have also competed in China, including Vulcan (from Team Apollo) and Tánshè (TIFR runner-up, from


id: robot-combat-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-6.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
=== Interchangeable weaponry === It is increasingly common for robots to have interchangeable weaponry or other modular components, allowing them to adapt to a wide range of opponents and increasing their versatility; such robots are often referred to as "Swiss army bots", in reference to Swiss army knives. Arguably the earliest example was Robot Wars Series 1 contestant Plunderbird, which could change between a pneumatic spike and a circular saw on an extendable arm. Successful Swiss army bots include Robot Wars Series 6 champion Tornado, BattleBots 2016 runner-up Bombshell, Battlebots 2020 quarterfinalist and 2023 semifinalist Ribbot, and top-ranked US Beetleweight Silent Spring. Sometimes, robots that were not originally Swiss army bots have had their weapons changed or altered on the fly, typically due to malfunctions. In BattleBots 2015, Ghost Raptor's spinning bar weapon broke in its first fight; builder Chuck Pitzer then improvised new weapons for each following fight, including a "De-Icer" arm attachment which it used to unbalance and defeat bar spinner Icewave in the quarter-finals. === Prohibited weaponry === Since the first robot combat competitions, some types of weapons have been prohibited either because they violated the spirit of the competition or they could not be safely used.


id: robot-combat-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-7.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
SRiMech – Many robots are incapable of driving inverted (upside-down), due to their shape, weaponry, or both. However, others risk immobilization if turned over off of their wheels. A SRiMech (self-righting mechanism) is not inherently a form of weaponry, but rather a design element that returns an inverted robot to mobility in the upright state. The SRiMech is typically an electric or pneumatic arm or extension on the upper surface of the robot which pushes against the arena floor to roll or flip the robot upright. Most flippers, some lifters, and even some carefully designed axes or vertical spinners can double as SRiMechs. Team Nightmare's lightweight vertical spinner Backlash was designed such that when flipped it would hit the ground with the spinning disc and kick back upright (though this never worked). The first successful unaided use of an SRiMech in competition was at the 1997 U.S. Robot Wars, when the immobilized Vlad the Impaler used a dedicated pneumatic device to pop back upright in a match against Biohazard. The first competitor to use a SRiMech in a televised competition was Cassius, using its front-hinged flipping arm to right itself in Robot Wars series 2. Entangling weapons – Several early


id: robot-combat-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-8.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
== Unusual propulsion == The great majority of combat robots roll on wheels, which are very effective on the smooth surfaces used for typical robot combat competition. Other propulsion strategies do pop-up with some frequency.


id: robot-combat-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-9.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Tank treads – Numerous combat robots have used treads or belts in place of wheels in an attempt to gain additional traction. Treads are generally heavier and more vulnerable to damage than a wheeled system and offer no particular traction advantage on the types of surfaces common in robot combat. Most uses of treads are for their striking appearance. The Robot Wars competitors Track-tion, 101 and Mortis along with the BattleBots super heavyweight Ronin used treads. Biteforce, the winner of the 2015 Battlebots Competitions, originally used magnets embedded in its treads in an attempt to gain extra downforce without extra weight. Current users of treads include 2022–2023 NHRL champion and BattleBots contestant Emulsifier and BattleBots fan-favorite Rusty. Walking – The spectacle of a multi-legged robot walking across the arena into combat is a big audience favorite. Robot combat rules typically have given walking robots an additional weight allowance to offset their slower speed, the complexity of the mechanism, and to encourage their construction. What the event organizers had in mind was something like the spider-legged robot Mechadon, but what most often was produced were simple rule-shaving propulsion systems that attempted to save as much of the extra weight allowance as


id: robot-combat-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-10.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
To move, the robot would rely on rapidly braking its spinning ring, which was around the entire robot, while simultaneously turning off five of the six magnets. This, in turn, would force the robot to pivot around the one magnet still on. Hopping – Using pneumatic legs or spikes, robots such as the featherweight Spazhammer were capable of moving around the arena by repeatedly stabbing the floor. Propeller – No Fly Zone, an antweight competing at RoboGames since 2015, drives forwards using thrust generated by a diagonal spinning bar on the front of the robot, similar to an airplane propeller. There is only a single wheel on the back of the robot, used for steering rather than forward movement. A similar heavyweight machine, Crossfire, competed in the first season of King of Bots. == Robot-sumo == Robot-sumo is a related sport where robots try to shove each other out of a ring rather than destroy or disable each other. Unlike remote-controlled combat robots, machines in these competitions are often automated. == See also == CTF 2187 National Havoc Robot League BattleBots Robotica (TV series) RoboGames RoboMaster "I, (Annoyed Grunt)-bot" – episode of The Simpsons featuring robot combat. Model Warship Combat


id: scale-up-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCALE-UP-0.md
category: reference
title: SCALE-UP
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCALE-UP
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:01.557258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scale-up-20260505-0
summary:
SCALE-UP, Student-Centered Active Learning Environment with Upside-Down Pedagogies, is a classroom specifically created to facilitate active, collaborative learning in a classroom. The spaces are carefully designed to facilitate interactions between teams of students who work on short, interesting tasks revolving around specific content. Some people think the rooms look more like restaurants than classrooms. == History == Originally developed in 1997 by Robert Beichner at North Carolina State University to help with large enrollment physics courses. At this time, SCALE-UP stood for 'Student-Centered Activities for Large Enrollment Undergraduate Physics.' Although originated at North Carolina State University, more than five hundred colleges across the US and around the world are known to have directly adopted the SCALE-UP model and adapted it to their particular needs. When SCALE-UP was incorporated in different disciplines then the name was changed to 'Student-Centered Active Learning Environment for Undergraduate Programs.' Now, because of the increasing number of pre-college installations, plus to draw attention to the instruction pedagogy as well as the space, the name has become "Student-Centered Active Learning Environment with Upside-down Pedagogies." The basic idea is that students are given something interesting to investigate. While they work in teams on these "tangibles" (hands-on measurements or


id: science-advice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_advice-0.md
category: reference
title: Science advice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_advice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:04.075625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-advice-20260505-0
summary:
Science advice is the process, structures and institutions through which governments and politicians consider science, technology and innovation information in policy- and decision- making. Across different national governments and international bodies, there are a variety of structures and institutions for scientific advice. They reflect distinctive cultures and traditions of decision-making, which Sheila Jasanoff has termed the 'civic epistemology' through which expert claims are constructed, validated or challenged in a given society. Science advice can also be called "science for policy", indicating the flow of information from scientific to policy domains with the intention of informing decisions. This is distinct from "policy for science", the institutions, rules and norms governing how science is funded, conducted, and communicated. At the national level, countries have diverse models for how to connect scientists and policymakers. In some countries, the president of the National academy, an elected organization of distinguished researchers in natural and social sciences, engineering, medicine, and the humanities, serves as a government science advisor, while other countries have an advisory committee or civil servants perform this role. National academies are often commissioned to write reports advising government on the state of scientific knowledge to inform policy-relevant questions, such as the risk from


id: science-and-engineering-challenge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Engineering_Challenge-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Engineering Challenge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Engineering_Challenge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:05.258251+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-engineering-challenge-20260505-0
summary:
The Science and Engineering Challenge (SEC) is a non-profit, STEM outreach program run throughout the schools year in Australia. The goal of the program is to challenge student’s perception of science and engineering and experience aspects of those fields that they normally would not encounter in a school environment. The SEC focuses on inspiring students in year 10 to consider a future career in science and engineering by choosing to study science and mathematics in years 11 and 12. The SEC also includes other events such as Discovery Days and the S.M.A.R.T outreach program. == History == The SEC began at the University of Newcastle as an initiative of the Faculties of Engineering and Built Environment, and Science and Information Technology. Initially, information nights were conducted aimed at giving students and parents from rural areas the opportunity to find out about careers in science and engineering. Based on the success of these information nights, the first SEC event was held on the Central Coast in the year 2000, as an activity for National Science Week. Throughout 2001, events were held around the Newcastle area and other parts of NSW. 2002 saw the first Challenge Days held outside of NSW, this


id: science-capital-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_capital-0.md
category: reference
title: Science capital
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_capital
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:06.554767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-capital-20260505-0
summary:
Science capital is a conceptual tool developed by Louise Archer and colleagues at King's College London. It uses the theoretical frameworks created by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu to summarise an individual’s science-related habitus and capital. It can be used to help understanding how social class affects people's aspirations and involvement in science. The concept comes from research in education but is also used more broadly in practice and policy, for instance in the work of the Science and Technology Committee of the House of Commons in the UK. == Definition == Science capital can be defined as the sum of all the science-related knowledge, attitudes, experiences and resources that an individual builds up through their life. This includes what science they know about, what they think about science, the people they know who have an understanding of science, and the day-to-day engagement they have with science. Science capital is made up of science related cultural and social capital (institutionalized and/or embodied through knowledge, consumption, credentials, and social networks) as well as habitus. Researchers have suggested that science capital does not exist in isolation but has its value determined by someone's wider context and environment. Science capital has been framed around


id: science-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-0.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
Science communication encompasses a wide range of activities that connect science and society. Common goals of science communication include informing non-experts about scientific findings, raising the public awareness of and interest in science, influencing people's attitudes and behaviors, informing public policy, and engaging with diverse communities to address societal problems. The term "science communication" generally refers to settings in which audiences are not experts on the scientific topic being discussed (outreach), though some authors categorize expert-to-expert communication ("inreach" such as publication in scientific journals) as a type of science communication. Examples of outreach include science journalism and health communication. Since science has political, moral, and legal implications, science communication can help bridge gaps between different stakeholders in public policy, industry, and civil society with trust-building playing a central role in this process. Science communicators are a broad group of people: scientific experts, science journalists, science artists, medical professionals, nature center educators, science advisors for policymakers, and everyone else who communicates with the public about science. They often use entertainment and persuasion techniques including humour, storytelling, and metaphors to connect with their audience's values and interests. Science communication also exists as an interdisciplinary field of social science research on topics such


id: science-communication-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-1.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
Science popularization figures such as Carl Sagan and Neil deGrasse Tyson are partly responsible for the view of science or a specific science discipline within the general public. However, the degree of knowledge and experience a science popularizer has can vary greatly. Because of this, some science communication can depend on sensationalism. Another point in the controversy of popular science is the idea of how public debate can affect public opinion. A relevant and highly public example of this is climate change. A science communication study appearing in The New York Times proves that "even a fractious minority wields enough power to skew a reader's perception of a [science news] story" and that even "firmly worded (but not uncivil) disagreements between commenters affected readers' perception of science." This causes some to worry about the popularizing of science in the public, questioning whether the further popularization of science will cause pressure towards generalization or sensationalism. Marine biologist and film-maker Randy Olson published Don't Be Such a Scientist: Talking Substance in an Age of Style. In the book he describes how there has been an unproductive negligence when it comes to teaching scientists to communicate. Don't be Such a Scientist is written


id: science-communication-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-2.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
However, Einsiedel goes on to suggest both views of the public are "monolithic" in their own way; they both choose to declare what something called the public is. Some promoters of public understanding of science might have ridiculed publics for their ignorance, but an alternative "public engagement with science and technology" romanticizes its publics for their participatory instincts, intrinsic morality or simple collective wisdom. As Susanna Hornig Priest concluded in her 2009 introduction essay on science's contemporary audiences, the job of science communication might be to help non-scientists feel they are not excluded as opposed to always included; that they can join in if they want, rather than that there is a necessity to spend their lives engaging. The process of quantifiably surveying public opinion of science is now largely associated with the public understanding of science movement (some would say unfairly). In the US, Jon Miller is the name most associated with such work and well known for differentiating between identifiable "attentive" or "interested" publics (that is to say science fans) and those who do not care much about science and technology. Miller's work questioned whether the American public had the following four attributes of scientific literacy: knowledge of


id: science-communication-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-3.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
=== Inclusive communication and cultural differences === Inclusive science communication seeks to build equity by prioritizing communication that is built with and for marginalized groups that are not reached through typical top-down science communication. Science communication is affected by the same implicit inequities embedded in the production of science research. It has traditionally centered Western science and communicated in Western language. Māori researcher Linda Tuhiwai Smith details how scientific research is "inextricably linked to European imperialism and colonialism". The field's focus on Western science results in publicizing "discoveries" by Western scientists that have been known to Indigenous scientists and communities for generations, continuing the cycle of colonial exploitation of physical and intellectual resources. Collin Bjork notes that science communication is linked to oppression because European colonizers "employed both the English language and western science as tools for subjugating others". Today, English is still considered the international language of science and 80% of science journals in Scopus are published in English. As a result, most science journalism also communicates in English or must use English sources, limiting the audience that science communication can reach. Just as science has historically excluded communities of Black, Indigenous and people of color, LGBTQ+ communities and


id: science-communication-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-4.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
As the audience for scientific texts expanded, the interest in public science did as well. "Extension lectures" were installed in some universities, like Oxford and Cambridge, which encouraged members of the public to attend lectures. In America, traveling lectures were a common occurrence in the nineteenth century and attracted hundreds of viewers. These public lectures were a part of the lyceum movement and demonstrated basic scientific experiments, which advanced scientific knowledge for both the educated and uneducated viewers. Not only did the popularization of public science enlighten the general public through mass media, but it also enhanced communication within the scientific community. Although scientists had been communicating their discoveries and achievements through print for centuries, publications with a variety of subjects decreased in popularity. Alternatively, publications in discipline-specific journals were crucial for a successful career in the sciences in the nineteenth century. As a result, scientific journals such as Nature or National Geographic possessed a large readership and received substantial funding by the end of the nineteenth century as the popularization of science continued. === Science communication in contemporary media === Science can be communicated to the public in many different ways. According to Karen Bultitude, a science communication lecturer


id: science-communication-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-5.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
==== Online interaction ==== The third category is online interaction; for example, websites, blogs, wikis and podcasts can be used for science communication, as can other social media or forms of artificial intelligence like AI-Chatbots. Online methods of communicating science have the potential to reach huge audiences, can allow direct interaction between scientists and the public, and the content is always accessible and can be somewhat controlled by the scientist. Additionally, online communication of science can help boost scientists' reputation through increased citations, better circulation of articles, and establishing new collaborations. Online communication also allows for both one-way and two-way communication, depending on the audience's and the author's preferences. However, there are disadvantages in that it is difficult to control how content is picked up by others, and regular attention and updating is needed. When considering whether or not to engage in science communication online, scientists should review what science communication research has shown to be the potential positive and negative outcomes. Online communication has given rise to movements like open science, which advocates for making science more accessible. However, when engaging in communication about science online, scientists should consider not publicizing or reporting findings from their research until it


id: science-communication-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-6.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
"Public understanding of science", "public awareness of science" and "public engagement with science and technology" are all terms coined with a movement involving governments and societies in the late 20th century. During the late 19th century, science became a professional subject and influenced by governmental suggestions. Prior to this, public understanding of science was very low on the agenda. However, some well-known figures such as Michael Faraday ran lectures aimed at the non-expert public, his being the famous Christmas Lectures which began in 1825. The 20th century saw groups founded on the basis they could position science in a broader cultural context and allow scientists to communicate their knowledge in a way that could reach and be understood by the general public. In the UK, The Bodmer Report (or The Public Understanding of Science as it is more formally known) published in 1985 by The Royal Society changed the way scientists communicated their work to the public. The report was designed to "review the nature and extent of the public understanding of science in the United Kingdom and its adequacy for an advanced democracy". Chaired by the geneticist Sir Walter Bodmer alongside famous scientists as well as broadcaster Sir David


id: science-education-at-the-crossroads-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Education_at_the_Crossroads-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Education at the Crossroads
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Education_at_the_Crossroads
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:09.117364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-at-the-crossroads-20260505-0
summary:
Science Education at the Crossroads is an annual national academic conference, initially funded by the National Science Foundation, designed to enable and upskill stakeholders in science education to confer in a productive manner. The conference also claims to offer alternatives to the standard model of conferring and professional development. The conference was created by John Settlage of the University of Connecticut, and Adam Johnston of Weber State University. == Philosophy == There are many organizations and conferences that exist for science educators, including the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST), the Association for Science Teacher Education (ASTE), and many others dedicated to specific fields (e.g., physics and chemistry) within science education. These organizations focus on presenting research results or sharing innovations in teaching. Crossroads uses a different approach for conference sessions, the Vexation and Venture. This format has been described as an "incubator forum" which allows for an interactive, discussion-based, and dynamic intersection of views. This mode of interaction has been shown to engage presenters and participants in a way that new ideas and problems can be proposed, and the group takes on responsibility for a generative session. In this format, problems


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-0.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
Science education in England is generally regulated at all levels for assessments that are England's, from 'primary' to 'tertiary' (university). Below university level, science education is the responsibility of three bodies: the Department for Education, Ofqual and the QAA, but at university level, science education is regulated by various professional bodies, and the Bologna Process via the QAA. The QAA also regulates science education for some qualifications that are not university degrees via various qualification boards, but not content for GCSEs, and GCE AS and A levels. Ofqual on the other hand, regulates science education for GCSEs and AS/A levels, as well as all other qualifications, except those covered by the QAA, also via qualification boards. The Department for Education prescribes the content for science education for GCSEs and AS/A levels, which is implemented by the qualification boards, who are then regulated by Ofqual. The Department for Education also regulates science education for students aged 16 years and under. The department's policies on science education (and indeed all subjects) are implemented by local government authorities in all state schools (also called publicly funded schools) in England. The content of the nationally organised science curriculum (along with other subjects) for England


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-1.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1800s === Up until the 1800s, there were only two stages of education: elementary and university. However, in the nineteenth century, elementary education began to divide into primary (still called elementary) and secondary education. Elementary schools were defined in law in England through a series of Acts of Parliament which made education compulsory and free for children up to the age of 11 (later increased to 12). There were six (and later seven) standards for children to pass; science education did not feature in any of these standards, but for some schools, it was an add-on, especially at the higher standards (such as sixth and seventh—science subjects included physics, chemistry, mechanics). Promotion from one standard to the next was on merit and not age. Not all children completed all standards, which meant that by the age of 12, there were children that had not ‘completed’ their elementary education. Of course, families that could afford (and wanted) to keep their children in school post-compulsory age to pass all standards did so. In fact, some children stayed in school beyond the seventh standard. Schools that offered post-seventh standard education became known as higher grade schools, of which science education was a


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-2.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
==== Red brick universities ==== By the time of the Taunton Report, there were four universities in England (Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, and London), but from the 1880s, a new wave of universities / university colleges completely separate from the original four began to emerge; these universities were called red brick universities. The first of these universities was established in Manchester in 1880 and was called Victoria University. Over the subsequent 80 years, a further 11 universities outside London, Cambridge, Durham, and Oxford were founded, significantly expanding the availability of university (science) education throughout England. All through the 1800s, science was becoming increasingly specialised into the different areas we know today. === 1900s === The Education Act 1902 led to the higher grade schools (alluded to earlier) and fee-paying schools being absorbed into the legally defined “higher education” (meaning any education that was not elementary (as primary education was known at the time)). Despite science education in higher grade schools and the recommendations of the Taunton Report, as well as the British Association for the Advancement of Science's campaign for a science curriculum, science was still seen as a minor subject by the most prestigious public schools. The problem was that


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-3.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
=== State of science education in primary education === There is evidence that primary school pupils, that is, KS1 and KS2, in the UK get very little science education. The reason for this appears to be a lack of science expertise in primary schools. This has three implications: First, primary school pupils in state schools (that is, publicly funded schools) generally do not start getting regular science classes till KS3 (the first stage of secondary education). This leads to the second implication, in that there is likely to be a wide variation in pre-secondary school science knowledge among pupils at the start of KS3. And the third implication, as lack of science education does not appear to be an issue for pupils in prep schools (recall that prep schools are private or independent schools), it means that pupils that have done their primary education in state schools, wishing to transfer to independent schools at senior level, are likely to face a significant disadvantage when attempting the Science Common Entrance Examination (since the state primary school pupils would have done relatively little science unless supplemented by private tutorials). === KS1 === Key stage 1 (KS1) covers the first two years of


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-4.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
==== 11+ CEs (Common Entrance Examination) ==== This exam is run by the Independent Schools Examinations Board and is taken by prep school pupils wishing to be admitted into senior schools (although not all senior schools admit 11-year-olds). Some state school pupils in KS2 use the exam to make the transition into an independent (senior) school. The syllabus for the 11+ CE science exam is based on the National Curriculum for KS2 science; one paper for science (one hour) is taken. In addition to the examinable syllabus for the 11+ CE, there is also prep-KS3 science material for the pupil to cover; this prep-KS3 science material is not examinable but is required as preparation for KS3 science study in senior school if admitted. === The ‘traditional’ three sciences for KS3 and KS4 === The National Curriculum for KS3–4 science differs from KS1–2, not just in its complexity, but unlike the latter, the science curriculum is divided into three explicit parts: biology, chemistry, and physics. Typically, in a state secondary school, each science will have a dedicated teacher who is a specialist in the subject, but it is not unusual for a school or college to recruit a teacher that can


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-5.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
=== KS4 (including GCSEs and IGCSEs) === Key stage 4 (KS4) covers years 10 and 11 of compulsory school education, and pupils are typically in the age range 14–16. At the end of KS4, students in English schools usually take GCSE or IGCSE exams. ==== Overview of GCSE sciences ==== GCSE science can be taken at either foundation tier or higher tier. Although GCSEs are closely linked to KS4, schools actually start tackling the GCSE part of the National Curriculum from year 9 (KS3). This is certainly the case for mathematics and science, and it is because of the vastness of the content to be covered for the GCSEs in those subjects. In the past, there were several science GCSE routes, but following changes to GCSEs in the 2010s, the number of routes have simplified somewhat. Today, in most cases, science GCSE can be taken either as a combined single subject (which is worth two GCSE subjects—also known as combined science) or as the three separate subjects of physics, chemistry, and biology (each worth a single GCSE subject in its own right—also known as triple science). When biology, chemistry, and physics are taken as separate GCSE subjects, the tiers can


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-6.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
==== CCEA ==== CCEA provides the widest and most extensive GCSE science examinations; three routes are offered: single science, double science, and triple science. Only trilogy courses are available. For single science, one 1-hour paper each is offered for biology, chemistry, and physics, and one 2-hour paper is provided for the practical science exam, so in total, four papers. For double science, the candidate sits three papers each for biology, chemistry, and physics, but in each science, Paper 1 is 1 hour; Paper 2 is 1 hour and 15 minutes; and Paper 3 is a 1-hour practical examination (so nine papers in total). And for triple science, the candidate also undertakes nine papers, but the time durations are longer: Papers 1 and 2 are 1 hour and 15 minutes each at foundation tier and 1 hour and 30 minutes each at higher tier. And Paper 3, which is the practical exam, is 1 hour and 15 minutes. ==== Changes to GCSE science and its grading system ==== As alluded to earlier, in the mid-2010s, the GCSE science courses of the GCSE exam boards underwent significant changes. This was in part due to changes in the National Curriculum, of which one


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-7.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
== Science education post-16 or ‘KS5’ == For the ages of 16, 17 and 18 (and older for those that remain in education below university level), students in England do what is sometimes loosely called ‘key stage 5’ or KS5; it has no legal meaning (unlike the other key stages). And unlike KS1–4 in which the levels of complexity of topics learnt at each stage are prescribed within relatively narrow limits, at KS5, the levels of complexity of topics cover a wide range, although the highest level of complexity at KS5 is RQF level 3. Whether or not a student actually studies at this level of complexity in KS5 depends on their GCSE results. Crucially, on what subjects the student obtained passes at RQF level 2 standard (including mathematics and English) as well as the actual grades themselves. In other words, unlike KS1–4, where a specific student studies at one RQF level, at KS5, a specific student may be studying at several RQF levels depending on what the student obtained at GCSEs. Regardless of the RQF-level mix, KS5 students can complete post-16 study in one of the following: School with a sixth form Stand-alone sixth form college Further education college


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-8.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond 18 years of age, students that have already either left or finished their formal education, but return at later times in their lives to study science (having decided they do not have the appropriate level of knowledge), can do so on their return at RQF level 3 or lower. The level the student returns at will depend on their pre-enrollment level of knowledge of science although science is generally not available below RQF level 1 (that is, the RQF entry (sub-1) level) to adult returners to education (but maths and English are). Typically, further education colleges admit adult returners although some universities may offer distance learning courses. Further education and distance learning courses are often the ways these mature students can access science courses long after they have left education. Just like students that have neither left nor previously finished their education, satisfactorily passing the summative assessment at RQF level 3 is the crucial gateway into university-level education (that is RQF level 4 and higher) in England. In addition to satisfactory passes in science subjects at RQF level 3, the learner also has to have passed mathematics and English at RQF level 2 standard (typically GCSEs or equivalent with


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-9.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
A bachelor's degree is the first level a student must attain before they can be described as a graduate; it is an RQF level 6 qualification (although bachelor degrees in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine are RQF level 7). That means that foundation degree graduates (RQF level 5) will have to 'top-up' to a full degree before they can be referred to as graduates. Undergraduate university-level science education continues to build on the core and derived areas covered at KS3–5, but at a substantially more advanced level. Students studying bachelor degrees in the traditional sciences of physics, biology, and chemistry will typically study all KS3/4 core areas and their derived areas for their respective sciences in great detail. Also, students get the opportunity to study bachelor degrees in subjects that have developed from the core and derived areas of the three sciences to become independent subjects in their own right. For example, geology developed from several KS3/4 core areas of chemistry and physics; molecular biology developed from biochemistry and genetics, which are two KS3/4 core areas of biology; organic chemistry developed from several KS3/4 core areas of chemistry; astronomy is generally considered to be a branch of physics, but it is


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-10.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
A doctorate degree occupies the highest level of education covered by the national qualifications frameworks in the UK, at RQF level 8 (there are higher qualifications, but they are not covered by the frameworks). In England, it is possible to enter a doctorate course with just a bachelor's degree (the student would typically require a first or upper second class honours for such direct route); however, more commonly, a student would require a master's. In England, it is not uncommon for a student to be initially admitted to the doctorate at master's level (such as an MPhil), but then after two or so years, be promoted to the doctorate proper pending a satisfactory defence of their research findings in a transfer report in an examination (which can be oral). At the start of a doctorate programme in England, there may be some initial attendance at lessons, but the bulk of study in a doctorate degree course will be research-based. When it comes to science education at doctorate level, the emphasis is on advancing knowledge rather than mastering knowledge that is already known. Trying to unravel knowledge that has not already been unravelled by someone else somewhere in the world can


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-11.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pre-university level === The challenges of establishing a national curriculum for science below university level in England over the last two centuries have been explored by Smith (2010) and others. In Smith's paper, she highlighted two potentially conflicting roles for science education below university level: educating a public to be scientifically literate, and providing scientific training for aspiring science professionals. Smith further pointed out in her paper that even among the training of aspiring science professionals, three groups could be identified: those that sought science in pursuance of the truth and an abstract understanding of science; those that sought science for actual benefit to society—the applied scientists, and then the failures. The dilemma did not escape the committee led by J J Thomson (discoverer of the electron) in 1918, which is quite telling of the tension in trying to accommodate several very different groups of science learners: In framing a course in Science for boys up to the age of 16 it should be recognised that for many this will be the main, for some the only, opportunity of obtaining a knowledge of Science, and that the course should therefore be self-contained, and designed so as to give special


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-12.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
==== Addressing the shortages ==== One challenge that ties in with England's shortage of science teachers is the number of science undergraduates in higher education, which provides the pool for future trainee science teachers, but undergraduate numbers affect the three sciences differently: In 2023–24, 42150 students in England enrolled for physical science degrees in higher education, which was a little under half the number that enrolled for biological science degrees in England, which was 80085. The number for biological sciences does not include students that studied biology as part of the vocational degrees they enrolled for, with medicine, veterinary medicine, psychology, and subjects allied to medicine making up 440430 enrolments in England alone in 2023–24. This dwarfs enrolments for physical sciences, even when engineering and technology enrolments are taken into account, which amounted to 90870 in England in 2023–24. The table below provides figures for all nations of the UK (including England), and enrolment of students from the rest of the world. The popularity of the biological sciences (as well as the courses they feature heavily in) over the physical sciences (and the courses they feature heavily in) has been the case for more than a decade (certainly before this


id: science-education-in-england-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England-13.md
category: reference
title: Science education in England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education_in_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:10.427212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-in-england-20260505-0
summary:
=== University level === As for science at university level in England, the specialised (and individualised) nature of study at this tertiary level means that a discussion on developing a national curriculum for university science education has never really taken hold. Instead, the challenges of science education at this level in England (and indeed across the world) have revolved, and still revolve, around the acts of establishing and maintaining one in the first place rather than harmonising content across all university courses. The prevailing politics or government and social norms could be issues for university science education; for example, the priorities of the Early Middle Ages (also known as the Dark Ages) following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire could have been challenges to the development of university science (in England), as could have been the attitudes and beliefs of the same period. In England, although university science education started hundreds of years after pre-university science education, the former eventually prospered in comparison to the latter. Nevertheless, the threat of closure of a university science department cannot be dismissed: for instance, the Physics Department at Birkbeck, University of London closed in 1997. Another closure was the Chemistry Department at


id: science-fair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fair-0.md
category: reference
title: Science fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:11.723657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fair-20260505-0
summary:
A science fair or engineering fair is an event hosted by a school that offers students the opportunity to experience the practices of science and engineering for themselves. In the United States, the Next Generation Science Standards makes experiencing the practices of science and engineering one of the three pillars of science education. Students perform some sort of research and then present their experiment in a poster session or other display format. == History == Science fairs began in the United States in New York City in the 1930s under the auspices of the American Institute of the City of New York with the effort led in New York City by Morris Meister who later founded the Bronx High School of Science. Meister believed in the educational ideas of John Dewey that focused on doing rather than just learning what already had been done. The goals of the after-school science club federation were twofold: "to aid in the development of the scientific leaders of the next generation and at the same time foster a better understanding of science among its laymen". Initially, science fairs were mostly exhibits and demonstration projects or mere displays of projects. This changed after the 1939


id: science-for-the-contemporary-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_for_the_contemporary_world-0.md
category: reference
title: Science for the contemporary world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_for_the_contemporary_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:12.971753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-for-the-contemporary-world-20260505-0
summary:
Science for the contemporary world (SCW) is a subject of the Spanish education system which is mandatory for students in their first year of European Baccalaureate. The SCW's role is to give students the tools and information they need to think critically when examining scientific claims. == Objectives == Learn the qualitative significant of some concepts, theories and laws to form opinions based on scientific and technological issues. Having an impact on the conditions of personal and global life being subject of social controversy and public debate. Pose questions about scientific and actual issues and try to find an own solution to them using and selecting information on different sources. Obtain, analyze and organize information of different scientific content. Use representations and models, guess, formulate hypotheses and make informed debate that will make informed decisions and communicate them to others with consistency, accuracy and clarity Acquire a coherent and critical understanding of information technology, communication and entertainment present in the students’ environment, promoting judicious and rational use for the construction of scientific knowledge, the development of personal judgment and improvement of individual and collective wellbeing. To argue, discuss and evaluate proposals and applications of scientific knowledge of social interest concerning


id: science-on-stage-europe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Stage_Europe-0.md
category: reference
title: Science on Stage Europe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Stage_Europe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:15.713059+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-on-stage-europe-20260505-0
summary:
The European initiative Science on Stage - initially launched as Physics on Stage in 1999 – is designed for European teachers to share good practice in science teaching and to discuss (new) ways of improving the quality of science lessons. This is driven by the foreseen lack of young scientists in all European countries. Science on Stage Europe believes that a good way to encourage schoolchildren to consider a career in science or engineering is to motivate and educate their teachers. Therefore, Science on Stage Europe provides a forum for science teachers to exchange teaching ideas and gives them access to science teaching resources. == History == === Physics on Stage === Organised by EIROforum, a collaboration of European research organisations, the initiative Science on Stage began in 1999 as Physics on Stage (POS), with financial support from the European Commission [POS was half funded by EIROforum]. EIROforum launched the initiative to address the decreasing numbers of young physicists. The first Physics on Stage festival was at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, in 2000. Over the course of an inspiring week, more than 500 teachers from 22 countries shared activities and projects in a fair, in workshops, in performances and in


id: science-on-tap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap-0.md
category: reference
title: Science on Tap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:16.941976+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-on-tap-20260505-0
summary:
Science on Tap is the social-cultural initiative of Yivsam Azgad, head of the Media Department and art curator of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. The project began in 2010, under the title "Beer, Science, and Fun", as a gesture to the city of Rehovot on its 120th anniversary. In this framework, some 35 scientists and graduate students went to bars and pubs in Rehovot to talk with the patrons about open questions in science and the newest advances on the forefront of global science. On the same night, research students went to the city center and led a “science comics” session for children in which they created their own science comics, inspired by the Nano Comics series put out by the Weizmann Institute of Science and edited by Yivsam Azgad. This initiative was highly successful and was covered by the media in Israel and the world. The scientists, artists, and politicians posed a challenge to the organizers: To reproduce this success in Tel Aviv. In response to the challenge, Azgad decided, with the support of the Weizmann Institute of Science president, Prof. Daniel Zajfman, to organize the event in Tel Aviv under a new name: Science on


id: science-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_project-0.md
category: reference
title: Science project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:18.203193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-project-20260505-0
summary:
A science project is an educational activity for students involving experiments or construction of models in one of the science disciplines. Students may present their science project at a science fair, so they may also call it a science fair project. Science projects may be classified into four main types. Science projects are done by students worldwide. == Experimental projects == Science class X Experimental projects, also known as investigatory projects, start with a question (AKA a hypothesis), use the scientific method to complete the research, and end with a report detailing the results and conclusions and an abstract. == Engineering projects == Engineering projects, also known as technology projects, start with a design of a machine or mechanical structure with the purpose of improving strength or performance. Researchers implement all their design ideas in a model they construct. The model will be tested to evaluate the design. == Display projects == Display projects involve a creative assembly of a display board and construction of a model to show a visual representation of a larger fact. Making a model of the Solar System, a house, or of a simple electric circuit are considered display projects. Display boards are used to


id: science-slam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_slam-0.md
category: reference
title: Science slam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_slam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:19.434175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-slam-20260505-0
summary:
A science slam is a scientific talk where scientists present their own scientific research work in a given time frame - usually 10 minutes - in front of a non-expert audience. The focus lies on teaching current science to a diverse audience in an entertaining way. The presentation is judged by the audience. A science slam is a form of science communication. == Variants == Science slams are open to all fields of science. However, events specializing on particular topics exist as well. Examples include: technical science slams, health science slams, sociological science slams, junior science slams, kid's science slams, and binational science slams. == References == == External links == scienceslam.org scienceslam.ch Kerala Science Slam 24


id: science-theatre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_theatre-0.md
category: reference
title: Science theatre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_theatre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:20.680036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-theatre-20260505-0
summary:
Science theatre is a form of theatre or set of performances in which science is central. It aims to give insight into the essence or impact of science by stimulating thinking about science or the societal impact of science. == Examples == Within science theatre, several approaches exist. Roughly speaking, a distinction can be made between the genres in which science or technology is more or less a subject and theatrical goals are central the genres in which science or technology is central and theatre is a more or less accidental means of stimulating the understanding of the artefacts, methodology, concepts and functioning of science and technology the genres in which science or technology is central and theatre is a more or less accidental means of stimulating the understanding of and discussion on societal functioning, meaning and impact of science and technology A famous representative of the first genre is the piece Copenhagen by Michael Frayn. Examples of the second genre are pieces by chemist and Nobel Prize winner Carl Djerassi, while pieces by the English science theater group Y-touring fits into the third genre. The latter has been visiting successful secondary schools for years with pieces about, for example,


id: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, society and environment education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:23.252943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-0
summary:
Science, technology, society and environment (STSE) education, originates from the science technology and society (STS) movement in science education. This is an outlook on science education that emphasizes the teaching of scientific and technological developments in their cultural, economic, social and political contexts. In this view of science education, students are encouraged to engage in issues pertaining to the impact of science on everyday life and make responsible decisions about how to address such issues (Solomon, 1993 and Aikenhead, 1994) == Science technology and society (STS) == The STS movement has a long history in science education reform, and embraces a wide range of theories about the intersection between science, technology and society (Solomon and Aikenhead, 1994; Pedretti 1997). Over the last twenty years, the work of Peter Fensham, the noted Australian science educator, is considered to have heavily contributed to reforms in science education. Fensham's efforts included giving greater prominence to STS in the school science curriculum (Aikenhead, 2003). The key aim behind these efforts was to ensure the development of a broad-based science curriculum, embedded in the socio-political and cultural contexts in which it was formulated. From Fensham's point of view, this meant that students would engage with


id: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, society and environment education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:23.252943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Goals === In the context of STSE education, the goals of teaching and learning are largely directed towards engendering cultural and democratic notions of scientific literacy. Here, advocates of STSE education argue that in order to broaden students' understanding of science, and better prepare them for active and responsible citizenship in the future, the scope of science education needs to go beyond learning about scientific theories, facts and technical skills. Therefore, the fundamental aim of STSE education is to equip students to understand and situate scientific and technological developments in their cultural, environmental, economic, political and social contexts (Solomon & Aikenhead, 1994; Bingle & Gaskell, 1994; Pedretti 1997 & 2005). For example, rather than learning about the facts and theories of weather patterns, students can explore them in the context of issues such as global warming. They can also debate the environmental, social, economic and political consequences of relevant legislation, such as the Kyoto Protocol. This is thought to provide a richer, more meaningful and relevant canvas against which scientific theories and phenomena relating to weather patterns can be explored (Pedretti et al. 2005). In essence, STSE education aims to develop the following skills and perspectives Social responsibility Critical


id: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, society and environment education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:23.252943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-0
summary:
Alsop, S., & Ibrahim, S. 2008. Visual journeys in critical place based science education. In Y-J. Lee, & A-K. Tan (Eds.), Science education at the nexus of theory and practice. Rotterdam: SensePublishers 291–303. Alsop, S., & Ibrahim, S. 2007. Searching for Science Motive: Community, Imagery and Agency. Alberta Science Education Journal (Special Edition, Shapiro, B. (Ed.) Research and writing in science education of interest to those new in the profession). 38(2), 17–24. Science and the city: A Field Zine One collective publication, authored by the students, teachers and researchers together is that of a community zine that offered a format to share possibilities afforded by participatory practices that connect schools with local-knowledges, people and places. *Alsop, S., Ibrahim, S., & Blimkie, M. (Eds.) (2008) Science and the city: A Field Zine. Toronto: Ontario. [An independent publication written by students and researchers and distributed free to research, student and parent communities]. === Tokyo Global Engineering Corporation, Japan (and global) === Tokyo Global Engineering Corporation is an education-services organization that provides capstone STSE education programs free of charge to engineering students and other stakeholders. These programs are intended to complement—but not to replace—STSE coursework required by academic degree programs of study. The


id: science-ie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science.ie-0.md
category: reference
title: Science.ie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science.ie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:24.479750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-ie-20260505-0
summary:
The Science.ie portal provides all sorts of information about careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). == Overview == Science.ie is an initiative of the Irish Government’s Discover Science & Engineering (DSE) awareness programme in Ireland. DSE is managed by Forfás on behalf of the Office of Science and Technology at the Department of Enterprise, Tourism and Employment. The careers-related information on Science.ie has been moved to a new DSE website, which was launched in early October 2009. On MyScienceCareer.ie is: Profiles of people currently working in STEM in Ireland Information on famous Irish scientists Links to many other career resources A redeveloped Science.ie was also launched in October 2009. The site has been redesigned and includes social media bookmarking and RSS feeds. Science.ie provides more general information on science in Ireland. This includes listings of science links, news and events. Its "Resources" section gives information on activities and visitor centres where you can learn about science. The site also provides a free newsletter relating to Irish science, technology and innovation news, events, research and facts which is issued monthly by email. DSE runs numerous other initiatives, including My Science Career, Project Blogger, Science Week Ireland and Discover Primary


id: scientific-demonstration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_demonstration-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific demonstration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_demonstration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:25.762705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-demonstration-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific demonstration is a procedure carried out for the purposes of demonstrating scientific principles, rather than for hypothesis testing or knowledge gathering (although they may originally have been carried out for these purposes). Most scientific demonstrations are simple laboratory demonstrations intended to demonstrate physical principles, often in a surprising or entertaining way. They are carried out in schools and universities, and sometimes in public demonstrations in popular science lectures and TV programs aimed at the public. Many scientific demonstrations are chosen for their combination of educational merit and entertainment value, which is often provided by dramatic phenomena such as explosions. Public scientific demonstrations were a common occurrence in the Age of Enlightenment, and have long been a feature of the British Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, which date back to 1825. In the television era, scientific demonstrations have featured in science-related entertainment shows such as MythBusters and Brainiac: Science Abuse. Many scientific demonstrations are potentially dangerous, and should not be attempted without considerable laboratory experience and appropriate safety precautions. Many older well-known scientific demonstrations, once mainstays of science education, are now effectively impossible to demonstrate to an audience without breaking health and safety laws. Some older demonstrations, such as allowing


id: scientific-literacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:27.057961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literacy-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific literacy or science literacy encompasses written, numerical, and digital literacy as they pertain to understanding science, its methodology, observations, and theories. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the scientific method, units and methods of measurement, empiricism and understanding of statistics in particular correlations and qualitative versus quantitative observations and aggregate statistics. It is also concerned with a basic understanding of core scientific fields, such as physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology and computation. == Definition == The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Framework (2015) defines scientific literacy as "the ability to engage with science-related issues, and with the ideas of science, as a reflective citizen." A scientifically literate person, therefore, is willing to engage in reasoned discourse about science and technology which requires the competencies to: Explain phenomena scientifically – recognize, offer and evaluate explanations for a range of natural and technological phenomena. Evaluate and design scientific inquiry – describe and appraise scientific investigations and propose ways of addressing questions scientifically. Interpret data and evidence scientifically – analyze and evaluate data, claims and arguments in a variety of representations and draw appropriate scientific conclusions. According to the United States


id: scientific-literacy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:27.057961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literacy-20260505-0
summary:
== Science, society, and the environment == The interdependence of humans and our natural environment is at the heart of scientific literacy in the Earth systems. As defined by nationwide consensus among scientists and educators, this literacy has two key parts. First, a literate person is defined, in language that echoes the above definition of scientific literacy. Second, a set of concepts are listed, organized into six to nine big ideas or essential principles. This defining process was undertaken first for ocean literacy, then for the Great Lakes, estuaries, the atmosphere, and climate. Earth science literacy is one of the types of literacy defined for Earth systems; the qualities of an Earth science literate person are representative of the qualities for all the Earth system literacy definitions. According to the Earth Science Literacy Initiative, an Earth-science-literate person: understands the fundamental concepts of Earth's many systems knows how to find and assess scientifically credible information about Earth communicates about Earth science in a meaningful way is able to make informed and responsible decisions regarding Earth and its resources All types of literacy in Earth systems have a definition like the above. Ocean literacy is further defined as "understanding our impact on


id: scientific-literacy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:27.057961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literacy-20260505-0
summary:
== Promoting and measuring == Proponents of scientific literacy tend to focus on what is learned by the time a student graduates from high school. Science literacy has always been an important element of the standards movement in education. All science literacy documents have been drafted with the explicit intent of influencing educational standards, as a means to drive curriculum, teaching, assessment, and ultimately, learning nationwide. Moreover, scientific literacy provides an important basis for making informed social decisions. Science is a human process carried out in a social context, which makes it relevant as a part of our science education. In order for people to make evidence-informed decision, everyone should seek to improve their scientific literacy. Relevant research has suggested ways to promote scientific literacy to students more efficiently. Programs to promote scientific literacy among students abound, including several programs sponsored by technology companies, as well as quiz bowls and science fairs. A partial list of such programs includes the Global Challenge Award, the National Ocean Sciences Bowl and Action Bioscience. Some organizations have attempted to compare the scientific literacy of adults in different countries. The OECD found that scientific literacy in the United States is not measurably different from


id: scientific-misconceptions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconceptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:28.343156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconceptions-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific misconceptions are commonly held beliefs about science that have no basis in actual scientific fact. Scientific misconceptions can also refer to preconceived notions based on religious and/or cultural influences. Many scientific misconceptions occur because of faulty teaching styles and the sometimes distancing nature of true scientific texts. Because students' prior knowledge and misconceptions are important factors for learning science, science teachers should be able to identify and address these conceptions. == Types == Misconceptions (a.k.a. alternative conceptions, alternative frameworks, etc.) are a key issue from constructivism in science education, a major theoretical perspective informing science teaching. A scientific misconception is a false or incorrect understanding of a scientific concept or principle, often resulting from oversimplifications, inaccurate information, or the misapplication of intuitive knowledge. Misconceptions can arise due to a variety of factors, such as personal experiences, cultural beliefs, or the way information is presented in educational settings. Addressing scientific misconceptions is crucial for developing a more accurate understanding of the natural world and improving scientific literacy. In general, scientific misconceptions have their foundations in a few "intuitive knowledge domains, including folkmechanics (object boundaries and movements), folkbiology (biological species' configurations and relationships), and folkpsychology (interactive agents and goal-directed behavior)", that


id: scientific-misconceptions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconceptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:28.343156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconceptions-20260505-0
summary:
== Addressing student misconceptions == A number of lines of evidence suggest that the recognition and revision of student misconceptions involves active, rather than passive, involvement with the material. A common approach to instruction involves meta-cognition, that is to encourage students to think about their thinking about a particular problem. In part this approach requires students to verbalize, defend and reformulate their understanding. Recognizing the realities of the modern classroom, a number of variations have been introduced. These include Eric Mazur's peer instruction, as well as various tutorials in physics. Using a metacognitive approach, researchers have also found that making students metacognitively aware of their own intuitive conceptions through a self-assessment and supporting them in self-regulating their intuitive conceptions in scientific contexts enhances students' conceptual understanding. Scientific inquiry is another technique that provides an active engagement opportunity for students and incorporates metacognition and critical thinking. Success with inquiry-based learning activities relies on a deep foundation of factual knowledge. Students then use observation, imagination, and reasoning about scientific phenomena they are studying to organize knowledge within a conceptual framework. The teacher monitors the changing concepts of the students through formative assessment as the instruction proceeds. Beginning inquiry activities should develop from


id: scientific-myth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_myth-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific myth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_myth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:29.538909+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-myth-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific myth is a myth about science, or a myth or factoid that is commonly thought to be scientific. Scientific discoveries are often presented in a mythological way with a theory being presented as a dramatic flash of insight by a heroic individual, rather than as the result of sustained experiment and reasoning. For example, Newton's law of universal gravitation is commonly presented as the result of an apple falling upon his head. Newton's observation of an apple falling part in starting him thinking about the problem, but it took him about twenty years to develop the theory fully and so the story of the apple has been described as a myth. Other unscientific misconceptions include the idea that bats are blind. The extent to which it occurs and is problematic is debatable. The scientific historian Douglas Allchin suggests that mythical accounts are misleading because they present the results as handed down by authority figures and understate the importance of error and its resolution by the scientific method. In responding to this, Westerlund and Fairbanks agreed that romantic accounts of science tend to distort its nature but, in the case of Mendel's discovery of the rules of inheritance, they


id: scishow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SciShow-0.md
category: reference
title: SciShow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SciShow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:31.868853+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scishow-20260505-0
summary:
SciShow is a collection of YouTube channels that focuses on science news. The program is hosted by Hank Green along with a rotating cast of co-hosts. SciShow was launched as an original channel. The series has been consistently releasing new material since it was created in 2012. Since its launch, three additional channels have been launched under the SciShow brand: SciShow Space, SciShow Psych, and SciShow Kids. == History and funding == The channel was launched as an "original channel", which meant that YouTube funded the channel. The show's initial grant was projected to expire in 2014, and in response, on September 12, 2013, SciShow joined the viewer-funding site Subbable, created in part by Green. In 2014, the channel landed a national advertisement deal with YouTube. The educational program was featured on platforms such as billboards and television commercials as a result. Green details that the advertisements had a positive effect on SciShow, stating, "My Twitter exploded, our followers and subscribers exploded." After Patreon acquired Subbable, the channel switched over to Patreon where it continues to receive support in exchange for various perks. SciShow currently has over four thousand patrons. == Production and hosting == Though Green hosts the majority


id: skype-a-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_a_Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Skype a Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_a_Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:33.169468+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skype-a-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Skype a Scientist is a nonprofit educational organization based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, that enables scientists to video conference with students in classrooms. It began as an informal program in 2017, founded by Sarah McAnulty while she was a graduate student at the University of Connecticut. As of 2019, almost 15,000 classrooms and over 7,000 scientists from a total of 43 countries had participated in video conferencing sessions. == History == Sarah McAnulty came up with the idea for Skype a Scientist in 2016 while she was a graduate student in molecular and cell biology at the University of Connecticut in Storrs. Inspiration for the program came from the growing distrust of scientists and the rise of anti-intellectualism in US society. McAnulty was concerned that scientists were portrayed in media as "cold and calculating" and aimed to connect people with scientists through video conferencing to dispel those stereotypes, and to "get people trusting scientists again". In 2017, McAnulty matched volunteer scientists with teachers and classrooms by hand using a Google spreadsheet, which she shared repeatedly on Twitter and Tumblr. She collected information from scientists and teachers and matched them based on their time zones and type of scientist requested if available.


id: steam-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEAM_education-0.md
category: reference
title: STEAM education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEAM_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:34.482351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steam-education-20260505-0
summary:
STEAM (science, technology, engineering, art, and mathematics) education is an expanded approach to teaching science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), an interdisciplinary and integrated teaching method for those four subjects. STEAM expands on STEM education by including the arts. STEAM programs aim to teach students innovation, to think critically, and to use engineering or technology in imaginative designs or creative approaches to real-world problems while building on students' mathematics and science base. == Program examples == Examples of state-based STEAM programs, guidance or related resources in the United States include: Ohio's Quality Model for STEM and STEAM Schools. By Ohio statute, a STEAM school is designated as a type of STEM school. In May 2014, Rhode Island created the STEAM Now Coalition. In 2017, Nevada enacted legislation for the creation of a State Seal of STEM Program and a State Seal of STEAM Program. The STEAM seal is given to students who have "high level of proficiency in science, technology, engineering, the arts and mathematics." In South Carolina, the South Carolina State Department of Education created the South Carolina STEAM Implementation Continuum "to provide statewide guidance and consistency with regard to STEAM implementation". Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) in


id: stem-in-30-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_in_30-0.md
category: reference
title: STEM in 30
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_in_30
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:36.806693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stem-in-30-20260505-0
summary:
STEM in 30 is a non-commercial online science educational program for middle school students produced by the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. The show is hosted by science-educators Marty Kelsey and Beth Wilson. The program is released on a monthly basis throughout the school year free through the museum's website, YouTube and social media as well as broadcast on NASA-TV. Each episode is typically a half hour and features special guests and different science, math, engineering or technology topics. Since first broadcasting in 2014, the program has covered dozens of topics including the NASA's Apollo program, Tuskegee Airmen, astronaut training, the Wright brothers and the Orion program. While the program is often based in one of the two locations of the National Air and Space Museum, the show has also been filmed on location in New York City, Seattle, Boston, Detroit, Houston, in Hurricane Florence and on the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower. The first four seasons of the show were broadcast live with a student audience. With its fifth season, STEM in 30 has switched its format to a pre-taped show along with a "Mission Debrief" a week later featuring a topic expert. The


id: stem-pipeline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_pipeline-0.md
category: reference
title: STEM pipeline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_pipeline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:38.037566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stem-pipeline-20260505-0
summary:
The STEM pipeline is the educational pathway for students in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The start and end of this STEM pipeline are disputed, but it is often considered to begin in early education and extend into graduation or an adult career in STEM. Recent research suggests that, rather than a pipeline, students follow a pathway with multiple points of entry and exit throughout their education. == Description == The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions. The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.” Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks”


id: stem-pipeline-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_pipeline-1.md
category: reference
title: STEM pipeline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_pipeline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:38.037566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stem-pipeline-20260505-0
summary:
== Educational attainment factors == High Schools in the United States implement a STEM pipeline program that combines a dual pathway that enhances mathematical, engineering, and scientific skills along with a supportive group that aims to help underrepresented students aspire to become leaders in the STEM field. Students benefit from the moral support and motivational skills that mentors implement for their correct academic preparation. Teachers, and college mentors become in the life of the students in the program a guidance in their path to be the next generation of leaders. Furthermore, staff members aid students to feel integrated and cared for their well-being. In their path to pursue higher education in the STEM fields, underrepresented students are awarded scholarships that aid them throughout their college years. Scholarships are a factor that allows underrepresented to focus on their academic and allows them to be persistent throughout their years in college. The STEM pipeline program provides a multitude of workshops, and extracurricular activities to work on social and professional development. Moreover, it arranges networking with minorities that went through the program and now currently work in the science, or health field. In addition, to the benefits as an alumnus of the program,


id: stemulator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEMulator-0.md
category: reference
title: STEMulator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEMulator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:39.213035+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stemulator-20260505-0
summary:
The STEMulator is an online educational platform developed by the National Science and Technology Forum (NSTF) in South Africa. Launched in July 2020, it provides digital resources to support Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education for students. The platform provides content aligned with the South African school curriculum for STEM subjects. == History == The STEMulator was established under the NSTF’s proSET program, a network focused on advancing STEM education and professional development. It was launched in July 2020, providing interactive digital tools related to STEM subjects. The platform was launched during a period of South Africa’s STEM skills shortage, with sources noting that 80% of future jobs may require STEM expertise. In 2022, offline USB distributions were provided to 150 rural schools. A virtual school feature was introduced on 16 June 2024. == Features == The STEMulator offers an interactive interface with content aligned to the South African school curriculum, covering topics such as engineering and technology. The platform’s virtual world includes interactive elements depicting the structures and functions of objects related to STEM concepts. The platform includes a virtual world with animated content, such as representations of biological and mechanical systems. In June 2024, modules on science


id: student-spaceflight-experiments-program-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Spaceflight_Experiments_Program-0.md
category: reference
title: Student Spaceflight Experiments Program
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Spaceflight_Experiments_Program
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:40.484413+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: student-spaceflight-experiments-program-20260505-0
summary:
The Student Spaceflight Experiments Program (SSEP) provides an opportunity for student groups from upper elementary school through university to design and fly microgravity experiments in low Earth orbit (LEO). SSEP is a program of the National Center for Earth and Space Science Education (NCESSE, a project of the Tides Center), the Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Space Education, and the private space hardware company NanoRacks. SSEP operates under a Space Act Agreement between the sponsoring organizations and NASA, allowing the International Space Station (ISS) to be utilized as a national laboratory. == History == The program was launched in June 2010, by NCESSE in the U.S. and by the Clarke Institute internationally. As of 2018, SSEP has sponsored fourteen missions to LEO – two on board the Space Shuttle, and twelve to the ISS – with a thirteenth mission to the ISS announced in March 2018, and expected to fly in the spring/summer of 2019. In the first fourteen SSEP flight opportunities, 86,800 students in grades 5 through 16 (senior undergraduate in the U.S. higher education system) participated in experiment design and proposal writing. Of 18,759 proposals received, a total of 240 experiments were selected for flight, with one from


id: teacher-in-space-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Teacher in Space Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:44.331540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teacher-in-space-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Teacher in Space Project (TISP) was a NASA program announced by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in 1984 designed to inspire students, honor teachers, and spur interest in mathematics, science, and space exploration. The project would carry teachers into space as payload specialists (non-astronaut civilians), who would return to their classrooms to share the experience with their students. NASA cancelled the program in 1990, following the death of its first participant, Christa McAuliffe, in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (STS-51-L) on January 28, 1986. NASA replaced Teachers in Space in 1998 with the Educator Astronaut Project, which required its participants to become astronaut Mission Specialists. The first Educator Astronauts were selected as part of NASA Astronaut Group 19 in 2004. Barbara Morgan, who was selected as a mission specialist as part of NASA Astronaut Group 17 in 1998, has often been incorrectly referred to as an Educator Astronaut. However, she was selected as a mission specialist before the Educator Astronaut Project. == NASA programs == TISP was announced by President Ronald Reagan on August 27, 1984, during a speech on education policy in Washington, D.C. Rather than being inducted as members of NASA's Astronaut Corps, the teachers would fly as


id: teacher-in-space-project-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project-1.md
category: reference
title: Teacher in Space Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:44.331540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teacher-in-space-project-20260505-0
summary:
== Teacher in Space Education Foundation == The Teacher in Space Education Foundation was established by the 114 teacher nominees on January 26, 1986, with the goal of supporting public education, particularly in space-science-related topics. McAuliffe was named the foundation's honorary president, Morgan its vice president, and the other eight finalists its board of directors. After the disaster, the foundation merged with a similar organization founded by the families of the seven astronauts to create the Challenger Center for Space Science Education, which operates dozens of Challenger Learning Centers across America and supports educational programs. == Private program == In the early 21st century, the Teacher in Space project was revived in the private sector. The development of reusable, suborbital launch vehicles by commercial companies makes it possible for nonprofit groups to contemplate sending large numbers of teachers into space. The new Teachers in Space program began in 2005. In March 2005, Teacher in Space candidate Pam Leestma, a second-grade teacher and cousin of Space Shuttle astronaut David Leestma, completed a training flight aboard a MiG-21 operated by X-Rocket, LLC. Armadillo Aerospace, Masten Space Systems, PlanetSpace, Rocketplane Limited, Inc., and XCOR Aerospace pledged flights to the new Teachers in Space


id: teacher-institute-for-evolutionary-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Teacher Institute for Evolutionary Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:45.535649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teacher-institute-for-evolutionary-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Teacher Institute for Evolutionary Science (TIES) is a project of the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science and a program of the Center for Inquiry which provides free workshops and materials to elementary, middle school, and, more recently, high school science teachers to enable them to effectively teach evolution based on the Next Generation Science Standards. == History == In 2013, Bertha Vazquez, TIES director and middle school science teacher in Miami, met Richard Dawkins at the University of Miami and discussed evolution education with him and a number of science professors. The discussion surrounded the issue of teachers feeling unprepared to teach evolution. This encounter and the understanding that teachers learn the most from each other inspired her to conduct workshops on evolution for her fellow teachers. After hearing about Vazquez's work, Dawkins followed up with a visit to Vazquez's school in 2014 to speak to teachers from the Miami-Dade County school district. Dawkins eventually asked Vazquez if she would be willing to take her workshop project nationwide. With the encouragement of Dawkins and funding from his foundation, and also with encouragement from Robyn Blumner of the Center for Inquiry, the Teacher Institute for Evolutionary Science began


id: things-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Things_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Things of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Things_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:46.820332+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: things-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Things of Science was an educational program launched by the nonprofit news syndicate Science Service in November 1940. The program consisted of a series of kits available by subscription and sent by mail monthly. The program continued until 1989. As of 2018, there is no mention of the program or its archives on the website of the Society for Science & the Public, which succeeded the old Science Service organization. Each month, thousands of subscribers received a small blue box about the size of a videocassette containing some material such as nylon thread or dinosaur bones. The box contained a yellow booklet explaining the topic for that month, along with the pieces and supplies needed to cover the topic. Some kits would teach about a specific topic, such as coal, static electricity, mechanical linkages, nonwoven fabrics, electroplating, or optical illusions. Other kits would provide parts to build items such as a small spectrograph, telescope, or pinhole camera. In addition to the monthly subscription, some kits were available for individual purchase, such as a "soilless gardening" unit which provided seeds, plant food, and instructions in hydroponics. Some kits contained basic materials for simple experiments in psychology. The modest annual subscription price


id: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study-0.md
category: reference
title: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:48.108256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-0
summary:
The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA)'s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is a series of international assessments of the mathematics and science knowledge of students around the world. The participating students come from a diverse set of educational systems (countries or regional jurisdictions of countries) in terms of economic development, geographical location, and population size. In each of the participating educational systems, a minimum of 4,000 to 5,000 students is evaluated. Contextual data about the conditions in which participating students learn mathematics and science are collected from the students and their teachers, their principals, and their parents via questionnaires. TIMSS is one of the studies established by IEA aimed at allowing educational systems worldwide to compare students' educational achievement and learn from the experiences of others in designing effective education policy. This assessment was first conducted in 1995, and has been administered every four years thereafter. Therefore, some of the participating educational systems have trend data across assessments from 1995 to 2023. TIMSS assesses 4th and 8th grade students, while TIMSS Advanced assesses students in the final year of secondary school in advanced mathematics and physics. == Definition of terms == "Eighth grade"


id: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study-1.md
category: reference
title: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:48.108256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-0
summary:
== Method, data and documentation == Along with the overall students' achievement data, TIMSS comprehensive assessments include data on student performance in various mathematics and science domains (algebra, geometry, biology, chemistry, etc.) and on performance in the problem solving challenges in each of these contexts. In addition, TIMSS provides contextual data on crucial curricular, instructional, and resource-related factors that can impact the teaching and learning process. These data are gathered using student, teacher, school, and curriculum (national) questionnaires filled out by students, teachers, school principals and National Research Coordinators, respectively. According to the TIMSS 2019 Assessment Frameworks, "The TIMSS mathematics and science achievement scales were created with the first TIMSS assessment in 1995, separately for each subject and each grade. The scale units were established so that 100 points on the scale was equivalent to one standard deviation of the distribution of achievement across all of the countries that participated in TIMSS 1995, and the scale midpoint of 500 was located at the mean of this international achievement distribution. The TIMSS achievement scales were first used for reporting TIMSS results with TIMSS 1995, and all results from subsequent TIMSS assessments have been reported on the same scale metrics, making it


id: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study-2.md
category: reference
title: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:48.108256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-0
summary:
=== TIMSS 2015 === In TIMSS 2015, nationally representative samples of students in 57 countries and 7 benchmarking entities participated in the fourth grade assessment, the eighth grade assessment, or both. ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== === TIMSS 2011 === TIMSS 2011 had 52 participating educational systems for the fourth grade and 45 for the eighth grade. ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== === TIMSS 2007 === In TIMSS 2007, 43 educational systems participated in the fourth grade and 56 educational systems in the eighth grade. ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== === TIMSS 2003 === In TIMSS 2003, there were 26 educational systems for the fourth grade and 48 for the eighth grade. ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== === TIMSS 1999 === In 1999, TIMSS only focused on the eighth grade in 38 educational systems; there was no study done for the fourth grade in that year. ==== Eighth grade ==== === TIMSS 1995 === In TIMSS 1995, there were 41 educational systems in five grades (third, fourth, seventh, eighth, and the final year of secondary school). ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== == Additional initiatives ==


id: two-eyed-seeing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing-0.md
category: reference
title: Two-Eyed Seeing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:49.316630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-eyed-seeing-20260505-0
summary:
Two-Eyed Seeing (Mi'kmaq: Etuaptmumk) is a basis in viewing the world through both Western and Indigenous knowledges and worldviews. Two-Eyed Seeing was introduced by Mi'kmaq Elders Albert D. Marshall and Murdena Marshall from Eskasoni First Nation, alongside professor Cheryl Bartlett. Albert Marshall describes Two-Eyed Seeing as an approach to viewing the world "from one eye with the strengths of Indigenous ways of knowing, and to see from the other eye with the strengths of Western ways of knowing, and to use both of these eyes together". Two-Eyed Seeing was originally brought forward as a tactic to encourage Mi'kmaq university students to pursue an education in science. Since its implementation, the use of Two-Eyed Seeing has been integrated into various institutions' strategic plans, government policies, and research, some of which include the Canadian Institute of Health Research. == Background == === Integrative Science === In the 1990s, Murdena and Albert Marshall, and Cheryl Bartlett, began a grassroots effort to encourage Indigenous students to participate in science and science-related programs at Cape Breton University (CBU), by developing a science curriculum of both Mi'kmaw and other Indigenous knowledges (IK) and ways of knowing, with mainstream/western knowledge. Its inception began when Bartlett asked Murdena


id: two-eyed-seeing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing-1.md
category: reference
title: Two-Eyed Seeing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:49.316630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-eyed-seeing-20260505-0
summary:
In the Mi'kmaq language, Toqwa'tu'kl Kjijitaqnn (Integrative Science) evokes the idea of bringing knowledge together using the principles of Two-Eyed Seeing. The Two-Eyed Seeing approach is a method of education within Integrative Science that takes on a more holistic, multidisciplinary, and trans-cultural interpretation of the natural world and beyond. The advancement of Integrative Science may pose certain challenges, some of which include differences in interpretation among Indigenous and Western knowledge, differences in knowledge transfer, and available resources. Philosophical differences among Western and Indigenous knowledge can lead to interpretation problems when attempting to understand the environment from both perspectives, for both the educators, researchers, and learners. Western-trained academics and researchers can unconsciously or consciously categorize it within classifications to understand the concept within Western science philosophies, missing the foundational make-up of Indigenous knowledge as fluid, adaptable and continuously evolving. Students may encounter differing responses to the decolonization of discussion and curricula, some of which have included frustration with peers who are not at the same level of comprehension. There can be an added pressure on Indigenous students who can be seen as experts on the subject and be called upon to share their 'expertise'. Indigenous knowledges can be seen as living


id: university-of-auckland-faculty-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Auckland_Faculty_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Auckland Faculty of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Auckland_Faculty_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:50.608038+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-auckland-faculty-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The University of Auckland Faculty of Science (Māori: Te Whare Pūtaiao) is one of eight faculties and schools that make up the University of Auckland. == Location == The Faculty of Science houses several Schools, Departments and Institutes. These are based in various locations, including the City Campus, Newmarket Campus, Leigh Campus, Tāmaki Innovation Campus and the Grafton Campus. In November 2013, the Faculty of Science embarked on a NZ$200m redevelopment/expansion project on its main buildings in the City Campus. Following multiple delays, the state-of-the-art Science Centre was opened in July 2017. The Faculty of Science administration office is based on level 6 of the new Science Centre. In 2018, design work has begun for the potential development of a new "Gateway building" on Symonds Street to replace the Thomas Building Complex for the School of Biological Sciences. == Divisions == The Faculty of Science comprises the following Schools and Departments: School of Biological Sciences School of Chemical Sciences School of Computer Science School of Environment Institute of Marine Science Department of Mathematics Department of Physics School of Psychology Department of Exercise Sciences Department of Statistics The Faculty of Science also hosts several research institutes and centres: Bioinformatics Institute Centre


id: vega-science-trust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_Science_Trust-0.md
category: reference
title: Vega Science Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_Science_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:51.911609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vega-science-trust-20260505-0
summary:
The Vega Science Trust was a not-for-profit organisation which provided a platform from which scientists can communicate directly with the public on science by using moving image, sound and other related means. The Trust closed in 2012 but the website and streaming video remains active (based at Sheffield University). == History == Founded in 1995 by Nobel Laureate Sir Harry Kroto and BBC Education Producer Patrick Reams the Vega Science Trust was awarded a COPUS start-up grant from the Royal Society in 1995 and then went on in 1999 to be allocated core funding from the Office of Science and Technology (OST). Starting with recording science programmes for terrestrial television the Vega Science Trust produced a number of programmes such as recordings of Royal Institution Discources which were broadcast on BBC 2 and a set of Masterclasses. In 2001 Harry Kroto was awarded the Royal Society Michael Faraday Prize - the UK's premier award for science communication 'for his dedication to the notion of working scientists being communicators of their work and in particular for his establishment of the Vega Science Trust whose films and related activities reflect the excitement of scientific discovery to the public'. The Trust went on


id: visq-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VISQ-0.md
category: reference
title: VISQ
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VISQ
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:53.166010+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: visq-20260505-0
summary:
VISQ (Portuguese acronym for "Variables that Interact Semi-Quantitatively") is a scientific-educational software developed using Carnegie-Mellon's cT, in the year of 1993 by M. Thielo (as a physics undergrad at the time), based on Jon Ogborn ideas for semi-quantitative modeling of dynamical systems, for both MS-DOS and Macintosh systems (in 2012 the author published a new, Windows compatible version). Awarded by the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) in 1994, the system is based on the theory of continuous neural networks, and have been used in many research projects since then, mainly in Master and Doctoral Dissertations in the area of environmental education. An introduction to VISQ (in Portuguese) can be found at the university site, and the software can be freely downloaded from the author's site == References == == External links == [1] Download MS-DOS Version of VISQ [2] Reference manual (English) [3] Archived 2009-09-26 at the Wayback Machine Representing Semiquantitative Variables with VISQ (in Portuguese) [4] Journal Article containing a case study with the program, published in the International Journal of Computer Assisted Learning [5] Animated example of a semiquantitative model running in VISQ.


id: you-can-with-beakman-and-jax-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Can_with_Beakman_and_Jax-0.md
category: reference
title: You Can with Beakman and Jax
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Can_with_Beakman_and_Jax
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:55.869375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: you-can-with-beakman-and-jax-20260505-0
summary:
You Can with Beakman and Jax, also known in its Spanish-language version as El Mundo de Beakman ("The World of Beakman"), is an American science and education syndicated comic strip by Jok Church, which ran from July 14, 1991 to July 17, 2016. The comic strip, and associated television series, featured facts about science and languages. The comic strip is a text-based comic, that answers readers' questions, with illustrations of the main characters, various objects, and, or the experiments being discussed. It is run as a single panel comic that appears in newspapers as a color, or black and white Sunday feature, in either a quarter-page strip, or half-tab format. The comic has reached a readership of fifty-two million readers in thirteen countries. About 80% of the letters it receives are from females. From its comic origins, its lead character Beakman would later star in his own live action television series, Beakman's World. The comic also branched out into other media, gaining numerous awards along the way. Its author died of a heart attack on April 29, 2016, after which the comic continued for nearly three months. Jok's final remaining comic was published on July 17, 2016, just three days


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The ethics of technology is a sub-field of ethics addressing ethical questions specific to the technology age, the transitional shift in society wherein personal computers and subsequent devices provide for the quick and easy transfer of information. Technology ethics is the application of ethical thinking to growing concerns as new technologies continue to rise in prominence. The topic has evolved as technologies have developed. Technology poses an ethical dilemma on producers and consumers alike. The subject of technoethics, or the ethical implications of technology, have been studied by different philosophers such as Hans Jonas and Mario Bunge. == Technoethics == Technoethics (TE) is an interdisciplinary research area that draws on theories and methods from multiple knowledge domains (such as communications, social sciences, information studies, technology studies, applied ethics, and philosophy) to provide insights on ethical dimensions of technological systems and practices for advancing a technological society. Technoethics views technology and ethics as socially embedded enterprises and focuses on discovering the ethical uses for technology, protecting against the misuse of technology, and devising common principles to guide new advances in technological development and application to benefit society. Typically, scholars in technoethics have a tendency to conceptualize technology and ethics as interconnected


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
== Definitions == Ethics address the issues of what is 'right', what is 'just', and what is 'fair'. Ethics describe moral principles influencing conduct; accordingly, the study of ethics focuses on the actions and values of people in society (what people do and how they believe they should act in the world). Technology is the branch of knowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment; it may draw upon a variety of fields, including industrial arts, engineering, applied science, and pure science. Technology "is core to human development and a key focus for understanding human life, society and human consciousness." Using theories and methods from multiple domains, technoethics provides insights on ethical aspects of technological systems and practices, examines technology-related social policies and interventions, and provides guidelines for how to ethically use new advancements in technology. Technoethics provides a systems theory and methodology to guide a variety of separate areas of inquiry into human-technological activity and ethics. Moreover, the field unites both technocentric and bio-centric philosophies, providing "conceptual grounding to clarify the role of technology to those affected by it and to help guide ethical problem solving and


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
== History of technoethics == Though the ethical consequences of new technologies have existed since Socrates' attack on writing in Plato's dialogue Phaedrus, the formal field of technoethics had only existed for a few decades. The first traces of TE can be seen in Dewey and Peirce's pragmatism. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, it was easy to see that technological advances were going to influence human activity. This is why they put emphasis on the responsible use of technology. The term "technoethics" was coined in 1977 by the philosopher Mario Bunge to describe the responsibilities of technologists and scientists to develop ethics as a branch of technology. Bunge argued that the current state of technological progress was guided by ungrounded practices based on limited empirical evidence and trial-and-error learning. He recognized that "the technologist must be held not only technically but also morally responsible for whatever he designs or executes: not only should his artifacts be optimally efficient but, far from being harmful, they should be beneficial, and not only in the short run but also in the long term." He recognized a pressing need in society to create a new field called 'technoethics' to discover rationally grounded


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-3.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technological consciousness === Technological consciousness is the relationship between humans and technology. Technology is seen as an integral component of human consciousness and development. Technology, consciousness and society are intertwined in a relational process of creation that is key to human evolution. Technology is rooted in the human mind, and is made manifest in the world in the form of new understandings and artifacts. The process of technological consciousness frames the inquiry into ethical responsibility concerning technology by grounding technology in human life. The structure of technological consciousness is relational but also situational, organizational, aspectual and integrative. Technological consciousness situates new understandings by creating a context of time and space. As well, technological consciousness organizes disjointed sequences of experience under a sense of unity that allows for a continuity of experience. The aspectual component of technological consciousness recognizes that individuals can only be conscious of aspects of an experience, not the whole thing. For this reason, technology manifests itself in processes that can be shared with others. The integrative characteristics of technological consciousness are assimilation, substitution and conversation. Assimilation allows for unfamiliar experiences to be integrated with familiar ones. Substitution is a metaphorical process allowing for complex experiences to


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-4.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Human knowledge processes Workplace discrimination Strained work-life balance in technologically enhanced work environments: Many people find that simply having the technology allowing one to do work while at home increases stress levels. In a recent study 70% of respondents said that since technology, work has crept into their personal lives. Digital divide: Inequalities in information access for parts of the population Unequal opportunities for scientific and technological development Norris says access to information and knowledge resources within a knowledge society tend to favour the economically privileged who have greater access to technological tools needed to access information and knowledge resources disseminated online and the privatization of knowledge Inequality in terms of how scientific and technological knowledge is developed around the globe. Developing countries do not have the same opportunities as developed countries to invest in costly large-scale research and expensive research facilities and instrumentation Organizational responsibility and accountability issues Intellectual property ownership issues Information overload: Information processing theory asserts that working memory that has a limited capacity and too much information can lead to cognitive overload resulting in loss of information from short-term memory Knowledge society is intertwined with changing technology requiring new skills of its workforce. Cutler says that


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-5.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Cybercrime can consist of many subcategories and can be referred to as a big umbrella. Cyber theft such as online fraud, identity theft, and digital piracy can be classified as one sector. Another section of cybercrime can include cyber-violence which can be defined as online behavior that can be anywhere from hate speeches, harassment, cyberstalking, to behavior that leads to physical, psychological, or emotional assault against the well-being of an individual. Cyber obscenity is another section when child sexual exploitation materials are involved. Cyber trespass is when there is unauthorized computer system access. Cybercrime can encompass many other sections where technology and computers are used to assist and commit various forms of crimes. For many years , new technologies took an important place in social, cultural, political, and economic life. Thanks to the democratization of informatics access and the network's globalization, the number of exchanges and transaction is in perpetual progress. In the article, "The Dark Figure of Online Property Crime: Is Cyberspace Hiding a Crime Wave?", the authors analyze evidence that reveals cyber criminality rates are increasing as the typical street crimes gradually decrease. With the increase in cyber criminality, it is imperative to research more information on how


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-6.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) ==== Genetically modified foods have become quite common in developed countries around the world, boasting greater yields, higher nutritional value, and greater resistance to pests, but there are still many ethical concerns regarding their use. Even commonplace genetically modified crops like corn raise questions of the ecological consequences of unintended cross pollination, potential horizontal gene transfer, and other unforeseen health concerns for humans and animals. Trademarked organisms like the "Glofish" are a relatively new occurrence. These zebrafish, genetically modified to appear in several fluorescent colours and sold as pets in the United States, could have unforeseen effects on freshwater environments were they ever to breed in the wild. Providing they receive approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), another new type of fish may be arriving soon. The "AquAdvantage salmon", engineered to reach maturity within roughly 18 months (as opposed to three years in the wild), could help meet growing global demand. There are health and environmental concerns associated with the introduction any new GMO, but more importantly this scenario highlights the potential economic impact a new product may have. The FDA does perform an economic impact analysis to weigh, for example, the


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-7.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recent developments === Despite the amassing body of scholarly work related to technoethics beginning in the 1970s, only recently has it become institutionalized and recognized as an important interdisciplinary research area and field of study. In 1998, the Epson Foundation founded the Instituto de Tecnoética in Spain under the direction of Josep Esquirol. This institute has actively promoted technoethical scholarship through awards, conferences, and publications. This helped encourage scholarly work for a largely European audience. The major driver for the emergence of technoethics can be attributed to the publication of major reference works available in English and circulated globally. The "Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics" included a section on technoethics which helped bring it into mainstream philosophy. This helped to raise further interest leading to the publication of the first reference volume in the English language dedicated to the emerging field of Technoethics. The two volume Handbook of Research on Technoethics explores the complex connections between ethics and the rise of new technologies (e.g., life-preserving technologies, stem cell research, cloning technologies, new forms of surveillance and anonymity, computer networks, Internet advancement, etc.) This recent major collection provides the first comprehensive examination of technoethics and its various branches from


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-8.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Technology and ethics during the coronavirus pandemic ==== As of April 20, 2020 there has been over 43 contract tracing apps available globally. Countries are in the process of creating their own methods of digitally tracing coronavirus status (symptoms, confirmed infected, exposed). Apple and Google are working together on a shared solution that helps with contract tracing around the world. Since this is a global pandemic with no end in sight, the restriction of some fundamental rights and freedoms may be ethically justifiable. It may be unethical to not use these tracing solutions to slow the spread. The European Convention on Human Rights, the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the United Nations Siracusa Principles all indicate when it is ethical to restrict the rights of the population to prevent the spread of infectious disease. All three documents cite that the circumstances for restricting rights must be time-bound, meet standards of necessity, proportionality, and scientific validity. We must evaluate if the gravity of the situation justifies the potential negative impact, if the evidence shows that the technology will work, is timely, will be adopted by enough people and yields accurate data and insights, and evaluate


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-9.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Artificial intelligence ==== Artificial intelligence is a large range of technology that deals with building smart machines and data processing so tasks can be performed by machines that are normally completed by humans. AI may prove to be beneficial to human life, but it can also quickly become pervasive and dangerous. Changes in AI are difficult to anticipate and understand, such as employers spying on workers, facial recognition, deep fakes, etc. Along with AI, the algorithms used to implement the technology may prove to be biased which can have detrimental effects on individuals. For example, in facial recognition technology, the AI may be proven to be biased toward different ethnic and racial groups than others. These challenges have social, racial, ethical, and economic implications. ==== Deepfakes ==== Deepfake is a form of media in which one existing image or video is replaced or altered by someone else. Altering may include acting out fake content, false advertisement, hoaxes, and financial fraud. The technology of deepfakes may also use machine learning or artificial intelligence. Deepfakes propose an ethical dilemma due to how accessible they are as well as the implications on one's integrity it may cause to viewers. Deepfakes reconsider the


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-10.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== User data ==== In a digital world, much of users' personal lives are stored on devices such as computers and smartphones, and we trust the companies we store our lives on to take care of our data. A topic of discussion regarding the ethics of technology is just exactly how much data these companies really need and what they are doing with it. Another major cause for concern is the security of our personal data and privacy, whether it is leaked intentionally or not. User data has been one of the main topics regarding ethics as companies and government entities increasingly have access to billions of users' information. Why do companies need so much data regarding their users and are users aware that their data is being tacked? These questions have risen over the years over concerns of how much do companies actually know. Some websites and apps now ask users if they are allowed to track user activity across different apps with the option to decline. Most companies before did not ask or notify users that their app activity would be tracked. Companies over the years have been facing an increased number of data hacks where user's data


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-11.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Facebook, or rather Meta Platforms, Facebook's parent company is currently one of the top social networking sites, throughout the early to late 2010s and into current times (2022). A variety of issues ranging from privacy concerns, the issue of who bears the responsibility of unhealthy social interactions and other unhealthy behaviors, to deliberate enabling of misinformation on the platform. Recent issues such as Facebook data leaks and circulation of fake news highlights the downside of social media when in the wrong hands. following are a few examples of various ethical concerns raised throughout the years in relation to Facebook. === Federal Trade Commission v. Facebook === A recent Forbes interview conducted on October 22, 2021, by Curt Steinhorst, a contributor for Forbes, with Michael Thate, an ethics teacher employed at Princeton University, asserts that in addition to the Federal Trade Commission v. Facebook ruling determining that Facebook had engaged in unethical antitrust behaviors with the acquisition of its competing social media platforms Instagram and WhatsApp, "Facebook developed an algorithm to capture user attention and information into a platform that they knew promoted unhealthy behaviors." Firstly the unethical acquisition of smaller competing social media platforms restricts free-market practices and restricts users'


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-12.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mass surveillance === The ethics behind mass surveillance has become a highly discussed ethical topic in the twenty-first century, especially in the United States due to the tragedy of 9/11. Some areas of ethical concern involve privacy, discrimination, trust in government, infringement of government-granted rights/basic human rights, conflict of interest, stigmatization, and obtrusiveness. Many of these ethical topics in the timeframe between 2001 and 2021 have become the main topic of discussion in many recent laws all throughout the world. Shortly after 9/11 when the United States began to fear the idea that more terrorist attacks could occur on American soil. A law passed on October 26, 2001, known as the Patriot Act was one of the first larger Mass Surveillance laws passed in the United States. Years later, Europe would begin to follow suit with their own set of mass surveillance laws after a string of terrorist attacks. After the 2015 terrorist attacks in France, the French government would move forward with passing the International Electronic Communications Law. The IEC would recognize the power of the French Directorate-General for External Security allowing them to collect, monitor, and intercept all communications sent or received on French territory. In 2016,


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-13.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technofeminism === Technoethics has concerned itself with society as a general group and made no distinctions between the genders, but considers technological effects and influences on each gender individually. This is an important consideration as some technologies are created for use by a specific gender, including birth control, abortion, fertility treatments, and Viagra. Feminists have had a significant influence on the prominence and development of reproductive technologies. Technoethical inquiry must examine these technologies' effects on the intended gender while also considering their influence on the other gender. Another dimension of technofeminism concerns female involvement in technological development: women's participation in the field of technology has broadened society's understanding of how technology affects the female experience in society. === Information and communication technoethics === Information and communication technoethics is "concerned with ethical issues and responsibilities arising when dealing with information and communication technology in the realm of communication." This field is related to internet ethics, rational and ethical decision making models, and information ethics. A major area of interest is the convergence of technologies: as technologies become more interdependent and provide people with multiple ways of accessing the same information, they transform society and create new ethical dilemmas. This is


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-14.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Ensure that the components and relations within the technological system are explicitly understood by those in the design context. Perform a TEA to identify relevant technical knowledge. Optimize the technological system in order to meet stakeholders' and affected individuals' needs and interests. Consult with representatives of stakeholder and affected groups in order to establish consensus on key design issues. Both TEA and TED rely on systems theory, a perspective that conceptualizes society in terms of events and occurrences resulting from investigating system operations. Systems theory assumes that complex ideas can be studied as systems with common designs and properties which can be further explained using systems methodology. The field of technoethics regards technologies as self-producing systems that draw upon external resources and maintain themselves through knowledge creation; these systems, of which humans are a part, are constantly in flux as relations between technology, nature, and society change. TEA attempts to elicit the knowledge, goals, inputs, and outputs that comprise technological systems. Similarly, TED enables designers to recognize technology's complexity and power, to include facts and values in their designs, and to contextualize technology in terms of what it makes possible and what makes it possible. == Organizational technoethics == Recent


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-15.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:57.701034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Organizations === Ethics and Emerging Sciences Group W. Maurice Centre for Applied Ethics United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO Institute for Ethics in Artificial intelligence Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies Institute for Ethics in AI === Technoethics === Ahmad Al Khabaz vs Dawson college Adam-swartz case Bagheri, A. (2011). The Impact of the UNESCO Declaration in Asian and Global Bioethics. Asian Bioethics Review, Vol. 3(2), 52–64. Bolter, J. D., Grusin, R., & Grusin, R. A. (2000). Remediation: Understanding new media. MIT Press. Borgmann, A. (1984). Technology and the character of contemporary life: A philosophical inquiry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Coyne, R., 1995, Designing information technology in the postmodern age: From method to metaphor. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. Castells, M. (2000). The rise of the network society. The information age: economy, society and culture (Vol. 1). Malden, UK: Blackwell. Canada Foundation for Innovation: www.innovation.ca Puig de la Bellacasa, M. (2017). Matters of care: speculative ethics in more than human worlds. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Dreyfus, H.L., 1999, "Anonymity versus commitment: The dangers of education on the internet," Ethics and Information Technology, 1/1, p. 15-20, 1999 Gert, Bernard. 1999, "Common Morality and Computing," Ethics and Information


id: ai-now-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_Now_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: AI Now Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_Now_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:59.340721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ai-now-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The AI Now Institute (AI Now) is an American research institute studying the social implications of artificial intelligence and policy research that addresses the concentration of power in the tech industry. AI Now has partnered with organizations such as the Distributed AI Research Institute (DAIR), Data & Society, Ada Lovelace Institute, New York University Tandon School of Engineering, New York University Center for Data Science, Partnership on AI, and the ACLU. AI Now has produced annual reports that examine the social implications of artificial intelligence. In 2021–22, AI Now's leadership served as a Senior Advisors on AI to Chair Lina Khan at the Federal Trade Commission. Its executive director is Amba Kak. == Founding and mission == AI Now grew out of a 2016 symposium organized by Obama's White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. The event was led by Meredith Whittaker, the founder of Google's Open Research Group, and Kate Crawford, a principal researcher at Microsoft Research. The event focused on near-term implications of AI in social domains: Inequality, Labor, Ethics, and Healthcare. In November 2017, AI Now held a second symposium on AI and social issues, and publicly launched the AI Now Institute in partnership with New


id: algorithmic-justice-league-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_Justice_League-0.md
category: reference
title: Algorithmic Justice League
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_Justice_League
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:00.489687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: algorithmic-justice-league-20260505-0
summary:
The Algorithmic Justice League (AJL) is a digital advocacy non-profit organization based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 2016 by computer scientist Joy Buolamwini, the AJL combats the harms and biases of AI by amplifying the voices of communities most affected by AI systems and mobilizing advocates, researchers, and industry leaders to build more equitable and accountable algorithms. The AJL has engaged in a variety of open online seminars, media appearances, and tech advocacy initiatives to communicate information about bias in AI systems and promote industry and government action to mitigate against the creation and deployment of biased AI systems. Most notably, AJL has highlighted racial and gender biases in facial recognition technologies and has advocated for greater transparency and accountability in the datasets used to train these systems. In 2021, Fast Company named AJL as one of the 10 most innovative AI companies in the world. == History == Buolamwini founded the Algorithmic Justice League in 2016 as a graduate student in the MIT Media Lab. While experimenting with facial detection software in her research, she found that the software could not detect her "highly melanated" face until she donned a white mask. After this incident, Buolamwini became inspired to


id: algorithmic-justice-league-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_Justice_League-1.md
category: reference
title: Algorithmic Justice League
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_Justice_League
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:00.489687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: algorithmic-justice-league-20260505-0
summary:
=== Olay Decode the Bias campaign === In September 2021, Olay collaborated with AJL and O'Neil Risk Consulting & Algorithmic Auditing (ORCAA) to conduct the Decode the Bias campaign, which included an audit that explored whether the Olay Skin Advisor (OSA) System included bias against women of color. The AJL chose to collaborate with Olay due to Olay's commitment to obtaining customer consent for their selfies and skin data to be used in this audit. The AJL and ORCAA audit revealed that the OSA system contained bias in its performance across participants' skin color and age. The OSA system demonstrated higher accuracy for participants with lighter skin tones, per the Fitzpatrick Skin Type and individual typology angle skin classification scales. The OSA system also demonstrated higher accuracy for participants aged 30–39. Olay has, since, taken steps to internally audit and mitigate against the bias of the OSA system. Olay has also funded 1,000 girls to attend the Black Girls Code camp, to encourage African-American girls to pursue STEM careers. === CRASH project === In July 2020, the Community Reporting of Algorithmic System Harms (CRASH) Project was launched by AJL. This project began in 2019 when Buolamwini and digital security researcher


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-0.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement that opposes various nuclear technologies. Some direct action groups, environmental movements, and professional organisations have identified themselves with the movement at the local, national, or international level. Major anti-nuclear groups include Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Peace Action, Seneca Women's Encampment for a Future of Peace and Justice and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service. The movement's initial objective was nuclear disarmament, though since the late 1960s, opposition has also included the use of nuclear power. Many anti-nuclear groups oppose both nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The formation of green parties in the 1970s and 1980s was often a direct result of anti-nuclear politics. Scientists and diplomats have debated nuclear weapons policy since before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The public became concerned about nuclear weapons testing from about 1954, following extensive nuclear testing, including the Castle Bravo disaster. In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing. Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s. In the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-1.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
==== Fossil fuels industry ==== The fossil fuel industry starting from the 1950s was engaging in campaigns against the nuclear industry which it perceived as a threat to their commercial interests. Organizations such as the American Petroleum Institute, the Pennsylvania Independent Oil and Gas Association and Marcellus Shale Coalition were engaged in anti-nuclear lobbying in the late 2010s and from 2019, large fossil fuel suppliers started advertising campaigns portraying fossil gas as a "perfect partner for renewables" (wording from Shell and Statoil advertisements). Groups like the Sierra Club, Environmental Defense Fund and Natural Resources Defense Council are receiving grants from other fossil fuel companies. As of 2011, a strategy paper released by Greenpeace titled "Battle of Grids" proposed gradual replacement of nuclear power by fossil gas plants which would provide "flexible backup for wind and solar power". However, Greenpeace has since distanced itself from advocating for fossil gas, instead proposing grid energy storage as a solution to issues caused by intermittent renewable energy. In Germany, the Energiewende, which was advertised as a shift to renewable energy but included a gradual phaseout of nuclear power from 2000 to the end of 2022, caused, among other things, a rise in fossil gas


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-2.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
Nuclear accidents: a safety concern that the core of a nuclear power plant could overheat and melt down, releasing radioactivity. Nuclear Fuel Mining: mining waste of nuclear fuels like uranium and thorium, results in its radioactive decay. That causes radium pollution and radon pollution in environment and ultimately affects public health. Radioactive waste disposal: a concern that nuclear power results in large amounts of radioactive waste, some of which remains dangerous for very long periods. Nuclear proliferation: a concern that some types of nuclear reactor designs use and/or produce fissile material which could be used in nuclear weapons. High cost: a concern that nuclear power plants are very expensive to build, and that clean up from nuclear accidents is highly expensive and can take decades. Attacks on nuclear plants: a concern that terrorists or criminals could target nuclear facilities. Curtailed civil liberties: a concern that the risk of nuclear accidents, proliferation, and terrorism may be used to justify restraints on citizen rights. Of these concerns, nuclear accidents and disposal of long-lived radioactive waste have probably had the greatest public impact worldwide. Anti-nuclear campaigners point to the 2011 Fukushima nuclear emergency as proof that nuclear power can never be 100% safe.


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-3.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
==== Other technologies ==== The international nuclear fusion project, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), is constructing the world's largest and most advanced experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor in southern France. A collaboration among the European Union (EU), India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea, and the United States, the project aims to transition from experimental studies of plasma physics to electricity-producing fusion power plants. In 2005, Greenpeace International issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. A French association including about 700 anti-nuclear groups, Sortir du nucléaire (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed that ITER was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high-energy deuterium and tritium hydrogen isotopes used in the fusion process. According to most anti-nuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream". The World Nuclear Association have said that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges". Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. Several milestones of the project have


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-4.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW. Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electricity usage, 11.4% in the EU, and it is widely used in Asia, and the United States. In 2014, worldwide installed photovoltaics capacity increased to 177 gigawatts (GW), sufficient to supply 1 per cent of global electricity demands. As of 2020 wind power expansion slowed down due to protests of residents and environmentalists. Solar thermal energy stations operate in the United States and Spain, and as of 2016, the largest of these is the 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System in California. The world's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of the country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the United States. As of 2020, the expansion of biomass as a fuel, which was previously praised by environmental organizations such as Greenpeace, has been criticized for environmental damage. Greenpeace advocates reducing fossil fuel use by


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-5.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
=== International organizations === European Nuclear Disarmament, which held annual conventions in the 1980s involving thousands of anti-nuclear weapons activists mostly from Western Europe but also from Eastern Europe, the United States, and Australia. Friends of the Earth International, a network of environmental organizations in 77 countries. Since 2014, however, Friends of the Earth (UK) has softened its stance; the fierce opposition against nuclear reactors has shifted into a more pragmatic opposition, which still opposes the construction of new nuclear (fission) reactors, but doesn't campaign against closing down the existing ones anymore. Global Zero, an international non-partisan group of 300 world leaders dedicated to achieving the elimination of nuclear weapons. Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism, an international partnership of 83 nations. Greenpeace International, a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 41 countries and headquarters in Amsterdam, Netherlands. International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, which had affiliates in 41 nations in 1985, representing 135,000 physicians; IPPNW was awarded the UNESCO Peace Education Prize in 1984 and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985. Nuclear Information and Resource Service OPANAL Parliamentarians for Nuclear Non-Proliferation


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-6.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
In 1971, the town of Wyhl, on the Rhine in Southern Germany, was proposed as the site of the Wyhl Nuclear Power Plant. In the years that followed, public opposition steadily mounted, and large protests occurred. Television coverage of police dragging away farmers and their wives helped to turn nuclear power into a major issue. In 1975, an administrative court withdrew the construction licence for the plant. The Wyhl experience encouraged the formation of citizen action groups near other planned nuclear sites. In 1972, the nuclear disarmament movement maintained a presence in the Pacific, largely in response to French nuclear testing there. New Zealand activists sailed boats into the test zone, interrupting the testing program. In Australia, thousands of people joined protest marches in Adelaide, Melbourne, Brisbane, and Sydney. Scientists issued statements demanding an end to the nuclear tests. In Fiji, anti-nuclear activists formed an Against Testing on Mururoa organization. In the Basque Country (Spain and France), a strong anti-nuclear movement emerged in 1973, ultimately leading to the abandonment of most planned nuclear power projects. On 14 July 1977, in Bilbao, between 150,000 and 200,000 people protested against the Lemoniz Nuclear Power Plant. This has been called the "biggest ever


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-7.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
There were many anti-nuclear protests in the United States which captured national public attention during the 1970s and 1980s. These included the well-known Clamshell Alliance protests at Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant and the Abalone Alliance protests at Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant, where thousands of protesters were arrested. Other large protests followed the 1979 Three Mile Island accident. A large anti-nuclear demonstration was held in May 1979 in Washington, D.C., when 65,000 people, including the Governor of California, attended a march and rally against nuclear power. In New York City on 23 September 1979, almost 200,000 people attended a protest against nuclear power. Anti-nuclear power protests preceded the shutdown of the Shoreham, Yankee Rowe, Millstone I, Rancho Seco, Maine Yankee, and about a dozen other nuclear power plants. On 12 June 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the cold war arms race. It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. International Day of Nuclear Disarmament protests were held on 20 June 1983, at 50 sites across the United States. In 1986, hundreds of people walked from Los Angeles to Washington,


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-8.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
On 21 April 2010, a dozen environmental organizations called on the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission to investigate possible limitations in the AP1000 reactor design. These groups appealed to three federal agencies to suspend the licensing process, arguing that containment in the new design is weaker than in existing reactors. On 24 April 2010, about 120,000 people built a human chain (KETTENreAKTION!) between the nuclear plants at Krümmel and Brunsbüttel. In this way, they were demonstrating against the German government's plans to extend the lifespans of nuclear power reactors. In May 2010, some 25,000 people, including members of peace organizations and 1945 atomic bomb survivors, marched for about two kilometers from downtown New York to the United Nations headquarters, calling for the elimination of nuclear weapons. In September 2010, German government policy shifted back toward nuclear energy, and this generated some new anti-nuclear sentiment in Berlin and beyond. On 18 September 2010, tens of thousands of Germans surrounded Chancellor Angela Merkel's office in an anti-nuclear demonstration that organisers said was the biggest of its kind since the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. In October 2010, tens of thousands of people protested in Munich against the nuclear power policy of Angela Merkel's coalition


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-9.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
In January 2011, five Japanese young people held a hunger strike for more than a week, outside the Prefectural Government offices in Yamaguchi City, to protest against the planned Kaminoseki Nuclear Power Plant near the environmentally sensitive Seto Inland Sea. Following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, anti-nuclear opposition intensified in Germany. On 12 March 2011, 60,000 Germans formed a 45-km human chain from Stuttgart to the Neckarwestheim power plant. On 14 March 110,000 people protested in 450 other German towns, with opinion polls indicating 80% of Germans opposed the government's extension of nuclear power. On 15 March 2011, Angela Merkel said that seven nuclear power plants which went online before 1980 would be closed and the time would be used to study speedier renewable energy commercialization. In March 2011, around 2,000 anti-nuclear protesters demonstrated in Taiwan for an immediate halt to the construction of the island's fourth nuclear power plant. The protesters were also opposed to plans to extend the lifespan of three existing nuclear plants. In March 2011, more than 200,000 people took part in anti-nuclear protests in four large German cities, on the eve of state elections. Organisers called it the largest anti-nuclear demonstration the country has seen.


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-10.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
2012 In January 2012, 22 South Korean women's groups appealed for a nuclear-free future, saying they believe nuclear weapons and power reactors "threaten our lives, the lives of our families and all living creatures". The women said they feel an enormous sense of crisis after the Fukushima nuclear disaster in March 2011, which demonstrated the destructive power of radiation in the disruption of human lives, environmental pollution, and food contamination. Thousands of demonstrators took to the streets of Yokohama, Japan, on 14–15 January 2012, to show their support for a nuclear power-free world. The demonstration showed that organized opposition to nuclear power has gained momentum following the Fukushima nuclear disaster. The most immediate demand of the demonstrators was for the protection of rights, including basic human rights such as health care, for those affected by the Fukushima accident. In January 2012, three hundred anti-nuclear protestors marched against plans to build a new nuclear power station at Wylfa in the UK. The march was organised by Pobl Atal Wylfa B, Greenpeace, and Cymdeithas yr Iaith, which are supporting a farmer who is in dispute with Horizon. On the anniversary of the 11 March earthquake and tsunami, protesters across Japan called for


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-11.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
On 9 December 1982, Norman Mayer, an American anti–nuclear weapons activist, was shot and killed by the United States Park Police after threatening to blow up the Washington Monument, Washington, D.C., unless a national dialogue on the threat of nuclear weapons was seriously undertaken. On 10 July 1985, the flagship of Greenpeace, Rainbow Warrior, was sunk by France in New Zealand waters, and a Greenpeace photographer was killed. The ship was involved in protests against nuclear weapons testing at Mururoa Atoll. The French Government initially denied any involvement with the sinking but eventually admitted its guilt in October 1985. Two French agents pleaded guilty to charges of manslaughter, and the French Government paid $7 million in damages. In 1990, two pylons holding high-voltage power lines connecting the French and Italian grid were blown up by Italian eco-terrorists, and the attack is believed to have been directly in opposition to the Superphénix. In 2004, activist Sébastien Briat, who had tied himself to train tracks in front of a shipment of reprocessed nuclear waste, was run over by the wheels of the train. The event occurred in Avricourt, France, and the fuel (12 containers in total) was from a German plant, en


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-12.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists is a nontechnical online magazine that has been published continuously since 1945, when it was founded by former Manhattan Project physicists after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Bulletin's primary aim is to inform the public about nuclear policy debates while advocating for the international control of nuclear weapons. One of the driving forces behind the creation of the Bulletin was the public interest in atomic energy at the dawn of the atomic age. In 1945 the public interest in atomic warfare and weaponry inspired contributors to the Bulletin to attempt to inform those interested about the dangers and destruction that atomic war could bring about. In the 1950s, the Bulletin was involved in the formation of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, annual conferences of scientists concerned about nuclear proliferation. Historian Lawrence S. Wittner has argued that anti-nuclear sentiment and activism led directly to government policy shifts about nuclear weapons. Public opinion influenced policymakers by limiting their options and forcing them to choose certain policies over others. Wittner credits public pressure and anti-nuclear activism with "Truman's decision to explore the Baruch Plan, Eisenhower's efforts towards a nuclear test ban


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-13.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
During Barack Obama's successful U.S. presidential election campaign, he advocated the abolition of nuclear weapons. Since his election, he has reiterated this goal in several major policy addresses. In 2010, the Obama administration negotiated a new weapons accord with Russia for a reduction of the maximum number of deployed nuclear weapons on each side from 2,200 to between 1,500 and 1,675—a reduction of some 30 per cent. In addition, President Obama has committed $15 billion over the next five years to improving the safety of the nuclear weapons stockpile. Following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the Italian government put a one-year moratorium on plans to revive nuclear power. On 11–12 June 2011, Italian voters passed a referendum to cancel plans for new reactors. Over 94% of the electorate voted in favor of the construction ban, with 55% of the eligible voters participating, making the vote binding. German Chancellor Angela Merkel's coalition announced on 30 May 2011, that Germany's 17 nuclear power stations will be shut down by 2022, in a policy reversal following Japan's Fukushima I nuclear accidents and anti-nuclear protests within Germany. Seven of the German power stations were temporarily closed in March and will remain offline and be


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-14.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:01.848947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
Attempts to reach political agreement on effective climate change policies continue, and pro-nuclear environmentalists seek to reverse the traditionally anti-nuclear attitudes among environmentalists. Filmmaker Rob Stone's Pandora's Promise (2013) is a good example of this trend. Some environmentalists criticise the anti-nuclear movement for understating the environmental costs of fossil fuels and non-nuclear alternatives, and overstating the environmental costs of nuclear energy. Anti-nuclear activists are accused of encouraging radiophobic emotions among the public. In The War Against the Atom (Basic Books, 1982), Samuel MacCracken of Boston University argued that in 1982, 50,000 deaths per year could be attributed directly to non-nuclear power plants, if fuel production and transportation, as well as pollution, were taken into account. He argued that if non-nuclear plants were judged by the same standards as nuclear ones, each US non-nuclear power plant could be held responsible for about 100 deaths per year. The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) is the main lobby group for companies doing nuclear work in the United States, while most countries that employ nuclear energy have a national industry group. The World Nuclear Association is the only global trade body. In seeking to counter the arguments of nuclear opponents, it cites independent studies that


id: antiqua-et-nova-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiqua_et_nova-0.md
category: reference
title: Antiqua et nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiqua_et_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:03.160644+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiqua-et-nova-20260505-0
summary:
Antiqua et nova (Latin for 'Ancient and new') is a doctrinal note of the Catholic Church co-issued by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith and the Dicastery for Culture and Education in January 2025. It addresses the "relationship between artificial intelligence [AI] and human intelligence" and offers reflections on the "anthropological and ethical challenges raised by AI". == Background == With the substantial increase in the proliferation and usage of large language models such as ChatGPT, Pope Francis expressed concerns about a "technocratic" future and transparency in the development of further artificial intelligence technologies at the 2024 G7 summit. He also addressed the topic in his October 2024 encyclical Dilexit nos. The Vatican City State enacted laws about the usage of AI on 1 January 2025. On 14 January 2025, Pope Francis met with Cardinal Víctor Manuel Fernández, prefect of the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, and approved the draft document of Antiqua et nova. The following day, Fernández announced the pending publication of a document on AI which was released on 28 January 2025. == Summary == Antiqua et nova is a 30-page-long document known as a note. The document's name is derived from its


id: aol-search-log-release-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL_search_log_release-0.md
category: reference
title: AOL search log release
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL_search_log_release
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:16.738136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aol-search-log-release-20260505-0
summary:
In 2006, the Internet company AOL released a large excerpt from its web search query logs to the public. AOL did not identify users in the report, but personally identifiable information was present in many of the queries. This allowed some users to be identified by their search queries. Although AOL took down the file within a few days, it had already been widely copied and still remains available. == Overview == On August 4, 2006, AOL Research, headed by Abdur Chowdhury, released a compressed text file on one of its websites containing twenty million search queries for over 650,000 users over a three-month period; it was intended for research. AOL deleted the file on their site by August 7, but not before it had been copied and distributed on the Internet. AOL did not identify users in the report; however, personally identifiable information was present in many of the queries. As the queries were attributed by AOL to particular user numerically identified accounts, an individual could be identified and matched to their account and search history. The New York Times was able to locate an individual from the released and anonymized search records by cross referencing them with phonebook


id: asilomar-conference-on-beneficial-ai-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Beneficial_AI-0.md
category: reference
title: Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Beneficial_AI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:17.958831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asilomar-conference-on-beneficial-ai-20260505-0
summary:
The Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI was a conference organized by the Future of Life Institute, held January 5–8, 2017, at the Asilomar Conference Grounds in California. More than 100 thought leaders and researchers in economics, law, ethics, and philosophy met at the conference, to address and formulate principles of beneficial AI. Its outcome was the creation of a set of guidelines for AI research – the 23 Asilomar AI Principles. The 23 principles, published as an open letter, received signatures from 1797 AI–Robotics researchers and 3923 others. Notable signatures included: Elon Musk, Stephen Hawking, executive director of the ACLU Anthony D. Romero, Dutch politician Kees Verhoeven, British tech entrepreneur Tabitha Goldstaub, American filmmaker James Barrat, CEO of Google Deepmind Demis Hassabis, AI researchers Ilya Sutskever, Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio, and Stuart Russell, philosophers Sam Harris and Will MacAskill, and actor Joseph Gordon-Levitt, amongst others. == References == == Further reading == Alexander, Scott (February 7, 2017). "Notes From The Asilomar Conference On Beneficial AI". Slate Star Codex. Olivér, Gábor (2022). Critique of the Asilomar AI Principles (PDF). GeniaNet. doi:10.15170/COTAAP-2022. ISBN 978-615-5687-04-4. Nazir, Saddat (June 27, 2024). "The Asilomar Conference and Contemporary AI Controversies: Lessons in Regulation". Harvard International Review.


id: australasian-journal-of-bone-joint-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasian_Journal_of_Bone_&_Joint_Medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Australasian Journal of Bone & Joint Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasian_Journal_of_Bone_&_Joint_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:19.287588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: australasian-journal-of-bone-joint-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The Australasian Journal of Bone & Joint Medicine (originally titled the Australasian Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine) was a periodical presented in the style of a scientific journal, published by Elsevier but established and funded by pharmaceutical company Merck. Publication began in 2002, and the last issue appeared in 2005. According to The Scientist: Merck paid an undisclosed sum to Elsevier to produce several volumes of [Australasian Journal of Bone and Joint Medicine], a publication that had the look of a peer-reviewed medical journal, but contained only reprinted or summarized articles—most of which presented data favorable to Merck products—that appeared to act solely as marketing tools with no disclosure of company sponsorship. The publication was not included in the MEDLINE literature database and did not have its own website. In May 2009, Elsevier admitted that a series of similar industry sponsored publications had been produced, and that "high standards for disclosure were not followed in this instance". In a formal statement, the CEO of Elsevier's Health Sciences Division, Michael Hansen, admitted that the practice was "unacceptable", and expressed regret for the publications. Merck has denied claims that articles within it were ghost written by Merck and has stated that the articles


id: baddies-in-tech-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddies_in_Tech-0.md
category: reference
title: Baddies in Tech
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddies_in_Tech
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:20.539749+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baddies-in-tech-20260505-0
summary:
Baddies in Tech is an American organization that provides a safe space for Black women in the technology sectors to network and grow their careers. The founding of Baddies in Tech in 2019 led to the creation of BaddieCon. == History == Baddies in tech originated in 2019 as an Instagram hashtag created by Allie Joy Tsahey as she had felt isolated in the male dominated tech industry. The hashtag grew in popularity leading to the creation of the organization. In 2023 Baddies in Tech hosted its first BaddieCon event, which featured 38 speakers and 11 companies and vendors. == Organization == Baddies in Tech is a nonprofit DAO headquartered in Brooklyn, NY founded by Allie Joy Tsahey in 2019. Baddies in Tech's mission is “to build a public good that empowers and uplifts Black and brown female technologists globally.” Baddies in Tech also provides a database of resources for those looking for employment opportunities. Furthermore, the Baddies in Tech organization hosts community events in NYC, D.C., and Atlanta and tech conferences geared toward providing women a safe place to come together. Baddies in Tech maintains a Discord server as a place of conversation for their community. == References ==


id: sharon-beder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Beder-0.md
category: reference
title: Sharon Beder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Beder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:21.714760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sharon-beder-20260505-0
summary:
Sharon Beder is an environmentalist and former professor in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Wollongong in New South Wales, Australia. Her research has focused on how power relationships are maintained and challenged, particularly by corporations and professions. She has written 11 books, and many articles, book chapters and conference papers, as well as designing teaching resources and educational websites. == Early life and family == Beder was born in 1956 in Wellington, New Zealand, granddaughter of Jewish immigrants from Scotland, England and eastern Europe, before the second world war, and daughter of Jacqui and Yoss Beder. == Education == Beder initially trained and worked as a civil engineer in New Zealand before becoming interested in the social, political and philosophical aspects of engineering and then environmental politics. She completed a PhD in Science and Technology Studies at the University of New South Wales in 1989 based on research into the process of engineering decision-making using a case study on the development of Sydney's sewerage system. == Appointments == Before joining the University of Wollongong in 1992, Beder was Environmental Education Co-ordinator at the University of Sydney. She has also been Chairperson of the Environmental Engineering Branch of


id: big-data-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Big data ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:22.926497+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-data-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Big data ethics, also known simply as data ethics, refers to systemizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct in relation to data, in particular personal data. Since the dawn of the Internet the sheer quantity and quality of data has dramatically increased and is continuing to do so exponentially. Big data describes this large amount of data that is so voluminous and complex that traditional data processing application software is inadequate to deal with them. Recent innovations in medical research and healthcare, such as high-throughput genome sequencing, high-resolution imaging, electronic medical patient records and a plethora of internet-connected health devices have triggered a data deluge that will reach the exabyte range in the near future. Data ethics is of increasing relevance as the quantity of data increases because of the scale of the impact. Big data ethics are different from information ethics because the focus of information ethics is more concerned with issues of intellectual property and concerns relating to librarians, archivists, and information professionals, while big data ethics is more concerned with collectors and disseminators of structured or unstructured data such as data brokers, governments, and large corporations. However, since artificial intelligence or machine learning systems


id: big-data-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Big data ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:22.926497+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-data-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Privacy === Privacy has been presented as a limitation to data usage which could also be considered unethical. For example, the sharing of healthcare data can shed light on the causes of diseases, the effects of treatments, an can allow for tailored analyses based on individuals' needs. This is of ethical significance in the big data ethics field because while many value privacy, the affordances of data sharing are also quite valuable, although they may contradict one's conception of privacy. Attitudes against data sharing may be based in a perceived loss of control over data and a fear of the exploitation of personal data. However, it is possible to extract the value of data without compromising privacy. Government surveillance of big data has the potential to undermine individual privacy by collecting and storing data on phone calls, internet activity, and geolocation, among other things. For example, the NSA's collection of metadata exposed in global surveillance disclosures raised concerns about whether privacy was adequately protected, even when the content of communications was not analyzed. The right to privacy is often complicated by legal frameworks that grant governments broad authority over data collection for "national security" purposes. In the United States,


id: big-data-ethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Big data ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:22.926497+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-data-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Openness === The idea of open data is centered around the argument that data should be freely available and should not have restrictions that would prohibit its use, such as copyright laws. As of 2014 many governments had begun to move towards publishing open datasets for the purpose of transparency and accountability. This movement has gained traction via "open data activists" who have called for governments to make datasets available to allow citizens to themselves extract meaning from the data and perform checks and balances themselves. King and Richards have argued that this call for transparency includes a tension between openness and secrecy. Activists and scholars have also argued that because this open-sourced model of data evaluation is based on voluntary participation, the availability of open datasets has a democratizing effect on a society, allowing any citizen to participate. To some, the availability of certain types of data is seen as a right and an essential part of a citizen's agency. Open Knowledge Foundation (OKF) lists several dataset types it argues should be provided by governments for them to be truly open. OKF has a tool called the Global Open Data Index (GODI), a crowd-sourced survey for measuring the


id: black-in-ai-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_in_AI-0.md
category: reference
title: Black in AI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_in_AI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:24.124415+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-in-ai-20260505-0
summary:
Black in AI, formally called the Black in AI Workshop, is a technology research organization and affinity group, founded by computer scientists Timnit Gebru and Rediet Abebe in 2017. It started as a conference workshop, later pivoting into an organization. Black in AI increases the presence and inclusion of Black people in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) by creating space for sharing ideas, fostering collaborations, mentorship, and advocacy. == History == Black in AI was created in 2017 to address issues of lack of diversity in AI workshops, and was started as its own workshop within the Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS) conference. Because of algorithmic bias, ethical issues, and underrepresentation of Black people in AI roles; there has been an ongoing need for unity within the AI community to have focus on these issues. Black in AI has strived to continue the progress of improving the presence of people of color in the field of artificial intelligence. In 2018 and 2019, the Black in AI workshop had many immigration visa issues to Canada, which spurred the conference to be planned for 2020 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. On December 7, 2020, Black in AI held its fourth


id: black-in-ai-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_in_AI-1.md
category: reference
title: Black in AI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_in_AI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:24.124415+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-in-ai-20260505-0
summary:
== Conferences and workshops == At NeurIPS 2017, the first Black in AI event took place in December 8, 2017 in Long Beach, California. The goal was to bring together experts in the area to share ideas and debate efforts aimed at increasing the participation of Black people in artificial intelligence, both for diversity and to avoid data bias. Black AI researchers had the opportunity to share their work at the workshop's oral and poster sessions. The second workshop was hosted in Montréal, Canada, on December 7, 2018. According to AI experts, visa issues stymie efforts to make their area more inclusive, making technology that discriminates or disadvantages individuals who aren't white or Western less likely. Hundreds of participants who were supposed to attend or present work at the Black in AI session on Friday were unable to fly to Canada; many of the participants were from African countries. The third workshop was held in NeurIPS 2019, one of the premier machine learning conferences Vancouver, Canada. The workshop was able to give travel scholarships and visa support to hundreds of academics who would not have been able to attend NeurIPS without the help of sponsors. For instance, Ramon Vilarino of


id: joanna-bryson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Bryson-0.md
category: reference
title: Joanna Bryson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Bryson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:25.369389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: joanna-bryson-20260505-0
summary:
Joanna Joy Bryson (born 1965) is professor at Hertie School in Berlin. She works on Artificial Intelligence, ethics and collaborative cognition. She has been a British citizen since 2007. == Education == Bryson attended Glenbard North High School and graduated in 1982. She studied Behavioural Science at the University of Chicago, graduating with an AB in 1986. In 1991 she moved to the University of Edinburgh where she completed an MSc in Artificial Intelligence before an MPhil in Psychology. Bryson moved to MIT to complete her PhD, earning a doctorate under Lynn Andrea Stein in 2001 for her thesis "Intelligence by Design: Principles of Modularity and Coordination for Engineering Complex Adaptive Agents". In 1995 she worked for LEGO Futura in Boston, and then in 1998 she worked for LEGO Digital as an AI consultant with Kristinn R. Thórisson on cognitive architectures for autonomous LEGO characters in the Wizard Group. She completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Marc Hauser's Primate Cognitive Neuroscience at the Harvard University in 2002. == Career == Bryson joined the Department of Computer Science at the University of Bath in 2002. At Bath, Bryson founded the Intelligent Systems research group. In 2007 she joined the University of Nottingham


id: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis-0.md
category: reference
title: Citicorp Center engineering crisis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:26.561740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
summary:
In July 1978, a possible structural flaw was discovered in Citicorp Center (now Citigroup Center), a skyscraper that had recently been completed in New York City. After investigations from a number of third parties, the building was found to be in danger of possible collapse due to its design; workers surreptitiously made repairs over the next few months, avoiding disaster. The building's structural engineer, William LeMessurier, incorporated numerous unconventional features into the design. Among these are a raised base supported by four offset stilts, diagonal bracing to absorb wind loads from upper stories, and a tuned mass damper on the roof. It was the first building that used active mechanical elements (the tuned mass damper) for stabilization. Concerned about "quartering winds" directed diagonally toward the corners of the building, Princeton University undergraduate student Diane Hartley investigated the structural integrity of the building and found it wanting. Nearly simultaneously, an architecture student at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) named Lee DeCarolis chose the building as the topic for a report assignment in his freshman class on the basic concepts of structural engineering. John Zoldos of NJIT expressed reservations to DeCarolis about the building's structure, and DeCarolis contacted LeMessurier, relaying what


id: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis-1.md
category: reference
title: Citicorp Center engineering crisis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:26.561740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
summary:
== Discovery == In May 1978, after the building structure was completed, LeMessurier was designing a similar building with wind braces in Pittsburgh, and a potential contractor questioned the expense of using welded rather than bolted joints. LeMessurier asked his office how the welds went at the Citicorp construction and was then told that bolts had been substituted for the welded joints he had prescribed. In June 1978, Princeton University engineering student Diane Hartley was writing her senior thesis about Citicorp Center's design at the suggestion of her professor, David Billington. As part of that work she analyzed the structural design and calculated stresses from quartering winds, finding them higher than the maximum expected stress values provided to her by LeMessurier's firm. Hartley asked her contact at the building design company, Joel S. Weinstein, a junior member of its staff, about the issue, and he provided her with a copy of the firm's calculations for perpendicular winds (but not for quartering winds). Only Weinstein was indicated as signing off on the copies of the calculations he provided to her, although she expected to see them initialed by a second person to confirm them, as was the usual practice in the


id: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis-2.md
category: reference
title: Citicorp Center engineering crisis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:26.561740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
summary:
== Repairs == LeMessurier agonized over how to deal with the problem. If the issues were made known to the public, he risked ruining his professional reputation and causing panic in the immediate area surrounding the building and the occupants. LeMessurier considered never bringing the issue up, and he also briefly contemplated committing suicide before anyone else found out about the defect. LeMessurier ultimately contacted Stubbins's lawyer and insurance carrier. LeMessurier then contacted Citicorp's lawyers, the latter of which hired Leslie E. Robertson as an expert adviser. Citicorp accepted LeMessurier's proposal to weld steel plates over the bolted joints, and Karl Koch Erecting was hired for the welding process. Very few people were made aware of the issue, besides Citicorp leadership, mayor Ed Koch, acting buildings commissioner Irving E. Minkin, and the head of the welder's union. Construction crews started installing the welded panels at night in August 1978. Officials made no public mention of any possible structural issues, and the city's three major newspapers had gone on strike. Officials barely acknowledged the issue, instead describing the work as a routine procedure. Henry DeFord III of Citicorp claimed the Citicorp Center could withstand a 100-year wind and that there were


id: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis-3.md
category: reference
title: Citicorp Center engineering crisis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:26.561740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
summary:
Analysis of wind loads: Although quartering wind loads were considered early in the design process, LeMessurier initially reached the conclusion that they were not the critical case for the building's structural analysis, and came to rely primarily on the calculations for perpendicular winds, as required by building codes, rather than checking all calculations and scenarios thoroughly. Design changes: The steel framework subcontractor (Bethlehem Steel) proposed to use bolted joints instead of full-penetration welding, and the proposal was approved by LeMessurier's firm without LeMessurier personally reviewing the details. Kremer reported that Robert McNamara, "the managing principal for Citicorp in LeMessurier Associates' Cambridge office", stated that after he reviewed the proposal, he "presented the suggested change to Bill LeMessurier", who "discussed [with him] the technical implications and did calculations as to what effect the bolt extension in the connection would have on the movement of the tower ...", and that LeMessurier's firm then approved the details of the change without LeMessurier personally reviewing those details. This somewhat contradicts LeMessurier, who said he wasn't aware of the substitution until after the work had been completed. Professional responsibility: Before LeMessurier decided to make Citicorp aware of the design defects, he briefly considered concealing the


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-0.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:27.804986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009. The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming deniers, who alleged that the documents indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists. A series of investigations rejected these allegations, while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request. Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports, finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct. The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations. The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit. It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data (though the majority of climate data have always been freely available). Scientists, scientific organisations, and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change. Andrew Revkin reported in The New York Times that "The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-1.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:27.804986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
=== E-mails === Most of the e-mails concerned technical and mundane aspects of climate research, such as data analysis and details of scientific conferences. The controversy has focused on a small number of e-mails, particularly those sent to or from climatologists Phil Jones, the head of the CRU, and Michael E. Mann of Pennsylvania State University (PSU), one of the originators of the graph of temperature trends dubbed the "hockey stick graph". Climate change deniers gained wide publicity for allegations that the hacked e-mails showed climate scientists colluded in manipulating data, withheld scientific information, and tried to prevent dissenting scientific papers from being published in peer reviewed journals. Academics and climate change researchers said that nothing in the emails proved wrongdoing, and dismissed the allegations. Independent reports said that the e-mails did not affect evidence that man made global warming is a real threat, and e-mails were being misrepresented to support unfounded claims of scientific misconduct, but there were disturbing suggestions that scientists had avoided sharing scientific data with sceptical critics. The Information Commissioner's Office stated that "the prima facie evidence from the published e-mails indicate an attempt to defeat disclosure by deleting information. It is hard to imagine more


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-2.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:27.804986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
I've just completed Mike's Nature trick of adding in the real temps to each series for the last 20 years (ie, from 1981 onwards) and from 1961 for Keith's to hide the decline. The "trick" was a technique to combine instrumental temperature record data with long term reconstructions based on proxy data, and "the decline" was a well known issue with Keith Briffa's reconstruction using certain tree ring proxies which appeared to decline after 1950, when measured temperatures were rising. The email was widely misquoted as a "trick" to "hide the decline" as though it referred to a decline in measured global temperatures, but this was obviously untrue as when the email was written temperatures were far from declining: 1998 had been the warmest year recorded. On 9 December 2009, Sarah Palin said the truncated phrase showed a "highly politicised scientific circle" had "manipulated data to 'hide the decline' in global temperatures", and at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, senator Senator Jim Inhofe quoted Jones, and said "Of course he means hide the decline in temperatures". The graph showed three series of paleoclimate reconstructions, based on records of tree rings, corals, ice cores, lake sediments, etc.,


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-3.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:27.804986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
The EPA agreed with the UK Science & Technology Committee conclusion that "We are content that the phrases such as 'trick' or 'hiding the decline' were colloquial terms used in private e-mails, and the balance of evidence is that they were not part of a systematic attempt to mislead."


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-4.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:27.804986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
==== Peer review issue ==== In response to an e-mail mentioning a recent paper in the scientific journal Climate Research that questioned assertions that the 20th century was abnormally warm, Mann wrote in an e-mail of 11 March 2003: I think we have to stop considering Climate Research as a legitimate peer-reviewed journal. Perhaps we should encourage our colleagues in the climate research community to no longer submit to, or cite papers in, this journal. Mann told the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) that he did not feel there was anything wrong in saying "we shouldn't be publishing in a journal that's activist." Mann was not alone in expressing concern about the peer review process of the journal. Half of the journal's editorial board, including editor-in-chief Hans von Storch, resigned in the wake of controversy surrounding the article's publication. The publisher later admitted that the paper's major findings could not "be concluded convincingly from the evidence provided in the paper. [Climate Research] should have requested appropriate revisions of the manuscript prior to publication." In an 18 December 2009 column in the WSJ, Pat Michaels alleged that pressure from Jones and Mann was responsible for the resignations at Climate Research. In a


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-5.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:27.804986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
Several e-mails relating to freedom of information issues were the focus of controversy. In a 2 February 2005 e-mail, Phil Jones advised Michael Mann: And don't leave stuff lying around on ftp sites – you never know who is trawling them. The two MMs have been after the CRU station data for years. If they ever hear there is a Freedom of Information Act now in the UK, I think I'll delete the file rather than send to anyone. Does your similar act in the US force you to respond to enquiries within 20 days?—our does! The UK works on precedents, so the first request will test it. We also have a Data Protection Act, which I will hide behind. In another e-mail sent in May 2008, Jones asked Mann: Can you delete any emails you may have had with Keith re AR4? Keith will do likewise. ... Can you also email Gene and get him to do the same? I don't have his new email address. Before the emails were published, Jones had already announced in Nature News (on 12 August 2009) that he was working to release the raw data in a systematic way, and was writing to


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-6.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:27.804986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
My personal opinion is that both FOI requests [for data related to a 2008 paper and for correspondence dating back to 2006] are intrusive and unreasonable. Steven McIntyre provides absolutely no scientific justification or explanation for such requests. ... McIntyre has no interest in improving our scientific understanding of the nature and causes of climate change. He has no interest in rational scientific discourse. ... We should be able to conduct our scientific research without constant fear of an "audit" by Steven McIntyre; without having to weigh every word we write in every email we send to our scientific colleagues. In an Associated Press interview, McIntyre disagreed with his portrayal in emails, and said "Everything that I've done in this, I've done in good faith." FactCheck stated that the great majority of CRU's data is already freely available, and the scientists were reluctant to supply their own correspondence, code and data to people whose motives seemed questionable to them. It is not clear that any deliberate obstruction happened, and emails show the scientists discussing with university officials and lawyers their obligations under the new legislation, informing critics that data is already freely available, or that the information has been sent


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-7.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:27.804986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
=== Code and documentation === The CRU files also included programs written in Fortran, programmer comments and a readme file, which attracted considerable attention from programmers. The log covered more than four years work by a programmer, who had been frustrated by problems in relating climate data from numerous international sources. In a BBC Newsnight report, software engineer John Graham-Cumming said the code was "below the standard you'd expect in any commercial software" because it lacked clear documentation or an audit history. Graham-Cumming also reported finding a bug in the code's error handling which, if it occurred, would ignore data without warning. Myles Allen, head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford, said that the code investigated by Newsnight had nothing at all to do with the HadCRUT temperature record used for climate reconstructions, which is maintained at the Met Office and not at CRU. When he challenged Newsnight on this, they responded that "Our expert's opinion is that this is climate change code" and declined to retract the story. He commented that on the same basis "the quality of the code I use to put together problems for our physics undergraduates shows that we should not


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Climatic Research Unit email controversy (also known as "Climategate") began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) at the University of East Anglia (UEA) by an external attacker, copying thousands of emails and computer files (the Climatic Research Unit documents) to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change. The story was first broken by climate change denialists, who argued that the emails showed that global warming was a scientific conspiracy and that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics. The CRU rejected this, saying that the emails had been taken out of context. FactCheck.org reported that climate change deniers misrepresented the contents of the emails. Columnist James Delingpole popularised the term "Climategate" to describe the controversy. The mainstream media picked up the story, as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009. Because of the timing, scientists, policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference. In response to the controversy, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the American Meteorological Society (AMS) and the


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The material comprised more than 1,000 emails, 2,000 documents, as well as commented source code pertaining to climate-change research, covering the period from 1996 to 2009. According to an analysis in The Guardian, the vast majority of the emails were from or to four climatologists: Phil Jones, the head of the CRU; Keith Briffa, a CRU climatologist specialising in tree ring analysis; Tim Osborn, a climate modeller at CRU; and Mike Hulme, director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research. The four were either recipients or originators of all but 66 of the 1,073 emails, with most of the remainder of the emails being sent from mailing lists. A few other emails were sent by, or to, other staff at the CRU. Jones, Briffa, Osborn and Hulme had written high-profile scientific papers on climate change that had been cited in reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Most of the emails concerned technical and mundane aspects of climate research, such as data analysis and details of scientific conferences. The Guardian's analysis of the emails suggests that the hacker had filtered them. Four scientists were targeted and a concordance plot shows that the words "data", "climate", "paper", "research", "temperature"


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Responses == In the United States, former Republican House Science Committee chairman Sherwood Boehlert called the attacks a "manufactured distraction", and Newsweek and The New York Times described the dispute as a "highly orchestrated" and manufactured controversy. Concerns about the media's role in promoting early allegations while also minimising later coverage exonerating the scientists were raised by journalists and policy experts. Historian Spencer R. Weart of the American Institute of Physics said the incident was unprecedented in the history of science, having "never before seen a set of people accuse an entire community of scientists of deliberate deception and other professional malfeasance". The United States National Academy of Sciences expressed concern and condemned what they called "political assaults on scientists and climate scientists in particular". In the United Kingdom and United States, there were calls for official inquiries into issues raised by the documents. The British Conservative politician Nigel Lawson said: "The integrity of the scientific evidence ... has been called into question. And the reputation of British science has been seriously tarnished. A high-level independent inquiry must be set up without delay." Bob Ward of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== University of East Anglia === The University of East Anglia was notified of the security breach on 17 November 2009, but when the story was published in the press on 20 November, they had no statement ready. On 24 November, Trevor Davies, the University of East Anglia pro-vice-chancellor with responsibility for research, rejected calls for Jones' resignation or firing: "We see no reason for Professor Jones to resign and, indeed, we would not accept his resignation. He is a valued and important scientist." The university announced that it would conduct an independent review into issues including Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit: it would "address the issue of data security, an assessment of how we responded to a deluge of Freedom of Information requests, and any other relevant issues which the independent reviewer advises should be addressed". The university announced on 1 December that Phil Jones was to stand aside as director of the Unit until the completion of the review. Two days later, the university announced that Sir Muir Russell would chair the inquiry, which would be known as the Independent Climate Change Email Review, and would "examine email exchanges to determine whether there is


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Climatologists === Among the scientists whose emails were disclosed, the CRU's researchers said in a statement that the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas. Michael Mann, director of Pennsylvania State University's Earth System Science Center, said that sceptics were "taking these words totally out of context to make something trivial appear nefarious" and called the entire incident a careful, "high-level, orchestrated smear campaign to distract the public about the nature of the climate change problem". Kevin E. Trenberth of the National Center for Atmospheric Research said that he was appalled at the release of the emails but thought that it might backfire against climate sceptics, as the messages would show "the integrity of scientists". He also said that climate change sceptics had selectively quoted words and phrases out of context and that the timing suggested an attempt to undermine talks at the December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit. Tom Wigley, a former director of the CRU and now head of the US National Center for Atmospheric Research, condemned the threats that he and other colleagues had received as "truly stomach-turning", and commented: "None of it affects the science one iota.


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-5.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientific organisations === The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I issued statements that the assessment process, involving hundreds of scientists worldwide, is designed to be transparent and to prevent any individual or small group from manipulating the process. The statement said that the "internal consistency from multiple lines of evidence strongly supports the work of the scientific community, including those individuals singled out in these email exchanges". The American Meteorological Society stated that the incident did not affect the society's position on climate change. They pointed to the breadth of evidence for human influence on climate, stating: For climate change research, the body of research in the literature is very large and the dependence on any one set of research results to the comprehensive understanding of the climate system is very, very small. Even if some of the charges of improper behavior in this particular case turn out to be true—which is not yet clearly the case—the impact on the science of climate change would be very limited. The American Geophysical Union issued a statement that they found "it offensive that these emails were obtained by illegal cyber attacks and they are being exploited to distort the


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-6.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== House of Commons Science and Technology Committee === On 22 January 2010, the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee announced it would conduct an inquiry into the affair, examining the implications of the disclosure for the integrity of scientific research, reviewing the scope of the independent Muir Russell review announced by the UEA, and reviewing the independence of international climate data sets. The committee invited written submissions from interested parties, and published 55 submissions that it had received by 10 February. They included submissions from the University of East Anglia, the Global Warming Policy Foundation, the Institute of Physics, the Royal Society of Chemistry, the Met Office, several other professional bodies, prominent scientists, some climate change sceptics, several MEPs and other interested parties. An oral evidence session was held on 1 March 2010. The Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry reported on 31 March 2010 that it had found that "the scientific reputation of Professor Jones and CRU remains intact". The emails and claims raised in the controversy did not challenge the scientific consensus that "global warming is happening and that it is induced by human activity". The MPs had seen no evidence to support claims that


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-7.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science Assessment Panel === The report of the independent Science Assessment Panel was published on 14 April 2010 and concluded that the panel had seen "no evidence of any deliberate scientific malpractice in any of the work of the Climatic Research Unit." It found that the CRU's work had been "carried out with integrity" and had used "fair and satisfactory" methods. The CRU was found to be "objective and dispassionate in their view of the data and their results, and there was no hint of tailoring results to a particular agenda." Instead, "their sole aim was to establish as robust a record of temperatures in recent centuries as possible." The panel commented that it was "very surprising that research in an area that depends so heavily on statistical methods has not been carried out in close collaboration with professional statisticians." It found that although the CRU had not made inappropriate use of statistical methods, some of the methods used may not have been the best for the purpose, though it said that "it is not clear, however, that better methods would have produced significantly different results." It suggested that the CRU could have done more to document and archive


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-8.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pennsylvania State University === Pennsylvania State University announced in December 2009 it would review the work of Michael E. Mann, in particular looking at anything that had not already been addressed in the 2006 North Report review by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences which had investigated Mann's "hockey stick graph" studies and found some faults with his 1998 methodology but agreed with the results which had been reaffirmed by later studies using different methods. In response, Mann said he would welcome the review. The inquiry committee determined on 3 February 2010 that there was no credible evidence Mann suppressed or falsified data, destroyed emails, information and/or data related to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, or misused privileged or confidential information. The committee did not make a definitive finding on the final point of inquiry – "whether Dr Mann seriously deviated from accepted practices within the academic community for proposing, conducting, or reporting research or other scholarly activities". The committee said that the earlier NAS inquiry had found "that Dr Mann's science did fall well within the bounds of accepted practice", but in light of the newly available information this question of conduct was to


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-9.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Inspector General of the U.S. Department of Commerce === In May 2010 Senator Jim Inhofe requested the Inspector General of the United States Department of Commerce to conduct an independent review of how the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) had dealt with the emails, and whether the emails showed any wrongdoing. The report, issued on 18 February 2011, cleared the researchers and "did not find any evidence that NOAA inappropriately manipulated data or failed to adhere to appropriate peer review procedures". It noted that NOAA reviewed its climate change data as standard procedure, not in response to the controversy. One email included a cartoon image showing Inhofe and others marooned on a melting ice floe, NOAA had taken this up as a conduct issue. In response to questions raised, NOAA stated that its scientists had followed legal advice on FOIA requests for information which belonged to the IPCC and was made available by that panel. In two instances funding had been awarded to CRU, NOAA stated that it was reviewing these cases and so far understood that the funds supported climate forecasting workshops in 2002 and 2003 assisting the governments of three countries. === National Science Foundation ===


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-10.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The initial story about the hacking originated in the blogosphere, with columnist James Delingpole picking up the term "Climategate" from an anonymous blogger on Watts Up With That?, a blog created by climate sceptic Anthony Watts. The site was one of three blogs that received links to the leaked documents on 17 November 2009. Delingpole first used the word "Climategate" in the title of his 20 November article for The Telegraph: "Climategate: the final nail in the coffin of 'Anthropogenic Global Warming'?" A week later, his co-worker Christopher Booker gave Delingpole credit for coining the term. Following the release of documents in the blogosphere, unproven allegations and personal attacks against scientists increased and made their way into the traditional media. Physicist Mark Boslough of the University of New Mexico noted that many of the attacks on scientists came from "bloggers, editorial writers, Fox News pundits, and radio talk show hosts who have called them liars and vilified them as frauds". According to Chris Mooney and Sheril Kirshenbaum in their book Unscientific America (2010), the accusations originated in right-wing media and blogs, "especially on outlets like Fox News". Journalist Suzanne Goldenberg of The Guardian reported that according to an analysis by


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-11.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:29.131646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Climategate had a significant effect on public beliefs in global warming and trust in scientists. The loss of trust in scientists, however, was primarily among individuals with a strongly individualistic worldview or politically conservative ideology. Nonetheless, Americans overall continue to trust scientists more than other sources of information about global warming. In late 2011, Steven F. Hayward wrote that "Climategate did for the global warming controversy what the Pentagon Papers did for the Vietnam war 40 years ago: It changed the narrative decisively." An editorial in Nature said that many in the media "were led by the nose, by those with a clear agenda, to a sizzling scandal that steadily defused as the true facts and context were made clear". == Further release, 2011 == On 22 November 2011, a second set of approximately 5,000 emails, apparently hacked from University of East Anglia servers at the same time as those in the 2009 release, was posted on a Russian server, with links distributed to the message boards on several climate-sceptic websites. A message accompanying the emails quoted selective passages from them, highlighting many of the same issues raised following the original incident. Juliette Jowit and Leo Hickman of The Guardian


id: computer-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Computer ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:31.724981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Computer ethics is a part of practical philosophy concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct. Margaret Anne Pierce, a professor in the Department of Mathematics and Computers at Georgia Southern University has categorized the ethical decisions related to computer technology and usage into three primary influences: The individual's own personal [ethical] code. Any informal code of ethical conduct that exists in the work place. Exposure to formal codes of ethics. == Foundation == Computer ethics was first coined by Walter Maner, a professor at Bowling Green State University. Maner noticed ethical concerns that were brought up during his Medical Ethics course at Old Dominion University became more complex and difficult when the use of technology and computers became involved. The conceptual foundations of computer ethics are investigated by information ethics, a branch of philosophical ethics promoted, among others, by Luciano Floridi. == History == The concept of computer ethics originated in the 1940s with MIT professor Norbert Wiener, the American mathematician and philosopher. While working on anti-aircraft artillery during World War II, Wiener and his fellow engineers developed a system of communication between the part of a cannon that tracked a warplane, the part


id: computer-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Computer ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:31.724981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Concerns == Computer crime, privacy, anonymity, freedom, and intellectual property fall under topics that will be present in the future of computer ethics. Ethical considerations have been linked to the Internet of Things (IoT) with many physical devices being connected to the internet. Virtual Crypto-currencies in regards to the balance of the current purchasing relationship between the buyer and seller. Autonomous technology such as self-driving cars forced to make human decisions. There is also concern over how autonomous vehicles would behave in different countries with different culture values. Security risks have been identified with cloud-based technology with every user interaction being sent and analyzed to central computing hubs. Artificial intelligence devices like the Amazon Alexa and Google Home are collecting personal data from users while at home and uploading it to the cloud. Apple's Siri and Microsoft's Cortana smartphone assistants are collecting user information, analyzing the information, and then sending the information back to the user. === Internet privacy === Computers and information technology have caused privacy concerns surrounding collection and use of personal data. For example, Google was sued in 2018 for tracking user location without permission. also In July 2019, Facebook reached a $5 billion settlement with


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:33.012360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors, both scientists and governmental representatives. There has been considerable political controversy over errors found in the report, and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report. == Content issues == Some observers have identified issues in which the peer-reviewed science suggests outcomes more severe than outlined by the report, while other observers have said that some conclusions in the report are not satisfactorily supported by the peer-reviewed science. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have acknowledged that a paragraph in the WGII report on the projected date of melting of Himalayan glaciers is incorrect. Climate expert Martin Parry, who had been co-chair of the working group on impacts for IPCC AR4, stated that "What began with a single unfortunate error over Himalayan glaciers has become a clamour without substance". The IPCC had investigated other alleged mistakes, which were "generally unfounded and also marginal to the assessment", and were commonly based on the idea that the IPCC should not use grey literature, such as reports from campaign groups and governments. === Arctic


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:33.012360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
Glaciers in the Himalaya are receding faster than in any other part of the world (see Table 10.9) and, if the present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 and perhaps sooner is very high if the Earth keeps warming at the current rate. Its total area will likely shrink from the present 500,000 to 100,000 km2 by the year 2035 (WWF, 2005). There was controversy in India over this statement, and at the start of December 2009 J. Graham Cogley of Trent University, Ontario, described the paragraph as wildly inaccurate. The rates of recession of Himalayan glaciers were exceptional, but their disappearance by 2035 would require a huge acceleration in rate. The first sentence of the IPCC WGII report, including the date of 2035, came from the cited source, "(WWF, 2005)". This was a March 2005 World Wildlife Fund Nepal Program report, page 29: In 1999, a report by the Working Group on Himalayan Glaciology (WGHG) of the International Commission for Snow and Ice (ICSI) stated: "glaciers in the Himalayas are receding faster than in any other part of the world and, if the present rate continues, the livelihood [sic] of them disappearing by the


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-2.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:33.012360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
"Glaciers in the Himalaya are receding faster than in any other part of the world and, if the present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 is very high," says the International Commission for Snow and Ice (ICSI) in its recent study on Asian glaciers. "But if the Earth keeps getting warmer at the current rate, it might happen much sooner," says Syed Iqbal Hasnain of the School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Hasnain is also the chairperson of the Working Group on Himalayan Glaciology (WGHG), constituted in 1995 by the ICSI. "The glacier will be decaying at rapid, catastrophic rates. Its total area will shrink from the present 500,000 to 100,000 square km by the year 2035," says former icsi president V M Kotlyakov in the report Variations of snow and ice in the past and present on a global and regional scale (see table: Receding rivers of ice). The question of whether it was acceptable to use material which had not been peer reviewed has been disputed. IPCC rules permit the use of non-peer-reviewed material, subject to a procedure in which authors are to critically assess any source that they wish


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-3.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:33.012360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Proportion of Netherlands below sea level === The Working Group II: Impacts, Adaption and Vulnerability report states that "The Netherlands is an example of a country highly susceptible to both sea-level rise and river flooding because 55% of its territory is below sea level". This was based on data it had received from the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (the PBL). When the Dutch government raised questions, the PBL acknowledged in a statement that it had supplied the incorrect wording to the IPCC, "This should have read that 55 per cent of the Netherlands is at risk of flooding; 26 per cent of the country is below sea level, and 29 per cent is susceptible to river flooding." It used Normaal Amsterdams Peil as the datum for sea level. Martin Parry, climate expert and co-chair of the IPCC working group II, said that various different figures could have been used, depending on how the issue was defined. A figure of 60%, for land that lies below high water level during storms, is used by the Dutch Ministry of Transport, while a figure of 30%, referring to land below mean sea level, is used by others. De Volkskrant reported Mary Jean


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-4.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:33.012360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Grey literature === The report was also criticized by The Sunday Telegraph for using grey literature. Examples they gave included the use of non-peer reviewed sources from the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the World Wildlife Fund, and student dissertations. IPCC rules permit the use of non-peer-reviewed material, subject to critical assessment and review of the quality and validity of each source. Climate expert Martin Parry, who had been co-chair of the working group on impacts for IPCC AR4, said of "grey literature" such as reports from campaign groups and governments that "many such reports are intensively reviewed, both internally and externally. Even if not peer-reviewed, there are reports that contain valuable information." == Response to criticisms == The focus by the media on errors found in the Fourth Assessment Report resulted in a number of responses from the scientific community. In February 2010 the International Council for Science (ICSU) released a statement indicating that "in proportion to the sheer volume of the research reviewed and analyzed, these lapses of accuracy are minor and they in no way undermine the main conclusions" and "That these errors have resulted in attempts to discredit the main conclusions of the


id: cyprus-safer-internet-helpline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Safer_Internet_Helpline-0.md
category: reference
title: Cyprus Safer Internet Helpline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Safer_Internet_Helpline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:34.350084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyprus-safer-internet-helpline-20260505-0
summary:
The Cyprus Safer Internet Helpline is a service provided by the Cyprus Safer Internet Center project, coordinated by the Cyprus Neuroscience and Technology Institute (CNTI). The Helpline ensures that not only children and adolescents but also adults have the opportunity to converse with experts in case they experience something negative on the Internet. Educated psychologists provide support and essential advice so that the crisis is overcome and the situation is confronted. Members of the public can reach the helpline at the number 7000 0 116. The communication is completely confidential and anonymous. The need for an operation of a Helpline has been stressed by the European Commission, which supports the idea that the increasing use of the Internet is disproportionate relative to its correct use and moral education. Consequently, many of children come into contact with pages containing inappropriate content or individuals who want to exploit them. Such cases usually cause fear and distress, which must be addressed. The Hotline is a member of the INSAFE European network of Awareness Centres that promote the safe and responsible use of the Internet and mobile devices to young people. The mission of the Insafe cooperation network is to empower citizens to use


id: cyprus-safer-internet-hotline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Safer_Internet_Hotline-0.md
category: reference
title: Cyprus Safer Internet Hotline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Safer_Internet_Hotline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:35.640709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyprus-safer-internet-hotline-20260505-0
summary:
== Basic Information == The Cyprus Safer Internet Hotline is a service provided by the Cyprus Safer Internet Center project, coordinated by the Cyprus Neuroscience and Technology Institute (CNTI). The Hotline promotes the safe use of the Internet in Cyprus. It serves the needs of all people that live on the island but also abroad and addresses issues of child pornography, child erotica, child nudity, child grooming activities, child trafficking, child sex tourism, but also racism (currently on the rise in Cyprus), gender discrimination and inappropriate use of peoples’ images. The Hotline provides assistance to the Cyber Crime unit of the Cyprus Police by filtering reports to determine which reports concern content that is probably illegal and is also located in Cyprus or has a Cypriot dimension. This assists the Police to dedicate their specialist resources to pursuing investigations within their jurisdiction by not having to deal with the majority of reports that do not contain illegal content or relate to material held in other jurisdictions. The Hotline is a member of the INHOPE International Association of Internet Hotlines, founded in 1999 under the EC Safer Internet Action Plan. INHOPE facilitates and co-ordinates the work of hotlines internationally in responding


id: data-for-black-lives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_for_Black_Lives-0.md
category: reference
title: Data for Black Lives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_for_Black_Lives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:38.087070+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-for-black-lives-20260505-0
summary:
Data for Black Lives (D4BL) is an American non-profit organization with the mission of using data science to create concrete and measurable change in the lives of black people. Headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Data for Black Lives was founded by Yeshimabeit Milner and Lucas Mason-Brown. Milner attended Brown University; having encountered discrimination towards the black community, she organized a group of scientists to combat the mistreatment of black people within data algorithms. == History == D4BL began in November 2017 as statistical research project, and expanded into working with a team of people on data analysis. The formation of D4BL was initiated by Yeshimabeit Milner, who witnessed racial discrimination, watching her peers suffer from police brutality. Milner discovered through research that black children were getting suspended at a much higher rate than white children. After graduating from Brown University, Milner incorporated her passion for data science into social activism. D4BL has regional organization chapters, including a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Additionally there is a community of other organizations working towards the same goals, including Data and Society, Algorithmic Justice League, and the Distributed Artificial Intelligence Research Institute (DAIR). Between 2019 and 2021, D4BL was awarded a grant by the MacArthur


id: decidim-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidim-0.md
category: reference
title: Decidim
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidim
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:39.321298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decidim-20260505-0
summary:
Decidim describes itself as a "technopolitical network for participatory democracy". It combines a free and open-source software (FOSS) software package together with a participatory political project and an organising community, "Metadecidim". Decidim participants describe the software, political and organising components as "technical", "political" and "technopolitical" levels, respectively. Decidim's aims can be seen as promoting the right to the city, as proposed by Henri Lefebvre. As of 2023, Decidim instances were actively in use for participatory decision-making in municipal and regional governments and by citizens' associations in Spain, Switzerland and elsewhere in Europe. Studies of the use of Decidim found that it was effective in some cases, while in one case implemented top-down in Lucerne, it strengthened the digital divide. == Creation == A server called "Decidim" was created by the 15M anti-austerity movement in Spain in 2016, running a fork of the "Consul" software, when a political party derived from the protest movement obtained political power. In early 2017, the server was switched to a similarly inspired, but new software project, Decidim, completely rewritten, aiming to be more modular and convenient for development by a wide community. Founded in Barcelona, the name "Decidim" comes from a Catalan word meaning "let's


id: decidim-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidim-1.md
category: reference
title: Decidim
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidim
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:58:39.321298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decidim-20260505-0
summary:
=== Decidim Barcelona === A Decidim server was run by the City Council of Barcelona for a two-month trial prior to 2017, in which 40,000 citizens discussed their own proposals and proposals made by the council. The Decidim software allowed threaded discussion, labelling whether the initial comment on a proposal was negative, neutral or positive, and notification to participants. The two-month trial included both online and face-to-face participation. According to Decidim, about 40% of the 39,000 individual participants did so face-to-face, and about 85% of the organisational participants did so face-to-face. There were about 11,000 proposals made on the Decidim server, of which about 8000 were accepted. The execution of the proposals was monitored during the following four years, spending about 90% of the Barcelona City Council's budget for 2016–2019. === Zurich and Lucerne === In Switzerland, urban development has legal requirements in relation to citizen participation. Use of Decidim in Zurich and Lucerne in 2021 and 2022 was studied by Suter and colleagues, based on documentary evidence, interviews with 15 people in Zurich and 17 in Lucerne ranging from municipality employees through to representatives of neighbourhood associations, and "participatory observations" (informal participatory events observed by the researchers). The researchers


