# kb

id: carbon-footprint-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-1.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
The greenhouse gas protocol is a set of standards for tracking greenhouse gas emissions. The standards divide emissions into three scopes (Scope 1, 2 and 3) within the value chain. Greenhouse gas emissions caused directly by the organization such as by burning fossil fuels are referred to as Scope 1. Emissions caused indirectly by an organization, such as by purchasing secondary energy sources like electricity, heat, cooling or steam are called Scope 2. Lastly, indirect emissions associated with upstream or downstream processes are called Scope 3. === Direct carbon emissions (Scope 1) === Direct or Scope 1 carbon emissions come from sources on the site that is producing a product or delivering a service. An example for industry would be the emissions from burning a fuel on site. On the individual level, emissions from personal vehicles or gas-burning stoves are Scope 1. === Indirect carbon emissions (Scope 2) === Indirect carbon emissions are emissions from sources upstream or downstream from the process being studied. They are also known as Scope 2 or Scope 3 emissions. Scope 2 emissions are the indirect emissions related to purchasing electricity, heat, or steam used on site. Examples of upstream carbon emissions include transportation of


id: carbon-footprint-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-2.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
== Underlying concepts for calculations == The calculation of the carbon footprint of a product, service or sector requires expert knowledge and careful examination of what is to be included. Carbon footprints can be calculated at different scales. They can apply to whole countries, cities, neighborhoods and also sectors, companies and products. Several free online carbon footprint calculators exist to calculate personal carbon footprints. Software such as the "Scope 3 Evaluator" can help companies report emissions throughout their value chain. The software tools can help consultants and researchers to model global sustainability footprints. In each situation there are a number of questions that need to be answered. These include which activities are linked to which emissions, and which proportion should be attributed to which company. Software is essential for company management. But there is a need for new ways of enterprise resource planning to improve corporate sustainability performance. To achieve 95% carbon footprint coverage, it would be necessary to assess 12 million individual supply-chain contributions. This is based on analyzing 12 sectoral case studies. The Scope 3 calculations can be made easier using input-output analysis. This is a technique originally developed by Nobel Prize-winning economist Wassily Leontief. === Consumption-based emission


id: carbon-footprint-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-3.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
=== Relationship with other environmental impacts === A focus on carbon footprints can lead people to ignore or even exacerbate other related environmental issues of concern. These include biodiversity loss, ecotoxicity, and habitat destruction. It may not be easy to measure these other human impacts on the environment with a single indicator like the carbon footprint. Consumers may think that the carbon footprint is a proxy for environmental impact. In many cases this is not correct. There can be trade-offs between reducing carbon footprint and environmental protection goals. One example is the use of biofuel, a renewable energy source that can reduce the carbon footprint of the energy supply but can also pose ecological challenges during its production. This is because it is often produced in monocultures with ample use of fertilizers and pesticides. Another example is offshore wind parks, which could have unintended impacts on marine ecosystems. The carbon footprint analysis solely focuses on greenhouse gas emissions, unlike a life-cycle assessment which is much broader and looks at all environmental impacts. Therefore, it is useful to stress in communication activities that the carbon footprint is just one in a family of indicators (e.g. ecological footprint, water footprint, land footprint,


id: carbon-footprint-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint-4.md
category: reference
title: Carbon footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:29.854297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
CO2 emissions of countries are typically measured on the basis of production. This accounting method is sometimes referred to as territorial emissions. Countries use it when they report their emissions, and set domestic and international targets such as Nationally Determined Contributions. Consumption-based emissions on the other hand are adjusted for trade. To calculate consumption-based emissions analysts have to track which goods are traded across the world. Whenever a product is imported, all CO2 emissions that were emitted in the production of that product are included. Consumption-based emissions reflect the lifestyle choices of a country's citizens. According to the World Bank, the global average carbon footprint in 2014 was about 5 tonnes of CO2 per person, measured on a production basis. The EU average for 2007 was about 13.8 tonnes CO2e per person. For the USA, Luxembourg and Australia it was over 25 tonnes CO2e per person. In 2017, the average for the USA was about 20 metric tonnes CO2e per person. This is one of the highest per capita figures in the world. The footprints per capita of countries in Africa and India were well below average. Assuming a global population of around 9–10 billion by 2050, a carbon footprint


id: carbon-rift-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_rift-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbon rift
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_rift
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:31.133510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-rift-20260505-0
summary:
Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems. This is a derivative of Karl Marx's concept of metabolic rift. In practical terms, increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide (or CO2) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption. Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this "rift" has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life. Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled "Carbon Metabolism: Global capitalism, climate change, and the biospheric rift" in the journal Theory and Society. Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that, despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift, it is projected that as long as capitalism continues, there is little hope of reducing the rift. Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels. Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems. There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-0.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is the maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available. The carrying capacity is defined as the environment's maximal load, which in population ecology corresponds to the population equilibrium, when the number of deaths in a population equals the number of births (as well as immigration and emigration). Carrying capacity of the environment implies that the resources extraction is not above the rate of regeneration of the resources and the wastes generated are within the assimilating capacity of the environment. The effect of carrying capacity on population dynamics is modelled with a logistic function. Carrying capacity is applied to the maximum population an environment can support in ecology, agriculture and fisheries. The term carrying capacity had been applied to a few different processes in the past before finally being applied to human population limits in the 1950s. The notion of carrying capacity for humans is covered by the notion of sustainable population. An early detailed examination of global limits on human population was published in the 1972 book Limits to Growth, which has prompted follow-up commentary and analysis,


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-1.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
e is Euler's number, A is a constant determined by the initial population N 0 {\displaystyle N_{0}} via A = K N 0 − 1 {\displaystyle A={K \over N_{0}}-1} . When the initial population is below the carrying capacity, A {\displaystyle A} is positive; when it is above, A {\displaystyle A} is negative. r is the initial exponential growth rate, and K is the carrying capacity. The logistic growth curve depicts how population growth rate and carrying capacity are inter-connected. As illustrated in the logistic growth curve model, when the population size is small, the population increases exponentially. However, as population size nears carrying capacity, the growth decreases and reaches zero at K. What determines a specific system's carrying capacity involves a limiting factor; this may be available supplies of food or water, nesting areas, space, or the amount of waste that can be absorbed without degrading the environment and decreasing carrying capacity. == Population ecology == Carrying capacity is a commonly used concept for biologists when trying to better understand biological populations and the factors which affect them. When addressing biological populations, carrying capacity can be seen as a stable dynamic equilibrium, taking into account extinction and colonization rates.


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-2.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
In fisheries, carrying capacity is used in the formulae to calculate sustainable yields for fisheries management. The maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is defined as "the highest average catch that can be continuously taken from an exploited population (=stock) under average environmental conditions". MSY was originally calculated as half of the carrying capacity, but has been refined over the years, now being seen as roughly 30% of the population, depending on the species or population. Because the population of a species which is brought below its carrying capacity due to fishing will find itself in the exponential phase of growth, as seen in the Verhulst model, the harvesting of an amount of fish at or below MSY is a surplus yield which can be sustainably harvested without reducing population size at equilibrium, keeping the population at its maximum recruitment. However, annual fishing can be seen as a modification of r in the equation -i.e. the environment has been modified, which means that the population size at equilibrium with annual fishing is slightly below what K would be without it. Note that mathematically and in practical terms, MSY is problematic. If mistakes are made and even a tiny amount of fish are


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-3.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
Another issue to consider when applying carrying capacity, especially to humans, is that measuring food resources is arbitrary. This is due to choosing what to consider (e.g., whether or not to include plants that are not available every year), how to classify what is considered (e.g., classifying edible plants that are not usually eaten as food resources or not), and determining if caloric values or nutritional values are privileged. Additional layers to this for humans are their cultural differences in culinary preferences (e.g., some consume flying termites) and individual choices on what to invest their labor into (e.g., fishing vs. farming), both of which vary over time. This leads to the need to determine whether or not to include all food resources or only those the population considered will actually consume. Measuring water resources carrying capacity is likewise highly arbitrary: choices in temporal resolution (e.g., monthly versus annual), spatial resolution (e.g., how subbasins are delineated), and whether to include human activities such as inter-basin water transfers and reservoir storage in the assessment can all lead to vastly different WRCC results. Carrying capacity measurements over large areas also assumes homogeneity in the resources available but this does not account for how


id: carrying-capacity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity-4.md
category: reference
title: Carrying capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrying_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:32.393840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carrying-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ecological footprint accounting === Ecological footprint accounting measures the demands people make on nature and compares them to available supplies, for both individual countries and the world as a whole. Developed originally by Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees, it has been refined and applied in a variety of contexts over the years by Global Footprint Network (GFN). On the demand side, the ecological footprint measures how fast a population uses resources and generates wastes, with a focus on five main areas: carbon emissions (or carbon footprint); land devoted to direct settlement; timber and paper use; food and fiber use; and seafood consumption. It converts these into per capita or total hectares used. On the supply side, national or global biocapacity represents the productivity of ecological assets in a particular nation or the world as a whole; this includes "cropland, grazing land, forest land, fishing grounds, and built-up land." Again the various metrics to capture biocapacity are translated into the single term of hectares of available land. As Global Footprint Network (GFN) states:Each city, state or nation's Ecological Footprint can be compared to its biocapacity, or that of the world. If a population's Ecological Footprint exceeds the region's biocapacity, that


id: climate-restoration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_restoration-0.md
category: reference
title: Climate restoration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_restoration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:33.592291+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climate-restoration-20260505-0
summary:
Climate restoration refers to intentionally restoring preindustrial levels of greenhouse gases by 2050, thereby ending the climate crisis and enabling future generations of humanity and nature to flourish. The climate restoration movement is committed to lowering carbon dioxide (CO2) levels below 300 parts per million (ppm)—the levels at which humans evolved and have thrived. Climate-restoration solutions include large-scale carbon dioxide removal (CDR)) to pull down the excess atmospheric CO2 built up in the air since the industrial revolution. Climate-restoration actions also include restoring pre-industrial atmospheric methane levels by accelerating natural methane oxidation. Climate restoration expands on the legacy climate goal of stabilizing Earth's climate by achieving "net-zero emissions." The movement calls for the transition to clean energy as well as for restoring preindustrial CO2 levels. These levels allowed humanity to develop agriculture and civilizations, so they are considered historically safe. == Mitigation and restoration == Advocates of climate restoration point out that continuing on our current climate trajectory threatens the long-term survival of society, current biodiversity, and humanity itself. They cite a moral imperative to leave a safe climate to our children and future generations. But the current mitigation pathway carries the risk that climatic conditions will worsen beyond our


id: climate-restoration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_restoration-1.md
category: reference
title: Climate restoration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_restoration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:33.592291+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climate-restoration-20260505-0
summary:
levels of climate forcing agents in the atmosphere, especially CO2 and methane for positive forcing and SO2 aerosol for negative forcing; global mean surface temperature (compared to some baseline) and its rate of increase; sea level and the rate that sea level is rising; pH and rate of ocean acidification. Ice levels of the polar ice caps. One of the principal goals for climate restoration is to bring the CO2 level down from current level of ~420 ppm (2022) towards its pre-industrial level of ~280 ppm. Not only will this reduce CO2's global warming effect but also its effect on ocean acidification. The removed carbon would be sequestered or used as a construction material. == Climate restoration open letter == On November 13, 2020, an open letter, put together by the youth organisation Worldward, calling for climate restoration was published in the Guardian newspaper. The letter was signed by prominent scientists and activists, including: Michael E Mann, Dr James Hansen, George Monbiot, Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim, Dr Rowan Williams, Bella Lack, Will Attenborough, Mark Lynas, Chloe Ardijis, Dr Shahrar Ali, and many more. After its publication, the letter was opened up to general signatories, and the signatories published on Worldward's website.


id: climax-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Climax community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:34.903771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climax-community-20260505-0
summary:
In scientific ecology, climax community or climatic climax community is a historic term for a community of plants, animals, and fungi which, through the process of ecological succession in the development of vegetation in an area over time, have reached a steady state. This equilibrium was thought to occur because the climax community is composed of species best adapted to average conditions in that area. The term is sometimes also applied in soil development. Nevertheless, it has been found that a "steady state" is more apparent than real, particularly across long timescales. The idea of a single climax, which is defined in relation to regional climate, originated with Frederic Clements in the early 1900s. The first analysis of succession as leading to something like a climax was written by Henry Cowles in 1899, but it was Clements who used the term "climax" to describe the idealized endpoint of succession. == Frederic Clements' use of "climax" == Clements described the successional development of an ecological community comparable to the ontogenetic development of individual organisms. Clements suggested only comparisons to very simple organisms. Later ecologists developed this idea that the ecological community is a "superorganism" and even sometimes claimed that communities could


id: climax-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax_species-0.md
category: reference
title: Climax species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:36.067235+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climax-species-20260505-0
summary:
Climax species, also called late seral, late-successional, K-selected or equilibrium species, are plant species that can germinate and grow with limited resources; e.g., they need heat exposure or low water availability. They are the species within forest succession that are more adapted to stable and predictable environments, and will remain essentially unchanged in terms of species composition for as long as a site remains undisturbed. The seedlings of climax species can grow in the shade of the parent trees, ensuring their dominance indefinitely. The presence of climax species can also reduce the prevalence of other species within an ecosystem. However, a disturbance, such as fire, may kill the climax species, allowing pioneer or earlier successional species to re-establish for a time. They are the opposite of pioneer species, also known as ruderal, fugitive, opportunistic or R-selected species, in the sense that climax species are good competitors but poor colonizers, whereas pioneer species are good colonizers but poor competitors. Given the prevailing ecological conditions, climax species dominate the climax community. When the pace of succession slows down as the result of ecological homeostasis, the maximum permitted biodiversity is reached. Their reproductive strategies and other adaptive characteristics can be considered more sophisticated


id: coevolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Coevolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:37.344867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coevolution-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution, as well as gene-culture coevolution. Charles Darwin mentioned evolutionary interactions between flowering plants and insects in On the Origin of Species (1859). He used use the similar word coadaptation and suggested how plants and insects could evolve through reciprocal evolutionary changes. Naturalists in the late 1800s studied other examples of how interactions among species could result in reciprocal evolutionary change. Beginning in the 1940s, plant pathologists developed breeding programs that were examples of human-induced coevolution. Development of new crop plant varieties that were resistant to some diseases favored rapid evolution in pathogen populations to overcome those plant defenses. That, in turn, required the development of yet new resistant crop plant varieties, producing an ongoing cycle of reciprocal evolution in crop plants and diseases that continues to this day. Coevolution as a major topic for study in nature expanded rapidly from the 1960s, when Daniel H. Janzen showed coevolution between acacias and ants (see below) and Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven suggested how


id: coevolution-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution-1.md
category: reference
title: Coevolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:37.344867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coevolution-20260505-0
summary:
Hummingbirds and ornithophilous (bird-pollinated) flowers have evolved a mutualistic relationship. The flowers have nectar suited to the birds' diet, their color suits the birds' vision and their shape fits that of the birds' bills. The blooming times of the flowers have also been found to coincide with hummingbirds' breeding seasons. The floral characteristics of ornithophilous plants vary greatly among each other compared to closely related insect-pollinated species. These flowers also tend to be more ornate, complex, and showy than their insect pollinated counterparts. It is generally agreed that plants formed coevolutionary relationships with insects first, and ornithophilous species diverged at a later time. There is not much scientific support for instances of the reverse of this divergence: from ornithophily to insect pollination. The diversity in floral phenotype in ornithophilous species, and the relative consistency observed in bee-pollinated species can be attributed to the direction of the shift in pollinator preference. Flowers have converged to take advantage of similar birds. Flowers compete for pollinators, and adaptations reduce unfavourable effects of this competition. The fact that birds can fly during inclement weather makes them more efficient pollinators where bees and other insects would be inactive. Ornithophily may have arisen for this reason


id: coevolution-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution-2.md
category: reference
title: Coevolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:37.344867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coevolution-20260505-0
summary:
Brood parasitism demonstrates close coevolution of host and parasite, for example in some cuckoos. These birds do not make their own nests, but lay their eggs in nests of other species, ejecting or killing the eggs and young of the host and thus having a strong negative impact on the host's reproductive fitness. Their eggs are camouflaged as eggs of their hosts, implying that hosts can distinguish their own eggs from those of intruders and are in an evolutionary arms race with the cuckoo between camouflage and recognition. Cuckoos are counter-adapted to host defences with features such as thickened eggshells, shorter incubation (so their young hatch first), and flat backs adapted to lift eggs out of the nest. === Antagonistic coevolution === Antagonistic coevolution is seen in the harvester ant species Pogonomyrmex barbatus and Pogonomyrmex rugosus, in a relationship both parasitic and mutualistic. The queens are unable to produce worker ants by mating with their own species. Only by crossbreeding can they produce workers. The winged females act as parasites for the males of the other species as their sperm will only produce sterile hybrids. But because the colonies are fully dependent on these hybrids to survive, it is also


id: coevolution-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution-3.md
category: reference
title: Coevolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:37.344867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coevolution-20260505-0
summary:
=== In management and organisation studies === Since 2000, coevolution has been explored in management and organisation studies, for example in the business ecosystem of partners of the Intel corporation, where Intel both shapes and is shaped by its partners. However, the processes that characterise coevolution in these fields remain unclear, and its applicability is undefined. It has been suggested that when an organisation seeks ideas from external partners, it tends to select and retain partners whose ideas align with its own. This means that far from passively receiving ideas during a search, organisations actively shape the nature of the contributions they can receive in a two-way "coevolutionary lock-in" process. === In political economy === Some scholars have applied coevolution to propose non-linear theories in political economy. The Emergence of Organizations and Markets, by John Padgett and Walter Powell, presents case studies of social networks coevolving with institutions, mainly based on early European history (e.g., commercial networks in 13th century Tuscany). A more contemporary application is How China Escaped the Poverty Trap, by Yuen Yuen Ang, which traces the mutual adaptation of the economy and institution, first in China's development under Deng Xiaoping, and also in Nigeria's film industry and


id: colony-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Colony (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:38.621004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: colony-biology-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, a colony is composed of two or more conspecific individuals living in close association with, or connected to, one another. This association is usually for mutual benefit such as stronger defense or the ability to attack bigger prey. Colonies can form in various shapes and ways depending on the organism involved. For instance, the bacterial colony is a cluster of identical cells (clones). These colonies often form and grow on the surface of (or within) a solid medium, usually derived from a single parent cell. Colonies, in the context of development, may be composed of two or more unitary (or solitary) organisms or be modular organisms. Unitary organisms have determinate development (set life stages) from zygote to adult form and individuals or groups of individuals (colonies) are visually distinct. Modular organisms have indeterminate growth forms (life stages not set) through repeated iteration of genetically identical modules (or individuals), and it can be difficult to distinguish between the colony as a whole and the modules within. In the latter case, modules may have specific functions within the colony. In contrast, solitary organisms – such as jaguars – do not associate with colonies; they are ones in which all individuals


id: colony-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Colony (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:38.621004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: colony-biology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Worker emergence === This is also known as the ergonomic stage. As the eggs laid by the foundresses develop, they give rise to the first generation of workers. These workers can assume various tasks, such as foraging, brood care, and nest maintenance. Initially, the worker population is relatively small, and their tasks are not as specialised. As the colony grows, more workers emerge, and the division of labor becomes more pronounced. Some individuals may specialise in tasks like foraging, defense, or tending to the brood, while others may take on general tasks within the nest. These specialised tasks can change throughout the life of a worker. === Reproductive phase === At a certain point in the colony ontogeny, usually after a period of growth and maturation, the colony produces reproductives, including new virgin queens (princesses) and males. These individuals have the potential to leave the nest and start new colonies, ensuring the transmission of the gene pool of its natal colony. === Colony death === Over time, colonies may go through a senescence phase where the reproductive output declines, and the colony's overall vitality diminishes. Eventually, the colony may die off or be replaced by a new generation of


id: common-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_species-0.md
category: reference
title: Common species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:40.304201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: common-species-20260505-0
summary:
Common species and uncommon species are designations used in ecology to describe the population status of a species. Commonness is closely related to abundance. Abundance refers to the frequency with which a species is found in controlled samples; in contrast, species are defined as common or uncommon based on their overall presence in the environment. A species may be locally abundant without being common. However, "common" and "uncommon" are also sometimes used to describe levels of abundance, with a common species being less abundant than an abundant species, while an uncommon species is more abundant than a rare species. Common species are frequently regarded as being at low risk of extinction simply because they exist in large numbers, and hence their conservation status is often overlooked. While this is broadly logical, there are several cases of once common species being driven to extinction such as the passenger pigeon and the Rocky Mountain locust, which numbered in the billions and trillions respectively before their demise. Moreover, a small proportional decline in a common species results in the loss of a large number of individuals, and the contribution to ecosystem function that those individuals represented. A recent paper argued that because common


id: conservation-status-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status-0.md
category: reference
title: Conservation status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:42.109211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-status-20260505-0
summary:
The conservation status of a group of organisms (for example, a species) indicates whether the group still exists and how likely it is to become extinct in the near future. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation status—not simply the number of individuals remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, and known threats. Various systems of conservation status are in use at international, multi-country, national and local levels, as well as for consumer use such as sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification. The two international systems are by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). == International systems == === IUCN Red List of Threatened Species === The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups set through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation. Also included are species that have gone extinct since


id: conservation-status-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status-1.md
category: reference
title: Conservation status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:42.109211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-status-20260505-0
summary:
== National systems == In Australia, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 IUCN Red List Categories & Criteria (version 2.3). Prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status. The codes for the Western Australian conservation system are given at Declared Rare and Priority Flora List (abbreviated to DECF when using in a taxobox). In Belgium, the Flemish Research Institute for Nature and Forest publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch. In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in some danger of disappearing from Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act (SARA), it is up to the federal government, which is politically accountable, to legally protect species assessed by COSEWIC. In China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book. In


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-0.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
A constructed wetland is an artificial wetland to treat sewage, greywater, stormwater runoff or industrial wastewater. It may also be designed for land reclamation after mining, or as a mitigation step for natural areas lost to land development. Constructed wetlands are engineered systems that use the natural functions of vegetation, soil, and organisms to provide secondary treatment to wastewater. The design of the constructed wetland has to be adjusted according to the type of wastewater to be treated. Constructed wetlands have been used in both centralized and decentralized wastewater systems. Primary treatment is recommended when there is a large amount of suspended solids or soluble organic matter (measured as biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand). Similar to natural wetlands, constructed wetlands also act as a biofilter and/or can remove a range of pollutants (such as organic matter, nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals) from the water. Constructed wetlands are designed to remove water pollutants such as suspended solids, organic matter and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). All types of pathogens (i.e., bacteria, viruses, protozoans and helminths) are expected to be removed to some extent in a constructed wetland. Subsurface wetlands provide greater pathogen removal than surface wetlands. There are two main types


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-1.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
Nitrification is the biological conversion of organic and inorganic nitrogenous compounds from a reduced state to a more oxidized state, based on the action of two different bacteria types. Nitrification is strictly an aerobic process in which the end product is nitrate (NO−3). The process of nitrification oxidizes ammonium (from the wastewater) to nitrite (NO−2), and then nitrite is oxidized to nitrate (NO−3). ==== Denitrification ==== Denitrification is the biochemical reduction of oxidized nitrogen anions, nitrate and nitrite to produce the gaseous products nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen gas (N2), with concomitant oxidation of organic matter. The end product, N2, and to a lesser extent the intermediary by product, N2O, are gases that re-enter the atmosphere. ==== Ammonia removal from mine water ==== Constructed wetlands have been used to remove ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds from contaminated mine water, including cyanide and nitrate. === Phosphorus removal === Phosphorus occurs naturally in both organic and inorganic forms. The analytical measure of biologically available orthophosphates is referred to as soluble reactive phosphorus (SR-P). Dissolved organic phosphorus and insoluble forms of organic and inorganic phosphorus are generally not biologically available until transformed into soluble inorganic forms. In freshwater aquatic ecosystems,


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-2.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
Subsurface flow constructed wetland – this wetland can be either with vertical flow (the effluent moves vertically, from the planted layer down through the substrate and out) or with horizontal flow (the effluent moves horizontally, parallel to the surface) Surface flow constructed wetland (this wetland has horizontal flow) Floating treatment wetland The former types are placed in a basin with a substrate to provide a surface area upon which large amounts of waste degrading biofilms form, while the latter relies on a flooded treatment basin upon which aquatic plants are held in flotation till they develop a thick mat of roots and rhizomes upon which biofilms form. In most cases, the bottom is lined with either a polymer geomembrane, concrete or clay (when there is appropriate clay type) in order to protect the water table and surrounding grounds. The substrate can be either gravel—generally limestone or pumice/volcanic rock, depending on local availability, sand or a mixture of various sizes of media (for vertical flow constructed wetlands). Constructed wetlands can be used after a septic tank for primary treatment (or other types of systems) in order to separate the solids from the liquid effluent. Some constructed wetland designs however do not


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-3.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
==== Comparisons with other types ==== Subsurface wetlands are less hospitable to mosquitoes compared to surface flow wetlands, as there is no water exposed to the surface. Mosquitos can be a problem in surface flow constructed wetlands. Subsurface flow systems have the advantage of requiring less land area for water treatment than surface flow. However, surface flow wetlands can be more suitable for wildlife habitat. For urban applications the area requirement of a subsurface flow constructed wetland might be a limiting factor compared to conventional municipal wastewater treatment plants. High rate aerobic treatment processes like activated sludge plants, trickling filters, rotating discs, submerged aerated filters or membrane bioreactor plants require less space. The advantage of subsurface flow constructed wetlands compared to those technologies is their operational robustness which is particularly important in developing countries. The fact that constructed wetlands do not produce secondary sludge (sewage sludge) is another advantage as there is no need for sewage sludge treatment. However, primary sludge from primary settling tanks does get produced and needs to be removed and treated. ==== Costs ==== The costs of subsurface flow constructed wetlands mainly depend on the costs of sand with which the bed has to be filled.


id: constructed-wetland-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland-4.md
category: reference
title: Constructed wetland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_wetland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:43.561117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructed-wetland-20260505-0
summary:
== History == Primary clarifier effluent was discharged directly to natural wetlands for decades before environmental regulations discouraged the practice. Subsurface flow constructed wetlands with sand filter beds have their origin in China and are now used in Asia in small cities. == Examples == === Austria === The total number of constructed wetlands in Austria is 5,450 (in 2015). Due to legal requirements (nitrification), only vertical flow constructed wetlands are implemented in Austria as they achieve better nitrification performance than horizontal flow constructed wetlands. Only about 100 of these constructed wetlands have a design size of 50 population equivalents or more. The remaining 5,350 treatment plants are smaller than that. === Canada === As part of the remediation efforts to remove contamination from CFB Goose Bay, one of the waste dumps was transformed into an engineered wetland. In 2023, Clearwater County implemented the first biofilter-based wetland wastewater treatment system in the province. The system uses 2 types of subsurface constructed wetlands to conduct both aerobic and anaerobic wastewater treatment. == See also == == References == == External links == Constructed Wetlands – US Environmental Protection Agency — Handbook, studies and related resources Publications on constructed wetlands in the


id: convergence-sustainability-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergence_(sustainability_science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Convergence (sustainability science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergence_(sustainability_science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:44.793521+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: convergence-sustainability-science-20260505-0
summary:
Convergence in sustainability sciences refers to mechanisms and pathways that lead towards sustainability with a specific focus on 'Equity within biological planetary limits'. These pathways and mechanisms explicitly advocate equity and recognise the need for redistribution of the Earth's resources in order for human society to operate enduringly within the Earth's biophysical limits. The term was first introduced by Phillip A. Sharp and Robert Langer in 2011 in the context of biomedical science. They called for a problem-solving approach that integrated knowledge from the fields of engineering, the physical sciences, computer science, and the life sciences to find solutions to human problems. The idea has since been applied in areas including climate change, environmental health, public health, systemic inequities. and sustainability. One strategy is to add “friction” to undesirable practices and make them harder to do, while making the desired practices “frictionless” or easy to do. This use of the term 'convergence' harkens from the concept of contraction and convergence (C&C), taking its core principles of Equity and Survival and applying them beyond the frame of greenhouse gas emissions to the wider sustainability agenda. == References ==


id: critical-habitat-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_habitat-0.md
category: reference
title: Critical habitat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_habitat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:45.990677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: critical-habitat-20260505-0
summary:
Critical habitat refers to specific geographic areas essential to the conservation of a listed endangered species, though the area need not actually be occupied by the species at the time it is designated. Critical habitat is a legal designation of land use defined within the U.S. Endangered Species Act-ESA. Contrary to common belief, designating an area as critical habitat does not preclude that area from development. A critical habitat designation only affects federal agency actions. Such actions include federally funded activities or activities requiring a federal permit that may negatively affect the quality of habitat for a listed species. This law also defines that there may be no "take" of a listed species from the designated area. This land designation aims to protect vital habitat for endangered species by preserving areas that are able to meet the identified needs for the target species. This is a key feature of conservation as outlined in the ESA. == Designation process == Critical habitat must be designated for all threatened species and endangered species under the Endangered Species Act, with certain specified exceptions. Designations of critical habitats must be based on the best scientific information available and follow the procedure as outlined in


id: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)-0.md
category: reference
title: Cumulative effects (environment)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:47.221717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-0
summary:
Cumulative effects, also referred to as cumulative environmental effects and cumulative impacts, can be defined as changes to the environment caused by the combined impact of past, present and future human activities and natural processes. Cumulative effects to the environment are the result of multiple activities whose individual direct impacts may be relatively minor but in combination with others result are significant environmental effects. The multiple impacts of different activities may have an additive, synergistic or antagonistic effect on one another and with natural processes. Cumulative effects can be difficult to predict and manage due to inadequate environmental baseline data, complex ecological processes, and the large scale at which human development occurs. The emergence of cumulative effects in environmental regulations began in the 1970s and has since been increasingly seen as a consideration in environmental impact assessments and land management. However, despite its growing relevance, there are no generally accepted methodologies for cumulative effects assessments and there remains debate surrounding the issue. Many human activities result in direct and indirect impacts that collectively impact the environment. The impacts of activities in combination with natural processes can result in cascading responses in ecosystems that can become unpredictable. Some activities known to


id: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)-1.md
category: reference
title: Cumulative effects (environment)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:47.221717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Land use change === Land use changes can have a range of direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Individual changes to land uses (e.g., clearing vegetation to build a home) may result in negligible impacts, but the accumulation of these changes across a region or landscape may result in major impacts. Land use changes can cause dramatic losses to high quality and intact wildlife habitat. Residential development and road construction, for example, directly result in fragmenting and reducing the quality of wildlife habitat. Other direct impacts on the ecosystem include noise, light, and air pollution from increased human and vehicle traffic and construction. During construction of new projects, native vegetation is often removed, which can result in changes to the composition of wildlife in the surrounding areas. Additionally, the amount of fencing typically increases with more development, which prevents many species from moving freely. Wildlife will change their behaviour as a result of changed land uses; for example, deer have been found to avoid developed areas as far as 1 kilometre. Indirectly, changes to land uses can result in urban growth, increased deforestation as a result of more accessibility, and degradation of soil stability as a result of


id: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)-2.md
category: reference
title: Cumulative effects (environment)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_effects_(environment)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:47.221717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cumulative-effects-environment-20260505-0
summary:
Move away from project-specific environmental assessments: Cumulative effects are best understood and managed at a policy, program or sector level because of the need for long-term planning. Develop national environmental baseline databases: Agencies and organizations conducting research within nations share their data in a standardized approach that allows for information to be merged and used in various studies. Many practitioners use computer simulations to predict potential impacts of activities and land use change; therefore, an inventory of national environmental baseline data will strengthen the predictive ability of these models. Coordination among jurisdictional agencies: The fragmentation of environmental assessments between jurisdiction inadequately addresses cumulative effects problems. Coordination between agencies at various levels (national, regional, local) can help set environmental objectives, anticipate and plan for future development, and share best practices. Regional Environmental Assessment (REA): Cumulative effects of human activities on the environment are better understood at a regional scale. Because REAs study the effects of developments occurring within a region, they are more capable than conventional environmental assessments at analyzing cumulative effects. They can also help make more strategic decisions for future development by helping strengthen the understanding the environmental state at a regional scale. Considering cumulative effects early: It is


id: deltaic-lobe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltaic_lobe-0.md
category: reference
title: Deltaic lobe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltaic_lobe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:48.539575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deltaic-lobe-20260505-0
summary:
A deltaic lobe is a wetland formation that forms as a river empties water and sediment into other bodies of water. As the sediment builds up from this delta, the river will break away from its single channel and the mouth will be pushed outwards, forming a deltaic lobe. When the rate of water discharge and lobe progradation are sufficiently high, a river can form a deltaic lobe. A single deltaic lobe includes a network of shallow channels called distributaries that make up a distributary network that branches off from the mainstream of the river. These networks can be the blueprint for a future progradational deltaic lobe when the initial deltaic lobe is abandoned. As the deltaic lobe progresses, heavier and coarser sediments settle first. As heavier sediments are deposited at the top of the deltaic lobe, smaller and finer sediments get deposited out, creating the beginning of a deltaic fan. When the alluvium, the smallest sediment carried by the deltaic lobe, is deposited and new land is formed, the resulting formation is considered a delta. Lobes are important in forming river deltas over time by amalgamation of channel avulsions. When a lobe is prograded the frequency of avulsion decreases,


id: desakota-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desakota-0.md
category: reference
title: Desakota
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desakota
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:49.837611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: desakota-20260505-0
summary:
Desakota is a term used in urban geography to describe areas in the extended surroundings of large cities, in which urban and agricultural forms of land use and settlement coexist and are intensively intermingled. == Etymology == The term was coined by the urban researcher Terry McGee of the University of British Columbia around 1990. It comes from Indonesian desa "village" and kota "city". Desakota areas typically occur in Asia, especially South East Asia. Examples can be found in the urbanised regions of Java, the densely populated, delta-shaped areas on the peripheries of the Jakarta agglomeration ("Jabodetabek"), but also the extended metropolitan regions of Bangkok or Manila. Outside South East Asia, areas with comparable features have been described in mainland China, India, Nepal, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea. == Characteristics == Desakota areas are situated outside the periurban zones, from which daily commuting is easily possible, i.e. more than 30 to 50 km (19 to 31 mi) off the city centre. They often sprawl alongside arterial and communication roads, sometimes from one agglomeration to the next. They are characterised by high population density and intensive agricultural use (especially wet-rice cultivation), but differ from densely populated rural areas by more urban-like


id: disturbance-ecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Disturbance (ecology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:51.127287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disturbance-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
In ecology, a disturbance is a change in environmental conditions that causes a pronounced change in an ecosystem. Disturbances often act quickly and with great effect, to alter the physical structure or arrangement of biotic and abiotic elements. A disturbance can also occur over a long period of time and can impact the biodiversity within an ecosystem. Ecological disturbances include fires, flooding, storms, insect outbreaks, trampling, human presence, earthquakes, plant diseases, infestations, volcanic eruptions, impact events, etc. Not only invasive species can have a profound effect on an ecosystem, native species can also cause disturbance by their behavior. Disturbance forces can have profound immediate effects on ecosystems and can, accordingly, greatly alter the natural community’s population size or species richness. Because of these and the impacts on populations, disturbance determines the future shifts in dominance, various species successively becoming dominant as their life history characteristics, and associated life-forms, are exhibited over time. == Definition and types == The scale of disturbance ranges from events as small as a single tree falling, to as large as a mass extinction. Many natural ecosystems experience periodic disturbance that may broadly fall into a cyclical pattern. Ecosystems that form under these conditions are often


id: disturbance-ecology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Disturbance (ecology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:51.127287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disturbance-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Often, when disturbances occur naturally, they provide conditions that favor the success of different species over pre-disturbance organisms. This can be attributed to physical changes in the biotic and abiotic conditions of an ecosystem. Because of this, a disturbance force can change an ecosystem for significantly longer than the period over which the immediate effects persist. With the passage of time following a disturbance, shifts in dominance may occur with ephemeral herbaceous life-forms progressively becoming over topped by taller perennials herbs, shrubs and trees. However, in the absence of further disturbance forces, many ecosystems trend back toward pre-disturbance conditions. Long lived species and those that can regenerate in the presence of their own adults finally become dominant. Such alteration, accompanied by changes in the abundance of different species over time, is called ecological succession. Succession often leads to conditions that will once again predispose an ecosystem to disturbance. Pine forests in western North America provide a good example of such a cycle involving insect outbreaks. The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) plays an important role in limiting pine trees like lodgepole pine in forests of western North America. In 2004 the beetles affected more than 90,000 square kilometres. The beetles


id: disturbance-ecology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Disturbance (ecology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:51.127287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disturbance-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
== Importance == Biological diversity is dependent on natural disturbance. The success of a wide range of species from all taxonomic groups is closely tied to natural disturbance events such as fire, flooding, and windstorm. As an example, many shade-intolerant plant species rely on disturbances for successful establishment and to limit competition. Without this perpetual thinning, diversity of forest flora can decline, affecting animals dependent on those plants as well. A good example of this role of disturbance is in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in the western United States, where surface fires frequently thin existing vegetation allowing for new growth. If fire is suppressed, douglas fir (Pesudotsuga menziesii), a shade tolerant species, eventually replaces the pines. Douglas firs, having dense crowns, severely limit the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor. Without sufficient light new growth is severely limited. As the diversity of surface plants decreases, animal species that rely on them diminish as well. Fire, in this case, is important not only to the species directly affected but also to many other organisms whose survival depends on those key plants. Diversity is low in harsh environments because of the intolerance of all but opportunistic and highly resistant species


id: dpsir-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR-0.md
category: reference
title: DPSIR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:52.516306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dpsir-20260505-0
summary:
DPSIR (drivers, pressures, state, impact, and response model of intervention) is a causal framework used to describe the interactions between society and the environment. It seeks to analyze and assess environmental problems by bringing together various scientific disciplines, environmental managers, and stakeholders, and solve them by incorporating sustainable development. First, the indicators are categorized into "drivers" which put "pressures" in the "state" of the system, which in turn results in certain "impacts" that will lead to various "responses" to maintain or recover the system under consideration. It is followed by the organization of available data, and suggestion of procedures to collect missing data for future analysis. Since its formulation in the late 1990s, it has been widely adopted by international organizations for ecosystem-based study in various fields like biodiversity, soil erosion, and groundwater depletion and contamination. In recent times, the framework has been used in combination with other analytical methods and models, to compensate for its shortcomings. It is employed to evaluate environmental changes in ecosystems, identify the social and economic pressures on a system, predict potential challenges and improve management practices. The flexibility and general applicability of the framework make it a resilient tool that can be applied in


id: dpsir-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR-1.md
category: reference
title: DPSIR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:52.516306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dpsir-20260505-0
summary:
=== Impact === Impact refers to how changes in the state of the system affect human well-being. It is often measured in terms of damages to the environment or human health, like migration, poverty, and increased vulnerability to diseases, but can also be identified and quantified without any positive or negative connotation, by simply indicating a change in the environmental parameters. Impact can be ecologic (e.g.: reduction of wetlands, biodiversity loss), socio-economic (e.g.: reduced tourism), or a combination of both. Its definition may vary depending on the discipline and methodology applied. For instance, it refers to the effect on living beings and non-living domains of ecosystems in biosciences (e.g.: modifications in the chemical composition of air or water), whereas it is associated with the effects on human systems related to changes in the environmental functions in socio-economic sciences (e.g.: physical and mental health). === Response === Response refers to actions taken to correct the problems of the previous stages, by adjusting the drivers, reducing the pressure on the system, bringing the system back to its initial state, and mitigating the impacts. It can be associated uniquely with policy action, or to different levels of the society, including groups and/or individuals


id: dpsir-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR-2.md
category: reference
title: DPSIR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPSIR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:52.516306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dpsir-20260505-0
summary:
== Applications == Despite its criticisms, DPSIR continues to be widely used to frame and assess environmental problems to identify appropriate responses. Its main objective is to support sustainable management of natural resources. DPSIR structures indicators related to the environmental problem addressed with reference to the political objectives and focuses on supposed causal relationships effectively, such that it appeals to policy actors. Some examples include the assessment of the pressure of alien species, evaluation of impacts of developmental activities on the coastal environment and society, identification of economic elements affecting global wildfire activities, and cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and gross domestic product (GDP) correction. To compensate for its shortcomings, DPSIR is also used in conjunction with several analytical methods and models. It has been used in conjunction with Multiple-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) for desertification risk management, with Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to study urban green electricity power, and with Tobit model to assess freshwater ecosystems. The framework itself has also been modified to assess specific systems, like DPSWR, which focuses on the impacts on human welfare alone, by shifting ecological impact to the state category. Another approach is a differential DPSIR (ΔDPSIR), which evaluates the changes in drivers, pressures and state


id: ecological-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:53.698459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-design-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological design or ecodesign is an approach to designing products and services that gives special consideration to the environmental impacts of a product over its entire lifecycle. Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan define it as "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes." Ecological design can also be defined as the process of integrating environmental considerations into design and development with the aim of reducing environmental impacts of products through their life cycle. The idea helps connect scattered efforts to address environmental issues in architecture, agriculture, engineering, and ecological restoration, among others. The term was first used by Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan in 1996. Ecological design was originally conceptualized as the "adding in "of environmental factor to the design process, but later turned to the details of eco-design practice, such as product system or individual product or industry as a whole. With the inclusion of life cycle modeling techniques, ecological design was related to the new interdisciplinary subject of industrial ecology. == Overview == As the whole product's life cycle should be regarded in an integrated perspective, representatives from advanced product design, production, marketing, purchasing, and project management


id: ecological-design-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecological design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:53.698459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-design-20260505-0
summary:
=== The rise and conceptualization of ecological design === Since the Industrial Revolution, design fields have been criticized for employing unsustainable practices. The architect-designer Victor Papanek (1923–1998) suggested that industrial design has murdered by creating new species of permanent garbage and by choosing materials and processes that pollute the air. Papanek states that the designer-planner shares responsibility for nearly all of our products and tools, and hence, nearly all of our environmental mistakes. To address these issues, R. Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983) demonstrated how design could play a central role in identifying and addressing major world problems. Fuller was concerned with the Earth's finite energy resources and natural resources, and how to integrate machine tools into efficient systems of industrial production. He promoted the principle of "ephemeralization", a term he coined himself to do "more with less" and increase technological efficiency. This concept is key in ecological design that works towards sustainability. In 1986, the design theorist Clive Dilnot argued that design must once again become a means of ordering the world rather than merely of shaping products. Despite rising ecological awareness in the 20th century, unsustainable design practices continued. The 1992 conference "The Agenda 21: The Earth Summit Strategy to


id: ecological-design-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design-2.md
category: reference
title: Ecological design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:53.698459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-design-20260505-0
summary:
== Urban Ecological Design == Related to ecological urbanism, Urban Ecological Design integrates aesthetic, social, and ecological concerns into an urban design framework that seeks to increase ecological functioning, sustainably generate and consume resources, and create resilient built environments and the infrastructure to maintain them. Urban ecological design is inherently interdisciplinary: it integrates multiple academic and professional fields including environmental studies, sociology, justice studies, urban ecology, landscape ecology, urban planning, architecture, and landscape architecture. Urban ecological design aims to solve issues related to multiple large-scale trends including the growth of urban areas, climate change, and biodiversity loss. Urban ecological design has been described as a "process model" contrasted to a normative approach that outlines principles of design. Urban ecological design blends a multitude of frameworks and approaches to create solutions to these issues by improving Urban resilience, sustainable use and management of resources, and integrating ecological processes into the urban landscape. == Applications in design == EcoMaterials, such as the use of local raw materials, are less costly and reduce the environmental costs of shipping, fuel consumption, and CO2 emissions generated from transportation. Certified green building materials, such as wood from sustainably managed forest plantations, with accreditations from companies such


id: ecological-design-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design-3.md
category: reference
title: Ecological design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:53.698459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-design-20260505-0
summary:
== Active systems == These systems use the principle of harnessing the power generated from renewable and inexhaustible sources of energy, for example; solar, wind, thermal, biomass, geothermal, and hydropower energy. Solar power is a widely known and used renewable energy source. An increase in technology has allowed solar power to be used in a wide variety of applications. Two types of solar panels generate heat into electricity. Thermal solar panels reduce or eliminate the consumption of gas and diesel, and reduce CO2 emissions. Photovoltaic panels convert solar radiation into an electric current which can power any appliance. This is a more complex technology and is generally more expensive to manufacture than thermal panels. Biomass is the energy source created from organic materials generated through a forced or spontaneous biological process. Geothermal energy is obtained by harnessing heat from the ground. This type of energy can be used to heat and cool homes. It eliminates dependence on external energy and generates minimum waste. It is also hidden from view as it is placed underground, making it more aesthetically pleasing and easier to incorporate in a design. Wind turbines are a useful application for areas without immediate conventional power sources, e.g.,


id: ecological-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:54.933512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological engineering uses ecology and engineering to predict, design, construct or restore, and manage ecosystems that integrate "human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both". == Origins, key concepts, definitions, and applications == Ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine. Its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is relatively recent. Ecological engineering was introduced by Howard Odum and others as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. The origins of ecological engineering are in Odum's work with ecological modeling and ecosystem simulation to capture holistic macro-patterns of energy and material flows affecting the efficient use of resources. Mitsch and Jorgensen summarized five basic concepts that differentiate ecological engineering from other approaches to addressing problems to benefit society and nature: 1) it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems; 2) it can be the field (or acid) test of ecological theories; 3) it relies on system approaches; 4) it conserves non-renewable energy sources; and 5) it supports ecosystem and biological conservation. Mitsch and Jorgensen were the first to define ecological


id: ecological-engineering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecological engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:54.933512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Ecosystem structure & function are determined by forcing functions of the system; Energy inputs to the ecosystems and available storage of the ecosystem is limited; Ecosystems are open and dissipative systems (not thermodynamic balance of energy, matter, entropy, but spontaneous appearance of complex, chaotic structure); Attention to a limited number of governing/controlling factors is most strategic in preventing pollution or restoring ecosystems; Ecosystem have some homeostatic capability that results in smoothing out and depressing the effects of strongly variable inputs; Match recycling pathways to the rates of ecosystems and reduce pollution effects; Design for pulsing systems wherever possible; Ecosystems are self-designing systems; Processes of ecosystems have characteristic time and space scales that should be accounted for in environmental management; Biodiversity should be championed to maintain an ecosystem's self design capacity; Ecotones, transition zones, are as important for ecosystems as membranes for cells; Coupling between ecosystems should be utilized wherever possible; The components of an ecosystem are interconnected, interrelated, and form a network; consider direct as well as indirect efforts of ecosystem development; An ecosystem has a history of development; Ecosystems and species are most vulnerable at their geographical edges; Ecosystems are hierarchical systems and are parts of a larger landscape;


id: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:56.107504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
The ecological footprint measures human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people and their economies. It tracks human demand on nature through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use to satisfy their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region, nation, or the world (biocapacity). Biocapacity is the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature. Therefore, the metric is a measure of human impact on the environment. As Ecological Footprint accounts measure to what extent human activities operate within the means of our planet, they are a central metric for sustainability. The metric is promoted by the Global Footprint Network which has developed standards to make results comparable. FoDaFo, supported by Global Footprint Network and York University are now providing the national assessments of Footprints and biocapacity. Footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual, regional, national or global scale. Both footprint and demands on biocapacity change every year with number of people, per person consumption, efficiency of production, and productivity of ecosystems. At a global scale, footprint assessments show how big humanity's demand is compared to what Earth can renew.


id: ecological-footprint-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecological footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:56.107504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological footprint accounting is built on the recognition that regenerative resources are the physically most limiting resources of all. Even fossil fuel use is far more limited by the amount of sequestration the biosphere can provide rather than by the amounts left underground. The same is true for ores and minerals, where the limiting factor is how much damage to the biosphere we are willing to accept to extract and concentrate those materials, rather than by how much of them is still left underground. Therefore, the focus of ecological footprint accounting is human competition for regenerative resources. The amount of the planet's regeneration, including how many resources are renewed and how much waste the planet can absorb, is dubbed biocapacity. Ecological footprints therefore track how much biocapacity is needed to provide for all the inputs that human activities demand. It can be calculated at any scale: for an activity, a person, a community, a city, a region, a nation, or humanity as a whole. Footprints can be split into consumption categories: food, housing, and goods and services. Or it can be organized by area types occupied: cropland, pasture, forests for forest products, forests for carbon sequestration, marine areas, etc. When


id: ecological-footprint-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint-2.md
category: reference
title: Ecological footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:56.107504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
According to Wackernagel and the organisation he has founded, the Earth has been in "overshoot", where humanity is using more resources and generating waste at a pace that the ecosystem cannot renew, since the 1970s. According to the Global Footprint Network's calculations, currently people use Earth's resources at approximately 171% of capacity. This implies that humanity is well over Earth's human carrying capacity at current levels of affluence. In 2025, Earth Overshoot Day advanced to 24 July. Earth Overshoot Day marks the date when humanity has exhausted nature's budget for the year. For the rest of the year, we are maintaining our ecological deficit by drawing down local resource stocks and accumulating carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Currently, more than 85% of humanity lives in countries that run an ecological deficit. This means their citizens use more resources and generate more waste and pollution than can be sustained by the biocapacity found within their national boundaries. In some cases, countries are running an ecological deficit because their per capita ecological footprints are higher than the hectares of bioproductive land available on average globally (this was estimated at <1.7 hectares per person in 2019). Examples include France, Germany and Saudi Arabia.


id: ecological-footprint-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint-3.md
category: reference
title: Ecological footprint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_footprint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:56.107504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-footprint-20260505-0
summary:
In a 2012 study of consumers acting 'green' vs. 'brown' (where green people are "expected to have significantly lower ecological impact than 'brown' consumers"), "the research found no significant difference between the carbon footprints of green and brown consumers". A 2013 study concluded the same. == Reviews and critiques == Early criticism was published by van den Bergh and Verbruggen in 1999, which was updated in 2014. Their colleague Fiala published similar criticism in 2008. A comprehensive review commissioned by the Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission) was published in June 2008. The European Commission's review found the concept unique and useful for assessing progress on the EU's Resource Strategy. They also recommended further improvements in data quality, methodologies and assumptions. Blomqvist et al.. published a critical paper in 2013. It led to a reply from Rees and Wackernagel (2013), and a rejoinder by Blomqvist et al. (2013). An additional strand of critique is from Giampietro and Saltelli (2014), with a reply from Goldfinger et al., 2014, and a rejoinder by Giampietro and Saltelli (2014). A joint paper authored by the critical researchers (Giampietro and Saltelli) and proponents (various Global Footprint Network researchers) summarized the terms of the controversy in


id: ecological-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:57.302627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological classification or ecological typology is the classification of land or water into geographical units that represent variation in one or more ecological features. Traditional approaches focus on geology, topography, biogeography, soils, vegetation, climate conditions, living species, habitats, water resources, and sometimes also anthropic factors. Most approaches pursue the cartographical delineation or regionalisation of distinct areas for mapping and planning. == Approaches to classifications == Different approaches to ecological classifications have been developed in terrestrial, freshwater and marine disciplines. Traditionally these approaches have focused on biotic components (vegetation classification), abiotic components (environmental approaches) or implied ecological and evolutionary processes (biogeographical approaches). Ecosystem classifications are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of ecosystems: a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy (ecotope). === Vegetation classification === Vegetation is often used to classify terrestrial ecological units. Vegetation classification can be based on vegetation structure and floristic composition. Classifications based entirely on vegetation structure overlap with land cover mapping categories. Many schemes of vegetation classification are in use by the land, resource and environmental management agencies of different national and state jurisdictions. The International Vegetation Classification


id: ecological-succession-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological succession is the process of how species compositions change in an ecological community over time. The two main categories of ecological succession are primary succession and secondary succession. Primary succession occurs after the initial colonization of a newly created habitat with no living organisms. Secondary succession occurs after a disturbance such as fire, habitat destruction, or a natural disaster destroys a pre-existing community. Both consistent patterns and variability are observed in ecological succession. Theories of ecological succession identify different factors that help explain why plant communities change the way they do. Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. Ecological succession was first documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest Indiana by Henry Chandler Cowles during the late 19th century and remains a main ecological topic of study. Over time, the understanding of succession has changed to include a more complex cyclical model that argues organisms do not have fixed roles or relationships. Ecologists and conservationists have since used the theory of succession to aid in developing ecological restoration strategies. == Stages of succession == === Mechanisms === In 1916, Frederic Clements published a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a general ecological concept. The process


id: ecological-succession-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
Monoclimax or Climatic Climax Theory was advanced by Clements (1916) and recognizes only one climax whose characteristics are determined solely by climate (climatic climax). The processes of succession and modification of environment overcome the effects of differences in topography, parent material of the soil, and other factors. The whole area would be covered with uniform plant community. Communities other than the climax are related to it, and are recognized as subclimax, postclimax and disclimax. Polyclimax Theory was advanced by Tansley (1935). It proposes that the climax vegetation of a region consists of more than one vegetation climaxes controlled by soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal activity. Climax Pattern Theory was proposed by Whittaker (1953). The climax pattern theory recognizes a variety of climaxes governed by responses of species populations to biotic and abiotic conditions. According to this theory the total environment of the ecosystem determines the composition, species structure, and balance of a climax community. The environment includes the species' responses to moisture, temperature, and nutrients, their biotic relationships, availability of flora and fauna to colonize the area, chance dispersal of seeds and animals, soils, climate, and disturbance such as fire and wind. The nature of


id: ecological-succession-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-2.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disruptions === Two important perturbation factors today are human actions and climatic change. Additions to available species pools through range expansions and introductions can also continually reshape communities. == Types of succession == === Primary succession === The successional dynamics beginning with colonization of an area with little to no biotic factors is referred to as primary succession. This includes newly exposed rock or sand surfaces, lava flows, and newly exposed glacial tills. The stages of primary succession include pioneer species such as microorganisms, plants (lichens and mosses), grasses, smaller shrubs, and trees. Small animals move into the area when enough suitable habitat has been established. When it is a fully functioning ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage. === Secondary succession === Secondary succession follows severe disturbance or removal of a preexisting community that has remnants of the previous ecosystem. Secondary succession is strongly influenced by pre-disturbance conditions such as soil development, seed banks, remaining organic matter, and residual living organisms. Because of residual fertility and preexisting organisms, community change in early stages of secondary succession can be relatively rapid. Secondary succession is much more commonly observed and studied than primary succession. Particularly common types of secondary


id: ecological-succession-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-3.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
Succession of micro-organisms including fungi and bacteria occurring within a microhabitat is known as microsuccession or serule. In artificial bacterial meta-communities of motile strains on-chip it has been shown that ecological succession is based on a trade-off between colonization and competition abilities. To exploit locations or explore the landscape? Escherichia coli is a fugitive species, whereas Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a slower colonizer but superior competitor. Like in plants, microbial succession can occur in newly available habitats (primary succession) such as surfaces of plant leaves, recently exposed rock surfaces (i.e., glacial till) or animal infant guts, and also on disturbed communities (secondary succession) like those growing in recently dead trees, decaying fruits, or animal droppings. Microbial communities may also change due to products secreted by the bacteria present. Changes of pH in a habitat could provide ideal conditions for a new species to inhabit the area. In some cases the new species may outcompete the present ones for nutrients leading to the primary species demise. Changes can also occur by microbial succession with variations in water availability and temperature. Theories of macroecology have only recently been applied to microbiology and so much remains to be understood about this growing field. A


id: ecological-succession-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-4.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
=== Grassland succession === For a long time, grasslands were thought to be early stages of succession, dominated by weedy species and with little conservation value. However, comparing grasslands that form after recovery from long-term disruptions like agricultural tillage with ancient or "old-growth" grasslands has shown that grasslands are not inherently early-successional communities. Rather, grasslands undergo a centuries-long process of succession, and a grassland that is tilled up for agriculture or otherwise destroyed is estimated to take a minimum of 100 years, and potentially on average 1,400 years, to recover to its previous level of biodiversity. However, planting a high diversity of late-successional grassland species in a disturbed environment can accelerate the recovery of the soil's ability to sequester carbon, resulting in twice as much carbon storage as a naturally recovering grassland over the same period of time. Many grassland ecosystems are maintained by disturbance, such as fire and grazing by large animals, or else the process of succession will change them to forest or shrubland. In fact, it is debated whether fire should be considered disturbance at all for the North American prairie ecosystems, since it maintains, rather than disrupts, an equilibrium state. Many late-successional grassland species have adaptations


id: ecological-succession-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession-5.md
category: reference
title: Ecological succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:17:58.613092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-succession-20260505-0
summary:
An association is not an organism, scarcely even a vegetational unit, but merely a coincidence. Gleason's ideas were, in fact, more consistent with Cowles' original thinking about succession. About Clements' distinction between primary succession and secondary succession, Cowles wrote (1911): This classification seems not to be of fundamental value, since it separates such closely related phenomena as those of erosion and deposition, and it places together such unlike things as human agencies and the subsidence of land. === Eugene Odum === In 1969, Eugene Odum published The Strategy of Ecosystem Development, a paper that was highly influential to conservation and environmental restoration. Odum argued that ecological succession was an orderly progression toward a climax state where "maximum biomass and symbiotic function between organisms are maintained per unit energy flow." Odum highlighted how succession was not merely a change in the species composition of an ecosystem, but also created change in more complex attributes of the ecosystem, such as structure and nutrient cycling. === Modern era === A more rigorous, data-driven testing of successional models and community theory generally began with the work of Robert Whittaker and John Curtis in the 1950s and 1960s. Succession theory has since become less monolithic


id: ecological-thinning-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_thinning-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological thinning
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_thinning
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:00.005531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-thinning-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological thinning is a silvicultural technique used in forest management that involves cutting trees to improve functions of a forest other than timber production. Although thinning originated as a man-made forest management tool, aimed at increasing timber yields, the shift from production forests to multifunctional forests brought with it the cutting of trees to manipulate an ecosystem for various reasons, ranging from removing non-native species from a plot to removing poplars growing on a riverside beach aimed at recreational use. Since the 1970s, leaving the thinned trees on the forest floor has become an increasingly common policy: wood can be decomposed in a more natural fashion, playing an important role in increasing biodiversity by providing habitat to various invertebrates, birds and small mammals. Many fungi (e.g. Calocera viscosa) and mosses are saproxylic or epixylic as well (e.g. Marchantiophyta) – some moss species completing their entire life-cycle on a single log. Where trees are managed under a commercial regime, competition is reduced by removing adjacent stems that exhibit less favourable timber quality potential. When left in a natural state trees will "self-thin", but this process can be unreliable in some circumstances. Examples of this can be found in the Buxus–Ironbark forests


id: ecological-trap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_trap-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecological trap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_trap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:01.305123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecological-trap-20260505-0
summary:
Ecological traps are scenarios in which rapid environmental change leads organisms to prefer to settle in poor-quality habitats. The concept stems from the idea that organisms that are actively selecting habitat must rely on environmental cues to help them identify high-quality habitat. If either the habitat quality or the cue changes so that one does not reliably indicate the other, organisms may be lured into poor-quality habitat. == Overview == Ecological traps are thought to occur when the attractiveness of a habitat increases disproportionately in relation to its value for survival and reproduction. The result is preference of falsely attractive habitat and a general avoidance of high-quality but less-attractive habitats. For example, indigo buntings typically nest in shrubby habitat or broken forest transitions between closed canopy forest and open field. Human activity can create 'sharper', more abrupt forest edges and buntings prefer to nest along these edges. However, these artificial sharp forest edges also concentrate the movement of predators which predate their nests. In this way, Buntings prefer to nest in highly altered habitats where their nest success is lowest. While the demographic consequences of this type of maladaptive habitat selection behavior have been explored in the context of the


id: ecosystem-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecosystem model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:02.620003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecosystem-model-20260505-0
summary:
An ecosystem model is an abstract, usually mathematical, representation of an ecological system (ranging in scale from an individual population, to an ecological community, or even an entire biome), which is studied to better understand the real system. Using data gathered from the field, ecological relationships—such as the relation of sunlight and water availability to photosynthetic rate, or that between predator and prey populations—are derived, and these are combined to form ecosystem models. These model systems are then studied in order to make predictions about the dynamics of the real system. Often, the study of inaccuracies in the model (when compared to empirical observations) will lead to the generation of hypotheses about possible ecological relations that are not yet known or well understood. Models enable researchers to simulate large-scale experiments that would be too costly or unethical to perform on a real ecosystem. They also enable the simulation of ecological processes over very long periods of time (i.e. simulating a process that takes centuries in reality, can be done in a matter of minutes in a computer model). Ecosystem models have applications in a wide variety of disciplines, such as natural resource management, ecotoxicology and environmental health, agriculture, and wildlife


id: ecosystem-model-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecosystem model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:02.620003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecosystem-model-20260505-0
summary:
=== Others === The theoretical ecologist Robert Ulanowicz has used information theory tools to describe the structure of ecosystems, emphasizing mutual information (correlations) in studied systems. Drawing on this methodology and prior observations of complex ecosystems, Ulanowicz depicts approaches to determining the stress levels on ecosystems and predicting system reactions to defined types of alteration in their settings (such as increased or reduced energy flow, and eutrophication. Conway's Game of Life and its variations model ecosystems where proximity of the members of a population are factors in population growth. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Khan, M. F.; Preetha, P.; Sharma, A. P. (2015). "Modelling the food web for assessment of the impact of stock supplementation in a reservoir ecosystem in India". Fisheries Management and Ecology. 22 (5): 359–370. Bibcode:2015FisME..22..359K. doi:10.1111/fme.12134. Panikkar, Preetha; Khan, M. Feroz; Desai, V. R.; Shrivastava, N. P.; Sharma, A. P. (2014). "Characterizing trophic interactions of a catfish dominated tropical reservoir ecosystem to assess the effects of management practices". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 98: 237–247. doi:10.1007/s10641-014-0255-6. S2CID 16992082. Panikkar, Preetha; Khan, M. Feroz (2008). "Comparative mass-balanced trophic models to assess the impact of environmental management measures in a tropical reservoir ecosystem".


id: edge-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: Edge effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:03.896436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edge-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== Definition == In ecology, edge effects are changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two or more habitats. These effects transpire since environmental conditions near habitat boundaries differ from those in the interior areas. Habitat boundaries experience conditions like increased wind exposure, light, and temperature fluctuations. Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit especially pronounced edge effects that may extend throughout the range. As the edge effects increase, the boundary habitat can support higher levels of biodiversity than adjacent ecosystems with increased habitat fragmentation because they serve as transitional zones for overlapping environmental conditions. In this way species from each of these two separate ecosystems are able to co-exist in the same general area along with species which have developed adaptations specific to the edge environment. == Biodiversity == Environmental conditions enable certain species of plants and animals to colonize habitat borders. Plants that colonize forest edges tend to be shade-intolerant. These plants also tend to be tolerant of dry conditions, such as shrubs and vines. Animals that colonize tend to be those that require two or more habitats, such as white-tailed and mule deer, elk, cottontail rabbits, blue jays, and robins. Some animals travel


id: edge-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: Edge effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:03.896436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edge-effects-20260505-0
summary:
Introduction of invasives/exotics Agriculture Higher severity and frequency of fires Companion animals (pets) acting as predators and competitors Trails Pollution, erosion Loss of foraging habitats Habitat fragmentation Deforestation and land use == Examples == When edges divide any natural ecosystem and the area outside the boundary is a disturbed or unnatural system, the natural ecosystem can be seriously affected for some distance in from the edge. In 1971, Odum wrote, 'The tendency for increased variety and diversity at community junctions is known as the edge effect... It is common knowledge that the density of songbirds is greater on estates, campuses and similar settings...as compared with tracts of uniform forest'. In a forest where the adjacent land has been cut, creating an open/forest boundary, sunlight and wind penetrate to a much greater extent, drying out the interior of the forest close to the edge and encouraging growth of opportunistic species there. Air temperature, vapor pressure deficit, soil moisture, light intensity and levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) all change at edges. === Amazon rainforest === One study estimated that the amount of Amazon Basin area modified by edge effects exceeded the area that had been cleared. "In studies of Amazon forest


id: environmental-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_data-0.md
category: reference
title: Environmental data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:05.191093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-data-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental data is that which is based on the measurement of environmental pressures, the state of the environment and the impacts on ecosystems. This is usually the "P", "S" and "I" of the DPSIR model where D = Drivers, P = Pressures, S = State, I = Impact, R = Response. Environmental data is typically generated by institutions executing environmental law or doing environmental research. Environment statistics are usually generated by statistical offices and are considered as environmental data, too. Socio-economic data and other statistical data (often the "D" and the "R" of the DPSIR model) are not considered as environmental data. However, they are to be integrated into comprehensive environmental assessments. Usually this kind of data is held by other institutions than the environmental administration (e.g. National Statistical Offices). The same is true for geo-basisdata, which are not considered as environmental data, but have to be available for environmental policies and environmental information. In recent years, environmental data has become increasingly important to investors, prompting Bloomberg L.P. to begin providing Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) data through their terminals. All data generated by the execution of environmental law are to be considered as environmental data. == Environmental Data Management


id: environmental-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Environmental engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:06.373158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental engineering is a professional engineering discipline related to environmental science. It encompasses broad scientific topics like chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, and mathematics to create solutions that will protect and also improve the health of living organisms and improve the quality of the environment. Environmental engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering and chemical engineering. While on the part of civil engineering, the Environmental Engineering is focused mainly on Sanitary Engineering. Environmental engineering applies scientific and engineering principles to improve and maintain the environment to protect human health, protect nature's beneficial ecosystems, and improve environmental-related enhancement of the quality of human life. Environmental engineers devise solutions for wastewater management, water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health. They design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems, and design plans to prevent waterborne diseases and improve sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas. They evaluate hazardous-waste management systems to evaluate the severity of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. They implement environmental engineering law, as in assessing the environmental impact of proposed construction projects. Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the environment, addressing local


id: environmental-engineering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering-1.md
category: reference
title: Environmental engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:06.373158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Many universities offer environmental engineering programs through either the department of civil engineering or chemical engineering and also including electronic projects to develop and balance the environmental conditions. Environmental engineers in a civil engineering program often focus on hydrology, water resources management, bioremediation, and water and wastewater treatment plant design. Environmental engineers in a chemical engineering program tend to focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies, and separation processes. Some subdivisions of environmental engineering include natural resources engineering and agricultural engineering. Courses for students fall into a few broad classes: Mechanical engineering courses oriented towards designing machines and mechanical systems for environmental use such as water and wastewater treatment facilities, pumping stations, garbage segregation plants, and other mechanical facilities. Environmental engineering or environmental systems courses oriented towards a civil engineering approach in which structures and the landscape are constructed to blend with or protect the environment. Environmental chemistry, sustainable chemistry or environmental chemical engineering courses oriented towards understanding the effects of chemicals in the environment, including any mining processes, pollutants, and also biochemical processes. Environmental technology courses oriented towards producing electronic or electrical graduates capable of developing devices and artifacts able to monitor, measure, model and control


id: environmental-impact-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Environmental impact design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:07.741869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-impact-design-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental impact design (EID) is the design of development projects so as to achieve positive environmental objectives that benefit the environment and raise the stock of public goods. == Examples == Examples of EID include: Habitat creation as a result of afforestation projects that can "expand forest resources and reduce the gap between timber production and consumption." An example is the China Afforestation Project. Coastal management projects that strengthens biodiversity and promotes sustainable use of biological resources. Flood defense projects that improve livability in flood-prone areas by reducing future losses. Flood preparedness and mitigation systems can aid in handling periodic flooding. Bridge designs such as concrete bridges that are sustainable, recyclable, durable and can be built quickly, reducing greenhouse gas emissions caused by traffic delays and construction equipment. == Types == Environmental impact design impacts can be broken down into three types: Direct impacts: caused by the project and building process, such as land consumption, erosion and loss of vegetation. Indirect impacts: side-effects of a project such as degradation of surface water quality from erosion of land cleared as a result of a project. Over time, indirect impacts can affect larger geographical areas. Cumulative impacts: synergistic effects such as the


id: escaped-plant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaped_plant-0.md
category: reference
title: Escaped plant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaped_plant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:08.970480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escaped-plant-20260505-0
summary:
An escaped plant is a cultivated plant that has escaped from agriculture, forestry or garden cultivation and has become naturalized in the wild. Usually not native to an area, escaped plants may become invasive. Therefore, escaped plants are the subject of research in invasion biology. All escaped plants belong to the so-called hemerochoric plants. This term is used across the board for plants that have been introduced directly or indirectly by humans. The term also includes the unintentionally introduced plants that were introduced through seed pollution (speirochoric) or through unintentional transport (agochoric). Some ornamental plants have characteristics which allow them to escape cultivation and become weedy in alien ecosystems with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences. Escaped garden plants may be called garden escapes or escaped ornamentals. Sometimes, their origins can even be traced back to botanical gardens. == Dispersal == Plants may escape from cultivation in various ways, including the dumping of green waste in bushland and road reserves and by birds or other animals eating the fruits or seeds and dispersing them. Others are accidental hitchhikers that escape on ships, vehicles, and equipment. Plants can also escape through sending stolons (runners), as stolons are capable of independent growth in


id: escaped-plant-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaped_plant-1.md
category: reference
title: Escaped plant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaped_plant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:08.970480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escaped-plant-20260505-0
summary:
Agriophyte: Refers to plant species that have invaded natural or near-natural vegetation and can survive there without human intervention. Established in their new natural habitats, they remain part of natural vegetation even after human influence has ceased, and are independent of humans in their continued existence. Examples in Central Europe are waterweed, Douglas fir and Japanese knotweed Alien: A non native species introduced by man. Archaeophyte: An alien species introduced by human activity long ago, such as the sweet chestnuts introduced by the Romans in Germany and now part of natural vegetation, and the opium and field poppies. Epecophyte: Species of recent appearance, usually numerous and constant in the country, but confined to artificial habitats, such as meadows and ruderal vegetation. They are dependent on humans for existence that their habitats require constant renewal. Ephemerophyte: Species that are only introduced inconsistently, that die briefly from culture or that would disappear again without constant replenishment of seeds. In other words, they can establish themselves temporarily, but they are not in a position to meet all the conditions relating to the territory. A cold winter, or an unusual drought, can lead to the death of these plants; most of the time, they


id: fire-ecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-0.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Fire ecology is a scientific discipline concerned with the effects of fire on natural ecosystems. Many ecosystems, particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments use fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only endangers these species, but also the animals that depend upon them. Wildfire suppression campaigns in the United States have historically molded public opinion to believe that wildfires are harmful to nature. Ecological research has shown, however, that fire is an integral component in the function and biodiversity of many natural habitats, and that the organisms within these communities have adapted to withstand, and even to exploit, natural wildfire. More generally, fire is now regarded as a 'natural disturbance', similar to flooding, windstorms, and landslides, that has driven the evolution of species and controls the characteristics of ecosystems. Fire suppression, in combination with other human-caused environmental changes, may have resulted in unforeseen consequences for natural ecosystems. Some large wildfires in the United States have been blamed on years of fire suppression and the continuing expansion of people into fire-adapted ecosystems as well as climate change. Land


id: fire-ecology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-1.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Plants have evolved many adaptations to cope with fire. Of these adaptations, one of the best-known is likely pyriscence, where maturation and release of seeds is triggered, in whole or in part, by fire or smoke; this behaviour is often erroneously called serotiny, although this term truly denotes the much broader category of seed release activated by any stimulus. All pyriscent plants are serotinous, but not all serotinous plants are pyriscent (some are necriscent, hygriscent, xeriscent, soliscent, or some combination thereof). On the other hand, germination of seed activated by trigger is not to be confused with pyriscence; it is known as physiological dormancy. In chaparral communities in Southern California, for example, some plants have leaves coated in flammable oils that encourage an intense fire. This heat causes their fire-activated seeds to germinate (an example of dormancy) and the young plants can then capitalize on the lack of competition in a burnt landscape. Other plants have smoke-activated seeds, or fire-activated buds. The cones of the Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) are, conversely, pyriscent: they are sealed with a resin that a fire melts away, releasing the seeds. Many plant species, including the shade-intolerant giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), require fire to make


id: fire-ecology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-2.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
== Fire and ecological succession == Fire behavior is different in every ecosystem and the organisms in those ecosystems have adapted accordingly. One sweeping generality is that in all ecosystems, fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, with areas ranging from those having just been burned to those that have been untouched by fire for many years. This is a form of ecological succession in which a freshly burned site will progress through continuous and directional phases of colonization following the destruction caused by the fire. Ecologists usually characterize succession through the changes in vegetation that successively arise. After a fire, the first species to re-colonize will be those with seeds are already present in the soil, or those with seeds are able to travel into the burned area quickly. These are generally fast-growing herbaceous plants that require light and are intolerant of shading. As time passes, more slowly growing, shade-tolerant woody species will suppress some of the herbaceous plants. Conifers are often early successional species, while broad leaf trees frequently replace them in the absence of fire. Hence, many conifer forests are themselves dependent upon recurring fire. Both natural and human fires affect all ecosystems from peatlands to


id: fire-ecology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-3.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
== Species Richness == Species richness is at its peak post-fire but steadily declines over time. Post-fire endurance for certain species allows for a variety of different life histories to exist at the same time. Fires result in a change of biodiversity by reducing the population for the promotion of growth for species. Disturbances due to fire allow for an alternative recovery process for certain animal populations, which can result in recolonization and population growth. Post-fire has decreased the abundance of species and the result of extinction. The effects of burning depend on the size, timing, and severity of the burn. The increased frequency and the size of a fire can impact how a population recovers between other fire events, which causes a patch between population distributions . Fires have been used to alter species composition, such as suppressing species that are invasive. == Examples of fire in different ecosystems == === Forests === Mild to moderate fires burn in the forest understory, removing small trees and herbaceous groundcover. High-severity fires will burn into the crowns of the trees and kill most of the dominant vegetation. Crown fires may require support from ground fuels to maintain the fire in the


id: fire-ecology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-4.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Grasslands === Grasslands burn more readily than forest and shrub ecosystems, with the fire moving through the stems and leaves of herbaceous plants and only lightly heating the underlying soil, even in cases of high intensity. In most grassland ecosystems, fire is the primary mode of decomposition, making it crucial in the recycling of nutrients. In some grassland systems, fire only became the primary mode of decomposition after the disappearance of large migratory herds of browsing or grazing megafauna driven by predator pressure. In the absence of functional communities of large migratory herds of herbivorous megafauna and attendant predators, overuse of fire to maintain grassland ecosystems may lead to excessive oxidation, loss of carbon, and desertification in susceptible climates. Some grassland ecosystems respond poorly to fire. ==== North American grasslands ==== In North America fire-adapted invasive grasses such as Bromus tectorum contribute to increased fire frequency which exerts selective pressure against native species. This is a concern for grasslands in the Western United States. In less arid grassland presettlement fires worked in concert with grazing to create a healthy grassland ecosystem as indicated by the accumulation of soil organic matter significantly altered by fire. The tallgrass prairie ecosystem in


id: fire-ecology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-5.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Restoration ecology is the name given to an attempt to reverse or mitigate some of the changes that humans have caused to an ecosystem. Controlled burning is one tool that is currently receiving considerable attention as a means of restoration and management. Applying fire to an ecosystem may create habitats for species that have been negatively impacted by fire suppression, or fire may be used as a way of controlling invasive species without resorting to herbicides or pesticides. However, there is debate as to what land managers should aim to restore their ecosystems to, especially as to whether it be pre-human or pre-European conditions. Native American use of fire, along with natural fire, historically maintained the diversity of the savannas of North America. === U.S. Oak Savannas and Oak Woodlands === Oak savannas and oak woodlands historically expanded across the Midwest, creating a transitional zone between the eastern deciduous forested United States and the Great Plains tall grass prairie region. However, due to human impact, these ecosystems are now some of the most degraded ecosystems in the world. Roughly around <1% of original savanna habitats remain in the United States, making conservation and preservation of these habitats extremely important. Management


id: fire-ecology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology-6.md
category: reference
title: Fire ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:10.171501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Finnish boreal forests === The decline of habitat area and quality has caused many species populations to be red-listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. According to a study on forest management of Finnish boreal forests, improving the habitat quality of areas outside reserves can help in conservation efforts of endangered deadwood-dependent beetles. These beetles and various types of fungi both need dead trees in order to survive. Old growth forests can provide this particular habitat. However, most Fennoscandian boreal forested areas are used for timber and therefore are unprotected. The use of controlled burning and tree retention of a forested area with deadwood was studied and its effect on the endangered beetles. The study found that after the first year of management the number of species increased in abundance and richness compared to pre-fire treatment. The abundance of beetles continued to increase the following year in sites where tree retention was high and deadwood was abundant. The correlation between forest fire management and increased beetle populations shows a key to conserving these red-listed species. === Australian eucalypt forests === Much of the old growth eucalypt forest in Australia is designated for conservation. Management of these forests


id: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms-0.md
category: reference
title: Flexible mechanisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:11.435428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-0
summary:
Flexible mechanisms, also sometimes known as Flexibility Mechanisms or Kyoto Mechanisms, refers to emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation. These are mechanisms defined under the Kyoto Protocol intended to lower the overall costs of achieving its emissions targets. These mechanisms enable Parties to achieve emission reductions or to remove carbon from the atmosphere cost-effectively in other countries. While the cost of limiting emissions varies from region to region, the benefit for the atmosphere is in principle the same, wherever the action is taken. Much of the negotiations on the mechanisms has been concerned with ensuring their integrity. There was concern that the mechanisms do not confer a "right to emit" on Annex 1 Parties or lead to exchanges of fictitious credits which would undermine the Protocol's environmental goals. The negotiators of the Protocol and the Marrakesh Accords therefore sought to design a system that fulfilled the cost-effectiveness promise of the mechanisms, while addressing concerns about environmental integrity and equity. To participate in the mechanisms, Annex 1 Parties must meet the following eligibility requirements: They must have ratified the Kyoto Protocol. They must have calculated their assigned amount, as referred to in Articles 3.7 and 3.8 and Annex


id: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms-1.md
category: reference
title: Flexible mechanisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:11.435428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-0
summary:
== Carbon market == Kyoto provides for a 'cap and trade' system which imposes national caps on the emissions of annex I countries. On average, this cap requires countries to reduce their emissions by 5.2% below their 1990 baseline over the 2008 to 2012 period. Although these caps are national-level commitments, in practice, most countries will devolve their emissions targets to individual industrial entities, such as a power plant or paper factory. One example of a 'cap and trade' system is the 'EU ETS'. Other schemes may follow suit in time. The ultimate buyers of credits are often individual companies that expect emissions to exceed their quota, their assigned allocation units, AAUs or 'allowances' for short. Typically, they will purchase credits directly from another party with excess allowances, from a broker, from a JI/CDM developer, or on an exchange. National governments, some of whom may not have devolved responsibility for meeting Kyoto obligations to industry, and that have a net deficit of allowances, will buy credits for their own account, mainly from JI/CDM developers. These deals are occasionally done directly through a national fund or agency, as in the case of the Dutch government's ERUPT programme, or via collective funds


id: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms-2.md
category: reference
title: Flexible mechanisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_mechanisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:11.435428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexible-mechanisms-20260505-0
summary:
One of the main arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that of cost-effectiveness. The principle of cost-effectiveness is included in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The economic basis of costs being reduced through flexibility is discussed in emissions trading#Applying the economic theory and economics of climate change mitigation#Flexibility. A number of concerns were raised about flexibility in the lead-up to negotiations of the Kyoto Protocol. Two examples of issues raised were that of domestic emissions reductions in the developed countries, and the issue of developed countries effectively taking up all the low-cost emissions reductions in developing countries. The idea behind the first view was that most emissions reductions should occur first in the developed countries - this would encourage the development of low-carbon energy technologies which could then be taken up later on by developing counties. The second idea was that all of the low-cost emissions reductions in developing countries would, in effect, be stolen by the developed countries. Thus, when it came time for developing countries to take on their own commitments to reduce emissions, it would be more costly for them to do so. Differing views on flexibility were summarized in the


id: flood-meadow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood-meadow-0.md
category: reference
title: Flood-meadow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood-meadow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:12.702032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flood-meadow-20260505-0
summary:
A flood-meadow (or floodmeadow) is an area of grassland or pasture beside a river, subject to seasonal flooding. Flood-meadows are distinct from water-meadows in that the latter are artificially created and maintained, with flooding controlled on a seasonal and even daily basis. == Examples == Austria: Hohenau an der March Bosnia and Herzegovina: List of karst polje in Bosnia and Herzegovina Estonia: Emajõe flood-meadow Kasari, Matsalu National Park Finland: Mattholmsfladan, Pargas Levänluhta, Isokyrö Ireland: Shannon Callows United Kingdom: Angel & Greyhound Meadow, Oxford Christchurch Meadows, Reading Christ Church Meadow, Oxford Mill Meadows, Henley-on-Thames Port Meadow, Oxford Mottey Meadows, Staffordshire Riverside Park, St Neots, Cambridgeshire == References == == See also == Coastal plain Field Flooded grasslands and savannas Plain Prairie Riparian zone Wet meadow Floodplain Berm


id: forest-landscape-integrity-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index-0.md
category: reference
title: Forest Landscape Integrity Index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:14.070981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forest-landscape-integrity-index-20260505-0
summary:
The Forest Landscape Integrity Index (FLII) is a global, map-based indicator of forest condition that estimates the degree of anthropogenic modification of forest ecosystems. Developed by an international research team led by the Wildlife Conservation Society, the index integrates spatial data on observed and inferred human pressures and loss of forest connectivity to produce a continuous score from 0 (most modified) to 10 (least modified) for each ~300 m forest pixel. In the study's global map for early 2019, 40.5% of forest area (about 17.4 million km2) was classified as high integrity (FLII ≥ 9.6), 33.9% (14.6 million km2) as medium integrity and 25.6% (11 million km2) as low integrity (FLII ≤ 6.0). High-integrity forests were concentrated in boreal regions of Russia and Canada and in large tropical forest blocks such as the Amazon, Central Africa and New Guinea. FLII has been used in forest-condition monitoring and referenced in policy and research contexts, including discussions of ecosystem integrity indicators under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. == Forest integrity == In ecology, ecological integrity (sometimes ecosystem integrity) refers to the extent to which an ecosystem's structure, species composition and ecological processes fall within their natural range of variation. In forests, integrity


id: fuel-ladder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_ladder-0.md
category: reference
title: Fuel ladder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_ladder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:15.286040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fuel-ladder-20260505-0
summary:
A fuel ladder or ladder fuel is a firefighting term for live or dead vegetation that allows a fire to climb up from the landscape or forest floor into the tree canopy. Common ladder fuels include tall grasses, shrubs, and tree branches, living and dead. The removal of fuel ladders is part of defensible space 'firescaping' practices. == Fire precautions == Potential fuel ladders should be removed to reduce the risk of fire bridging the gap to the canopy. To remove the ladder requires pruning any low limbs up to a minimum of 2.5 m (8 ft), and potentially as high as 5 m (16 ft). The required height depends on how low the branch tips hang, the steepness of slope, and the height and spacing of other nearby vegetation. The desired result is to create a situation in which a low-burning fire could burn to the trunk of a tree, which is protected by its bark, without having thinner, more flammable branches, leaves or needles within easy reach of the fire. == Other fuel ladders == Apart from tree limbs, anything that would help that fire move up into the tree canopy is a fuel ladder. This includes shrubs


id: genetic-pollution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution-0.md
category: reference
title: Genetic pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:16.461995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
Genetic pollution is a term for uncontrolled gene flow into wild populations. It is defined as "the dispersal of contaminated altered genes from genetically engineered organisms to natural organisms, esp. by cross-pollination", but has come to be used in some broader ways. It is related to the population genetics concept of gene flow, and genetic rescue, which is genetic material intentionally introduced to increase the fitness of a population. It is called genetic pollution when it negatively impacts the fitness of a population, such as through outbreeding depression and the introduction of unwanted phenotypes which can lead to extinction. Conservation biologists and conservationists have used the term to describe gene flow from domestic, feral, and non-native species into wild indigenous species, which they consider undesirable. They promote awareness of the effects of introduced invasive species that may "hybridize with native species, causing genetic pollution". In the fields of agriculture, agroforestry and animal husbandry, genetic pollution is used to describe gene flows between genetically engineered species and wild relatives. The use of the word "pollution" is meant to convey the idea that mixing genetic information is bad for the environment, but because the mixing of genetic information can lead to a


id: genetic-pollution-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution-1.md
category: reference
title: Genetic pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:16.461995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
=== Domestic populations === Increased contact between wild and domesticated populations of organisms can lead to reproductive interactions that are detrimental to the wild population's ability to survive. A wild population is one that lives in natural areas and is not regularly looked after by humans. This contrasts with domesticated populations that live in human controlled areas and are regularly, and historically, in contact with humans. Genes from domesticated populations are added to wild populations as a result of reproduction. In many crop populations this can be the result of pollen traveling from farmed crops to neighboring wild plants of the same species. For farmed animals, this reproduction may happen as the result of escaped or released animals. A popular example of this phenomenon is the gene flow between wolves and domesticated dogs. The New York Times cites, from the words of biologist Luigi Boitani, "Although wolves and dogs have always lived in close contact in Italy and have presumably mated in the past, the newly worrisome element, in Dr. Boitani's opinion, is the increasing disparity in numbers, which suggests that interbreeding will become fairly common. As a result, 'genetic pollution of the wolf gene pool might reach irreversible levels',


id: genetic-pollution-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution-2.md
category: reference
title: Genetic pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:16.461995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
==== Preventive measures ==== Since 2005 there has existed a GM Contamination Register, launched for GeneWatch UK and Greenpeace International that records all incidents of intentional or accidental release of organisms genetically modified using modern techniques. Genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs) were developed for the purpose of property protection, but could be beneficial in preventing the dispersal of transgenes. GeneSafe technologies introduced a method that became known as "Terminator." This method is based on seeds that produce sterile plants. This would prevent movement of transgenes into wild populations as hybridization would not be possible. However, this technology has never been deployed as it disproportionately negatively affects farmers in developing countries, who save seeds to use each year (whereas in developed countries, farmers generally buy seeds from seed production companies). Physical containment has also been utilized to prevent the escape of transgenes. Physical containment includes barriers such as filters in labs, screens in greenhouses, and isolation distances in the field. Isolation distances have not always been successful, such as transgene escape from an isolated field into the wild in herbicide-resistant bentgrass Agrostis stolonifera. Another suggested method that applies specifically to protection traits (e.g. pathogen resistance) is mitigation. Mitigation involves linking the


id: geosphere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere-0.md
category: reference
title: Geosphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:17.642534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geosphere-20260505-0
summary:
There are several conflicting usages of geosphere, variously defined. == History == === Aristotelian physics === In Aristotelian physics, the term was applied to four spherical natural places, concentrically nested around the center of the Earth, as described in the lectures Physica and Meteorologica. They were believed to explain the motions of the four terrestrial elements: Earth, Water, Air, and Fire. === Modern era === In modern texts and in Earth system science, geosphere refers to the solid parts of the Earth; it is used along with atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere to describe the systems of the Earth (the interaction of these systems with the magnetosphere is sometimes listed). In that context, sometimes the term lithosphere is used instead of geosphere or solid Earth. The lithosphere, however, only refers to the uppermost layers of the solid Earth (oceanic and continental crustal rocks and uppermost mantle). == Other usages == "Geosphere" may also be taken as the collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. The different collectives of the geosphere are able to exchange different mass and/or energy fluxes (the measurable amount of change). The exchange of these fluxes affects the balance of the different spheres


id: global-stocktake-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_stocktake-0.md
category: reference
title: Global stocktake
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_stocktake
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:18.932669+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-stocktake-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Stocktake is a fundamental component of the Paris Agreement which is used to monitor its implementation and evaluate the collective progress made in achieving the agreed goals. The Global Stocktake thus links implementation of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) with the overarching goals of the Paris Agreement, and has the ultimate aim of raising climate ambition. The synthesis report was published in 2023 before COP28. == Background == The Paris Agreement marked a turning point in international climate policy. Binding under international law and global in scope, it not only sets out ambitious global goals, such as limiting the rise in average global temperature to well below 2 °C compared with pre-industrial levels, but also introduces an innovative architecture that gives Parties considerable leeway in setting their own climate change targets. In contrast to common practice under international environmental law, states' individual contributions are not negotiated at international level and achievement of set targets is not binding. To ensure that the targets are implemented nonetheless, international-level review and transparency mechanisms have been made integral to the Agreement. == Role as part of the Paris regime == The Paris Agreement requires its signatory states (known as Parties) to regularly formulate


id: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of invasion biology terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:20.274861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
summary:
The need for a clearly defined and consistent invasion biology terminology has been acknowledged by many sources. Invasive species, or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats. Invasion biology is the study of these organisms and the processes of species invasion. The terminology in this article contains definitions for invasion biology terms in common usage today, taken from accessible publications. References for each definition are included. Terminology relates primarily to invasion biology terms with some ecology terms included to clarify language and phrases on linked articles. == Introduction == Definitions of "invasive non-indigenous species have been inconsistent", which has led to confusion both in literature and in popular publications (Williams and Meffe 2005). Also, many scientists and managers feel that there is no firm definition of non-indigenous species, native species, exotic species, "and so on, and ecologists do not use the terms consistently." (Shrader-Frechette 2001) Another question asked is whether current language is likely to promote "effective and appropriate action" towards invasive species through cohesive language (Larson 2005). Biologists today spend more time and effort on invasive species work because of the rapid spread, economic


id: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of invasion biology terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:20.274861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
summary:
In general, the control of the numbers of one organism as a result of natural predation by another or others. Specifically, the human use of natural predators for the control of pests or weeds. Also applied to the introduction of large numbers of sterilized males of the pest species, whose matings result in the laying of infertile eggs (Allaby 1998). The release of one species to control another (Carlton 2001). The management of weeds using introduced herbivores (often insects) as biological control agents (Booth et al. 2003). Biological invasion or bioinvasion A broad term for both human-assisted introductions and natural range expansions (Carlton 2001). Biological diversity (See biodiversity) Used to describe species richness, ecosystem complexity, and genetic variation (Allaby 1998). Biological control (See Biological pest control) Control method involving a biological control agent that is a natural enemy of a target pest (Heutte and Bella 2003). Bioregion (See Ecoregion) A biological subdivision of the earth's surface delineated by the flora and fauna of the region (Allaby 1998). Biota The organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, algae, etc.) of a specific region or period, or the total aggregation of organisms in the biosphere (Allaby 1998). Casual species (see adventive) This term is


id: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of invasion biology terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:20.274861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
summary:
A synonym for indigenous species A species that occurs naturally in an area, and has not been introduced by humans either intentionally or unintentionally (Allaby 2005). In North America, a species established before the year 500 (Jeschke and Strayer 2005) Native weed (invasive native) A species that is native to an area or bioregion that has increased in number dramatically. In cases of disturbance or change to a landscape, a ruderal species can increase in cover and compete with other native plants, threatening the diversity of a community. In other cases, landscape level changes can cause the increase of the population of a species, such as white-tailed deer in the northeastern part of the United States, which are at the highest levels historically and cause damage to humans, crops, and structures, suffer high disease levels, and pose threats to humans through interactions on roads (Foster and Sandberg 2004). Naturalized species (See Introduced species) A species that was originally introduced from a different country, a different bioregion, or a different geographical area, but now behaves like a native species in that it maintains itself without further human intervention and now grows and reproduces in native communities (Allaby 1998). A non native


id: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of invasion biology terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_invasion_biology_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:20.274861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-invasion-biology-terms-20260505-0
summary:
Time between introduction, establishment, and spread of a species (Jeschke and Strayer 2005). The time between when a species is introduced and when its population growth explodes (Booth et al. 2003). Unintentional introduction An introduction of nonindigenous species that occurs as the result of activities other than the purposeful or intentional introduction of the species involved, such as the transport of nonindigenous species in ballast or in water used to transport fish, mollusks or crustaceans for aquaculture or other purposes (EPA 1990). Vector (See Vector (epidemiology)) The physical means or agent by which a species is transported, such as ballast water, ships' hulls, boats, hiking boats, cars, vehicles, packing material, or soil in nursery stock (Carlton 2001). See also pathway. Weed A plant in the wrong place, being one that occurs opportunistically on land or in water that has been disturbed by human activities (see also ruderal species and native weed or invasive native), or on cultivated land, where it competes for nutrients, water, sunlight, or other resources with cultivated plants such as food crops. Under different circumstances the weed plant itself may be cultivated for different purposes (Allaby 1998). A native or introduced species that has a perceived negative


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-0.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
Gronda lagunare (lagunar eaves) is a term used to indicate the area of the Lagoon of Venice by its mainland shore. The term is derived from the fact that it receives the waters from the rivers and streams which flow into the lagoon from the drainage basin of the plain of the mainland by the lagoon. It is also reached by the tidal flows form he sea. , it is meant to be a belt that forms a transition area between the open lagoon and the mainland. Since it is between the inflow of freshwater form rivers and sea saltwater, in its natural state it would be an area with freshwater wetlands, barene (saltmarshes), velme (mudflats), and lagunar channels which forms a transitional belt between the mainland and the open lagoon rather than forming a fixed boundary, with its conformation changing according to the interplay of the hydrodynamic forces of the lagoon and their hydrodynamic equilibrium. However, this complex hydrologic and environmental system has undergone dramatic changes, both natural and, especially, man-made and has by and large lost it character as a transitional belt. == Hydrologic characteristics of the lagoon and the gronda lagunare == The drainage basin is a


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-1.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
Since the instability of the hydrogeography of the gronda lagunare, which could lead to floods, silting, stagnation of water and the development of wetlands, the Republic of Venice carried out many river diversion works over several centuries. Venice's main concern was to protect the lagoon form silting, which could hamper the navigation of the lagunar channels and the gronda rivers which provided communication routes for her trade with the mainland. Concern about floods in the mainland countryside was not a high priority. As a result, Venice created diversion canals close to the edge to the lagoon as it was cheaper than carrying out such works further inland. Effective flood prevention would have required catching the water of overflowing watercourses further upstream. In addition, the canals further inland would have had a greater incline, guaranteeing a good pace of water flow which would have prevented floods and water stagnation. Instead, canals by the lagoon had an insufficient incline, which meant that they could easily overflow and create floods and pools of stagnant water and wetlands, worsening the hydrologic situation of the gronda lagunare. The Osellino canal was dug between 1510 and 1520 to partially divert the waters of the River Marzenego


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-2.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
The river diversions and the resulting loss of freshwater input into the lagoon also led to a reduction in the areas of freshwater wetlands in the gronda lagunare.


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-3.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
=== The "stiffening" of the gronda lagunare === In Italian the term "stiffening" of a shore or bank refers to the construction of embankments. Such works create rigid structures which make the shore or bank rigid compared to a natural state and constrains its waters. The term comes from the word rigido, rigid. In relation to the gronda lagunare, it indicates the development of artificial shores along the gronda and, through this, the creation of a fixed lagunar boundary which prevents natural fluctuations of its edge with a consequent loss of gronda's character as a transitional area between the open lagoon and the mainland with lagunar deltas and wetlands. Much of the gronda lagunare has been "stiffened" by the above-mentioned river diversions carried out by the Republic of Venice (particularly with the Taglio del Sile, Osellino and Taglio Novissimo canals). It has been accentuated by 20th century developments. This situation started to draw attention in the 1970s, when scientists determined that this exacerbates the risk of flooding in Venice and elsewhere in the lagoon. The river delta which was created in the southern part of the lagoon by the Brenta Nova canal and the nearby areas saw extensive land reclamations


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-4.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
=== Valli da Pesca === The term valli da pesca (sing. valle), or just valli/valle, translates into "fishing valleys." It refers to fish farms. Although in Italian valle means valley, the term originates from the Latin word vallum, which means rampant. This term came into use centuries ago because the valli are separated from the rest of the lagoon by banks. They are located along the gronda lagunare in the southern and northern parts of the lagoon. There are 33 valli which cover c. 92 km2 of the waters of the lagoon (1/6, 17% of the total surface). There are two types, valli with mobile banks and valli with fixed banks. The former was the type which was used for centuries. It started being replaced by the latter from the 19th century. Mobile banks were made of poles, reed mats and rods. In this kind of valle the inner water level was dependent on that of the water outside it. The banks were moved to open the valli to the outside waters when there was a need to raise the inner water level. Fixed banks are earthworks and the valle's water levels are regulated through rolling shutter gates. Since these


id: gronda-lagunare-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare-5.md
category: reference
title: Gronda lagunare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gronda_lagunare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:18:21.567680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gronda-lagunare-20260505-0
summary:
The opening of the valli da pesca can also be of great value for the regeneration of the gronda lagunare areas by restoring it as a transition belt with the formation of wetlands and reed beds. In the past 50–60 years there has been an increased appreciation of the value and benefits of wetlands and reed beds. These can improve the geomorphology of the gronda lagunare and also its ecology as they provide an ideal habitat for diverse fauna and flora. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands underlines the ecologic and economic value of wetlands. It notes that wetlands ecosystems can have some of the highest ecosystem service values compared to other ecosystems due to their importance in clean water provision, natural hazards mitigation and carbon storage. A large proportion of the values come from their water-related services. Of particular value to the Lagoon of Venice are: Coastal protection by attenuating and/or dissipating waves and by buffering winds, thus regulating floods and the impact of storms Erosion control by providing sediment stabilisation and soil retention, thus contributing to land formation and increasing resilience to storms Flood protection by regulating and controlling water flows Phytodepuration (the natural treatment of surface water by


