# kb

id: mycoplankton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplankton-0.md
category: reference
title: Mycoplankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:43.130580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mycoplankton-20260505-0
summary:
Mycoplankton are saprotrophic or parasitic members of the plankton communities of marine and freshwater ecosystems. They are composed of filamentous free-living fungi and yeasts that are associated with planktonic particles or phytoplankton. Similar to bacterioplankton, these aquatic fungi play a significant role in heterotrophic mineralization and nutrient cycling. Mycoplankton can be up to 20 mm in diameter and over 50 mm in length. In a typical milliliter of seawater, there are approximately 103 to 104 fungal cells. This number is greater in coastal ecosystems and estuaries due to nutritional runoff from terrestrial communities. Aquatic fungi are found in a myriad of ecosystems, from mangroves, to wetlands, to the open ocean. The greatest diversity and number of species of mycoplankton is found in surface waters (< 1000 m), and the vertical profile depends on the abundance of phytoplankton. Furthermore, this difference in distribution may vary between seasons due to nutrient availability. Aquatic fungi survive in a constant oxygen deficient environment, and therefore depend on oxygen diffusion by turbulence and oxygen generated by photosynthetic organisms. == Classification == There is a large amount of diversity among aquatic fungi. These fungi were traditionally classified using the groupings "lower" and "higher" fungi. This has


id: nekton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nekton-0.md
category: reference
title: Nekton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nekton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:44.358378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nekton-20260505-0
summary:
Nekton or necton (from the Ancient Greek: νηκτόν, romanized: nekton, lit. 'to swim') is any aquatic organism that can actively and persistently propel itself through a water column (i.e. swim) without touching the bottom. They are generally aquatic animals with powerful tails and appendages (e.g. fins, pleopods, flippers or jets) that make them strong enough swimmers to counter ocean currents, and have mechanisms for sufficient lift and/or buoyancy to prevent sinking. Examples of extant nekton include most fish (especially pelagic fish like tuna and sharks), marine mammals (cetaceans, sirenia and pinnipeds) and reptiles (specifically sea turtles), penguins, coleoid cephalopods (squids and cuttlefish) and several species of decapod crustaceans (specifically prawns, shrimp and krill). The term was proposed by German biologist Ernst Haeckel to differentiate between the active swimmers in a body of water, and the plankton that are passively carried along by the current. As a guideline, nektonic organisms have a high Reynolds number (greater than 1000) and planktonic organisms a low one (less than 10) . Some organisms begin their life cycle as planktonic eggs and larvae, and transition to nektonic juveniles and adults later in life. This may make distinction difficult when attempting to classify certain plankton-to-nekton species


id: neritic-zone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neritic_zone-0.md
category: reference
title: Neritic zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neritic_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:45.614344+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neritic-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The neritic zone (or sublittoral zone) is the relatively shallow part of the ocean above the drop-off of the continental shelf, approximately 200 meters (660 ft) in depth. From the point of view of marine biology it forms a relatively stable and well-illuminated environment for marine life, from plankton up to large fish and corals, while physical oceanography sees it as where the oceanic system interacts with the coast. == Definition (marine biology), context, extra terminology == In marine biology, the neritic zone, also called coastal waters, the coastal ocean or the sublittoral zone, refers to the zone of the ocean where sunlight reaches the ocean floor, that is where the water is never so deep as to take it out of the photic zone. It extends from the low tide mark to the edge of the continental shelf, with a relatively shallow depth extending to about 200 meters (660 feet). Above the neritic zone lie the intertidal (or eulittoral) and supralittoral zones; below it the continental slope begins, descending from the continental shelf to the abyssal plain and the pelagic zone. Within the neritic, marine biologists also identify: The infralittoral zone is the algal-dominated zone down to around five


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels exceeding 422 ppm (as of 2024). CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion (HCO−3) and a hydrogen ion (H+). The presence of free hydrogen ions (H+) lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing acidity (this does not mean that seawater is acidic yet; it is still alkaline, with a pH higher than 8). Marine calcifying organisms, such as mollusks and corals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons. A change in pH by 0.1 represents a 26% increase in hydrogen ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH units is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration). Sea-surface pH and carbonate saturation states vary depending on ocean depth and location. Colder and higher latitude waters are capable


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
== Main effects == The ocean's chemistry is changing due to the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2). Ocean pH, carbonate ion concentrations ([CO32−]), and calcium carbonate mineral saturation states (Ω) have been declining as a result of the uptake of approximately 30% of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions over the past 270 years (since around 1750). This process, commonly referred to as "ocean acidification", is making it harder for marine calcifiers to build a shell or skeletal structure, endangering coral reefs and the broader marine ecosystems. Ocean acidification has been called the "evil twin of global warming" and "the other CO2 problem". Increased ocean temperatures and oxygen loss act concurrently with ocean acidification and constitute the "deadly trio" of climate change pressures on the marine environment. The impacts of this will be most severe for coral reefs and other shelled marine organisms, as well as those populations that depend on the ecosystem services they provide. === Reduction in pH value === Dissolving CO2 in seawater increases the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH, as follows: In shallow coastal and shelf regions, a number of factors interplay to affect air-ocean CO2 exchange and resulting


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-2.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
Already now large quantities of water undersaturated in aragonite are upwelling close to the Pacific continental shelf area of North America, from Vancouver to Northern California. These continental shelves play an important role in marine ecosystems, since most marine organisms live or are spawned there. Other shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects. At depths of 1000s of meters in the ocean, calcium carbonate shells begin to dissolve as increasing pressure and decreasing temperature shift the chemical equilibria controlling calcium carbonate precipitation. The depth at which this occurs is known as the carbonate compensation depth. Ocean acidification will increase such dissolution and shallow the carbonate compensation depth on timescales of tens to hundreds of years. Zones of downwelling are being affected first. In the North Pacific and North Atlantic, saturation states are also decreasing (the depth of saturation is getting more shallow). Ocean acidification is progressing in the open ocean as the CO2 travels to deeper depth as a result of ocean mixing. In the open ocean, this causes carbonate compensation depths to become more shallow, meaning that dissolution of calcium carbonate will occur below those depths. In the North Pacific these carbonate saturations depths are shallowing at a rate


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-3.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geologic past === Ocean acidification has occurred previously in Earth's history. It happened during the Capitanian mass extinction, at the end-Permian extinction, during the end-Triassic extinction, and during the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event. Three of the big five mass extinction events in the geologic past were associated with a rapid increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, probably due to volcanism and/or thermal dissociation of marine gas hydrates. Elevated CO2 levels impacted biodiversity. Decreased CaCO3 saturation due to seawater uptake of volcanogenic CO2 has been suggested as a possible kill mechanism during the marine mass extinction at the end of the Triassic. The end-Triassic biotic crisis is still the most well-established example of a marine mass extinction due to ocean acidification, because (a) carbon isotope records suggest enhanced volcanic activity that decreased the carbonate sedimentation which reduced the carbonate compensation depth and the carbonate saturation state, and a marine extinction coincided precisely in the stratigraphic record, and (b) there was pronounced selectivity of the extinction against organisms with thick aragonitic skeletons, which is predicted from experimental studies. Ocean acidification has also been suggested as a one cause of the end-Permian mass extinction and the end-Cretaceous crisis. Overall, multiple climatic stressors, including ocean


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-4.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
A coccolithophore is a unicellular, eukaryotic phytoplankton (alga). Understanding calcification changes in coccolithophores may be particularly important because a decline in the coccolithophores may have secondary effects on climate: it could contribute to global warming by decreasing the Earth's albedo via their effects on oceanic cloud cover. A study in 2008 examined a sediment core from the North Atlantic and found that the species composition of coccolithophorids remained unchanged over the past 224 years (1780 to 2004). But the average coccolith mass had increased by 40% during the same period. === Corals === Warm water corals are clearly in decline, with losses of 50% over the last 30–50 years due to multiple threats from ocean warming, ocean acidification, pollution and physical damage from activities such as fishing, and these pressures are expected to intensify. The fluid in the internal compartments (the coelenteron) where corals grow their exoskeleton is also extremely important for calcification growth. When the saturation state of aragonite in the external seawater is at ambient levels, the corals will grow their aragonite crystals rapidly in their internal compartments, hence their exoskeleton grows rapidly. If the saturation state of aragonite in the external seawater is lower than the ambient


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-5.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
==== Fish larvae ==== Ocean acidification can also have effects on marine fish larvae. It internally affects their olfactory systems, which is a crucial part of their early development. Orange clownfish larvae mostly live on oceanic reefs that are surrounded by vegetative islands. Larvae are known to use their sense of smell to detect the differences between reefs surrounded by vegetative islands and reefs not surrounded by vegetative islands. Clownfish larvae need to be able to distinguish between these two destinations to be able to find a suitable area for their growth. Another use for marine fish olfactory systems is to distinguish between their parents and other adult fish, in order to avoid inbreeding. In an experimental aquarium facility, clownfish were sustained in non-manipulated seawater with pH 8.15 ± 0.07, which is similar to our current ocean's pH. To test for effects of different pH levels, the seawater was modified to two other pH levels, which corresponded with climate change models that predict future atmospheric CO2 levels. In the year 2100 the model projects possible CO2 levels of 1,000 ppm, which correlates with the pH of 7.8 ± 0.05. This experiment showed that when larvae are exposed to a pH


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-6.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
==== United Kingdom commercial fisheries ==== The shellfish industry is an important part of the United Kingdom economy. In 2013, the shellfish industry contributed 37% of total landings by value. England and Scotland are the highest producers of shellfish within the United Kingdom. It has been found that annually fishers catch 66,000 t and 61,000 t. In terms of value, the wild-captured shellfish are worth 203 million pounds per year. However, ocean acidification is causing a decrease in the growth of many shellfish species. This is causing a drastic economic loss in the United Kingdom economy. It is predicted that by 2100 there will be an economy-wide economic loss of shellfish production in the United Kingdom. The direct potential loss ranges from 14 to 28 percent of fishery output. That is a total loss of about 23 to 88 million pounds. The financial losses vary regionally due to different patterns of wild-caught shellfish and the exploitation of species with differing sensitivities to ocean acidification. Shellfish resources in the United Kingdom will require regional, national, or international solutions to reduce the impacts of ocean acidification on shellfish species and stabilize the economy. ==== US commercial fisheries ==== The value of fish


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-7.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
==== Electrochemical methods ==== Electrochemical methods, or electrolysis, can strip carbon dioxide directly from seawater. Electrochemical process are a type of ocean alkalinity enhancement, too. Some methods focus on direct CO2 removal (in the form of carbonate and CO2 gas) while others increase the alkalinity of seawater by precipitating metal hydroxide residues, which absorbs CO2 in a matter described in the ocean alkalinity enhancement section. The hydrogen produced during direct carbon capture can then be upcycled to form hydrogen for energy consumption, or other manufactured laboratory reagents such as hydrochloric acid. However, implementation of electrolysis for carbon capture is expensive and the energy consumed for the process is high compared to other CDR techniques. In addition, research to assess the environmental impact of this process is ongoing. Some complications include toxic chemicals in wastewaters, and reduced DIC in effluents; both of these may negatively impact marine life. == Policies and goals == === Global policies === As awareness about ocean acidification grows, policies geared towards increasing monitoring efforts of ocean acidification have been drafted. Previously in 2015, ocean scientist Jean-Pierre Gattuso had remarked that "The ocean has been minimally considered at previous climate negotiations. Our study provides compelling arguments for


id: ocean-acidification-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification-8.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acidification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:46.998480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acidification-20260505-0
summary:
== History == Research into the phenomenon of ocean acidification, as well as awareness raising about the problem, has been going on for several decades. The fundamental research really began with the creation of the pH scale by Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen in 1909. By around the 1950s the massive role of the ocean in absorbing fossil fuel CO2 was known to specialists, but not appreciated by the greater scientific community. Throughout much of the 20th century, the dominant focus has been the beneficial process of oceanic CO2 uptake, which has enormously ameliorated climate change. The concept of "too much of a good thing" has been late in developing and was triggered only by some key events, and the oceanic sink for heat and CO2 is still critical as the primary buffer against climate change. In the early 1970s questions over the long-term impact of the accumulation of fossil fuel CO2 in the sea were already arising around the world and causing strong debate. Researchers commented on the accumulation of fossil CO2 in the atmosphere and sea and drew attention to the possible impacts on marine life. By the mid-1990s, the likely impact of CO2 levels rising so


id: ocean-acoustic-tomography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acoustic tomography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:48.279270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acoustic-tomography-20260505-0
summary:
Ocean acoustic tomography is a technique used to measure temperatures and currents over large regions of the ocean. On ocean basin scales, this technique is also known as acoustic thermometry. The technique relies on precisely measuring the time it takes sound signals to travel between two instruments, one an acoustic source and one a receiver, separated by ranges of 100–5,000 kilometres (54–2,700 nmi). If the locations of the instruments are known precisely, the measurement of time-of-flight can be used to infer the speed of sound, averaged over the acoustic path. Changes in the speed of sound are primarily caused by changes in the temperature of the ocean, hence the measurement of the travel times is equivalent to a measurement of temperature. A 1 °C (1.8 °F) change in temperature corresponds to about 4 metres per second (13 ft/s) change in sound speed. An oceanographic experiment employing tomography typically uses several source-receiver pairs in a moored array that measures an area of ocean. == Motivation == Seawater is an electrical conductor, so the oceans are opaque to electromagnetic energy (e.g., light or radar). The oceans are fairly transparent to low-frequency acoustics, however. The oceans conduct sound very efficiently, particularly sound at


id: ocean-acoustic-tomography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocean acoustic tomography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:48.279270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-acoustic-tomography-20260505-0
summary:
== Acoustic thermometry == Acoustic thermometry is an idea to observe the world's ocean basins, and the ocean climate in particular, using trans-basin acoustic transmissions. "Thermometry", rather than "tomography", has been used to indicate basin-scale or global scale measurements. Prototype measurements of temperature have been made in the North Pacific Basin and across the Arctic Basin. Starting in 1983, John Spiesberger of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and Ted Birdsall and Kurt Metzger of the University of Michigan developed the use of sound to infer information about the ocean's large-scale temperatures, and in particular to attempt the detection of global warming in the ocean. This group transmitted sounds from Oahu that were recorded at about ten receivers stationed around the rim of the Pacific Ocean over distances of 4,000 km (2,500 mi). These experiments demonstrated that changes in temperature could be measured with an accuracy of about 20 millidegrees. Spiesberger et al. did not detect global warming. Instead they discovered that other natural climatic fluctuations, such as El Nino, were responsible in part for substantial fluctuations in temperature that may have masked any slower and smaller trends that may have occurred from global warming. The Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate


id: ocean-current-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:49.743977+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-current-20260505-0
summary:
An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and temperature and salinity differences. Depth contours, shoreline configurations, and interactions with other currents influence a current's direction and strength. Ocean currents move both horizontally, on scales that can span entire oceans, as well as vertically, with vertical currents (upwelling and downwelling) playing an important role in the movement of nutrients and gases, such as carbon dioxide, between the surface and the deep ocean. Ocean currents are classified by temperature as either warm currents or cold currents. They are also classified by their velocity, dimension, and direction as either drifts, currents, or streams. Drifts, such as the North Atlantic Drift Current, involve the forward movement of surface ocean water under the influence of the prevailing wind. Currents, such as the Labrador Current, involve the movement of oceanic water in a more definite direction at a greater velocity than drifts. Streams, such as the Gulf Stream, involve movement of larger masses of ocean water with greater velocity than drifts or currents. Ocean currents are patterns of water movement that influence climate zones and


id: ocean-current-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocean current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:49.743977+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-current-20260505-0
summary:
== Effects on climate and ecology == Ocean currents affect temperatures throughout the world. For example, the ocean current that brings warm water up the north Atlantic to northwest Europe also cumulatively and slowly blocks ice from forming along the seashores, which would also block ships from entering and exiting inland waterways and seaports, hence ocean currents play a decisive role in influencing the climates of regions through which they flow. Ocean currents are important in the study of marine debris. Upwellings and cold ocean water currents flowing from polar and sub-polar regions bring in nutrients that support plankton growth, which are crucial prey items for several key species in marine ecosystems. Ocean currents are also important in the dispersal and distribution of many organisms, including those with pelagic egg or larval stages. An example is the life-cycle of the European Eel. Terrestrial species, for example tortoises and lizards, can be carried on floating debris by currents to colonise new terrestrial areas and islands. == Ocean currents and climate change == The continued rise of atmospheric temperatures is anticipated to have various effects on the strength of surface ocean currents, wind-driven circulation and dispersal patterns. Ocean currents play a significant


id: ocean-current-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current-2.md
category: reference
title: Ocean current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:49.743977+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-current-20260505-0
summary:
Baffin Island Current – Arctic Ocean current Beaufort Gyre – Wind-driven ocean current in the Arctic Ocean polar region East Greenland Current – Current from Fram Strait to Cape Farewell off the eastern coat of Greenland East Iceland Current – Cold water ocean current that forms as a branch of the East Greenland Current Labrador Current – Western North Atlantic Ocean current North Icelandic Jet – Deep-reaching current that flows along the continental slope of Iceland Norwegian Current – Current that flows northeasterly along the Atlantic coast of Norway Transpolar Drift Stream – Current in the Arctic Ocean West Greenland Current – Weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland West Spitsbergen Current – Warm, salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen Currents of the Atlantic Ocean Angola Current – Temporary ocean surface current Antilles Current – Ocean current Atlantic meridional overturning circulation – System of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean Azores Current – Ocean current in the North Atlantic Ocean Benguela Current – Ocean current in the South Atlantic Brazil Current – Water current along Brazil's southern coast Canary Current – Wind-driven surface current that is part


id: ocean-current-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current-3.md
category: reference
title: Ocean current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:49.743977+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-current-20260505-0
summary:
Beaufort Gyre – Wind-driven ocean current in the Arctic Ocean polar region Indian Ocean Gyre – Major oceanic gyre in the Indian Ocean North Atlantic Gyre – Major circular system of ocean currents North Pacific Gyre – Major circulating system of ocean currents Ross Gyre – Circulating system of ocean currents in the Ross Sea South Atlantic Gyre – Subtropical gyre in the south Atlantic Ocean South Pacific Gyre – Major circulating system of ocean currents Weddell Gyre – One of two gyres within the Southern Ocean == See also == Currentology – Science that studies the internal movements of water masses Deep ocean water – Cold, salty water deep below the surface of Earth's oceans Fish migration – Movement of fishes from one part of a water body to another on a regular basis Geostrophic current – Oceanic flow in which the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis effect Latitude of the Gulf Stream and the Gulf Stream north wall index List of ocean circulation models Marine habitats § Ocean currents Marine current power – Extraction of power from ocean currents Ocean gyre – Any large system of circulating ocean surface currents Physical oceanography – Study of


id: ocean-deoxygenation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean deoxygenation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:51.047511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-deoxygenation-20260505-0
summary:
Ocean deoxygenation is the reduction of the oxygen content in different parts of the ocean due to human activities. There are two areas where this occurs. Firstly, it occurs in coastal zones where eutrophication has driven some quite rapid (in a few decades) declines in oxygen to very low levels. This type of ocean deoxygenation is also called dead zones. Secondly, ocean deoxygenation occurs also in the open ocean. In that part of the ocean, there is nowadays an ongoing reduction in oxygen levels. As a result, the naturally occurring low oxygen areas (so called oxygen minimum zones (OMZs)) are now expanding slowly. This expansion is happening as a consequence of human caused climate change. The resulting decrease in oxygen content of the oceans poses a threat to marine life, as well as to people who depend on marine life for nutrition or livelihood. A decrease in ocean oxygen levels affects how productive the ocean is, how nutrients and carbon move around, and how marine habitats function. As the oceans become warmer this increases the loss of oxygen in the oceans. This is because the warmer temperatures increase ocean stratification. The reason for this lies in the multiple connections between


id: ocean-deoxygenation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocean deoxygenation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:51.047511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-deoxygenation-20260505-0
summary:
While oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) occur naturally, they can be exacerbated by human impacts like climate change and land-based pollution from agriculture and sewage. The prediction of current climate models and climate change scenarios is that substantial warming and loss of oxygen throughout the majority of the upper ocean will occur. Global warming increases ocean temperatures, especially in shallow coastal areas. As water temperature increases, its ability to hold oxygen decreases, resulting in lower oxygen concentrations. This compounds the effects of eutrophication in coastal zones described above. Open ocean areas with no oxygen have grown more than 1.7 million square miles in the last 50 years, and coastal waters have seen a tenfold increase in low-oxygen areas in the same time. Measurements of dissolved oxygen in coastal and open-ocean waters over the past 50 years have revealed a marked decline in oxygen content. This decline is associated with expanding spatial extent, expanding vertical extent, and prolonged duration of oxygen-poor conditions in all regions of the global oceans. Examinations of the spatial extent of OMZs in the past through paleoceanographical methods clearly show that the spatial extent of OMZs has expanded through time, and this expansion is coupled to ocean warming


id: ocean-deoxygenation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation-2.md
category: reference
title: Ocean deoxygenation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:51.047511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-deoxygenation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Vertical extent of low oxygen conditions === The vertical extent of low oxygen conditions is also variable, and areas of persistent low oxygen have annual variation in the upper and lower limits of oxygen-poor waters. Typically, OMZs are expected to occur at depths of about 200 to 1,000 meters. The upper limit of OMZs is characterized by a strong and rapid gradient in oxygenation, called the oxycline. The depth of the oxycline varies between OMZs, and is mainly affected by physical processes such as air-sea fluxes and vertical movement in the thermocline depth. The lower limit of OMZs is associated with the reduction in biological oxygen consumption, as the majority of organic matter is consumed and respired in the top 1,000 m of the vertical water column. Shallower coastal systems may see oxygen-poor waters extend to bottom waters, leading to negative effects on benthic communities. Many persistent OMZs have increased in thickness over the last five decades. This happened because the upper limit of the OMZ became shallower and also because the OMZ expanded downward. === Variations in temporal duration === The temporal duration of oxygen-poor conditions can vary on seasonal, annual, or multi-decadal scales. Hypoxic conditions in coastal


id: ocean-deoxygenation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation-3.md
category: reference
title: Ocean deoxygenation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:51.047511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-deoxygenation-20260505-0
summary:
Vertical expansion of tropical OMZs has reduced the area between the OMZ and surface. This means that many species that live near the surface, such as fish, could be affected periodically. Ongoing research is investigating how OMZ expansion affects food webs in these areas. Studies on OMZ expansion in the tropical Pacific and Atlantic have observed negative effects on fish populations and commercial fisheries that likely occurred from reduced habitat when the OMZ moved to a shallower depth. A fish's behavior in response to ocean deoxygenation is based upon their tolerance to oxygen poor conditions. Species with low anoxic tolerance tend to undergo habitat compression in response to the expansion of OMZs. Fish species with a low tolerance for low oxygen conditions may move to live nearer the ocean surface where oxygen concentration will usually be higher. Biological responses to habitat compression can be varied. Some species of billfish, predatory pelagic predators such as sailfish and marlin, that have undergone habitat compression actually have increased growth since their prey, smaller pelagic fish, experienced the same habitat compression, resulting in increased prey vulnerability to billfishes. Fish with tolerance to anoxic conditions, such as jumbo squid and lanternfish, can remain active in


id: ocean-dynamics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_dynamics-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean dynamics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_dynamics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:52.277542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-dynamics-20260505-0
summary:
Ocean dynamics define and describe the flow of water within the oceans. Ocean temperature and motion fields can be separated into three distinct layers: mixed (surface) layer, upper ocean (above the thermocline), and deep ocean. Ocean dynamics has traditionally been investigated by sampling from instruments in situ. The mixed layer is nearest to the surface and can vary in thickness from 10 to 500 meters. This layer has properties such as temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen which are uniform with depth reflecting a history of active turbulence (the atmosphere has an analogous planetary boundary layer). Turbulence is high in the mixed layer. However, it becomes zero at the base of the mixed layer. Turbulence again increases below the base of the mixed layer due to shear instabilities. At extratropical latitudes this layer is deepest in late winter as a result of surface cooling and winter storms and quite shallow in summer. Its dynamics is governed by turbulent mixing as well as Ekman transport, exchanges with the overlying atmosphere, and horizontal advection. The upper ocean, characterized by warm temperatures and active motion, varies in depth from 100 m or less in the tropics and eastern oceans to in excess of 800


id: ocean-fertilization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean fertilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:53.616567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-fertilization-20260505-0
summary:
Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment refers to both natural and intentional processes that replenish iron and other nutrients in the upper ocean, which in turn stimulate the growth of phytoplankton and in some circumstances draw down large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) through photosynthesis. Intentional ocean fertilization is biomimicry of natural processes that have removed atmospheric CO2 before ice ages as well as after volcanic eruptions, whale defecation, and near hydrothermal vents. The introduction of nutrients to the upper ocean increases marine food production as well as removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Ocean nutrient fertilization, for example iron fertilization, (OIF) can stimulate photosynthesis in phytoplankton. The phytoplankton converts the ocean's dissolved carbon dioxide into carbohydrate, some of which has been shown to sink into the deeper ocean. More than a dozen open-sea experiments confirmed that adding iron to the ocean increases photosynthesis in phytoplankton by up to 30 times. Ocean iron fertilization is one of the more well-researched carbon dioxide removal (CDR) approaches, and supported by climate restoration proponents. However, there is uncertainty about this approach regarding the duration of the effective oceanic carbon sequestration. A National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine (NASEM) 2021 study on marine CDR


id: ocean-fertilization-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocean fertilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:53.616567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-fertilization-20260505-0
summary:
== Approaches == Phytoplankton require a variety of nutrients. These include macronutrients such as nitrate and phosphate (in relatively high concentrations) and micronutrients such as iron and zinc (in much smaller quantities). Nutrient requirements vary across phylogenetic groups (e.g., diatoms require silicon) but may not individually limit total biomass production. Co-limitation (among multiple nutrients) may also mean that one nutrient can partially compensate for a shortage of another. Silicon does not affect total production, but can change the timing and community structure with follow-on effects on remineralization times and subsequent mesopelagic nutrient vertical distribution. High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) waters occupy the oceans' subtropical gyre systems, approximately 40 per cent of the surface, where wind-driven downwelling and a strong thermocline impede nutrient resupply from deeper water. Nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria provides a major source of N. In effect, it ultimately prevents the ocean from losing the N required for photosynthesis. Phosphorus has no substantial supply route, making it the ultimate limiting macronutrient. The sources that fuel primary production are deep water stocks and runoff or dust-based. === Iron === === Phosphorus === In the very long term, phosphorus "is often considered to be the ultimate limiting macronutrient in marine ecosystems" and has


id: ocean-fertilization-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization-2.md
category: reference
title: Ocean fertilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:53.616567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-fertilization-20260505-0
summary:
=== Volcanic ash === Volcanic ash adds nutrients to the surface ocean. This is most apparent in nutrient-limited areas. Research on the effects of anthropogenic and aeolian iron addition to the ocean surface suggests that nutrient-limited areas benefit most from a combination of nutrients provided by anthropogenic, eolian and volcanic deposition. Some oceanic areas are comparably limited in more than one nutrient, so fertilization regimes that includes all limited nutrients is more likely to succeed. Volcanic ash supplies multiple nutrients to the system, but excess metal ions can be harmful. The positive impacts of volcanic ash deposition are potentially outweighed by their potential to do harm. Clear evidence documents that ash can be as much as 45 percent by weight in some deep marine sediments. In the Pacific Ocean estimates claim that (on a millennial-scale) the atmospheric deposition of air-fall volcanic ash was as high as the deposition of desert dust. This indicates the potential of volcanic ash as a significant iron source. In August 2008 the Kasatochi volcanic eruption in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, deposited ash in the nutrient-limited northeast Pacific. This ash (including iron) resulted in one of the largest phytoplankton blooms observed in the subarctic. Fisheries scientists


id: ocean-fertilization-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization-3.md
category: reference
title: Ocean fertilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_fertilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:53.616567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-fertilization-20260505-0
summary:
==== Impact on fisheries ==== Adding urea to the ocean can cause phytoplankton blooms that serve as a food source for zooplankton and in turn feed for fish. This may increase fish catches. However, if cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates dominate phytoplankton assemblages that are considered poor quality food for fish then the increase in fish quantity may not be large. Some evidence links iron fertilization from volcanic eruptions to increased fisheries production. Other nutrients would be metabolized along with the added nutrient(s), reducing their presence in fertilized waters. Krill populations have declined dramatically since whaling began. Sperm whales transport iron from the deep ocean to the surface during prey consumption and defecation. Sperm whales have been shown to increase the levels of primary production and carbon export to the deep ocean by depositing iron-rich faeces into surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The faeces causes phytoplankton to grow and take up carbon. The phytoplankton nourish krill. Reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year. ==== Ecosystem disruption ==== Many locations, such as the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, support high marine biodiversity.


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a renewable energy technology that harnesses the temperature difference between the warm surface waters of the ocean and the cold depths to run a heat engine to produce electricity. It is a unique form of clean energy generation that has the potential to provide a consistent and sustainable source of power. Although it has challenges to overcome, OTEC has the potential to provide a consistent and sustainable source of clean energy, particularly in tropical regions with access to deep ocean water. == Description == OTEC uses the ocean thermal gradient between cooler deep and warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in the form of electricity. OTEC can operate with a very high capacity factor and so can operate in base load mode. The denser cold water masses, formed by ocean surface water interaction with cold atmosphere in quite specific areas of the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean, sink into the deep sea basins and spread in entire deep ocean by the thermohaline circulation. Upwelling of cold water from the deep ocean is replenished by the downwelling of cold surface sea water. Among ocean energy


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
In 1974, The U.S. established the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA) at Keahole Point on the Kona coast of Hawaii. Hawaii is the best US OTEC location, due to its warm surface water, access to very deep, very cold water, and high electricity costs. The laboratory has become a leading test facility for OTEC technology. In the same year, Lockheed received a grant from the U.S. National Science Foundation to study OTEC. This eventually led to an effort by Lockheed, the US Navy, Makai Ocean Engineering, Dillingham Construction, and other firms to build the world's first and only net-power producing OTEC plant, dubbed "Mini-OTEC" For three months in 1979, a small amount of electricity was generated. NELHA operated a 250 kW demonstration plant for six years in the 1990s. With funding from the United States Navy, a 105 kW plant at the site began supplying energy to the local power grid in 2015. A European initiative EUROCEAN - a privately funded joint venture of 9 European companies already active in offshore engineering - was active in promoting OTEC from 1979 to 1983. Initially a large scale offshore facility was studied. Later a 100 kW land based installation was


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-2.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
== Currently operating OTEC plants == In March 2013, Saga University with various Japanese industries completed the installation of a new OTEC plant. Okinawa Prefecture announced the start of the OTEC operation testing at Kume Island on April 15, 2013. The main aim is to prove the validity of computer models and demonstrate OTEC to the public. The testing and research will be conducted with the support of Saga University until the end of FY 2016. IHI Plant Construction Co. Ltd, Yokogawa Electric Corporation, and Xenesys Inc were entrusted with constructing the 100 kilowatt class plant within the grounds of the Okinawa Prefecture Deep Sea Water Research Center. The location was specifically chosen in order to utilize existing deep seawater and surface seawater intake pipes installed for the research center in 2000. The pipe is used for the intake of deep sea water for research, fishery, and agricultural use. The plant consists of two 50 kW units in double Rankine configuration. The OTEC facility and deep seawater research center are open to free public tours by appointment in English and Japanese. Currently, this is one of only two fully operational OTEC plants in the world. This plant operates continuously when


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-3.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
Open-cycle OTEC uses warm surface water directly to make electricity. The warm seawater is first pumped into a low-pressure container, which causes it to boil. In some schemes, the expanding vapor drives a low-pressure turbine attached to an electrical generator. The vapor, which has left its salt and other contaminants in the low-pressure container, is pure fresh water. It is condensed into a liquid by exposure to cold temperatures from deep-ocean water. This method produces desalinized fresh water, suitable for drinking water, irrigation or aquaculture. In other schemes, the rising vapor is used in a gas lift technique of lifting water to significant heights. Depending on the embodiment, such vapor lift pump techniques generate power from a hydroelectric turbine either before or after the pump is used. In 1984, the Solar Energy Research Institute (now known as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory) developed a vertical-spout evaporator to convert warm seawater into low-pressure steam for open-cycle plants. Conversion efficiencies were as high as 97% for seawater-to-steam conversion (overall steam production would only be a few percent of the incoming water). In May 1993, an open-cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii, produced close to 80 kW of electricity during a net


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-4.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Floating === Floating OTEC facilities operate off-shore. Although potentially optimal for large systems, floating facilities present several difficulties. The difficulty of mooring plants in very deep water complicates power delivery. Cables attached to floating platforms are more susceptible to damage, especially during storms. Cables at depths greater than 1000 meters are difficult to maintain and repair. Riser cables, which connect the sea bed and the plant, need to be constructed to resist entanglement. As with shelf-mounted plants, floating plants need a stable base for continuous operation. Major storms and heavy seas can break the vertically suspended cold-water pipe and interrupt warm water intake as well. To help prevent these problems, pipes can be made of flexible polyethylene attached to the bottom of the platform and gimballed with joints or collars. Pipes may need to be uncoupled from the plant to prevent storm damage. As an alternative to a warm-water pipe, surface water can be drawn directly into the platform; however, it is necessary to prevent the intake flow from being damaged or interrupted during violent motions caused by heavy seas. Connecting a floating plant to power delivery cables requires the plant to remain relatively stationary. Mooring is an acceptable


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-5.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hainan === On April 13, 2013, Lockheed contracted with the Reignwood Group to build a 10 megawatt plant off the coast of southern China to provide power for a planned resort on Hainan island. A plant of that size would power several thousand homes. The Reignwood Group acquired Opus Offshore in 2011 which forms its Reignwood Ocean Engineering division which also is engaged in development of deepwater drilling. === Japan === Currently the only continuously operating OTEC system is located in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. The Governmental support, local community support, and advanced research carried out by Saga University were key for the contractors, IHI Plant Construction Co. Ltd, Yokogawa Electric Corporation, and Xenesys Inc, to succeed with this project. Work is being conducted to develop a 1MW facility on Kume Island requiring new pipelines. In July 2014, more than 50 members formed the Global Ocean reSource and Energy Association (GOSEA) an international organization formed to promote the development of the Kumejima Model and work towards the installation of larger deep seawater pipelines and a 1MW OTEC Facility. The companies involved in the current OTEC projects, along with other interested parties have developed plans for offshore OTEC systems as well.


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-6.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chilled-soil agriculture === OTEC technology supports chilled-soil agriculture. When cold seawater flows through underground pipes, it chills the surrounding soil. The temperature difference between roots in the cool soil and leaves in the warm air allows plants that evolved in temperate climates to be grown in the subtropics. Dr. John P. Craven, Dr. Jack Davidson and Richard Bailey patented this process and demonstrated it at a research facility at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA). The research facility demonstrated that more than 100 different crops can be grown using this system. Many normally could not survive in Hawaii or at Keahole Point. Japan has also been researching agricultural uses of Deep Sea Water since 2000 at the Okinawa Deep Sea Water Research Institute on Kume Island. The Kume Island facilities use regular water cooled by Deep Sea Water in a heat exchanger run through pipes in the ground to cool soil. Their techniques have developed an important resource for the island community as they now produce spinach, a winter vegetable, commercially year round. An expansion of the deep seawater agriculture facility was completed by Kumejima Town next to the OTEC Demonstration Facility in 2014. The new facility


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-7.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
== Thermodynamics == A rigorous treatment of OTEC reveals that a 20 °C temperature difference will provide as much energy as a hydroelectric plant with 34 m head for the same volume of water flow. The low temperature difference means that water volumes must be very large to extract useful amounts of heat. A 100MW power plant would be expected to pump on the order of 12 million gallons (44,400 tonnes) per minute. For comparison, pumps must move a mass of water greater than the weight of the battleship Bismarck, which weighed 41,700 tonnes, every minute. This makes pumping a substantial parasitic drain on energy production in OTEC systems, with one Lockheed design consuming 19.55 MW in pumping costs for every 49.8 MW net electricity generated. For OTEC schemes using heat exchangers, to handle this volume of water the exchangers need to be enormous compared to those used in conventional thermal power generation plants, making them one of the most critical components due to their impact on overall efficiency. A 100 MW OTEC power plant would require 200 exchangers each larger than a 20-foot shipping container making them the single most expensive component. === Variation of ocean temperature with depth


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-8.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
Warm water mass flow rate, M w ˙ = M T m w ˙ ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {M_{w}}}={\dot {M_{T}{\dot {m_{w}}}}}\,} Cold water mass flow rate M c ˙ = M T m C ˙ ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {{\dot {M_{c}}}={\dot {M_{T}m_{C}}}}}\,} === Closed Anderson cycle === As developed starting in the 1960s by J. Hilbert Anderson of Sea Solar Power, Inc., in this cycle, QH is the heat transferred in the evaporator from the warm sea water to the working fluid. The working fluid exits the evaporator as a gas near its dew point. The high-pressure, high-temperature gas then is expanded in the turbine to yield turbine work, WT. The working fluid is slightly superheated at the turbine exit and the turbine typically has an efficiency of 90% based on reversible, adiabatic expansion. From the turbine exit, the working fluid enters the condenser where it rejects heat, -QC, to the cold sea water. The condensate is then compressed to the highest pressure in the cycle, requiring condensate pump work, WC. Thus, the Anderson closed cycle is a Rankine-type cycle similar to the conventional power plant steam cycle except that in the Anderson cycle the working fluid is never superheated more than


id: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion-9.md
category: reference
title: Ocean thermal energy conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dissolved gases === The performance of direct contact heat exchangers operating at typical OTEC boundary conditions is important to the Claude cycle. Many early Claude cycle designs used a surface condenser since their performance was well understood. However, direct contact condensers offer significant disadvantages. As cold water rises in the intake pipe, the pressure decreases to the point where gas begins to evolve. If a significant amount of gas comes out of solution, placing a gas trap before the direct contact heat exchangers may be justified. Experiments simulating conditions in the warm water intake pipe indicated about 30% of the dissolved gas evolves in the top 8.5 meters (28 ft) of the tube. The trade-off between pre-deaeration of the seawater and expulsion of non-condensable gases from the condenser is dependent on the gas evolution dynamics, deaerator efficiency, head loss, vent compressor efficiency and parasitic power. Experimental results indicate vertical spout condensers perform some 30% better than falling jet types. === Microbial fouling === Because raw seawater must pass through the heat exchanger, care must be taken to maintain good thermal conductivity. Biofouling layers as thin as 25 to 50 micrometres (0.00098 to 0.00197 in) can degrade heat exchanger performance


id: ocean-zoning-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_zoning-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean zoning
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_zoning
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:56.233356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-zoning-20260505-0
summary:
Ocean zoning is a policy approach for environmental resource management in oceanic environments. This, often big picture, approach to ocean management allocates areas for various ocean uses. Types of zones can include areas designated for marine protected areas (including marine reserves), aquaculture, various types of fishing, shipping, recreation (including scuba diving), mooring/anchoring, and energy production (including offshore wind power). The process of marine spatial planning can result in ocean zones being legally established. Benefits of ocean zoning can include reducing conflict between users, safeguarding ecologically important areas, enabling commercial activity to develop with certainty, and supporting international cooperation. Balancing environmental, economic, security, social, and cultural interests in delineation of zone boundaries remains a key challenge of ocean zoning. == References == == External links == Open Channels - Forum for Ocean Planning and Management SeaSketch - Software tools to support collaborative ocean planning


id: oceanic-basin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_basin-0.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic basin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_basin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:57.426803+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-basin-20260505-0
summary:
In hydrology, an oceanic basin (or ocean basin) is anywhere on Earth that is covered by seawater. Geologically, most of the ocean basins are large geologic basins that are below sea level. Most commonly the ocean is divided into basins following the continents distribution: the North and South Atlantic (together approximately 75 million km2/ 29 million mi2), North and South Pacific (together approximately 155 million km2/ 59 million mi2), Indian Ocean (68 million km2/ 26 million mi2) and Arctic Ocean (14 million km2/ 5.4 million mi2). Also recognized is the Southern Ocean (20 million km2/ 7 million mi2). All ocean basins collectively cover 67% of the Earth's surface, and together they contain almost 97% of all water on the planet. They have an average depth of almost 4 km (about 2.5 miles). == Definitions of boundaries == === Boundaries based on continents === "Limits of Oceans and Seas", published by the International Hydrographic Office in 1953, is a document that defined the ocean's basins as they are largely known today. The main ocean basins are the ones named in the previous section. These main basins are divided into smaller parts. Some examples are: the Baltic Sea (with three subdivisions), the


id: oceanic-basin-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_basin-1.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic basin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_basin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:57.426803+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-basin-20260505-0
summary:
Convergent boundary: the plates collide, and eventually the denser one slides underneath the lighter one, a process known as subduction. This type of interaction can take place between an oceanic and an oceanic crust, creating a so-called oceanic trench. It can also take place between an oceanic and a continental crust, forming a mountain range in the continent like the Andes, and it can take place between a continental and continental crust, resulting in large mountain chains, like the Himalayas. Divergent boundary: the plates move apart from each other. If this occurs on land a rift is formed, which eventually becomes a rift valley. The most active divergent boundaries lie under the sea. In the ocean, if magma or molten rock ascent from the mantle and fill the gap created by two diverging plates, a mid-ocean ridge is formed. Transform boundary: also called transform fault, occurs when the movement between the plates is horizontal, so no crust is created or destroyed. It can happen both, on land and in the sea, but most of the faults are in the oceanic crust. === Size of trenches === The Earth's deepest trench is the Mariana Trench which extends for about 2500 km


id: oceanic-crust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crust-0.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic crust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:58.651013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-crust-20260505-0
summary:
Oceanic crust is the uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of the tectonic plates. It is composed of the upper oceanic crust, with pillow lavas and a dike complex, and the lower oceanic crust, composed of troctolite, gabbro and ultramafic cumulates. The crust lies above the rigid uppermost layer of the mantle. The crust and the rigid upper mantle layer together constitute oceanic lithosphere. Oceanic crust is primarily composed of mafic rocks, or sima, which is rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than continental crust, or sial, generally less than 10 kilometers thick; however, it is denser, having a mean density of about 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter as opposed to continental crust which has a density of about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter. The uppermost crust is the result of the cooling of magma derived from mantle material below the plate. The magma is injected into the spreading center, which consists mainly of a partly solidified crystal mush derived from earlier injections, forming magma lenses that are the source of the sheeted dikes that feed the overlying pillow lavas. As the lavas cool they are, in most instances, modified chemically by seawater. These eruptions occur mostly at


id: oceanic-crust-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crust-1.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic crust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:58.651013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-crust-20260505-0
summary:
=== Life cycle === Oceanic crust is continuously being created at mid-ocean ridges. As continental plates diverge at these ridges, magma rises into the upper mantle and crust. As the continental plates move away from the ridge, the newly formed rocks cool and start to erode with sediment gradually building up on top of them. The youngest oceanic rocks are at the oceanic ridges, and they get progressively older away from the ridges. As the mantle rises it cools and melts, as the pressure decreases and it crosses the solidus. The amount of melt produced depends only on the temperature of the mantle as it rises. Hence most oceanic crust is the same thickness (7±1 km). Very slow spreading ridges (<1 cm·yr−1 half-rate) produce thinner crust (4–5 km thick) as the mantle has a chance to cool on upwelling and so it crosses the solidus and melts at lesser depth, thereby producing less melt and thinner crust. An example of this is the Gakkel Ridge under the Arctic Ocean. Thicker than average crust is found above plumes as the mantle is hotter and hence it crosses the solidus and melts at a greater depth, creating more melt and a thicker


id: oceanic-plateau-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_plateau-0.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic plateau
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_plateau
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:35:59.916062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-plateau-20260505-0
summary:
An oceanic or submarine plateau is a large, relatively flat elevation that is higher than the surrounding relief with one or more relatively steep sides. There are 184 oceanic plateaus in the world, covering an area of 18,486,600 km2 (7,137,700 sq mi) or about 5.11% of the oceans. The South Pacific region around Australia and New Zealand contains the greatest number of oceanic plateaus (see map). Oceanic plateaus produced by large igneous provinces are often associated with hotspots, mantle plumes, and volcanic islands — such as Iceland, Hawaii, Cape Verde, and Kerguelen. The three largest plateaus, the Caribbean, Ontong Java, and Mid-Pacific Mountains, are located on thermal swells. Other oceanic plateaus, however, are made of rifted continental crust, for example the Falkland Plateau, Lord Howe Rise, and parts of Kerguelen, Seychelles, and Arctic ridges. Plateaus formed by large igneous provinces were formed by the equivalent of continental flood basalts such as the Deccan Traps in India and the Snake River Plain in the United States. In contrast to continental flood basalts, most igneous oceanic plateaus erupt through young and thin (6–7 km (3.7–4.3 mi)) mafic or ultra-mafic crust and are therefore uncontaminated by felsic crust and representative for their mantle


id: oceanic-trench-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench-0.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic trench
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:01.226469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-trench-20260505-0
summary:
Oceanic trenches are prominent, long, narrow topographic depressions of the ocean floor. They are typically 50 to 100 kilometers (30 to 60 mi) wide and 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor, but can be thousands of kilometers in length. There are about 50,000 km (31,000 mi) of oceanic trenches worldwide, mostly around the Pacific Ocean, but also in the eastern Indian Ocean and a few other locations. The greatest ocean depth measured is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 10,994 m (36,070 ft) below sea level. Oceanic trenches are a feature of the Earth's distinctive plate tectonics. They mark the locations of convergent plate boundaries, along which lithospheric plates move towards each other at rates that vary from a few millimeters to over ten centimeters per year. Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about 3 km2 (1.2 sq mi) per year. A trench marks the position at which the flexed, subducting slab begins to descend beneath another lithospheric slab. Trenches are generally parallel to and about 200 km (120 mi) from a volcanic arc. Much of the fluid trapped in


id: oceanic-trench-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench-1.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic trench
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:01.226469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-trench-20260505-0
summary:
Oceanic trenches are 50 to 100 kilometers (30 to 60 mi) wide and have an asymmetric V-shape, with the steeper slope (8 to 20 degrees) on the inner (overriding) side of the trench and the gentler slope (around 5 degrees) on the outer (subducting) side of the trench. The bottom of the trench marks the boundary between the subducting and overriding plates, known as the basal plate boundary shear or the subduction décollement. The depth of the trench depends on the starting depth of the oceanic lithosphere as it begins its plunge into the trench, the angle at which the slab plunges, and the amount of sedimentation in the trench. Both starting depth and subduction angle are greater for older oceanic lithosphere, which is reflected in the deep trenches of the western Pacific. Here the bottoms of the Marianas and the Tonga–Kermadec trenches are up to 10–11 kilometers (6.2–6.8 mi) below sea level. In the eastern Pacific, where the subducting oceanic lithosphere is much younger, the depth of the Peru-Chile trench is around 7 to 8 kilometers (4.3 to 5.0 mi). Though narrow, oceanic trenches are remarkably long and continuous, forming the largest linear depressions on earth. An individual trench


id: oceanic-trench-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench-2.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic trench
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:01.226469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-trench-20260505-0
summary:
=== Erosive versus accretionary margins === Convergent margins are classified as erosive or accretionary, and this has a strong influence on the morphology of the inner slope of the trench. Erosive margins, such as the northern Peru-Chile, Tonga-Kermadec, and Mariana trenches, correspond to sediment-starved trenches. The subducting slab erodes material from the lower part of the overriding slab, reducing its volume. The edge of the slab experiences subsidence and steepening, with normal faulting. The slope is underlain by relative strong igneous and metamorphic rock, which maintains a high angle of repose. Over half of all convergent margins are erosive margins. Accretionary margins, such as the southern Peru-Chile, Cascadia, and Aleutians, are associated with moderately to heavily sedimented trenches. As the slab subducts, sediments are "bulldozed" onto the edge of the overriding plate, producing an accretionary wedge or accretionary prism. This builds the overriding plate outwards. Because the sediments lack strength, their angle of repose is gentler than the rock making up the inner slope of erosive margin trenches. The inner slope is underlain by imbricated thrust sheets of sediments. The inner slope topography is roughened by localized mass wasting. Cascadia has practically no bathymetric expression of the outer rise and


id: oceanic-trench-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench-3.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic trench
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:01.226469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-trench-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mantle interactions === Interactions with the mantle discontinuities play a significant role in slab rollback. Stagnation at the 660-km discontinuity causes retrograde slab motion due to the suction forces acting at the surface. Slab rollback induces mantle return flow, which causes extension from the shear stresses at the base of the overriding plate. As slab rollback velocities increase, circular mantle flow velocities also increase, accelerating extension rates. Extension rates are altered when the slab interacts with the discontinuities within the mantle at 410 km and 660 km depth. Slabs can either penetrate directly into the lower mantle, or can be retarded due to the phase transition at 660 km depth creating a difference in buoyancy. An increase in retrograde trench migration (slab rollback) (2–4 cm/yr) is a result of flattened slabs at the 660-km discontinuity where the slab does not penetrate into the lower mantle. This is the case for the Japan, Java and Izu–Bonin trenches. These flattened slabs are only temporarily arrested in the transition zone. The subsequent displacement into the lower mantle is caused by slab pull forces, or the destabilization of the slab from warming and broadening due to thermal diffusion. Slabs that penetrate directly into


id: oceanic-trench-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench-4.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic trench
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:01.226469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-trench-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Allwrardt, Allan O. (1993). "Evolution of the tectogene concept, 1930–1965" (PDF). Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress on the History of Oceanography. Retrieved 29 September 2021. Amos, Jonathan (11 May 2021). "Oceans' extreme depths measured in precise detail". News. BBC. Retrieved 2 October 2021. Bangs, N. L.; Morgan, J. K.; Tréhu, A. M.; Contreras-Reyes, E.; Arnulf, A. F.; Han, S.; Olsen, K. M.; Zhang, E. (November 2020). "Basal Accretion Along the South Central Chilean Margin and Its Relationship to Great Earthquakes". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 125 (11). Bibcode:2020JGRB..12519861B. doi:10.1029/2020JB019861. S2CID 225154312. Bodine, J.H.; Watts, A.B (1979). "On lithospheric flexure seaward of the Bonin and Mariana trenches". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 43 (1): 132–148. Bibcode:1979E&PSL..43..132B. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(79)90162-6. Christensen, UR (1996). "The Influence of Trench Migration on Slab Penetration into the Lower Mantle". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 140 (1–4): 27–39. Bibcode:1996E&PSL.140...27C. doi:10.1016/0012-821x(96)00023-4. Dastanpour, Mohammad (March 1996). "The Devonian System in Iran: a review". Geological Magazine. 133 (2): 159–170. Bibcode:1996GeoM..133..159D. doi:10.1017/S0016756800008670. S2CID 129199671. Dvorkin, Jack; Nur, Amos; Mavko, Gary; Ben-Avraham, Zvi (1993). "Narrow subducting slabs and the origin of backarc basins". Tectonophysics. 227 (1–4): 63–79. Bibcode:1993Tectp.227...63D. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(93)90087-Z. Einsele, Gerhard (2000). Sedimentary Basins: Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget


id: oceanic-trench-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench-5.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic trench
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:01.226469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-trench-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Ellouz-Zimmermann, N.; Deville, E.; Müller, C.; Lallemant, S.; Subhani, A. B.; Tabreez, A. R. (2007). "Impact of Sedimentation on Convergent Margin Tectonics: Example of the Makran Accretionary Prism (Pakistan)". Thrust Belts and Foreland Basins. Frontiers in Earth Sciences. pp. 327–350. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-69426-7_17. ISBN 978-3-540-69425-0. Fisher, R. L.; Hess, H. H. (1963). "Trenches". In M. N. Hill (ed.). The Sea v. 3 The Earth Beneath the Sea. New York: Wiley-Interscience. pp. 411–436. Hamilton, W. B. (1988). "Plate tectonics and island arcs". Geological Society of America Bulletin. Vol. 100, no. 10. pp. 1503–1527. Hawkins, J. W.; Bloomer, S. H.; Evans, C. A.; Melchior, J. T. (1984). "Evolution of Intra-Oceanic Arc-Trench Systems". Tectonophysics. 102 (1–4): 175–205. Bibcode:1984Tectp.102..175H. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(84)90013-1. Jarrard, R. D. (1986). "Relations among subduction parameters". Reviews of Geophysics. 24 (2): 217–284. Bibcode:1986RvGeo..24..217J. doi:10.1029/RG024i002p00217. Ladd, J.W.; Holcombe, T. L.; Westbrook, G. K.; Edgar, N. T. (1990). "Caribbean Marine Geology: Active margins of the plate boundary". In Dengo, G.; Case, J. (eds.). The Geology of North America. Vol. H: The Caribbean Region. Geological Society of America. pp. 261–290. Lemenkova, Paulina (2021). "Topography of the Aleutian Trench south-east off Bowers Ridge, Bering Sea, in the context of the geological development of North


id: oceanic-zone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_zone-0.md
category: reference
title: Oceanic zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:02.393656+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanic-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The oceanic zone is typically defined as the area of the ocean lying beyond the continental shelf (e.g. the neritic zone), but operationally is often referred to as beginning where the water depths drop to below 200 metres (660 ft), seaward from the coast into the open ocean with its pelagic zone. It is the region of open sea beyond the edge of the continental shelf and includes 65% of the ocean's completely open water. The oceanic zone has a wide array of undersea terrain, including trenches that are often deeper than Mount Everest is tall, as well as deep-sea volcanoes and basins. While it is often difficult for life to sustain itself in this type of environment, many species have adapted and do thrive in the oceanic zone. The open ocean is vertically divided into four zones: the sunlight zone, twilight zone, midnight zone, and abyssal zone. == Sub zones == The Mesopelagic (disphotic) zone, which is where only small amounts of light penetrate, lies below the Epipelagic zone. This zone is often referred to as the "Twilight Zone" due to its scarce amount of light. Temperatures in the Mesopelagic zone range from 5 to 4 °C (41 to


id: paleoceanography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoceanography-0.md
category: reference
title: Paleoceanography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoceanography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:03.665799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleoceanography-20260505-0
summary:
Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past with regard to biology, chemistry, circulation, geology, and patterns of biological productivity and sedimentation. Paleoceanographic studies using environment models and different proxies enable the scientific community to assess the role of the oceanic processes in the global climate by the re-construction of past climate at various intervals. Paleoceanographic research is also intimately tied to paleoclimatology. == Source and methods of information == Paleoceanography makes use of so-called proxy methods as a way to infer information about the past state and evolution of the world's oceans. Several geochemical proxy tools include long-chain organic molecules (e.g. alkenones), stable and radioactive isotopes, and trace metals. Additionally, sediment cores rich with fossils and shells (tests) can also be useful; the field of paleoceanography is closely related to sedimentology and paleontology. === Sea-surface temperature === Sea-surface temperature (SST) records can be extracted from deep-sea sediment cores using oxygen isotope ratios and the ratio of magnesium to calcium (Mg/Ca) in shell secretions from plankton, from long-chain organic molecules such as alkenone, from tropical corals near the sea surface, and from mollusk shells. Oxygen isotope ratios (δ18O) are useful in reconstructing SST because


id: paleoceanography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoceanography-1.md
category: reference
title: Paleoceanography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoceanography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:03.665799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleoceanography-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ocean circulation === Several proxy methods have been used to infer past ocean circulation and changes to it. They include carbon isotope ratios, cadmium/calcium (Cd/Ca) ratios, protactinium/thorium isotopes (231Pa and 230Th), radiocarbon activity (δ14C), neodymium isotopes (143Nd and 144Nd), and sortable silt (fraction of deep-sea sediment between 10 and 63 μm). Carbon isotope and cadmium/calcium ratio proxies are used because variability in their ratios is due partly to changes in bottom-water chemistry, which is in turn related the source of deep-water formation. These ratios, however, are influenced by biological, ecological, and geochemical processes which complicate circulation inferences. All proxies included are useful in inferring the behavior of the meridional overturning circulation. For example, McManus et al. [2004] used protactinium/thorium isotopes (231Pa and 230Th) to show that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation had been nearly (or completely) shut off during the last glacial period. 231Pa and 230Th are both formed from the radioactive decay of dissolved uranium in seawater, with 231Pa able to remain supported in the water column longer than 230Th: 231Pa has a residence time ~100–200 years while 230Th has one ~20–40 years. In today's Atlantic Ocean and current overturning circulation, 230Th transport to the Southern Ocean is


id: pelagic-sediment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic_sediment-0.md
category: reference
title: Pelagic sediment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic_sediment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:04.868239+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pelagic-sediment-20260505-0
summary:
Pelagic sediment or pelagite is a fine-grained sediment that accumulates as the result of the settling of particles to the floor of the open ocean, far from land. These particles consist primarily of either the microscopic, calcareous or siliceous shells of phytoplankton or zooplankton; clay-size siliciclastic sediment; or some mixture of these, along with detritus (marine snow) included. Trace amounts of meteoric dust and variable amounts of volcanic ash also occur within pelagic sediments. Based upon the composition of the ooze, there are three main types of pelagic sediments: siliceous oozes, calcareous oozes, and red clays. The composition of pelagic sediments is controlled by three main factors. The first factor is the distance from major landmasses, which affects their dilution by terrigenous, or land-derived, sediment. The second factor is water depth, which affects the preservation of both siliceous and calcareous biogenic particles as they settle to the ocean bottom. The final factor is ocean fertility, which controls the amount of biogenic particles produced in surface waters. == Oozes == In case of marine sediments, ooze does not refer to a sediment's consistency, but to its composition, which directly reflects its origin. Ooze is pelagic sediment that consists of at least


id: pelagic-zone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic_zone-0.md
category: reference
title: Pelagic zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:06.087361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pelagic-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean and can be further divided into regions by depth. The word pelagic is derived from Ancient Greek πέλαγος (pélagos) 'open sea'. The pelagic zone can be thought of as an imaginary cylinder or water column between the surface of the sea and the bottom. Conditions in the water column change with depth: pressure increases; temperature and light decrease; salinity, oxygen, micronutrients (such as iron, magnesium and calcium) all change. In a manner analogous to stratification in the Earth's atmosphere, the water column can be divided vertically into up to five different layers (illustrated in the diagram), with the number of layers depending on the depth of the water. Marine life is affected by bathymetry (underwater topography) such as the seafloor, shoreline, or a submarine seamount, as well as by proximity to the boundary between the ocean and the atmosphere at the ocean surface, which brings light for photosynthesis, predation from above, and wind stirring up waves and setting currents in motion. The pelagic zone refers to the open, free waters away from the shore, where marine life can swim freely in any direction unhindered by topographical constraints. The


id: pelagic-zone-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic_zone-1.md
category: reference
title: Pelagic zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:06.087361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pelagic-zone-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pelagic invertebrates === Some examples of pelagic invertebrates include krill, copepods, jellyfish, decapod larvae, hyperiid amphipods, rotifers and cladocerans. Thorson's rule states that benthic marine invertebrates at low latitudes tend to produce large numbers of eggs developing to widely dispersing pelagic larvae, whereas at high latitudes such organisms tend to produce fewer and larger lecithotrophic (yolk-feeding) eggs and larger offspring. === Pelagic fish === Pelagic fish live in the water column of coastal, ocean, and lake waters, but not on or near the bottom of the sea or the lake. They can be contrasted with demersal fish, which do live on or near the bottom, and coral reef fish. Pelagic fish are often migratory forage fish, which feed on plankton, and the larger predatory fish that follow and feed on the forage fish. Migratory fish come up to the more dense prey areas of the pelagic zones to feed, and then descend at night to avoid predators. Examples of migratory forage fish are herring, anchovies, capelin, and menhaden. Examples of larger pelagic fish which prey on the forage fish are billfish, tuna, and oceanic sharks. === Pelagic reptiles === Hydrophis platurus, the yellow-bellied sea snake, is the only one


id: pelagic-zone-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic_zone-2.md
category: reference
title: Pelagic zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:06.087361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pelagic-zone-20260505-0
summary:
Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are used for sampling and examining the deep pelagic sea in ways that other techniques cannot match. An ROV is an unoccupied machine equipped with lights, cameras, sensors, or arms, which allows for detailed and live observations of its surroundings and of pelagic organisms. It can conduct experiments and collect samples. These machine are limited in ground coverage, as well as expensive and hard to control, so few research groups use them. They can also be loud, bright, and big, causing organisms to avoid them. === Additional methods === Some other sampling and observation methods are: predator gut examinations, analysis of environmental DNA, organisms that get washed up on shore from upwelling, analyzing sediments cores, and pelagic longline fishing. == References == == Further reading == Ryan, Paddy "Deep-sea creatures" Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 21 September 2007 "Pelagic-zone (oceanography)" Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 21 March 2009. Grantham HS, Game ET, Lombard AT, et al. (2011) "Accommodating Dynamic Oceanographic Processes and Pelagic Biodiversity in Marine Conservation Planning" PLOS One 6(2): e16552. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016552. Wrobel, David; Mills, Claudia (2003) [1998]. Pacific Coast Pelagic Invertebrates: A Guide to the Common Gelatinous Animals. Sea Challengers and Monterey


id: list-of-peninsulas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_peninsulas-0.md
category: reference
title: List of peninsulas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_peninsulas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:07.459713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-peninsulas-20260505-0
summary:
A peninsula (Latin: paeninsula from paene "almost" and insula "island") is a piece of land that is bordered mostly by water but connected to mainland. The surrounding water is usually understood to be continuous, though not necessarily named as such. A peninsula can also be a headland, cape, island promontory, bill, point, or spit. A point is generally considered a tapering piece of land projecting into a body of water that is less prominent than a cape. In English, the plural of peninsula is peninsulas or, less commonly, peninsulae. A river which courses through a very tight meander is also sometimes said to form a "peninsula" within the (almost closed) loop of water. Presented below is a list of peninsulas. == Africa == === Macaronesia === Jandía, Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, Spain Macizo de Anaga, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain Ponta de São Lourenço, Madeira Island, Portugal === North Africa === === Somali Peninsula === The Horn of Africa is a peninsula in Northeast Africa that juts into the Guardafui Channel, and is the easternmost projection of the African continent. It denotes the region containing the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Buri Peninsula, Eritrea Ras Hafun, Somalia Ras Kasar, Eritrea


id: list-of-peninsulas-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_peninsulas-1.md
category: reference
title: List of peninsulas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_peninsulas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:07.459713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-peninsulas-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ontario ==== ==== Quebec ==== Gaspé Peninsula Ungava Peninsula === Caribbean === ==== Haiti ==== Peninsule de Tiburon, Haiti Peninsule de Mole-St-Nicolas, Haiti ==== Dominican Republic ==== Peninsula de Samaná, Dominican Republic ==== Puerto Rico ==== Barrio Obrero, Puerto Rico ==== Cuba ==== Zapata Peninsula, Cuba Guanahacabibes Peninsula, Cuba Hicacos Peninsula, Cuba ==== Saint Lucia ==== Vigie Peninsula, St Lucia === Costa Rica === Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica === Greenland === Wegener Peninsula Hayes Halvo Ingnerit Nuussuaq Peninsula Sigguup Nunaa (Svartenhuk Halvø) === Mexico === Baja California Peninsula, Mexico, containing the states of Baja California and Baja California Sur Yucatán Peninsula, partly separating the Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean === Panama === === United States === ==== Alaska ==== Alaska Peninsula Cleveland Peninsula Kenai Peninsula Seward Peninsula Lisburne Peninsula ==== California ==== ==== Florida ==== Florida is a well-known example of a large peninsula, with its land area divided between the larger Florida peninsula and the smaller Florida Panhandle on the north and west. It has several smaller peninsulas within it: The St. Johns River creates a large peninsula over 75 miles (121 km) in length that stretches from eastern Jacksonville down to the


id: photic-zone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zone-0.md
category: reference
title: Photic zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:08.714083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photic-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The photic zone (or euphotic zone, epipelagic zone, or sunlight zone) is the uppermost layer of a body of water that receives sunlight, allowing phytoplankton to perform photosynthesis. It undergoes a series of physical, chemical, and biological processes that supply nutrients into the upper water column. The photic zone is home to the majority of aquatic life due to the activity (primary production) of the phytoplankton. The thicknesses of the photic and euphotic zones vary with the intensity of sunlight as a function of season and latitude and with the degree of water turbidity. The bottommost, or aphotic, zone is the region of perpetual darkness that lies beneath the photic zone and includes most of the ocean waters. == Photosynthesis in photic zone == In the photic zone, the photosynthesis rate exceeds the respiration rate. This is due to the abundant solar energy which is used as an energy source for photosynthesis by primary producers such as phytoplankton. These phytoplankton grow extremely quickly because of sunlight's heavy influence, enabling it to be produced at a fast rate. In fact, ninety five percent of photosynthesis in the ocean occurs in the photic zone. Therefore, if we go deeper, beyond the photic


id: photic-zone-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zone-1.md
category: reference
title: Photic zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:08.714083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photic-zone-20260505-0
summary:
== Photic zone darkening == A study done by the University of Pittsburgh found that in recent years there was a significant darkening of the photic zone between the years 2003 and 2022 with the ocean becoming more green, especially in low-latitude oceans. Though researchers are uncertain of the cause, it's been widely proposed this is due to Climate change, there are conflicted conclusions on whether the raised temperatures and increased carbon dioxide emissions lead to a decrease or an increase of primary productivity. Though this change in ocean color was predicted through modeling in 2010, it was not confirmed until new satellite-based technologies made it possible in 2023. Though climate change may be the root cause, researchers have formulated theories for what specifically is causing this greening and consequential change in the photic zone depth, including unbalanced Phytoplankton, zooplankton, algae, and other microorganism populations; increase in Ocean stratification; and changes to the ocean current circulation. Combined, these changes may also increase the amount of Colored dissolved organic matter which would account for the ocean greening. Researchers are conflicted on whether runoff from land has any significant effect on the greening with some arguing it is too widespread for runoff


id: photic-zone-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zone-2.md
category: reference
title: Photic zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:08.714083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photic-zone-20260505-0
summary:
Phytoplankton are unicellular microorganisms which form the base of the ocean food chains. They are dominated by diatoms, which grow silicate shells called frustules. When diatoms die their shells can settle on the seafloor and become microfossils. Over time, these microfossils become buried as opal deposits in the marine sediment. Paleoclimatology is the study of past climates. Proxy data is used in order to relate elements collected in modern-day sedimentary samples to climatic and oceanic conditions in the past. Paleoclimate proxies refer to preserved or fossilized physical markers which serve as substitutes for direct meteorological or ocean measurements. An example of proxies is the use of diatom isotope records of δ13C, δ18O, δ30Si (δ13Cdiatom, δ18Odiatom, and δ30Sidiatom). In 2015, Swann and Snelling used these isotope records to document historic changes in the photic zone conditions of the north-west Pacific Ocean, including nutrient supply and the efficiency of the soft-tissue biological pump, from the modern day back to marine isotope stage 5e, which coincides with the last interglacial period. Peaks in opal productivity in the marine isotope stage are associated with the breakdown of the regional halocline stratification and increased nutrient supply to the photic zone. The initial development of the


id: plankton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton-0.md
category: reference
title: Plankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:10.175954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plankton-20260505-0
summary:
Plankton (from the Greek planktos, meaning "drifter" or "wanderer") are organisms that drift in water (or air) but are unable to actively propel themselves against currents (or wind). Marine plankton include drifting organisms that inhabit the saltwater of oceans and the brackish waters of estuaries. Freshwater plankton are similar to marine plankton, but are found in lakes and rivers. An individual plankton organism in the plankton is called a plankter. Plankton includes organisms from species across all the major biological kingdoms, ranging in size from the microscopic (such as bacteria, archaea, protozoa and microscopic algae and fungi) to larger organisms (such as jellyfish and ctenophores). This is because plankton are defined by their ecological niche and level of motility rather than by any phylogenetic or taxonomic classification. The plankton category differentiates organisms from those that can swim against a current, called nekton, and those that live on the deep sea floor, called benthos. Organisms that float on or near the water's surface are called neuston. Neuston that drift as water currents or wind take them, and lack the swimming ability to counter this, form a special subgroup of plankton. Mostly plankton just drift where currents take them, though some, like


id: plankton-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton-1.md
category: reference
title: Plankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:10.175954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plankton-20260505-0
summary:
Plankton is mostly made up of planktonic microorganisms less than one millimetre across, most visible only through a microscope. Microorganisms have been variously estimated to make up about 70%, or about 90%, of the total ocean biomass. Taken together they form the marine microbiome. Over billions of years this microbiome has evolved many life styles and adaptations and come to participate in the global cycling of almost all chemical elements. Microplankton are ecological linchpins in the marine food web. They are crucial to nutrient recycling in the way they act as decomposers. They are also responsible for nearly all photosynthesis that occurs in the ocean, as well as the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients and trace elements. Microplankton sequesters large amounts of carbon and produce much of the world's oxygen. It is estimated marine viruses kill 20% of ocean microplankton biomass every day. Viruses are the main agents responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful algal blooms which often kill other marine life. The number of viruses in the plankton decreases further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms. === Terminology === The name plankton was coined by German marine biologist Victor


id: plankton-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton-2.md
category: reference
title: Plankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:10.175954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plankton-20260505-0
summary:
Plankton are also found at the ocean surface. Organisms that live at or just below the air-sea interface are called neuston. They float either on the water's surface (epineuston) or swim in the top few centimeters (hyponeuston). Many neuston qualify to be categorised as part of the broader plankton community, because they drift largely as currents or wind dictate, lacking strong enough swimming ability to counter them. Neustonic animals are primarily adapted to float upside-down on the ocean surface, similar to an inverted benthos, and form a unique subset of the zooplankton community, which plays a pivotal role in the functioning of marine ecosystems. Neustonic zooplankton are partially responsible for the active energy flux between superficial and deep layers of the ocean.Neustonic plankton is also a food source for marine zooplankton and fish migrating from the deep layers and seabirds. ==== In deep ocean ==== In 2025, researchers discovered microbial communities inhabiting the ocean conveyor belt, even at great depths in the ocean. Ocean currents are generated by surface wind and storms down to about 500 m (1,600 ft) below the surface. But the average depth of the ocean goes far below to 3.7 km (2.3 mi). At these greater


id: plankton-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton-3.md
category: reference
title: Plankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:10.175954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plankton-20260505-0
summary:
=== Zooplankton === Zooplankton (from Greek zoon, or animal) are small protozoans or metazoans (e.g. crustaceans and other animals) that feed on other plankton. Some of the eggs and larvae of larger nektonic animals, such as fish, crustaceans, and annelids, are included here. === Mixoplankton === Mixoplankton (from Greek mixis, or mixture) have a mixed trophic strategy. In recent years, there has been a growing recognition that perhaps the majority of plankton can act in both the above modes. Traditionally, plankton were divided into just the first two broad trophic groups: plant-like phytoplankton which make their own food, usually by photosynthesis, and animal-like zooplankton that eat other plankton. In recent years, there has been a recognition that many plankton, perhaps over half, are mixotrophic. Plankton have traditionally been categorized as producer, consumer, and recycler groups, but some plankton are able to benefit from more than just one trophic level. This mixed trophic strategy means mixoplankton can act as both producers and consumers, either at the same time or switching between modes of nutrition in response to ambient conditions. In this manner, mixoplankton can use photosynthesis for growth when nutrients and light are abundant, but switch to eating phytoplankton, zooplankton or


id: plankton-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton-4.md
category: reference
title: Plankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:10.175954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plankton-20260505-0
summary:
Pseudoplankton are organisms that attach themselves to planktonic organisms or other floating objects, such as drifting wood, buoyant shells of organisms such as Spirula, or man-made flotsam. Examples include goose barnacles and the bryozoan Jellyella. By themselves these animals cannot float, which contrasts them with true planktonic organisms, such as Velella and the Portuguese Man o' War, which are buoyant. Pseudoplankton are often found in the guts of filtering zooplankters. === Tychoplankton === Tychoplankton are organisms, such as free-living or attached benthic organisms and other non-planktonic organisms, that are carried into the plankton through a disturbance of their benthic habitat, or by winds and currents. This can occur by direct turbulence or by disruption of the substrate and subsequent entrainment in the water column. Tychoplankton are, therefore, a primary subdivision for sorting planktonic organisms by duration of lifecycle spent in the plankton, as neither their entire lives nor particular reproductive portions are confined to planktonic existence. Tychoplankton are sometimes called accidental plankton. === Mineralized plankton === === By life cycle === ==== Holoplankton ==== Holoplankton are organisms that are planktic for their entire life cycle. Holoplankton can be contrasted with meroplankton, which are planktic organisms that spend part of their


id: plankton-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton-5.md
category: reference
title: Plankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:10.175954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plankton-20260505-0
summary:
The absorption efficiency (AE) of plankton is the proportion of food absorbed by the plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands. Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in absorption efficiency may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material is recycled back to the marine environment. Low feeding rates typically lead to high absorption efficiency and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low absorption efficiency and larger pellets with more organic content. Another contributing factor to dissolved organic matter (DOM) release is respiration rate. Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and light conditions may affect overall oxygen consumption and how much carbon is loss from zooplankton in the form of respired CO2. The relative sizes of zooplankton and prey also mediate how much carbon is released via sloppy feeding. Smaller prey are ingested whole, whereas larger prey may be fed on more "sloppily", that is more biomatter is released through inefficient consumption. There is also evidence that diet composition can impact nutrient release, with carnivorous diets releasing more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium than omnivorous diets.


id: plankton-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton-6.md
category: reference
title: Plankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:10.175954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plankton-20260505-0
summary:
== Plankton Manifesto == In 2024, the United Nations Global Compact's Ocean Stewardship Coalition launched the Plankton Manifesto, collaboratively developed by over 30 international experts. It outlines strategic recommendations to guide global efforts at safeguarding plankton and harnessing their potential to address planetary climate change issues, as well as pollution and biodiversity loss. It emphasizes plankton's critical role as the foundation of marine ecosystems, producing about 50% of Earth's oxygen and sequestering 30–50 billion metric tonnes of carbon annually. Key recommendations include: Enhanced research and monitoring: Leveraging technologies like DNA sequencing, bioinformatics, satellite monitoring, and AI image analysis to improve understanding of plankton dynamics and create a global plankton atlas. Plankton-based solutions: Promoting innovative applications, such as using plankton for water purification, bioplastics, fertilizers, and animal feed to support sustainable industries. Policy integration: Urging governments, United Nations agencies, and businesses to include plankton in climate and biodiversity frameworks, with endorsements sought at COP29, COP16, and the 2025 United Nations Ocean Conference. Public awareness: Fostering "plankton literacy" through education and interdisciplinary initiatives to highlight their role in food security and ecosystem health. Collaboration: Encouraging cross-sectoral partnerships among academia, industry, and governments to fund research and protect plankton from threats like nutrient


id: marine-pollution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution-0.md
category: reference
title: Marine pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:11.497461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural, and residential waste; particles; noise; excess carbon dioxide; or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as well. It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide. Since most inputs come from land, via rivers, sewage, or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor, as it carries iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, pesticides, and dust particles into the ocean. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans. Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution, bilge pollution, dredging (which can


id: marine-pollution-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution-1.md
category: reference
title: Marine pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:11.497461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
=== Land runoff === Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbours, can carry soil and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrient-rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas; known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen. In the coast of southwest Florida, harmful algal blooms have existed for over 100 years. These algal blooms have been a cause of species of fish, turtles, dolphins, and shrimp to die and cause harmful effects on humans who swim in the water. Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75% of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land. In California, there are many rainstorms that runoff into the ocean. These rainstorms occur from October to March, and these runoff waters contain petroleum, heavy metals, pollutants from emissions, etc. In China, there is a large coastal population that pollutes the ocean through land


id: marine-pollution-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution-2.md
category: reference
title: Marine pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:11.497461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
=== Deep sea mining === Some of the potential toxic metals include copper, zinc, cadmium, lead as well as rare earth elements such as lanthanum and yttrium. Following the release of toxins there is an increase of noise, light, sediment le dan plumes and elements that have the potential to impact the ecosystems. Deep sea minerals (DSM) can be extremely beneficial, it can cause wealth, raising living standards as well as economic opportunities for both current and future generations. In addition, if the wealth is poorly managed it can have the potential to cause great economic and social damage. The instability of price and production levels of minerals can cause an external economic shock leading to a significant backlash on the domestic economy. == Types of pollution == === Marine debris pollution === === Plastic pollution === === Ocean acidification === === Nutrient pollution === Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. Nutrient pollution, a form of


id: marine-pollution-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution-3.md
category: reference
title: Marine pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:11.497461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxic pollutants that either do not break down or only very slowly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent toxicants are PCBs, DDT, TBT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols, radioactive waste, and PFAS. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, copper and cadmium. Some toxicants can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last century. DDT is a very toxic chemical that was used as a pesticide in mass quantities throughout the United States and is known to be neurotoxic, a reproductive toxin, an endocrine disruptor, and a carcinogen. DDT is a major focus of the book Silent Spring published by Rachel Carson in 1962. This is often attributed to launching the modern environmental movement and setting the stage for the creation of the EPA in 1970. DDT was banned in the U.S. two years later in 1972. Unfortunately, large quantities had already entered


id: marine-pollution-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution-4.md
category: reference
title: Marine pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:11.497461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oil exploration seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than in the atmosphere. Between 1950 and 1975, ambient noise at one location in the Pacific Ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a tenfold increase in intensity). Underwater noise pollution is unevenly distributed across marine environments, with the highest con-centrations occurring in shipping lanes, port areas, and densely trafficked ocean routes. These areas experience sustained high ambient noise levels due to the dominance of older and larger vessels, which emit significant low-frequency noise (10 to 500 Hz) caused by engine vibrations, propeller cavitation, and hull turbulence. While advancements in ship design have shown potential to reduce noise emissions, older, noisier vessels remain prevalent in major shipping routes, largely due to economic and logistical constraints. Additionally, the overall increase in global shipping activity in the 20th century contributed to a rise of approximately 12 decibels in ambient noise levels in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in the low-frequency range, which propagates over long distances with minimal attenuation. Studies in the Southern Hemisphere do


id: marine-pollution-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution-5.md
category: reference
title: Marine pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:11.497461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
== Mitigation == Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. The 2011 edition of the United Nations Environment Programme Year Book identifies as the main emerging environmental issues the loss to the oceans of massive amounts of phosphorus, "a valuable fertilizer needed to feed a growing global population", and the impact billions of pieces of plastic waste are having globally on the health of marine environments. Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his article, "Anthropogenic pollution may reduce biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems, resulting in reduction and depletion of human marine food resources". There are two ways the overall level of this pollution can be mitigated: either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce the ecological footprint left behind by the average human. If the second way is not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as the world ecosystems falter. The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, together with a shift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it. At an operational level, regulations, and international government participation is needed. It is often very difficult to


id: marine-pollution-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution-6.md
category: reference
title: Marine pollution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:11.497461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-pollution-20260505-0
summary:
In 1948, Harry Truman signed a law formerly known as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act that allowed the federal government to control marine pollution in United States of America. In 1972, the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (MPRSA) was passed by the United States Congress, and regulates ocean dumping of waste in US waters. The 1954 Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil and the 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships were weakly enforced due to a lack of respect for the laws from flag states. In 1973 and 1978, MARPOL 73/78 was a treaty written to control vessel pollution, especially regarding oil. In 1983, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships enforced the MARPOL 73/78 treaty internationally. The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was established to protect the marine environment by governing states to control their pollution to the ocean. It put restrictions on the amount of toxins and pollutants that come from all ships internationally. In 2006, the Marine Debris Research, Prevention and Reduction Ac. It was established by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to


id: raised-beach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_beach-0.md
category: reference
title: Raised beach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_beach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:12.792673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: raised-beach-20260505-0
summary:
A raised beach, coastal terrace, or perched coastline is a relatively flat, horizontal or gently inclined surface of marine origin, mostly an old abrasion platform which has been lifted out of the sphere of wave activity (sometimes called "tread"). Thus, it lies above or under the current sea level, depending on the time of its formation. It is bounded by a steeper ascending slope on the landward side and a steeper descending slope on the seaward side (sometimes called "riser"). Due to its generally flat shape, it is often used for anthropogenic structures such as settlements and infrastructure. A raised beach is an emergent coastal landform. Raised beaches and marine terraces are beaches or wave-cut platforms raised above the shoreline by a relative fall in the sea level. Around the world, a combination of tectonic coastal uplift and Quaternary sea-level fluctuations has resulted in the formation of marine terrace sequences, most of which were formed during separate interglacial highstands that can be correlated to marine isotope stages (MIS). A marine terrace commonly retains a shoreline angle or inner edge, the slope inflection between the marine abrasion platform and the associated paleo sea cliff. The shoreline angle represents the maximum shoreline


id: raised-beach-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_beach-1.md
category: reference
title: Raised beach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_beach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:12.792673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: raised-beach-20260505-0
summary:
=== Processes === Marine terraces often result from marine erosion along rocky coastlines in temperate regions due to wave attacks and sediment carried in the waves. Erosion also takes place in connection with weathering and cavitation. The speed of erosion is highly dependent on the shoreline material (hardness of rock), the bathymetry, and the bedrock properties and can be between only a few millimeters per year for granitic rocks and more than 10 metres (33 ft) per year for volcanic ejecta. The retreat of the sea cliff generates a shore (wave-cut/abrasion-) platform through the process of abrasion. A relative change in the sea level leads to regressions or transgressions and eventually forms another terrace (marine-cut terrace) at a different altitude, while notches in the cliff face indicate short stillstands. It is believed that the terrace gradient increases with tidal range and decreases with rock resistance. In addition, the relationship between terrace width and the strength of the rock is inverse, and higher rates of uplift and subsidence as well as a higher slope of the hinterland increase the number of terraces formed during a certain time. Furthermore, shore platforms are formed by denudation and marine-built terraces arise from accumulations of


id: raised-beach-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_beach-2.md
category: reference
title: Raised beach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_beach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:12.792673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: raised-beach-20260505-0
summary:
=== Direct dating === There are various methods for the direct dating of marine terraces and their related materials. The most common method is 14C radiocarbon dating, which has been used, for example, on the North Island of New Zealand to date several marine terraces. It utilizes terrestrial biogenic materials in coastal sediments, such as mollusc shells, by analyzing the 14C isotope. In some cases, however, dating based on the 230Th/234U ratio was applied, in case detrital contamination or low uranium concentrations made finding a high-resolution dating difficult. In a study in southern Italy, paleomagnetism was used to carry out paleomagnetic datings and luminescence dating (OSL) was used in different studies on the San Andreas Fault and on the Quaternary Eupcheon Fault in South Korea. In the last decade, the dating of marine terraces has been enhanced since the arrival of the terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides method, particularly through the use of 10Be and 26Al cosmogenic isotopes produced on site. These isotopes record the duration of surface exposure to cosmic rays. This exposure age reflects the age of abandonment of a marine terrace by the sea. To calculate the eustatic sea level for each dated terrace, it is assumed that the


id: rauk-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rauk-0.md
category: reference
title: Rauk
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rauk
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:14.055844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rauk-20260505-0
summary:
A rauk is a column-like landform in Sweden, often equivalent to a stack. Rauks often occur in groups called raukfält 'rauk fields'. The limestone rauks of Gotland in the Baltic Sea are among the best known examples. == Sweden == Rauks are common on the island of Gotland, Sweden and on the smaller islands belonging to Gotland County. Fårö island in Gotland, is particularly rich in rauks. While Fårö is on the northern end of Gotland Holmhällars raukfält at Vamlingbo in the southern end of Gotland is also rich in rauks. Rauks in Gotland often occur in groups or fields, so-called raukfält. Rauks can be found both near Gotland's many cliffs or far away from these. Other localities with rauks include Byrum on northwestern Öland neighboring Blå Jungfrun island, Hovs Hallar and Kullaberg in northwestern Scania and Härnön in northern Sweden's High Coast. Rauks on Öland are made up of limestone. A few rauks are located in the Scandinavian Mountains in northern Sweden's Sarek and Padjelanta national parks. == Norway == In Norway, there are rauks in Trollholmsund where, according to local lore, the rauks are petrified trolls. In Trollholmsund, rauks are made up of dolomite rock. Varanger Peninsula in


id: redox-gradient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox_gradient-0.md
category: reference
title: Redox gradient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox_gradient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:15.330873+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: redox-gradient-20260505-0
summary:
A redox gradient is a series of reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions sorted according to redox potential. The redox ladder displays the order in which redox reactions occur based on the free energy gained from redox pairs. These redox gradients form both spatially and temporally as a result of differences in microbial processes, chemical composition of the environment, and oxidative potential. Common environments where redox gradients exist are coastal marshes, lakes, contaminant plumes, and soils. The Earth has a global redox gradient with an oxidizing environment at the surface and increasingly reducing conditions below the surface. Redox gradients are generally understood at the macro level, but characterization of redox reactions in heterogeneous environments at the micro-scale require further research and more sophisticated measurement techniques. == Measuring redox conditions == Redox conditions are measured according to the redox potential (Eh) in volts, which represents the tendency for electrons to transfer from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. Eh can be calculated using half reactions and the Nernst equation. An Eh of zero represents the redox couple of the standard hydrogen electrode H+/H2, a positive Eh indicates an oxidizing environment (electrons will be accepted), and a negative Eh indicates a reducing environment (electrons


id: ridge-push-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge_push-0.md
category: reference
title: Ridge push
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge_push
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:16.692410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ridge-push-20260505-0
summary:
Ridge push (also known as gravitational slides or sliding plate force) is a proposed driving force for plate motion in plate tectonics that occurs at mid-ocean ridges as the result of the rigid lithosphere sliding down the hot, raised asthenosphere below mid-ocean ridges. Although it is called ridge push, the term is somewhat misleading; it is actually a body force that acts throughout an ocean plate, not just at the ridge, as a result of gravitational pull. The name comes from earlier models of plate tectonics in which ridge push was primarily ascribed to upwelling magma at mid-ocean ridges pushing or wedging the plates apart. == Mechanics == Ridge push is the result of gravitational forces acting on the young, raised oceanic lithosphere around mid-ocean ridges, causing it to slide down the similarly raised but weaker asthenosphere and push on lithospheric material farther from the ridges. Mid-ocean ridges are long underwater mountain chains that occur at divergent plate boundaries in the ocean, where new oceanic crust is formed by upwelling mantle material as a result of tectonic plate spreading and relatively shallow (above ~60 km) decompression melting. The upwelling mantle and fresh crust are hotter and less dense than the


id: rip-current-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip_current-0.md
category: reference
title: Rip current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:18.065557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rip-current-20260505-0
summary:
A rip current (or just rip) is a specific type of water current that can occur near beaches where waves break. A rip is a strong, localized, and narrow current of water that moves directly away from the shore, cutting through the lines of breaking waves, like a river flowing out to sea. The force of the current in a rip is strongest and fastest next to the surface of the water. Rip currents can be hazardous to people in the water. Swimmers who are caught in a rip current and who do not understand what is happening, or who may not have the necessary water skills, may panic, or they may exhaust themselves by trying to swim directly against the flow of water. Because of these factors, rip currents are the leading cause of rescues by lifeguards at beaches. In the United States they have caused an average of 71 deaths by drowning per year between 2013 and 2022. A rip current is not the same thing as undertow, although that term is used incorrectly when referred to a rip current. Contrary to popular belief, neither rip nor undertow can pull a person down and hold them under the


id: rip-current-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip_current-1.md
category: reference
title: Rip current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:18.065557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rip-current-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technical description === A more detailed and technical description of rip currents requires understanding the concept of radiation stress. Radiation stress is the force (or momentum flux) that is exerted on the water column by the presence of the wave. When a wave reaches shallow water and shoals, it increases in height prior to breaking. During this increase in height, radiation stress increases, because of the force exerted by the weight of the water that has been pushed upwards. To balance this, the local mean surface level drops. This is known as the "setdown". When the wave breaks and starts reducing in height, the radiation stress decreases as the amount of water that is elevated decreases. When this happens, the mean surface level increases—this is known as the "setup". In the formation of a rip current, a wave propagates over a sandbar with a gap in it. When this happens, most of the wave breaks on the sandbar, leading to setup. The part of the wave that propagates over the gap does not break, and the setdown continues in that part. Because of this phenomenon, the mean water surface over the rest of the sandbar is higher than that


id: rip-current-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip_current-2.md
category: reference
title: Rip current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:18.065557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rip-current-20260505-0
summary:
=== Survival === People caught in a rip current may notice that they are moving away from the shore quite rapidly. Often, it is not possible to swim directly back to shore against a rip current, so this is not recommended. Contrary to popular misunderstanding, a rip does not pull a swimmer under the water. It carries the swimmer away from the shore in a narrow band of moving water. A rip current is like a moving treadmill. Safety guidance commonly emphasizes remaining calm and avoiding exhausting attempts to swim directly against the current. Instead, swimmers are advised to swim parallel to the shoreline until free of the narrow offshore flow, then return to shore at an angle. If unable to escape by swimming, floating or treading water and signaling for help is often recommended until the current weakens or assistance arrives. As an alternative, people who are caught in a strong rip can simply relax, either floating or treading water, and allow the current to carry them until it dissipates completely once it is beyond the surf line. Then the person can signal for help, or swim back through the surf, doing so diagonally, away from the rip and


id: sea-ice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice-0.md
category: reference
title: Sea ice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:19.320016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sea-ice-20260505-0
summary:
Sea ice forms as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than liquid water, it floats on the ocean's surface (just like fresh water ice). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oceans. Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean. Polar packs naturally undergo significant yearly cycling, reaching their greatest surface extent in winter and retreating in summer. Within the ice, salty brine channels provide habitat for microorganisms that form the base of unique food webs. The presence or absence of sea ice also shapes navigation routes, regional weather, and global ocean circulation. Sea ice plays a key role in Earth's climate. Its white surface reflects the Sun's energy back into space, helping to keep the planet cool in a process known as the albedo effect. Sea ice also insulates the ocean below, limiting the transfer of heat, water vapor, and gases such as carbon dioxide between the sea and the atmosphere. Satellite records have shown a marked decline in Arctic sea ice extent


id: sea-ice-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice-1.md
category: reference
title: Sea ice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:19.320016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sea-ice-20260505-0
summary:
Nilas designates a sea ice crust up to 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in thickness. It bends without breaking around waves and swells. Nilas can be further subdivided into dark nilas – up to 5 cm (2.0 in) in thickness and very dark and light nilas – over 5 cm (2.0 in) in thickness and lighter in color. Young ice is a transition stage between nilas and first-year ice and ranges in thickness from 10 cm (3.9 in) to 30 cm (12 in), Young ice can be further subdivided into grey ice – 10 cm (3.9 in) to 15 cm (5.9 in) in thickness and grey-white ice – 15 cm (5.9 in) to 30 cm (12 in) in thickness. Young ice is not as flexible as nilas, but tends to break under wave action. Under compression, it will either raft (at the grey ice stage) or ridge (at the grey-white ice stage). ==== First-year sea ice ==== First-year sea ice is ice that is thicker than young ice but has no more than one year growth. In other words, it is ice that grows in the fall and winter (after it has gone through the new ice – nilas – young


id: sea-ice-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice-2.md
category: reference
title: Sea ice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:19.320016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sea-ice-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ice motion === While fast ice is relatively stable (because it is attached to the shoreline or the seabed), drift (or pack) ice undergoes relatively complex deformation processes that ultimately give rise to sea ice's typically wide variety of landscapes. Wind is the main driving force, along with ocean currents. The Coriolis force and sea ice surface tilt have also been invoked. These driving forces induce a state of stress within the drift ice zone. An ice floe converging toward another and pushing against it will generate a state of compression at the boundary between both. The ice cover may also undergo a state of tension, resulting in divergence and fissure opening. If two floes drift sideways past each other while remaining in contact, this will create a state of shear. === Deformation === Sea ice deformation results from the interaction between ice floes as they are driven against each other. The result may be of three types of features: 1) Rafted ice, when one piece is overriding another; 2) Pressure ridges, a line of broken ice forced downward (to make up the keel) and upward (to make the sail); and 3) Hummock, a hillock of broken ice that


id: sea-ice-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice-3.md
category: reference
title: Sea ice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:19.320016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sea-ice-20260505-0
summary:
The polar regions are among the most sensitive areas to climate change, with consequences for ecosystems, weather patterns, and global sea level. Rising global temperatures from human-caused greenhouse gas emissions have led to warming of the atmosphere and oceans, accelerating sea ice melt. Although the melting of floating sea ice has a small effect on global average sea level (because sea ice is less salty and less dense than the seawater it displaces) it has large indirect effects on global climate systems. Loss of sea ice lowers the albedo of polar regions, amplifying warming and accelerating the melt of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, which contributes substantially to sea level rise. Reduced sea ice alters ocean circulation and wave activity, which can enhance the erosion of coastal ice shelves and glaciers. Melting sea ice also introduces large amounts of freshwater into the surface ocean. This reduces salinity, which can alter water density and influence global ocean circulation, including the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. These changes alter the transport of heat and nutrients, with consequences for marine ecosystems as well as regional and global climate patterns. == Modelling == In order to gain a better understanding about the variability, numerical


id: sea-level-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level-0.md
category: reference
title: Sea level
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:20.601911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sea-level-20260505-0
summary:
Mean sea level (MSL, often shortened to sea level) is an average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datum – a standardised geodetic datum – that is used, for example, as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation, or, in aviation, as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently, aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is instead a long-term average of tide gauge readings at a particular reference location. The term above sea level generally refers to the height above mean sea level (AMSL). The term APSL means above present sea level, comparing sea levels in the past with the level today. Earth's radius at sea level is 6,378.137 km (3,963.191 mi) at the equator. It is 6,356.752 km (3,949.903 mi) at the poles and 6,371.001 km (3,958.756 mi) on average. This flattened spheroid, combined with local gravity anomalies, defines the geoid of the Earth, which approximates the local mean sea level for locations in the open ocean. The geoid includes a significant


id: sea-level-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level-1.md
category: reference
title: Sea level
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:20.601911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sea-level-20260505-0
summary:
It is often necessary to compare the local height of the mean sea surface with a "level" reference surface, or geodetic datum, called the geoid. In the absence of external forces, the local mean sea level would coincide with this geoid surface, being an equipotential surface of the Earth's gravitational field which, in itself, does not conform to a simple sphere or ellipsoid and exhibits gravity anomalies such as those measured by NASA's GRACE satellites. In reality, the geoid surface is not directly observed, even as a long-term average, due to ocean currents, air pressure variations, temperature and salinity variations, etc. The location-dependent but time-persistent separation between local mean sea level and the geoid is referred to as (mean) ocean surface topography. It varies globally in a typical range of ±1 m (3 ft). Work published in 2026 analysed 385 peer-reviewed scientific papers published since 2009 and compared the difference between calculations using commonly assumed coastal sea levels using global geoid models with actual measurements. It was found that over 90% of studies used land elevation measurements referenced against global geoid models instead of local direct measurements. This underestimated levels by an average of 24-27cm, with some discrepancies reaching 550-760cm,


id: sea-level-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level-2.md
category: reference
title: Sea level
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:20.601911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sea-level-20260505-0
summary:
Above ground level – Height measured with respect to the underlying ground surfacePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Amsterdam Ordnance Datum, also known as Normaal Amsterdams Peil – Vertical datum Before Present – Time scale used in scientific disciplines Chart datum – Level of water from which depths displayed on a nautical chart are measured Extreme points of Earth Geopotential height – Type of altitude above mean sea level Height above average terrain – Height based on large area surrounding object; often used in U.S. for antenna towers List of places on land with elevations below sea level Meltwater pulse 1A – Period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise Metres above the Adriatic – Vertical datum used in parts of Europe Normal height – Altitude above quasigeoid or mean sea level Normalhöhennull – Vertical datum used in Germany Normalnull – Outdated official vertical datum used in Germany North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System – Oceanography facility Ordnance datum – Vertical datum used as the basis for deriving altitudes on maps (UK and Ireland) Orthometric height – Altitude above geoid or mean sea level Raised beach, also known as Marine terrace – Emergent coastal landform Regional Reference Frame Sub-Commission for


id: seafloor-depth-versus-age-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_depth_versus_age-0.md
category: reference
title: Seafloor depth versus age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_depth_versus_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:21.860295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seafloor-depth-versus-age-20260505-0
summary:
The depth of the seafloor on the flanks of a mid-ocean ridge is determined mainly by the age of the oceanic lithosphere; older seafloor is deeper. During seafloor spreading, lithosphere and mantle cooling, contraction, and isostatic adjustment with age cause seafloor deepening. This relationship has come to be better understood since around 1969 with significant updates in 1974 and 1977. Two main theories have been put forward to explain this observation: one where the mantle including the lithosphere is cooling; the cooling mantle model, and a second where a lithosphere plate cools above a mantle at a constant temperature; the cooling plate model. The cooling mantle model explains the age-depth observations for seafloor younger than 80 million years. The cooling plate model explains the age-depth observations best for seafloor older that 20 million years. In addition, the cooling plate model explains the almost constant depth and heat flow observed in very old seafloor and lithosphere. In practice it is convenient to use the solution for the cooling mantle model for an age-depth relationship younger than 20 million years. Older than this the cooling plate model fits data as well. Beyond 80 million years the plate model fits better than the


id: seafloor-depth-versus-age-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_depth_versus_age-1.md
category: reference
title: Seafloor depth versus age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_depth_versus_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:21.860295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seafloor-depth-versus-age-20260505-0
summary:
where the height is in meters and time is in millions of years. To get the dependence on x, one must substitute t = x/ v {\displaystyle v} ~ Ax/L, where L is the distance between the ridge to the continental shelf (roughly half the ocean width), and A is the ocean basin age. Rather than height of the ocean floor h ( t ) {\displaystyle h(t)} above a base or reference level h b {\displaystyle h_{b}} , the depth of the seabed d ( t ) {\displaystyle d(t)} is of interest. Because d ( t ) + h ( t ) = h b {\displaystyle d(t)+h(t)=h_{b}} (with h b {\displaystyle h_{b}} measured from the ocean surface) we can find that: d ( t ) = h b − h 0 + 350 t {\displaystyle d(t)=h_{b}-h_{0}+350{\sqrt {t}}} ; for the eastern Pacific for example, where h b − h 0 {\displaystyle h_{b}-h_{0}} is the depth at the ridge crest, typically 2500 m. === Cooling plate model (1977) === The depth predicted by the square root of seafloor age found by the 1974 cooling mantle derivation is too deep for seafloor older than 80 million years. Depth is better explained by


id: seafloor-spreading-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading-0.md
category: reference
title: Seafloor spreading
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:23.036062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seafloor-spreading-20260505-0
summary:
Seafloor spreading, or seafloor spread, is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. == History of study == Earlier theories by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit of continental drift postulated that continents in motion "plowed" through the fixed and immovable seafloor. The idea that the seafloor itself moves and also carries the continents with it as it spreads from a central rift axis was proposed by Harold Hammond Hess from Princeton University and Robert Dietz of the U.S. Naval Electronics Laboratory in San Diego in the 1960s. The phenomenon is known today as plate tectonics. In locations where two plates move apart, at mid-ocean ridges, new seafloor is continually formed during seafloor spreading. == Significance == Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate slab pull at subduction zones, rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges. Plates can also be driven by ridge push, where the rigid lithosphere


id: seafloor-spreading-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading-1.md
category: reference
title: Seafloor spreading
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:23.036062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seafloor-spreading-20260505-0
summary:
In the general case, seafloor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass, similar to the Red Sea-East Africa Rift System today. The process starts by heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see isostasy). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120-degree angles. These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the continents evolve to form passive margins. Hess' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge. If spreading continues past the incipient stage described above, two of the rift arms will open while the third arm stops opening and becomes a 'failed rift' or aulacogen. As the two active rifts continue to open, eventually the continental crust is attenuated as far as it will stretch. At this point basaltic oceanic crust and upper mantle lithosphere begins to


id: seafloor-spreading-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading-2.md
category: reference
title: Seafloor spreading
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:23.036062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seafloor-spreading-20260505-0
summary:
== Debate and search for mechanism == At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and in other mid-ocean ridges), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new crust as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as continental drift. When Alfred Wegener first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that continents plowed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener's theory wasn't taken very seriously, especially in the United States. At first the driving force for spreading was argued to be convection currents in the mantle. Since then, it has been shown that the motion of the continents is linked to seafloor spreading by the theory of plate tectonics, which is driven by convection that includes the crust itself as well. The driver for seafloor spreading in plates with active margins is the weight of the cool, dense, subducting slabs that pull them along, or slab pull. The magmatism at the ridge is considered to be passive upwelling, which is caused by the plates being pulled apart under the weight of their own slabs. This


id: seafloor-spreading-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading-3.md
category: reference
title: Seafloor spreading
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:23.036062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seafloor-spreading-20260505-0
summary:
where α e f f {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }} is the effective volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, and h0 is the mid-ocean ridge height (compared to some reference). The assumption that v is relatively large is equivalent to the assumption that the thermal diffusivity κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is small compared to L 2 / A {\displaystyle L^{2}/A} , where L is the ocean width (from mid-ocean ridges to continental shelf) and A is the age of the ocean basin. The effective thermal expansion coefficient α e f f {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }} is different from the usual thermal expansion coefficient α {\displaystyle \alpha } due to isostasic effect of the change in water column height above the lithosphere as it expands or retracts. Both coefficients are related by: α e f f = α ⋅ ρ ρ − ρ w {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }=\alpha \cdot {\frac {\rho }{\rho -\rho _{w}}}} where ρ ∼ 3.3 g ⋅ c m − 3 {\displaystyle \rho \sim 3.3\ \mathrm {g} \cdot \mathrm {cm} ^{-3}} is the rock density and ρ 0 = 1 g ⋅ c m − 3 {\displaystyle \rho _{0}=1\ \mathrm {g} \cdot \mathrm {cm} ^{-3}} is the density


id: seawater-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater-0.md
category: reference
title: Seawater
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:24.439623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seawater-20260505-0
summary:
Seawater, or sea water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) ions). The average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at 4 °C (39 °F)) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C (28 °F). The coldest seawater still in the liquid state ever recorded was found in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier: the measured temperature was −2.6 °C (27.3 °F). Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. == Properties == === Salinity === Although the vast majority of seawater has


id: seawater-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater-1.md
category: reference
title: Seawater
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:24.439623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seawater-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microbial components === Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli-like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans


id: seawater-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater-2.md
category: reference
title: Seawater
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:24.439623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seawater-20260505-0
summary:
The water in the sea was thought to come from the Earth's volcanoes, starting 4 billion years ago, released by degassing from molten rock. More recent work suggests much of the Earth's water may come from comets. Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that do not have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering". Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salts other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt. Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a chemical/tectonic system


id: seawater-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater-3.md
category: reference
title: Seawater
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:24.439623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seawater-20260505-0
summary:
Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself. In normal circumstances, it would be considered ill-advised to consume large amounts of unfiltered seawater. The renal system actively regulates the levels of sodium and chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by mass). In most open waters, concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. The salinity of Baltic surface water, however, is never 2%; it is 0.9% or less, and thus never higher than that of bodily fluids. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete


id: seawater-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater-4.md
category: reference
title: Seawater
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:24.439623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seawater-20260505-0
summary:
=== The future of mineral and element extractions === In order for seawater mineral and element extractions to take place while taking close consideration of sustainable practices, it is necessary for monitored management systems to be put in place. This requires management of ocean areas and their conditions, environmental planning, structured guidelines to ensure that extractions are controlled, regular assessments of the condition of the sea post-extraction, and constant monitoring. The use of technology, such as underwater drones, can facilitate sustainable extractions. The use of low-carbon infrastructure would also allow for more sustainable extraction processes while reducing the carbon footprint from mineral extractions. Another practice that is being considered closely is the process of desalination in order to achieve a more sustainable water supply from seawater. Although desalination also comes with environmental concerns, such as costs and resources, researchers are working closely to determine more sustainable practices, such as creating more productive water plants that can deal with larger water supplies in areas where these plans weren't always available. Although seawater extractions can benefit society greatly, it is crucial to consider the environmental impact and to ensure that all extractions are conducted in a way that acknowledges and considers the


id: seawater-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater-5.md
category: reference
title: Seawater
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:24.439623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seawater-20260505-0
summary:
There are also risks that come with extracting from the seafloor. Many biodiverse species have long lifespans on the seafloor, which means that their reproduction takes more time. Similarly to fish harvesting from the seafloor, the extraction of minerals in large amounts, too quickly, without proper protocols, can result in a disruption of the underwater ecosystems. Contrarily, this would have the opposite effect and prevent mineral extractions from being a long-term sustainable practice, and would result in a shortage of required metals. Any seawater mineral extractions also risk disrupting the habitat of the underwater life that is dependent on the uninterrupted ecosystem within their environment as disturbances can have significant disturbances on animal communities. == See also == Artificial seawater – Mixture of dissolved salts simulating the mean seawater composition Brackish water – Water with salinity between freshwater and seawater Brine – Concentrated solution of salt in water Brine mining – Extracting materials from saltwater CORA dataset – Oceanographic temperature and salinity dataset global ocean salinity Fresh water – Naturally occurring water with low amounts of dissolved salts Ocean color – Explanation of the color of oceans and ocean color remote sensing Saline water – Water that contains a high


id: shoal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoal-0.md
category: reference
title: Shoal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:25.722002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shoal-20260505-0
summary:
A shoal is a natural submerged ridge, bank, or bar that consists of, or is covered by, sand or other unconsolidated material, and rises from the bed of a body of water close to the surface or above it, which poses a danger to navigation. Shoals are also known in oceanography, geomorphology, and geoscience, as sandbanks, sandbars, gravelbars, or bars. Two or more shoals that are either separated by shared troughs or interconnected by past or present sedimentary and hydrographic processes are referred to as a shoal complex. Other uses of the term shoal either similar to or quite different from its application in geologic, geomorphic, and oceanographic literature, include any relatively shallow place in a stream, lake, sea, or other body of water; a rocky area on the seafloor within an area mapped for navigation purposes; or a growth of vegetation on the bottom of a deep lake, that occurs at any depth, or is used as a verb for the process of proceeding from a greater to a lesser depth of water. == Description == Shoals are characteristically long and narrow (linear) ridges. They can develop where a stream, river, or ocean current promotes deposition of sediment and


id: shoal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoal-1.md
category: reference
title: Shoal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:25.722002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shoal-20260505-0
summary:
===== Nautical navigation ===== In a nautical sense, a bar is a shoal, similar to a reef: a shallow formation of (usually) sand that is a navigation or grounding hazard, with a depth of water of 6 fathoms (11 meters) or less. It therefore applies to a silt accumulation that shallows the entrance to or course of a river, or creek. A bar can form a dangerous obstacle to shipping, preventing access to the river or harbor in poor weather conditions or at some states of the tide. == Geological units == However, in addition to longshore bars discussed above that are relatively small features of a beach, the term shoal can be applied to larger geological units that form off a coastline as part of the process of coastal erosion, such as spits and baymouth bars that form across the front of embayments and rias. A tombolo is a bar that forms an isthmus between an island or offshore rock and a mainland shore. In places of reentrance along a coastline (such as inlets, coves, rias, and bays), sediments carried by a longshore current will fall out where the current dissipates, forming a spit. An area of water isolated


id: spice-oceanography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_(oceanography)-0.md
category: reference
title: Spice (oceanography)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_(oceanography)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:26.905197+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spice-oceanography-20260505-0
summary:
Spice, spiciness, or spicity, symbol τ, is a term in oceanography referring to variations in the temperature and salinity of seawater over space or time, whose combined effects leave the water's density unchanged. For a given spice, any change in temperature is offset by a change in salinity to maintain unchanged density. An increase in temperature decreases density, but an increase in salinity increases density. Such density-compensated thermohaline variability is ubiquitous in the upper ocean. Warmer, saltier water is more spicy while cooler, less salty water is more minty. For a density ratio of 1, all the thermohaline variability is spice, and there are no density fluctuations. == Mathematical description == The density of seawater controls much of the movement of water, or the thermohaline flow, in the ocean. The density of seawater is primarily determined by the temperature and salinity of that water. Changes in these two main parameters, potential temperature Θ and salinity S, are multiplied with their thermal expansion α {\displaystyle \alpha } or haline contraction coefficient β {\displaystyle \beta } equal to each other; α d Θ {\displaystyle \alpha d\Theta } and β d S {\displaystyle \beta dS} are both proportional to a change in density


id: sponge-ground-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge_ground-0.md
category: reference
title: Sponge ground
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge_ground
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:28.233816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sponge-ground-20260505-0
summary:
Sponge grounds, also known as sponge aggregations, are intertidal to deep-sea habitats formed by large accumulations of sponges (glass sponges and/or demosponges), often dominated by a few massive species. Sponge grounds were already reported more than 150 years ago, but the habitat was first fully recognized, studied and described in detail around the Faroe Islands during the inter-Nordic BIOFAR 1 programme 1987–90. These were called Ostur (meaning "cheese" and referring to the appearance of the sponges) by the local fishermen and this name has to some extent entered the scientific literature. Sponge grounds were later found elsewhere in the Northeast Atlantic and in the Northwest Atlantic, as well as near Antarctica. They are now known from many other places worldwide and recognized as key marine habitats. Sponge grounds are important habitats supporting diverse ecosystems. During a study of outer shelf and upper slope sponge grounds at the Faroe Islands, 242 invertebrate species were found in the vicinity and 115 were associated with the sponges. In general, fish fauna associated with sponge grounds are poorly known, but include rockfish and gadiforms. Sponge grounds are threatened, especially by bottom trawling and other fishing gear, dredging, oil and gas exploration and undersea cables,


id: submarine-volcano-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_volcano-0.md
category: reference
title: Submarine volcano
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_volcano
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:29.475807+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: submarine-volcano-20260505-0
summary:
Submarine volcanoes are underwater vents or fissures in the Earth's surface from which magma can erupt. Many submarine volcanoes are located near areas of tectonic plate formation, known as mid-ocean ridges. The volcanoes at mid-ocean ridges alone are estimated to account for 75% of the magma output on Earth. Although most submarine volcanoes are located in the depths of seas and oceans, some also exist in shallow water, and these can discharge material into the atmosphere during an eruption. The total number of submarine volcanoes is estimated to be over one million (most are now extinct) of which some 75,000 rise more than 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) above the seabed. Only 119 submarine volcanoes in Earth's oceans and seas are known to have erupted during the last 11,700 years. Hydrothermal vents, sites of abundant biological activity, are commonly found near submarine volcanoes. == Seamounts == Many submarine volcanoes are seamounts, typically extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly from a seafloor of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) - 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) depth. They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) above the seafloor. The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters


id: supralittoral-zone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supralittoral_zone-0.md
category: reference
title: Supralittoral zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supralittoral_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:30.721754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supralittoral-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The supralittoral zone, also known as the splash zone, spray zone or the supratidal zone, sometimes also referred to as the white zone, is the area above the spring high tide line, on coastlines and estuaries, that is regularly splashed, but not submerged by ocean water. Seawater penetrates these elevated areas only during storms with high tides. Organisms here must cope also with exposure to air, fresh water from rain, cold, heat and predation by land animals and seabirds. At the top of this area, patches of dark lichens can appear as crusts on rocks. Some types of periwinkles, Neritidae and detritus feeding Isopoda commonly inhabit the lower supralittoral. == See also == Littoral zone Sublittoral zone == Notes == == References == Thurman H.V. and Trujillo A.P. 1993.Essentials of Oceanography.Upper Saddle River, NJ:Prentice Hall Yip, Maricela and Madl, Pierre (1999) Littoral University of Salzburg.


id: surf-zone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surf_zone-0.md
category: reference
title: Surf zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surf_zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:32.060457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surf-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The surf zone or breaker zone is the nearshore part of a body of open water between the line at which the waves break and the shore. As ocean surface waves approach a shore, they interact with the bottom, get taller and steeper, and break, forming the foamy surface called surf. The region of breaking waves defines the surf zone. After breaking in the surf zone, the waves (now reduced in height) continue to move in, and they run up onto the sloping front of the beach, forming an uprush of water called swash. The water then runs back again as backwash. The water in the surf zone is relatively shallow, depending on the height and period of the waves. == Animal life == The animals that often are found living in the surf zone are crabs, clams, and snails. Surf clams and mole crabs are two species that stand out as inhabitants of the surf zone. Both of these animals are very fast burrowers. The surf clam, also known as the variable coquina, is a filter feeder that uses its gills to filter microalgae, tiny zooplankton, and small particulates out of seawater. The mole crab is a suspension feeder


id: swell-wave-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swell_(wave)-0.md
category: reference
title: Swell (wave)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swell_(wave)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:33.463137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swell-wave-20260505-0
summary:
A swell, also sometimes referred to as ground swell, in the context of an ocean, sea or lake, is a series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air under the predominating influence of gravity, and thus are often referred to as surface gravity waves. These surface gravity waves have their origin as wind waves, but are the consequence of dispersion of wind waves from distant weather systems, where wind blows for a duration of time over a fetch of water, and these waves move out from the source area at speeds that are a function of wave period and length. More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are not greatly affected by the local wind at that time. Swell waves often have a relatively long wavelength, as short wavelength waves carry less energy and dissipate faster, but this varies due to the size, strength, and duration of the weather system responsible for the swell and the size of the water body, and varies from event to event, and from the same event, over time. Occasionally, swells that are longer than 700 m occur as a result of the most severe storms. Swell direction


id: swell-wave-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swell_(wave)-1.md
category: reference
title: Swell (wave)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swell_(wave)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:33.463137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swell-wave-20260505-0
summary:
The water is originally at rest; The water is inviscid; The water is irrotational; The normal pressure to the water surface from the turbulent wind is randomly distributed; and Correlations between air and water motions are neglected. From "wind shear forces": In 1957, John W. Miles suggested a surface wave generation mechanism that is initiated by turbulent wind shear flows, U a ( y ) {\displaystyle Ua(y)} , based on the inviscid Orr-Sommerfeld equation. He found that the energy transfer from wind to water surface as a wave speed, c {\displaystyle c} , is proportional to the curvature of the velocity profile of wind, U a ″ ( y ) {\displaystyle Ua''(y)} , at the point where the mean wind speed is equal to the wave speed ( U a = c {\displaystyle Ua=c} , where U a {\displaystyle Ua} is the mean turbulent wind speed). Since the wind profile, U a ( y ) {\displaystyle Ua(y)} , is logarithmic to the water surface, the curvature, U a ″ ( y ) {\displaystyle Ua''(y)} , has a negative sign at point U a = c {\displaystyle Ua=c} . This relation shows the wind flow transferring its kinetic energy to the


id: swell-wave-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swell_(wave)-2.md
category: reference
title: Swell (wave)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swell_(wave)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:33.463137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swell-wave-20260505-0
summary:
== Dissipation == The dissipation of swell energy is much stronger for short waves, which is why swells from distant storms are only long waves. The dissipation of waves with periods larger than 13 seconds is very weak but still significant at the scale of the Pacific Ocean. These long swells lose half of their energy over a distance that varies from over 20,000 km (half the distance round the globe) to just over 2,000 km. This variation was found to be a systematic function of the swell steepness: the ratio of the swell height to the wavelength. The reason for this behavior is still unclear, but it is possible that this dissipation is due to the friction at the air-sea interface. == Swell dispersion and wave groups == Swells are often created by storms thousands of nautical miles away from the shores where they break, and the propagation of the longest swells is primarily limited by shorelines. For example, swells generated in the Indian Ocean have been recorded in California after more than half a round-the-world trip. This distance allows the waves comprising the swells to be better sorted and free of chop as they travel toward the coast.


id: tombolo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombolo-0.md
category: reference
title: Tombolo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombolo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:34.663042+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tombolo-20260505-0
summary:
A tombolo is a sandy or shingle isthmus. It is a deposition landform by which an island becomes attached to the mainland by a narrow piece of land such as a spit or bar. Once attached, the island is then known as a tied island. The word tombolo is from the Italian tombolo, meaning 'pillow' or 'cushion', and sometimes translated incorrectly as ayre (an ayre is a shingle beach of any kind). Several islands tied together by bars which rise above the water level are called a tombolo cluster. Two or more tombolos may form an enclosure (called a lagoon) that can eventually fill with sediment. == Formation == The shoreline moves toward the island (or detached breakwater) owing to the accretion of sand in the lee of the island, where wave energy and longshore drift are reduced and therefore deposition of sand occurs. === Wave diffraction and refraction === True tombolos are formed by wave refraction and diffraction. As waves near an island, they are slowed by the shallow water surrounding it. These waves then bend around the island to the opposite side as they approach. The wave pattern created by this water movement causes a convergence of longshore


id: trochoidal-wave-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochoidal_wave-0.md
category: reference
title: Trochoidal wave
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochoidal_wave
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:35.869398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trochoidal-wave-20260505-0
summary:
In fluid dynamics, a trochoidal wave or Gerstner wave is an exact solution of the Euler equations for periodic surface gravity waves. It describes a progressive wave of permanent form on the surface of an incompressible fluid of infinite depth. The free surface of this wave solution is an inverted (upside-down) trochoid – with sharper crests and flat troughs. This wave solution was discovered by Gerstner in 1802, and rediscovered independently by Rankine in 1863. The flow field associated with the trochoidal wave is not irrotational: it has vorticity. The vorticity is of such a specific strength and vertical distribution that the trajectories of the fluid parcels are closed circles. This is in contrast with the usual experimental observation of Stokes drift associated with the wave motion. Also the phase speed is independent of the trochoidal wave's amplitude, unlike other nonlinear wave-theories (like those of the Stokes wave and cnoidal wave) and observations. For these reasons – as well as for the fact that solutions for finite fluid depth are lacking – trochoidal waves are of limited use for engineering applications. In computer graphics, the rendering of realistic-looking ocean waves can be done by use of so-called Gerstner waves. This


id: trochoidal-wave-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochoidal_wave-1.md
category: reference
title: Trochoidal wave
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochoidal_wave
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:35.869398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trochoidal-wave-20260505-0
summary:
A multi-component and multi-directional extension of the Lagrangian description of the free-surface motion – as used in Gerstner's trochoidal wave – is used in computer graphics for the simulation of ocean waves. For the classical Gerstner wave the fluid motion exactly satisfies the nonlinear, incompressible and inviscid flow equations below the free surface. However, the extended Gerstner waves do in general not satisfy these flow equations exactly (although they satisfy them approximately, i.e. for the linearised Lagrangian description by potential flow). This description of the ocean can be programmed very efficiently by use of the fast Fourier transform (FFT). Moreover, the resulting ocean waves from this process look realistic, as a result of the nonlinear deformation of the free surface (due to the Lagrangian specification of the motion): sharper crests and flatter troughs. The mathematical description of the free-surface in these Gerstner waves can be as follows: the horizontal coordinates are denoted as x {\displaystyle x} and z {\displaystyle z} , and the vertical coordinate is y {\displaystyle y} . The mean level of the free surface is at y = 0 {\displaystyle y=0} and the positive y {\displaystyle y} -direction is upward, opposing the Earth's gravity of strength g


id: water-mass-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mass-0.md
category: reference
title: Water mass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:37.092878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-mass-20260505-0
summary:
An oceanographic water mass is an identifiable body of water with a common formation history which has physical properties distinct from surrounding water. Properties include temperature, salinity, chemical - isotopic ratios, and other physical quantities which are conservative flow tracers. Water mass is also identified by its non-conservative flow tracers such as silicate, nitrate, oxygen, and phosphate. Water masses are generally distinguished not only by their respective tracers but also by their location in the Worlds' oceans. Water masses are also distinguished by their vertical position so that there are surface water masses, intermediate water masses and deep water masses. == Global water masses == Common water masses in the world ocean are: Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW): Antarctic Bottom Water is a very important water mass. Antarctic Bottom Water is the left over part when sea ice is being made. It is very cold but, not quite freezing so the water moves down and along the ocean floor. North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) The central waters of various oceanic basins Various ocean surface waters. == Characteristics of water masses


id: wave-shoaling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_shoaling-0.md
category: reference
title: Wave shoaling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_shoaling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:38.331621+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wave-shoaling-20260505-0
summary:
In fluid dynamics, wave shoaling is the effect by which surface waves, entering shallower water, increase in wave height. It is caused by the fact that the group velocity, which is also the wave-energy transport velocity, decreases with water depth. Under stationary conditions, a decrease in transport speed must be compensated by an increase in energy density in order to maintain a constant energy flux. Shoaling waves will also exhibit a reduction in wavelength while the frequency remains constant. In other words, as the waves approach the shore and the water gets shallower, the waves get taller, slow down, and get closer together. Particularly in a waterbody shallow enough for its surface to be affected by its bottom and where depth contours parallel the shore, a wave packet that does dissipate its energy by breaking will rise in height as it enters yet shallower water. This is plainly evident for tsunamis as they wax in height when approaching a coastline, often with devastating results. == Overview == Waves nearing the coast experience changes in wave height through different effects. Some of the important wave processes are refraction, diffraction, reflection, wave breaking, wave–current interaction, friction, wave growth due to the wind,


id: wind-generated-current-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_generated_current-0.md
category: reference
title: Wind generated current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_generated_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:39.758432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-generated-current-20260505-0
summary:
A Wind generated current is a flow in a body of water that is generated by wind friction on its surface. Wind can generate surface currents on water bodies of any size. The depth and strength of the current depend on the wind strength and duration, and on friction and viscosity losses, but are limited to about 400 m depth by the mechanism, and to lesser depths where the water is shallower. The direction of flow is influenced by the Coriolis effect, and is offset to the right of the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. A wind current can induce secondary water flow in the form of upwelling and downwelling, geostrophic flow, and western boundary currents. == Mechanism == Friction between wind and the upper surface of a body of water will drag the water surface along with the wind The surface layer will exert viscous drag on the water just below, which will transfer some of the momentum. This process continues downward, with a continuous reduction in speed of flow with increasing depth as the energy is dissipated. The inertial effect of planetary rotation causes an offset of flow direction


id: wind-generated-current-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_generated_current-1.md
category: reference
title: Wind generated current
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_generated_current
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:39.758432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-generated-current-20260505-0
summary:
Downwelling occurs at anti-cyclonic places of the ocean where warm core rings cause surface convergence and push the surface water downwards, or wind drives the sea towards a coastline. Regions that have downwelling generally have lower productivity because the nutrients in the water column are utilized but are not resupplied by nutrient-rich water from deeper below the surface. == Oceanic wind driven currents == Western boundary Gulf Stream – Warm Atlantic Ocean current Agulhas Current – Southwest Indian Ocean current off Africa's east coast Kuroshio Current – North-flowing current in the northwest Pacific Ocean Eastern boundary Benguela Current – Ocean current in the South Atlantic Humboldt Current – Current of the Pacific Ocean California Current – Pacific Ocean current Equatorial North Equatorial Current – Current in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans South Equatorial Current – Ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean Arctic Atlantic Canary Current – Wind-driven surface current that is part of the North Atlantic Gyre Pacific Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current, also known as West Wind Drift – Ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica Oceanic gyres Beaufort Gyre – Wind-driven ocean current in the Arctic Ocean polar region Indian Ocean Gyre


id: wind-wave-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave-0.md
category: reference
title: Wind wave
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:41.303167+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-wave-20260505-0
summary:
In fluid dynamics, a wind wave, or wind-generated water wave, is a surface wave that occurs on the free surface of bodies of water as a result of the wind blowing over the water's surface. The contact distance in the direction of the wind is known as the fetch. Waves in the oceans can travel thousands of kilometers before reaching land. Wind waves on Earth range in size from small ripples to waves over 30 m (100 ft) high, being limited by wind speed, duration, fetch, and water depth. When directly generated and affected by local wind, a wind wave system is called a wind sea. Wind waves will travel in a great circle route after being generated – curving slightly left in the southern hemisphere and slightly right in the northern hemisphere. After moving out of the area of fetch and no longer being affected by the local wind, wind waves are called swells and can travel thousands of kilometers. A noteworthy example of this is waves generated south of Tasmania during heavy winds that will travel across the Pacific to southern California, producing desirable surfing conditions. Wind waves in the ocean are also called ocean surface waves and


id: wind-wave-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave-1.md
category: reference
title: Wind wave
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:41.303167+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-wave-20260505-0
summary:
Turbulent wind forms random pressure fluctuations at the sea surface. Ripples with wavelengths in the order of a few centimeters are generated by the pressure fluctuations. (The Phillips mechanism) The winds keep acting on the initially rippled sea surface causing the waves to become larger. As the waves grow, the pressure differences get larger causing the growth rate to increase. Finally, the shear instability expedites the wave growth exponentially. (The Miles mechanism) The interactions between the waves on the surface generate longer waves and the interaction will transfer wave energy from the shorter waves generated by the Miles mechanism to the waves which have slightly lower frequencies than the frequency at the peak wave magnitudes, then finally the waves will be faster than the crosswind speed (Pierson & Moskowitz). == Types == Three different types of wind waves develop over time: Capillary waves, or ripples, dominated by surface tension effects. Gravity waves, dominated by gravitational and inertial forces. Seas, raised locally by the wind. Swells, which have traveled away from where they were raised by the wind, and have to a greater or lesser extent dispersed. Ripples appear on smooth water when the wind blows, but will die quickly if


id: wind-wave-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave-2.md
category: reference
title: Wind wave
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:41.303167+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-wave-20260505-0
summary:
where C is speed (in meters per second), g is the acceleration due to gravity, and d is the depth of the water (in meters). The period of a wave remains unchanged regardless of the depth of water through which it is moving. As deep-water waves enter the shallows and feel the bottom, however, their speed is reduced, and their crests "bunch up", so their wavelength shortens. === Spectral models === Sea state can be described by the sea wave spectrum or just wave spectrum S ( ω , Θ ) {\displaystyle S(\omega ,\Theta )} . It is composed of a wave height spectrum (WHS) S ( ω ) {\displaystyle S(\omega )} and a wave direction spectrum (WDS) f ( Θ ) {\displaystyle f(\Theta )} . Many interesting properties about the sea state can be found from the wave spectra. WHS describes the spectral density of wave height variance ("power") versus wave frequency, with dimension { S ( ω ) } = { length 2 ⋅ time } {\displaystyle \{S(\omega )\}=\{{\text{length}}^{2}\cdot {\text{time}}\}} . The relationship between the spectrum S ( ω j ) {\displaystyle S(\omega _{j})} and the wave amplitude A j {\displaystyle A_{j}} for a wave component j {\displaystyle


id: wind-wave-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave-3.md
category: reference
title: Wind wave
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:41.303167+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-wave-20260505-0
summary:
Some waves undergo a phenomenon called "breaking". A breaking wave is one whose base can no longer support its top, causing it to collapse. A wave breaks when it runs into shallow water, or when two wave systems oppose and combine forces. When the slope, or steepness ratio, of a wave, is too great, breaking is inevitable. Individual waves in deep water break when the wave steepness—the ratio of the wave height H to the wavelength λ—exceeds about 0.17, so for H > 0.17 λ. In shallow water, with the water depth small compared to the wavelength, the individual waves break when their wave height H is larger than 0.8 times the water depth h, that is H > 0.8 h. Waves can also break if the wind grows strong enough to blow the crest off the base of the wave. In shallow water, the base of the wave is decelerated by drag on the seabed. As a result, the upper parts will propagate at a higher velocity than the base and the leading face of the crest will become steeper and the trailing face flatter. This may be exaggerated to the extent that the leading face forms a barrel


id: wind-wave-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave-4.md
category: reference
title: Wind wave
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_wave
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:41.303167+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-wave-20260505-0
summary:
In SI units, with c deep {\displaystyle c_{\text{deep}}} in m/s, c deep ≈ 1.25 λ {\displaystyle c_{\text{deep}}\approx 1.25{\sqrt {\lambda }}} , when λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is measured in metres. This expression tells us that waves of different wavelengths travel at different speeds. The fastest waves in a storm are the ones with the longest wavelength. As a result, after a storm, the first waves to arrive on the coast are the long-wavelength swells. For intermediate and shallow water, the Boussinesq equations are applicable, combining frequency dispersion and nonlinear effects. And in very shallow water, the shallow water equations can be used. If the wavelength is very long compared to the water depth, the phase speed (by taking the limit of c when the wavelength approaches infinity) can be approximated by c shallow = lim λ → ∞ c = g d . {\displaystyle c_{\text{shallow}}=\lim _{\lambda \rightarrow \infty }c={\sqrt {gd}}.} On the other hand, for very short wavelengths, surface tension plays an important role and the phase speed of these gravity-capillary waves can (in deep water) be approximated by c gravity-capillary = g λ 2 π + 2 π S ρ λ {\displaystyle c_{\text{gravity-capillary}}={\sqrt {{\frac {g\lambda }{2\pi }}+{\frac {2\pi S}{\rho


id: wind-wave-dissipation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind-wave_dissipation-0.md
category: reference
title: Wind-wave dissipation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind-wave_dissipation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:42.501498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-wave-dissipation-20260505-0
summary:
Wind-wave dissipation or "swell dissipation" is process in which a wave generated via a weather system loses its mechanical energy transferred from the atmosphere via wind. Wind waves, as their name suggests, are generated by wind transferring energy from the atmosphere to the ocean's surface, capillary gravity waves play an essential role in this effect, "wind waves" or "swell" are also known as surface gravity waves. == General physics and theory == The process of wind-wave dissipation can be explained by applying energy spectrum theory in a similar manner as for the formation of wind-waves (generally assuming spectral dissipation is a function of wave spectrum). However, although even some of recent innovative improvements for field observations (such as Banner & Babanin et al. ) have contributed to solve the riddles of wave breaking behaviors, unfortunately there hasn't been a clear understanding for exact theories of the wind wave dissipation process still yet because of its non-linear behaviors. By past and present observations and derived theories, the physics of the ocean-wave dissipation can be categorized by its passing regions along to water depth. In deep water, wave dissipation occurs by the actions of friction or drag forces such as opposite-directed winds


id: windwatt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windwatt-0.md
category: reference
title: Windwatt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windwatt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:43.767326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: windwatt-20260505-0
summary:
Windwatt (German pronunciation: [ˈvɪntvat]) is a mudflat exposed as a result of wind action on water. They occur especially in the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park on Germany's Baltic Sea coast. The term is German. Unlike the Wadden Sea along Europe's North Sea coast, the shallow water zones of the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park are largely unaffected by oceanic tides. When there are strong winds in a certain direction, however, water is driven out of the lagoons (the so-called bodden) into the Baltic Sea, so that several particularly shallow areas of mud become exposed and dry out. The water flows back when the wind turns again. These Windwatten are a major source of food for migrating birds in the autumn. For the Crane, which cross Western Pomeranian Bodden country during migration, the Windwatten are one of the most important resting areas in Western Europe. == References ==


id: zooplankton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton-0.md
category: reference
title: Zooplankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:45.054505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zooplankton-20260505-0
summary:
Zooplankton are the heterotrophic component of the planktonic community, having to consume other organisms to thrive. The name comes from Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōîon), meaning "animal", and πλαγκτός (planktós), meaning "drifter, wanderer, roamer", and thus, "animal drifter". Plankton are aquatic organisms that are unable to swim effectively against currents. Consequently, they drift or are carried along by currents in the ocean, or by currents in seas, lakes or rivers. Zooplankton can be contrasted with phytoplankton (cyanobacteria and microalgae), which are the plant-like component of the plankton community (the "phyto-" prefix comes from Ancient Greek: φῠτόν, romanized: phutón, lit. 'plant', although taxonomically not plants). Zooplankton are heterotrophic (other-feeding), whereas phytoplankton are autotrophic (self-feeding), often generating biological energy and macromolecules through chlorophyllic carbon fixation using sunlight – in other words, zooplankton cannot manufacture their own food, while phytoplankton can. As a result, zooplankton must acquire nutrients by feeding on other organisms such as phytoplankton, which are generally smaller than zooplankton. Most zooplankton are microscopic but some (such as jellyfish) are macroscopic, meaning they can be seen with the naked eye. Many protozoans (single-celled protists that prey on other microscopic life) are zooplankton, including zooflagellates, foraminiferans, radiolarians, some dinoflagellates and marine microanimals. Macroscopic


id: zooplankton-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton-1.md
category: reference
title: Zooplankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:45.054505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zooplankton-20260505-0
summary:
== Size classification == Body size has been defined as a "master trait" for plankton as it is a morphological characteristic shared by organisms across taxonomy that characterises the functions performed by organisms in ecosystems. It has a paramount effect on growth, reproduction, feeding strategies and mortality. One of the oldest manifestations of the biogeography of traits was proposed over 170 years ago, namely Bergmann's rule, in which field observations showed that larger species tend to be found at higher, colder latitudes. In the oceans, size is critical in determining trophic links in planktonic ecosystems and is thus a critical factor in regulating the efficiency of the biological carbon pump. Body size is sensitive to changes in temperature due to the thermal dependence of physiological processes. The plankton is mainly composed of ectotherms which are organisms that do not generate sufficient metabolic heat to elevate their body temperature, so their metabolic processes depends on external temperature. Consequently, ectotherms grow more slowly and reach maturity at a larger body size in colder environments, which has long puzzled biologists because classic theories of life-history evolution predict smaller adult sizes in environments delaying growth. This pattern of body size variation, known as the


id: zooplankton-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton-2.md
category: reference
title: Zooplankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:45.054505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zooplankton-20260505-0
summary:
Protozooplankton refers to protist zooplankton (planktonic protozoans). All protozooplankton are protozoans, but not all protozoans are protozooplankton, since some live in environments like soil or as parasites. Marine planktonic protozoans include zooflagellates, foraminiferans, radiolarians and some dinoflagellates. Protozoans are protists that feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris. Historically, the protozoa were regarded as "one-celled animals", because they often possess animal-like behaviours, such as motility and predation, and lack a cell wall, as found in plants and many algae. Although the traditional practice of grouping protozoa with animals is no longer considered valid, the term continues to be used in a loose way to identify single-celled organisms that can move independently and feed by heterotrophy. ==== Radiolarians ==== Radiolarians are unicellular predatory protists encased in elaborate globular shells usually made of silica and pierced with holes. Their name comes from the Latin for "radius". They catch prey by extending parts of their body through the holes. As with the silica frustules of diatoms, radiolarian shells can sink to the ocean floor when radiolarians die and become preserved as part of the ocean sediment. These remains, as microfossils, provide valuable information about past oceanic conditions.


id: zooplankton-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton-3.md
category: reference
title: Zooplankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:45.054505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zooplankton-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ichthyoplankton ==== Ichthyoplankton are the eggs and larvae of fish ("ichthyo" comes from the Greek word for fish). They are planktonic because they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with the ocean currents. Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic. Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into juvenile fish. Fish larvae are part of the zooplankton that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their own food supply. Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals. ==== Gelatinous zooplankton ==== Gelatinous zooplankton include ctenophores, medusae, salps, and Chaetognatha in coastal waters. Jellyfish are slow swimmers, and most species form part of the plankton. Traditionally jellyfish have been viewed as trophic dead ends, minor players in the marine food web, gelatinous organisms with a body plan largely based on water that offers little nutritional value or interest for other organisms apart from a few specialised predators such as the ocean sunfish and the leatherback sea turtle. That view has recently been challenged. Jellyfish, and more gelatinous zooplankton in general, which include salps and ctenophores, are very diverse, fragile


id: zooplankton-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton-4.md
category: reference
title: Zooplankton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:45.054505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zooplankton-20260505-0
summary:
Excretion and sloppy feeding (the physical breakdown of food source) make up 80% and 20% of crustacean zooplankton-mediated DOM release respectively. In the same study, fecal pellet leaching was found to be an insignificant contributor. For protozoan grazers, DOM is released primarily through excretion and egestion and gelatinous zooplankton can also release DOM through the production of mucus. Leaching of fecal pellets can extend from hours to days after initial egestion and its effects can vary depending on food concentration and quality. Various factors can affect how much DOM is released from zooplankton individuals or populations. Absorption efficiency (AE) is the proportion of food absorbed by plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands. Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in AE may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material is recycled back to the marine environment. Low feeding rates typically lead to high AE and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low AE and larger pellets with more organic content. Another contributing factor to DOM release is respiration rate. Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and


id: formularium-slovenicum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formularium_Slovenicum-0.md
category: reference
title: Formularium Slovenicum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formularium_Slovenicum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:46.684685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: formularium-slovenicum-20260505-0
summary:
Formularium Slovenicum is Slovenian addendum to the European Pharmacopoeia. It promotes Slovenian pharmaceutical terminology and the regulations affecting the field of pharmacy in Slovenia. It has been regularly published by the Agency for Medicinal Products and Medical Devices of the Republic of Slovenia. Slovenia does not have its own pharmacopoeia, i.e. a collection of monographs and other provisions containing legally binding regulations regarding the development, manufacture, and quality assessment of medicinal products and their ingredients as well as other information on medicinal products and their use. Since 1997, European Pharmacopoeia has been in force in the Republic of Slovenia. The alignment of provisions of the national law in the field of medicinal products and regulations at the level of the European Pharmacopoeia brought forward the need for Slovenian addendum to the European Pharmacopoeia. The committee for drafting the national addendum at the Office for Medicinal Products of the Slovenian Ministry of Health issued in June 1998 the first edition of Formularium Slovenicum. Several amendments and updated editions have followed, though the work of the committee preparing Formularium Slovenicum was interrupted between 2013 and 2018. Formularium Slovenicum supplements European Pharmacopoeia standards and provides translations of titles, complete translations of the main


id: formulary-pharmacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formulary_(pharmacy)-0.md
category: reference
title: Formulary (pharmacy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formulary_(pharmacy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:47.938196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: formulary-pharmacy-20260505-0
summary:
A formulary is a list of pharmaceutical drugs, often decided upon by a group of people, for various reasons such as insurance coverage or use at a medical facility. Traditionally, a formulary contained a collection of formulas for the compounding and testing of medication (a resource closer to what would be referred to as a pharmacopoeia today). Today, when most prescription drugs are fully prepared by their manufacturers, the main function of a prescription formulary is to specify particular medications that are approved to be prescribed at a particular hospital, in a particular health system, or under a particular health insurance policy. The development of prescription formularies is based on evaluations of efficacy, safety, and cost-effectiveness of drugs. Depending on the individual formulary, it may also contain additional clinical information, such as side effects, contraindications, and doses. By the turn of the millennium, 156 countries had national or provincial essential medicines lists and 135 countries had national treatment. == Australia == In Australia, where there is a public health care system, medications are subsidised under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) and medications that are available under the PBS and the indications for which they can be obtained under said scheme


id: formulary-pharmacy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formulary_(pharmacy)-1.md
category: reference
title: Formulary (pharmacy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formulary_(pharmacy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:47.938196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: formulary-pharmacy-20260505-0
summary:
In the US, where a system of quasi-private healthcare is in place, a formulary is a list of prescription drugs available to enrollees, and a tiered formulary provides financial incentives for patients to select lower-cost drugs. For example, under a 3-tier formulary, the first tier typically includes generic drugs with the lowest cost sharing (e.g., 10% coinsurance), the second includes preferred brand-name drugs with higher cost sharing (e.g., 25%), and the third includes non-preferred brand-name drugs with the highest cost-sharing (e.g., 40%). When used appropriately, formularies can help manage drug costs imposed on the insurance policy. However, for drugs that are not on formulary, patients must pay a larger percentage of the cost of the drug, sometimes 100%. Formularies vary between drug plans and differ in the breadth of drugs covered and costs of co-pay and premiums. Most formularies cover at least one drug in each drug class, and encourage generic substitution (also known as a preferred drug list). Formularies have shown to cause issues in hospitals when patients are discharged when not aligned with outpatient drug insurance plans. == United Kingdom == In the UK, the National Health Service (NHS) provides publicly funded universal health care, financed by national


id: bacter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-bacter-0.md
category: reference
title: -bacter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-bacter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:49.425902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bacter-20260505-0
summary:
The suffix -bacter is used in microbiology for many genera and is intended to mean "bacteria". == Meaning == Bacter is a Neo-Latin (i.e. Modern Latin) term coined from bacterium, which in turn derives from the Greek βακτήριον, meaning small staff (diminutive of βακτηρία). Consequently, it formally means "rod". It differs from the suffix -bacterium in grammatical gender, as the suffix -bacter is male, whereas the suffix -bacterium) is neuter; this was decided in Juridical (or Judicial) Opinion n° 3 of the Bacteriological Code. Nevertheless, for historical reasons, two archaeal species finish in -bacter: Methanobrevibacter and Methanothermobacter. == Usage == Juridical Opinion n° 2 in the Bacteriological Code discusses the declension of the word, given that authors differently assumed the genitive case of bacter to be bactris (3rd declension words of Latin origin ending in =ter), bacteri (2nd declension) or bacteris (3rd declension, used for words of Greek origin, such as astris). The Opinion opts for the latter: consequently, higher taxa are formed with the stem =bacter- and not =bactr-. In Juridical Opinion n° 3 it was established to be masculine. For example, Campylobacter is a genus of Campylobacterales. These rules were established so that the specific epithets were paired


id: monas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-monas-0.md
category: reference
title: -monas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-monas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:50.635748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: monas-20260505-0
summary:
The suffix -monas is used in microbiology for many genera and is intended to mean "unicellular organism". == Meaning == The suffix -monas found in many genera in microbiology is similar in usage to -bacter, -bacillus, -coccus or -spirillum. The genera with the suffix are not a monophyletic group and the suffix is chosen over -bacter, often simply out of stylistic preferences to match with Greek words. The first genus to be given the suffix -monas was Pseudomonas, a genus of gammaproteobacteria. The generic epithet Pseudomonas was coined by Walter Migula in 1894, who did not give an etymology. Since the 7th edition of Bergey's manual (=top authority in bacterial nomenclature), other authors have given the etymology to be: Greek pseudēs (ψευδής, false) and monas (μονάς, single unit or monad), which can mean "false unit". However, "false unit" conceptually does not make much sense, namely, it does not mean "an organism which may falsely appear as a single unit but it is not" as it is not found in multicellular chains nor was it ever described as such. One speculation is that the name was chosen simply out of aesthetics, while the most plausible theory states that Migula intended it


id: omics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omics-0.md
category: reference
title: Omics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:51.894950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: omics-20260505-0
summary:
Omics is the collective characterization and quantification of entire sets of biological molecules and the investigation of how they translate into the structure, function, and dynamics of an organism or group of organisms. The branches of science known informally as omics are various disciplines in biology whose names end in the suffix -omics, such as genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, metagenomics, phenomics and transcriptomics. The related suffix -ome is used to address the objects of study of such fields, such as the genome, proteome or metabolome respectively. The suffix -ome as used in molecular biology refers to a totality of some sort; it is an example of a "neo-suffix" formed by abstraction from various Greek terms in -ωμα, a sequence that does not form an identifiable suffix in Greek. Functional genomics aims at identifying the functions of as many genes as possible of a given organism. It combines different -omics techniques such as transcriptomics and proteomics with saturated mutant collections. == Origin == The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) distinguishes three different fields of application for the -ome suffix: in medicine, forming nouns with the sense "swelling, tumour" in botany or zoology, forming nouns in the sense "a part of an animal or


id: omics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omics-1.md
category: reference
title: Omics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:51.894950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: omics-20260505-0
summary:
Sampling methods focused on collecting representative samples of the local environment, either from oral swabs or stool. Culturomics (microbiology) is the high-throughput cell culture of bacteria that aims to comprehensively identify strains or species in samples obtained from tissues such as the human gut or from the environment. Microfluidics gut-on-a-chip devices, which simulate the conditions of the gut and allow analysis of changes to the microbiome that can be more accurately monitored than in situ. Mechanical DNA extraction techniques and gene amplification methods, such as PCR, to analyze the genomic profile of the entire microbiome. DNA fingerprinting using microarrays and hybridization techniques allow analysis of shifts in microbiota populations. Multi-omics studies allow for functional analysis of microbiota. Animal models can be used to take more accurate samples of the in situ microbiome. Germ-free animals are used to implant a specific microbiome from another organism to yield a gnotobiotic model. These can be studied to see how it changes under different environmental conditions. === Lipidomics === The lipidome is the entire complement of cellular lipids, including the modifications made to a particular set of lipids, produced by an organism or system. Lipidomics: Large-scale study of pathways and networks of lipids. Mass


id: onym-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-onym-0.md
category: reference
title: -onym
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-onym
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:53.225045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: onym-20260505-0
summary:
The suffix -onym (from Ancient Greek: ὄνυμα, lit. 'name') is a bound morpheme, that is attached to the end of a root word, thus forming a new compound word that designates a particular class of names. In linguistic terminology, compound words that are formed with suffix -onym are most commonly used as designations for various onomastic classes. Most onomastic terms that are formed with suffix -onym are classical compounds, whose word roots are taken from classical languages (Greek and Latin). For example, onomastic terms like toponym and linguonym are typical classical (or neoclassical) compounds, formed from suffix -onym and classical (Greek and Latin) root words (Ancient Greek: τόπος / place; Latin: lingua / language). In some compounds, the -onym morpheme has been modified by replacing (or dropping) the "o". In the compounds like ananym and metanym, the correct forms (anonym and metonym) were pre-occupied by other meanings. Other, late 20th century examples, such as hypernym and characternym, are typically redundant neologisms, for which there are more traditional words formed with the full -onym (hyperonym and charactonym). The English suffix -onym is from the Ancient Greek suffix -ώνυμον (ōnymon), neuter of the suffix ώνυμος (ōnymos), having a specified kind of name,


id: onym-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-onym-1.md
category: reference
title: -onym
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-onym
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:53.225045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: onym-20260505-0
summary:
acronym: considered to be a "word" in its original sense formed from the initials of one or more words that is pronounceable like a normal word, such as NATO, sometimes in distinction to initialism; reflecting a historical development from its component word initials agoronym: a name of a square or a marketplace. agronym: a name of a field or a plain. allonym: an author's name of another person — often, a well-known person's name; an alternative term for a pseudonym anacronym: an acronym so well-established that its origin as an abbreviation is no longer widely known and its component initials are in danger of no longer being recognized (a blend of anachronism and acronym) andronym: a male name, or a man's name adopted by a woman as a pseudonym. anonym: something created anonymously, or its creator; an unknown author; this term now generally replaced by pseudonym anemonym: name of a hurricane or violent wind anepronym: a portmanteau of anacronym and eponym; an original eponym of a trademark term that becomes so well established that it is used to define other objects that share its own definition (e.g., aspirin) anthroponym: a proper name of a human being, individual or collective. anthropotoponym:


id: onym-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-onym-2.md
category: reference
title: -onym
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-onym
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:53.225045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: onym-20260505-0
summary:
exotoponym: a type of toponym (place name) of exonymic (foreign) origin, created and used by those who don't belong to the native population of a region in which the referred toponymic feature is located. gamonym: a name bestowed as a consequence of marriage. Judy Jones married Count Stephen Smith: her gamonyms include Mrs. Stephen Smith, Judy Smith, and Countess Smith. geonym: a name of a geographic feature, on Earth. glacionym: a name of a glacier. glossonym or glottonym: a name of a language gynonym: a female name, or a woman's name adopted by a man as a pseudonym. hagionym: a name of a saint. hagiotoponym: a type of toponym (place name) derived from a hagionym (name of a saint). helonym: a name of a swamp, marsh, or bog. heterochresonym: (biological taxonomy) see chresonym. heteronym: a word that is spelled in the same way as another but that has a different sound and meaning, for example "bow" as in "bow of a ship" or "bow and arrow" (compare "homonym") hodonym: a name of a street or road (also odonym). holonym: a word for the whole of which other words are part, in the way house contains roof, door and window; or


id: onym-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-onym-3.md
category: reference
title: -onym
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-onym
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:53.225045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: onym-20260505-0
summary:
tautonym: a binomial or scientific name in the taxonomy of living things in which the generic and specific names are the same, such as Gorilla gorilla; a scientific name in which the specific name is repeated, such as Homo sapiens sapiens as distinct from Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; a noun component that is repeated, such as aye-aye or tom-tom; a personal name where both forename and surname are identical, such as Francis Francis taxonym: a name used for classification or identification purposes, usually signifying a relationship to something. Taxonyms include binomens, names of clades or taxas, demonyms, ethnonyms, and eponyms. Examples include canine, hominid, and Dryad. teknonym: a name that refers to a parent by the name of one of their children. textonym: a word that is generated by a single sequence of numerals keyed in to a mobile telephone; for example, 726 produces pam, ram, sam, and ran. Also called homonumeric words. theonym: a name of a god or a goddess. The names societies give their gods at times is useful in understanding the origin of their language as well as their view of a particular deity. Analysis of theonyms has been useful in understanding the connections of Indo-European languages,


id: phoresis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-phoresis-0.md
category: reference
title: -phoresis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-phoresis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:54.388999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phoresis-20260505-0
summary:
The suffix -phoresis means "migration": Phoresis, where one organism attaches itself to another for travel. Diffusiophoresis, motion observed in liquid environments where chemical gradients are generated by contact between solutions with different solute concentrations Electrophoresis, motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially uniform electric field Isotachophoresis, technique in analytical chemistry used to separate charged particles Necrophoresis, disposal of bodies of dead members of their colony in social insects Thermophoresis, phenomenon observed when a mixture of two or more types of motile particles (particles able to move) is subjected to the force of a temperature gradient and the different types of particles respond to it differently == See also == Apheresis ('taking away'), where a constituent of blood is separated out and the remainder returned to the circulation == External links == The dictionary definition of -phoresis at Wiktionary


id: yllion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-yllion-0.md
category: reference
title: -yllion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-yllion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:56.940379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yllion-20260505-0
summary:
-yllion (pronounced ) is a proposal from Donald Knuth for the terminology and symbols of an alternate decimal superbase system. In it, he adapts the familiar English terms for large numbers to provide a systematic set of names for much larger numbers. In addition to providing an extended range, -yllion also dodges the long and short scale ambiguity of -illion. Knuth's digit grouping is exponential instead of linear; each division doubles the number of digits handled, whereas the familiar system only adds three or six more. His system is basically the same as one of the ancient and now-unused Chinese numeral systems, in which units stand for 104, 108, 1016, 1032, ..., 102n, and so on (with an exception that the -yllion proposal does not use a word for thousand which the original Chinese numeral system has). Today the corresponding Chinese characters are used for 104, 108, 1012, 1016, and so on. == Details and examples == In Knuth's -yllion proposal: 1 to 999 still have their usual names. 1000 to 9999 are divided before the 2nd-last digit and named "foo hundred bar." (e.g. 1234 is "twelve hundred thirty-four"; 7623 is "seventy-six hundred twenty-three") 104 to 108 − 1 are


id: scientific-literature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:58.587382+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literature-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific literature encompasses a vast body of academic papers that spans various disciplines within the natural and social sciences. It primarily consists of academic papers that present original empirical research and theoretical contributions. These papers serve as essential sources of knowledge and are commonly referred to simply as "the literature" within specific research fields. The process of academic publishing involves disseminating research findings to a wider audience. Researchers submit their work to reputable journals or conferences, where it undergoes rigorous evaluation by experts in the field. This evaluation, known as peer review, ensures the quality, validity, and reliability of the research before it becomes part of the scientific literature. Peer-reviewed publications contribute significantly to advancing our understanding of the world and shaping future research endeavors. Original scientific research first published in scientific journals constitutes primary literature. Patents and technical reports, which cover minor research results and engineering and design efforts, including computer software, are also classified as primary literature. Secondary sources comprise review articles that summarize the results of published studies to underscore progress and new research directions, as well as books that tackle extensive projects or comprehensive arguments, including article compilations. Tertiary sources encompass encyclopedias and similar works designed


id: scientific-literature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:58.587382+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literature-20260505-0
summary:
Often, career advancement depends upon publishing in high-impact journals, which, especially in hard and applied sciences, are usually published in English. Consequently, scientists with poor English writing skills are at a disadvantage when trying to publish in these journals, regardless of the quality of the scientific study itself. Yet many international universities require publication in these high-impact journals by both their students and faculty. One way that some international authors are beginning to overcome this problem is by contracting with freelance copy editors who are native speakers of English and specialize in ESL (English as a second language) editing to polish their manuscripts' English to a level that high-impact journals will accept. === Structure and style === Although the content of an article is more important than the format, it is customary for scientific articles to follow a standard structure, which varies only slightly in different subjects. Although the IMRAD structure emphasizes the organization of content, and in scientific journal articles, each section (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) has unique conventions for scientific writing style. The following are key guidelines for formatting, although each journal etc will to some extent have its own house style: The title attracts readers' attention


id: scientific-literature-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:58.587382+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literature-20260505-0
summary:
Honesty and integrity is a duty of each author and person, expert-reviewer and member of journal editorial boards. The peer review process contributes to quality control and it is an essential step to ascertain the standing and originality of the research. Redundant publications: Publications generally should contain new unpublished material. Data fabrication is the process of purposefully changing data to make the information more in the favor of the author. Ethical standards: Recent journal editorials presented some experience of unscrupulous activities. Human welfare concerns: The guidelines for human experimentation started during WWII with the Nuremberg Code. It has evolved into three main principles from The Belmont Report. The subject must be able to make their own choices to protect themselves, benefits must outweigh the risks, and subjects must be evaluated for their selection and benefits must go to all of society. Animal welfare concerns: Is the ethical care of animals in scientific experiments. The APS has set strict guidelines and regulations to stop animals from being unnecessarily harmed in experiments. These are being updated regularly by the APS and is a federal law in the United States enforced by DHHS. Authorship: Who may claim a right to authorship? In which


id: list-of-international-databases-on-individual-student-achievement-tests-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of international databases on individual student achievement tests
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:36:59.819238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-international-databases-on-individual-student-achievement-tests-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_databases_on_individual_student_achievement_tests-0.md

summary:
This article contains a list of international databases on individual student achievement tests that can be used for psychometric research. In other words, this table only includes datasets containing items measuring ability and directly answered by students. == See also == List of online databases == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_databases_on_individual_student_achievement_tests


id: list-of-academic-databases-and-search-engines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_databases_and_search_engines-0.md
category: reference
title: List of academic databases and search engines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_databases_and_search_engines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:01.149047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-academic-databases-and-search-engines-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains a representative list of major databases and search engines useful in an academic setting for finding and accessing articles in academic journals, institutional repositories, archives, or other collections of scientific and other articles. As the distinction between a database and a search engine is unclear for these complex document retrieval systems, see: the general list of search engines for all-purpose search engines that can be used for academic purposes the article about bibliographic databases for information about databases giving bibliographic information about finding books and journal articles. Note that "free" or "subscription" can refer both to the availability of the database or of the journal articles included. This has been indicated as precisely as possible in the list: == List == == See also == Academic publishing Google Scholar Lists of databases List of digital library projects List of educational video websites List of neuroscience databases List of online databases List of online encyclopedias List of open access journals Lists of academic journals == References ==


id: brain-blogger-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Blogger-0.md
category: reference
title: Brain Blogger
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Blogger
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:03.982473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brain-blogger-20260505-0
summary:
Brain Blogger is a Scientific American partner biomedical blog sponsored by the Global Neuroscience Initiative Foundation (GNIF) and edited by Shaheen Lakhan. Its byline is "a brain-themed community." It reviews the latest news and stories related to neuroscience/neurology, psychology/psychiatry, and health/healthcare. According to its website, the blog is written by over 100 biomedical professionals—from neurosurgeons to psychologists—and follows the Health On the Net Foundation honor code of medical blogging ethics. It is syndicated by Google News and major media outlets, including Time Warner, San Antonio Express-News, and Sun-Times News Group. Brain Blogger is a finalist for two Seed Media Group's Research Blogging Awards 2010 in the categories "Best Blog — Neuroscience" and "Best Blog — Psychology". Moreover, it ranks first in Blogs.com's "10 Best Brain Blogs". == References == == External links == Official website


id: climate-audit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_Audit-0.md
category: reference
title: Climate Audit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_Audit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:05.250095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climate-audit-20260505-0
summary:
Climate Audit is a blog founded in 2005 by Steve McIntyre. In November 2009 journalist Andrew Revkin described it in The New York Times as "a popular skeptics’ blog" run by McIntyre, a retired Canadian mining consultant. In 2010, a Nature article described the site as part of the "climate change skeptic community" alongside the Air Vent and the Blackboard. == Founding == In 2004 Stephen McIntyre blogged on his website climate2003.com about his efforts with Ross McKitrick to get an extended analysis of the hockey stick graph into the journal Nature. On 25 October 2004 McIntyre posted comments on climate2003.com about a piece by William Connolley circulated on various blogs, and on 26 October wrote, "Maybe I’ll start blogging some odds and ends that I’m working on. I’m going to post up some more observations on some of the blog criticisms." On 1 December Michael E. Mann and nine other scientists launched the RealClimate website as "a resource where the public can go to see what actual scientists working in the field have to say about the latest issues." On climate2003.com McIntyre noted this development in a blog post on 10 December, where he wrote "Mann and some of


id: compound-interest-website-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_Interest_(website)-0.md
category: reference
title: Compound Interest (website)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_Interest_(website)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:06.421945+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: compound-interest-website-20260505-0
summary:
Compound Interest is a website launched in 2013 by Andy Brunning with infographics on everyday chemistry. The infographics describe, for example, how chemicals found in food and nature give them smell, taste, and color. The website has a monthly collaboration with the American Chemical Society. Content of the website is used as information source by various newspapers and media, including the Washington Post, Time, The Conversation, and Forbes. == References ==


id: cosmic-variance-blog-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Variance_(blog)-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmic Variance (blog)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Variance_(blog)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:07.674208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmic-variance-blog-20260505-0
summary:
Cosmic Variance was a collaborative weblog discussing physics, astrophysics, and other topics, written by JoAnne Hewett, Mark Trodden, Sean Carroll, Risa Wechsler, Julianne Dalcanton, Clifford Johnson, John Conway, and Daniel Holz. It was the successor to Carroll's earlier blog Preposterous Universe, which began in early 2004 and ran through much of 2005. The blog's name came from th concept of cosmic variance in cosmology. Cosmic Variance rapidly become "undoubtedly the most popular blog written by physicists." In 2006, Nature reported that it was the fourth most popular science blog and one of only five blogs by scientists in the 3500 most popular blogs. As of July 26, 2007, Cosmic Variance had a Technorati authority of 1001 and rank of 2277. In 2008, the blog became part of the Discover magazine website. Most writing on Cosmic Variance focused on modern physics, astrophysics, and cosmology, at a level accessible to the interested non-scientist. However, topics of discussion ranged widely, including science and religion, science journalism, higher education, and politics. Several discussions on Cosmic Variance gained attention in the print media, including a discussion on women in science that compared physicist Lisa Randall to Jodie Foster and a post by John Conway about


id: day-of-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_of_Archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Day of Archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_of_Archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:08.853588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: day-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
The Day of Archaeology is an annual, 24-hour, international online event in which archaeologists and those in related fields write blog posts about their work. It was inspired by the Day of Digital Humanities and, similarly, allows practitioners of many kinds, to document their work informally and 'provide a window into the daily lives of archaeologists from all over the world'. Though it encourages diversity rather than thematic posts, the project has some similarities to Blog Action Day. == Overview == The first event took place on 27 July 2011. The event is organised by a voluntary committee of archaeologists based in the United Kingdom, United States of America and Spain. The main site runs a customised WordPress content management system and the event is promoted through Twitter and Facebook pages (see External links). The project is supported by several British archaeological and academic organisations: server space is provided on the Portable Antiquities Scheme servers and long-term digital preservation is provided by the Archaeology Data Service. L-P Archaeology and the UCL Centre for Digital Humanities provide technical and management advice. In 2011 and 2013 the event was timed to coincide with the Festival of British Archaeology. The project covers any


id: durma-melhor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durma_Melhor-0.md
category: reference
title: Durma Melhor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durma_Melhor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:10.048691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: durma-melhor-20260505-0
summary:
Durma Melhor ("Sleep Better", translated into English) is a Brazilian blog featuring relevant information on issues related to sleep. Published in Portuguese, the blog content includes articles on nutrition, beauty, exercise, relaxation, environment, technology, scientific studies and frequently asked questions regarding sleep. It also features a selection of videos, podcasts, books, websites, soothing songs available for free download, as well as online tests to assess one's sleep quality and a comprehensive list of sleep labs in Brazil. Durma Melhor contributors include Dr. Flávio Alóe, neurologist and neurophysiologist of the Brazilian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology and a certified physician in Sleep Medicine by the Brazilian Society of Sleep, who's been widely interviewed by Brazilian magazines, newspapers and TV shows, such as Programa do Jô. In April 2010, Durma Melhor launched a channel that allows the general public to send questions and have them answered by experts in sleep medicine. The blog was launched in January 2010 by Marcos Miguel, a Brazilian journalist who's graduated at the Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, in Minas Gerais state. == See also == == References == == External links == Official site


id: geekadelphia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geekadelphia-0.md
category: reference
title: Geekadelphia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geekadelphia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:11.254524+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geekadelphia-20260505-0
summary:
Geekadelphia was a Philadelphia-based weblog focused on entertainment, science, technology and other related areas pertaining to the city of Philadelphia. Founded in 2007, the blog also co-hosted the Philadelphia Geek Awards with the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University. The site ceased operation in November 2017, and it is no longer online. == History == Geekadelphia was founded by Tim Quirino and Eric Smith in 2007, who, according to Smith, "wanted a place to ramble about things that interested us and have a site to host whatever silly videos we'd make." Its first post was published on November 29th, 2007. In its early days, revenue earned from Geekadelphia was only enough to pay for hosting. Events on behalf of the site were created, along with a podcast with Benjamin Gilbert and a webcomic. In 2013, Geekadelphia was rebranded and incorporated in the company Analog Boys. Quirino left for San Francisco in 2014 to work as a designer for Facebook. On November 30, 2017, the site posted a blog titled 'You're Still Here? Go Home' explaining how the site has come to an end. == Events == In 2008, Geekadelphia hosted a Battlestar Galactica-themed party in Old City with The


id: grandma-got-stem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandma_Got_STEM-0.md
category: reference
title: Grandma Got STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandma_Got_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:12.420729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grandma-got-stem-20260505-0
summary:
Grandma Got STEM is a blog by Rachel Levy, a mathematician at Harvey Mudd College, about earlier generations of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Levy founded the blog in March 2013, and by June 2013 had already accumulated 100 posts to it. The blog is aimed at a general audience. Its entries include pictures and stories about women who worked in STEM fields, and are intended to counter stereotypes of older women as being technologically inept, as well as to inspire future generations of women in STEM. As the name of the blog suggests, the women featured on the blog are generally old enough to be grandmothers, although not all of them had children. Although many famous researchers are included, the blog posts also feature women who worked at lower-level teaching and laboratory assistant positions in STEM. == References == == External links == Grandma Got STEM


id: the-incidental-economist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Incidental_Economist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Incidental Economist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Incidental_Economist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:13.635645+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-incidental-economist-20260505-0
summary:
The Incidental Economist is a blog focused on health economics and policy. It was founded in 2009 by Austin Frakt, a health economist at Boston University, who has since been joined by Aaron Carroll, a pediatrician at Indiana University School of Medicine, as co-Editor-in-Chief. The site features posts by the two as well as a number of contributing writers, who are primarily academics based across the United States. The authors often synthesize academic literature as it might relate to contemporary health policy issues. The blog gained prominence in 2009–10 when it was often cited by journalists, such as Ezra Klein, Kevin Drum, Jonathan Cohn and Andrew Sullivan, who were covering the health care reform process that would eventually culminate in the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. The blog remains one of the most widely cited health policy blogs on the Internet. == Regular contributors == Austin Frakt (founder, co-Editor-in-Chief): health economist at the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, associate professor at Boston University, contributor to The New York Times' The Upshot Aaron Carroll (co-Editor-in-Chief): professor of pediatrics and dean for research mentoring at Indiana University School of Medicine, contributor to The New York Times' The Upshot Adrianna McIntyre


id: the-oil-drum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oil_Drum-0.md
category: reference
title: The Oil Drum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oil_Drum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:16.020105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-oil-drum-20260505-0
summary:
The Oil Drum was a website devoted to analysis and discussion of energy and its impact on society that described itself as an "energy, peak oil & sustainability research and news site". The Oil Drum was published by the Institute for the Study of Energy and Our Future, a Colorado non-profit corporation. The site was a resource for information on many energy and sustainability topics, including peak oil, and related concepts such as oil megaprojects, Hubbert linearization, and the Export Land Model. The Oil Drum had over 25 online contributors from all around the globe. In 2013, the site ceased publishing new articles. As of October 2016, the site continues to function as an archive. The Oil Drum was rated one of the top five sustainability blogs of 2007 by Nielsen Netratings, and was read by a diverse collection of public figures, including Roscoe Bartlett, Paul Krugman, James Howard Kunstler, Richard Rainwater, and Radiohead. In 2008, the site received the M. King Hubbert Award for Excellence in Energy Education from the U.S. chapter of the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas (ASPO). The Oil Drum was started in March 2005 by Kyle Saunders (username "Prof. Goose"), a


id: the-panda-s-thumb-blog-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Panda's_Thumb_(blog)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Panda's Thumb (blog)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Panda's_Thumb_(blog)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:17.273178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-panda-s-thumb-blog-20260505-0
summary:
The Panda's Thumb is a blog on issues of creationism and evolution from a mainstream scientific perspective. In 2006, Nature listed it as one of the top five science blogs, and Mark Pallen has called it "the definitive blog on the evolution versus creationism debate". It is written by multiple contributors, including Wesley R. Elsberry, Joe Felsenstein, Paul R. Gross, Nick Matzke, and Mark Perakh, many of whom used to have complementary blogs at ScienceBlogs before it went defunct. The blog takes its name from The Panda's Thumb, the pub of the virtual University of Ediacara, which is named after the book of the same name by Stephen Jay Gould, which in turn takes its title from the essay "The Panda's Peculiar Thumb", which discusses the Panda's sesamoid bone, an example of convergent evolution. == See also == Rejection of evolution by religious groups == References == == External links == Official website Status page


id: physics-arxiv-blog-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_arXiv_Blog-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics arXiv Blog
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_arXiv_Blog
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:18.508294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-arxiv-blog-20260505-0
summary:
The Physics arXiv Blog aims to offer an alternative view of new ideas in science. It is based on, although independent of, the arXiv pre-print repository run by the Cornell University. Started in 2007, in 2009 it was hosted by the MIT Technology Review. In 2013, it was moved to the platform Medium. In 2015, it moved back to the MIT Technology Review. The Physics arXiv Blog has been said to offer “the best physics coverage around" by the Wired journal in May of 2008. It was included among the "Five great physics blogs" by The Guardian. == Publication model == Content appears to be crowd sourced from within the physics community. Similar to The Economist, articles seem to lack specific author bylines. == Notes == == External links == The Physics arXiv Blog official webpage The Physics arXiv Blog webpage on Facebook


id: retraction-watch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_Watch-0.md
category: reference
title: Retraction Watch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_Watch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:19.724506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-watch-20260505-0
summary:
Retraction Watch is a blog that reports on retractions of scientific papers and on related topics. The blog was launched in August 2010 and is produced by science writers Ivan Oransky (Former Vice President, Editorial Medscape) and Adam Marcus (editor of Gastroenterology & Endoscopy News). Its parent organization is The Center for Scientific Integrity (CSI), a US 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. == Motivation and scope == In 2011, Oransky and Marcus pointed out in Nature that the peer review process for scholarly publications continues long after the publication date. They were motivated to launch Retraction Watch to encourage this continuation and to increase the transparency of the retraction process. They observed that retractions of papers generally are not announced, that the reasons for retractions are not publicized, and that other researchers or the public who are unaware of the retraction may make decisions based on invalid results. Oransky described an example of a paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences that reported a potential role for a drug against some types of breast cancers. Although the paper was later retracted, its retraction was not reported in media outlets that had earlier reported its positive conclusions, with a company


id: science-based-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-Based_Medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Science-Based Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-Based_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:20.913143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-based-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Science-Based Medicine is a website and blog with articles covering issues in science and medicine, especially medical scams and practices. Founded in 2008, it is owned and operated by the New England Skeptical Society, and run by Steven Novella and David Gorski. == History == Started as a skeptical medical blog with five writers, Science-Based Medicine (SBM) launched on January 1, 2008. Steven Novella, Harriet Hall, and David Gorski were founding editors, along with Mark Crislip and Kimball Atwood. Science-Based Medicine is owned and operated by the New England Skeptical Society (NESS), where Novella, a clinical neurologist at Yale University and the executive editor of SBM, has served as president since its inception. Gorski, a surgical oncologist at Wayne State University, is the managing editor for SBM. The blog was affiliated with the former Society for Science-Based Medicine (SfSBM), an opinionated education and advocacy group, that registered in 2014 as a Florida nonprofit corporation led by Mark Crislip. The SfSBM was dissolved in 2020, with the Center for Inquiry receiving its funds as a donation and considered by the SfSBM's board to continue its work, following a period of time where SfSBM had merged with SBM. Other key contributors have


id: scienceblogs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceBlogs-0.md
category: reference
title: ScienceBlogs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceBlogs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:22.218337+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scienceblogs-20260505-0
summary:
ScienceBlogs was an invitation-only blog network and virtual community that operated initially for 11 years, from 2006 to 2017. It was created by Seed Media Group to enhance public understanding of science. Each blog had its own theme, specialty and author(s) and was not subject to editorial control. Authors included active scientists working in industry, universities and medical schools as well as college professors, physicians, professional writers, graduate students, and post-docs. On 24 January 2015, 19 of the blogs had seen posting in the past month. Eleven of these had been on ScienceBlogs since 2006. ScienceBlogs shut down at the end of October 2017. In late August 2018, the website's front page displayed a notice suggesting it was about to become active once again. == History == ScienceBlogs was launched in January 2006 with 15 blogs on the network. Seed Media Group had initially contacted the existing science blogging network ScienceBlog.com about a possible partnership, but later launched independently with a similar name and web address. For the launch blogs, Seed invited some of the best-known independent science bloggers and allowed them to blog about whichever subjects they wished. Revenue was generated through advertisements sold to companies who wished to


id: sciencenet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceNet-0.md
category: reference
title: ScienceNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:23.427099+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sciencenet-20260505-0
summary:
ScienceNet (Chinese: 科学网) is a science virtual community and science blog. It was launched by Science Times Media Group (STMG) and is supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Engineering, and the National Natural Science Foundation of China with the mission of establishing global Chinese science community. Since its launch on January 18, 2007, a total of 5,553 scientists and graduate students have blogged on ScienceNet. According to the editorial board of ScienceNet, it has been ranking the top one among Chinese science websites. == Bloggers == Yu-Chi Ho, Professor, Harvard and Tsinghua University Rao Yi, Professor and Dean, School of Life Sciences, Peking University Shi Yigong, Professor and Dean, Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Tsinghua University Lu Bai, Vice President of Biology R&D center, GlaxoSmithKline Wang Hongfei, Chief Scientist, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Li Xiaowen, Director, Remote Sensing and GIS Research Center, Beijing Normal University Wu Yishan, Chief Engineer, Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China Cao Cong, Senior research associate, State University of New York == History == January 18, 2007: official launch April 2008: the selecting blog articles of 2007 year on ScienceNet was published — 《智者不惑》 September–December 2008: held the


id: the-scientific-activist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scientific_Activist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Scientific Activist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scientific_Activist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:24.681403+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-scientific-activist-20260505-0
summary:
The Scientific Activist was a blog that covered science, politics, and science policy. The Scientific Activist gained international recognition in February 2006 when it published information that led to the immediate resignation of Bush administration NASA appointee George Deutsch. Deutsch — who had been accused of censoring scientific information at NASA — claimed to have graduated from Texas A&M University on his résumé, but the blog discovered that Deutsch had not, in fact, completed his degree there. In July 2006, The Scientific Activist was named one of Nature's "Top five science blogs." == Notes and sources == == External links == The Scientific Activist, current site The Scientific Activist, original site (archives January 11—June 21, 2006)


id: slate-star-codex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_Star_Codex-0.md
category: reference
title: Slate Star Codex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_Star_Codex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:27.225137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slate-star-codex-20260505-0
summary:
Astral Codex Ten (ACX), formerly Slate Star Codex (SSC), is a blog focused on science, medicine (especially psychiatry), philosophy, politics, and futurism. The blog is written by Scott Alexander Siskind, a San Francisco Bay Area psychiatrist, under the pen name Scott Alexander. Slate Star Codex was launched in 2013 and was temporarily discontinued on June 23, 2020. In July 2020 the blog was partially back online, with the content restored but commenting disabled. The successor Substack blog, Astral Codex Ten, was launched on January 21, 2021. == Content and author == The site was a primary venue of the rationalist community and also attracted wider audiences. The New Statesman characterizes it as "a nexus for the rationalist community and others who seek to apply reason to debates about situations, ideas, and moral quandaries." The New Yorker describes Alexander's fiction as "delightfully weird" and his arguments "often counterintuitive and brilliant". Economist Tyler Cowen calls Scott Alexander "a thinker who is influential among other writers". The New Yorker states that the volume of content Alexander has written on Slate Star Codex makes the blog difficult to summarize, with an e-book of all posts running over nine thousand pages in PDF form. Many


id: slate-star-codex-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_Star_Codex-1.md
category: reference
title: Slate Star Codex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_Star_Codex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:27.225137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slate-star-codex-20260505-0
summary:
== The New York Times controversy == Alexander used his first and middle name alone for safety and privacy reasons, although he had previously published Slate Star Codex content academically under his real name. In June 2020, he deleted all entries on Slate Star Codex, stating that a technology reporter from The New York Times (NYT) intended to publish an article about the blog using his full name. Alexander said that the reporter told him that it was newspaper policy to use real names, and he referred to it as doxing. The New York Times responded: "We do not comment on what we may or may not publish in the future. But when we report on newsworthy or influential figures, our goal is always to give readers all the accurate and relevant information we can." The Verge cited a source saying that at the time when Alexander deleted the blog, "not a word" of a story about SSC had been written. The Poynter Institute's David Cohn interpreted this event as part of an ongoing clash between the tech and media industries, reflecting a shift from primarily economic conflicts to fundamental disagreements over values, ethics, and cultural norms. Prior to the


id: sociological-images-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Images-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociological Images
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Images
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:28.621187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociological-images-20260505-0
summary:
Sociological Images is a blog that offers image-based sociological commentary and is one of the most widely read social science blogs. Updated daily, it covers a wide range of social phenomena. The aim of the blog is to encourage readers to develop a "sociological imagination" and to learn to see how social institutions, interactions, and ideas affect the individual. Started in 2007 by sociology professor Lisa Wade as a place to swap material for sociology classes, the site developed into a blog aimed at the general public as it attracted more readers. However, the site still includes a strong teaching component, including sample assignments and syllabi for sociology instructors. The site receives about 500,000 visitors per month, most from social media sites and other blogs, such as Jezebel, which partially syndicate it. Reviewers have praised the blog's ability to make sociology accessible to the general public. == History == Sociological images was founded in 2007 by sociology professor Lisa Wade (Occidental College) and hosted at Blogspot to share ideas and teaching resources with other faculty teaching about sociology. Six professors were invited to serve as the foundational bloggers. Early posts included little text because it was assumed the audience would


id: sociological-images-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Images-1.md
category: reference
title: Sociological Images
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Images
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:28.621187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociological-images-20260505-0
summary:
Hosted by The Society Pages, which is a hub for social science blogs and websites, Sociological Images is a blog that is updated daily and often between two and four times a day. The posts are written by Gwen Sharp, Lisa Wade and guest contributors. Each post usually features an image, such as a graph, advertisement, commercial, video clip, product, or screenshot, as well as commentary about the image; most of these images are taken from mainstream websites, other social science sites, or reader submissions. Around 50% of the blog posts focus on analyzing these visual elements of culture. The blog covers a wide variety of sociological topics, such as gender inequality, data mapping, homelessness, lesbian politics, and the environment. The most common topics are gender, sexuality, class, nationalism, race, ethnicity, marketing, and body image; in particular, the site focuses on how American popular culture perpetuates gender inequities. Many of the posts are based on items sent in by readers which Wade and Sharp then analyze; they receive an average of 15 to 20 items per day. According to Wade and Sharp, "involvement of the readership in this way has undoubtedly been key to the site's success; not only does


id: sociological-images-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Images-2.md
category: reference
title: Sociological Images
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Images
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:28.621187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociological-images-20260505-0
summary:
=== Abercrombie & Fitch bikini top === On 19 March 2011, Sociological Images published a post which reported that Abercrombie & Fitch was marketing push up bikini tops at young girls, asking "so, at what age should girls start trying to enhance their cleavage?" Consumers demanded change from the company; as a result, Abercrombie had changed their campaign, describing their tops as "padded". Wade and Sharp write in an article mentioning this incident that "the Abercrombie post had an unusually powerful effect, but Sociological Images routinely receives e-mails and comments from public relations departments of companies responsible for advertisements or products that are analyzed on the site". === Princess Tiana and watermelon candy === On 12 March 2012, Sociological Images published a post arguing that using the Disney character Tiana to advertise watermelon candy perpetrated the racist watermelon stereotype. This criticism was reported on some other blogs. == Teaching tool == Sociological Images is designed to be used as a teaching tool as well as a blog. It is aimed at both lower- and upper-division undergraduates and is a "useful resource to connect classroom work with popular culture and media imagery" as well as "extremely useful for instructors who wish


id: sociological-images-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Images-3.md
category: reference
title: Sociological Images
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Images
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:28.621187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociological-images-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reviews === Sociological Images was reviewed by Karen McCormack in Visual Studies. She praised the blog's ability to explain sociology to those outside academia, writing that "the most exciting thing about Sociological images is that it can truly bring sociology to everyone", but she did point out some "drawbacks" to the blog form itself, such as the lack of space to discuss the original context for some of the images. It was also reviewed by David T. Mayeda in Teaching Sociology, who praised it as "an insightful, thought-provoking site that can be used by sociology instructors and students". He particularly highlights the ways in which the authors "show how discriminatory imagery evolves over time, preserving dominant narratives in society, but manifesting in different ways depending on the social context". He emphasizes that the audience of the site is not other academics, pointing out that the site "tends not to provide deeper theoretical rhetoric in its entries". In their review of the site, MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource for Learning and Online Teaching), wrote that the site "strongly encourages us to develop our sociological imaginations by presenting brief discussions of timely and compelling imagery, spanning the breadth of sociological inquiry". Male


id: watts-up-with-that-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watts_Up_With_That-0.md
category: reference
title: Watts Up With That?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watts_Up_With_That?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:30.032511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: watts-up-with-that-20260505-0
summary:
Watts Up With That? (WUWT) is a blog promoting climate change denial that was created by Anthony Watts in 2006. The blog predominantly discusses climate issues with a focus on anthropogenic climate change, generally accommodating beliefs that are in opposition to the scientific consensus on climate change. Contributors include Christopher Monckton and Fred Singer as guest authors. In November 2009, the blog was one of the first websites to publish emails and documents from the Climatic Research Unit controversy, and a driving force behind its coverage. In the early months of 2010, it was reported the site might be "the most read climate blog in the world," and in 2013 Michael E. Mann referred to it as the leading climate change denial blog. == Content == Watts Up With That features material disputing the scientific consensus on climate change, including claims the human role in global warming is insignificant and carbon dioxide is not a driving force of warming. It has hosted several contributors, such as Christopher Monckton and Fred Singer, in addition to Watts. It is among the most prominent climate change denial blogs, and is described by climatologist Michael E. Mann as the most popular, having surpassed Climate


id: watts-up-with-that-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watts_Up_With_That-1.md
category: reference
title: Watts Up With That?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watts_Up_With_That?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:30.032511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: watts-up-with-that-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Anders, Hansen; Cox, Robert (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Environment and Communication. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134521319. Anshelm, Jonas; Hultman, Martin (2014). Discourses of Global Climate Change: Apocalyptic Framing and Political Antagonisms. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317671060. Brainard, Curtis (2015). Hansen, Anders; Cox, Robert (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Environment and Communication. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-52131-9. Dunlap, Riley; McCright, Aaron (2011). "Organised Climate Change Denial". In Dryzek, John S.; Norgaard, Richard B.; Schlosberg, David (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199566600. Farmer, Thomas G.; Cook, John (2013). Climate Change Science: A Modern Synthesis: Volume 1-The Physical Climate. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9789400757578. Grant, John (2011). Denying Science: Conspiracy Theories, Media Distortions, and the War Against Reality. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1616144005. Retrieved 26 May 2015. Kirilenko, Andrei; Stepchenkova, Svetlana (2014). "Public microblogging on climate change: One year of Twitter worldwide". Global Environmental Change. 26: 171–182. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.02.008. Mann, Michael (1 October 2013). The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars: Dispatches from the Front Lines. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231152556. Manne, Robert (August 2012). "A dark victory: How vested interests defeated climate science". The Monthly. pp. 22–29. Mooney, Chris; Kirshenbaum, Sheril (2010). Summary of Unscientific America:


id: zooborns-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZooBorns-0.md
category: reference
title: ZooBorns
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZooBorns
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:31.737025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zooborns-20260505-0
summary:
ZooBorns is a zoology news blog and book line that announces animal births at AZA, EAZA, CAZA, ZAA, and WAZA accredited zoos and aquariums. ZooBorns was founded in 2008 with the mission to "educate while it entertains", and typically shares related conservation information along with pictures and video of baby animals. ZooBorns has been featured in The Washington Post, NBC News, Discover Magazine, and on the Martha Stewart Show among other media outlets. The site was created by Andrew Bleiman, co-founder of Zooillogix who lives in Chicago, and Chris Eastland, an artist living in Brooklyn. == Content == ZooBorns showcases baby animals as ambassadors for their species in order to build empathy and awareness for the plight of those species in the wild. Content is written to be accessible to a wide audience and typically provides background on individual animals followed by conservation information about the species. The site is notable for providing easily navigable categories enabling it to serve as a non-exhaustive survey of recent juvenile animals at zoos and aquariums. As of May 2012, the site had documented over 1,250 births, comprising over 200 species from over 200 different zoological institutions. == Books == In 2010 ZooBorns released


id: zooillogix-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooillogix-0.md
category: reference
title: Zooillogix
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooillogix
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:33.040021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zooillogix-20260505-0
summary:
Zooillogix is a zoology blog on the ScienceBlogs network, created and edited by Andrew and Benny Bleiman. The site has been featured on ABC News, in Seed magazine, Mental Floss, FHM, and the Annals of Improbable Research, awarders of the Ig Nobel Prize. The site attracts a diverse readership from notable scientists, such as PZ Myers, to biology students to young children. == Content == Zooillogix focuses on bizarre zoological news, covering research published in scientific journals, such as the Public Library of Science (PLoS), as well as stories reported in general news outlets. Typical items include the discovery of new species, newly documented animal behavior, zoo and aquarium industry news, and interviews with scientists and researchers. Content is written to be accessible to a non-scientific audience. == See also == ScienceBlogs ZooBorns == References == == External links == Zooillogix Interview with the Bleiman brothers


id: anthropic-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_Bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic Bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_Bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:34.825537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-bias-20260505-0
summary:
Anthropic Bias: Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy (2002) is a book by philosopher Nick Bostrom. It investigates how to reason when one suspects that evidence is biased by "observation selection effects"—when the evidence has been pre-filtered by the condition that some observer was appropriately positioned to "receive" it. This conundrum is sometimes called the "anthropic principle", "self-locating belief", or "indexical information". The book first discusses the fine-tuned universe hypothesis and its possible explanations, notably considering the possibility of a multiverse. Bostrom argues against the self-indication assumption (SIA), a term he uses to characterize some existing views, and introduces the self-sampling assumption (SSA). He later refines SSA into the strong self-sampling assumption (SSSA), which uses observer-moments instead of observers to address certain paradoxes in anthropic reasoning. == Self-sampling assumption == The self-sampling assumption (SSA) states that: All other things equal, an observer should reason as if they are randomly selected from the set of all actually existent observers (past, present and future) in their reference class. For instance, if there is a coin flip that on heads will create one observer and on tails will create two, then we have two possible worlds, one with one observer and one


id: blue-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Blue Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:36.032379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blue-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Blue Mind: The Surprising Science That Shows How Being Near, In, On, Or Under Water Can Make You Happier, Healthier, More Connected, and Better at What You Do is a bestselling book by marine biologist Wallace J. Nichols about the effects bodies of water have on human health and well-being. == Contents == The book covers "therapeutic landscapes" as they are referred to in medical literature, specifically ones that are near, in, or on the water. The book analyzes studies that suggest living or simply being near bodies of water can have powerful psychological and even physiological effects. === Human condition === Blue Mind considers the impact of water on the human condition and mental health. Author Wallace Nichols told Quartz: People can experience the benefits of the water whether they're near the ocean, a lake, river, swimming pool or even listening to the soothing sound of a fountain. Most communities are built near bodies of water not just for practical reasons, but because as humans, we're naturally drawn to blue space...but even if you aren't in an area where there is easy access to water, you can still experience [its] emotional benefits. Many scribes, poets, painters, and sailors have


id: gory-details-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gory_Details-0.md
category: reference
title: Gory Details
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gory_Details
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:39.692174+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gory-details-20260505-0
summary:
Gory Details: Adventures from the Dark Side of Science is a 2021 non-fiction book by American science journalist Erika Engelhaupt. It examines the more unsavory aspects of science, such as insects and death. The book was published by National Geographic Partners. == Synopsis == Covering a large swath of scientific fields, such as anatomy, psychology, forensics, and entomology, Erika Engelhaupt examines “the gross, the bizarre, the taboo and morbidly fascinating elements of science.” The book is divided into six parts, titled: Morbid Curiosity That's Disgusting Breaking Taboos Creepy Crawlies Gross Anatomy Mysterious Minds Each part contains 6-8 chapters. Each individual chapter can be enjoyed as a stand-alone selection. Complex topics are made more easily accessible through black-and-white illustrations and a glow-in-the-dark cover (hardcover only). == Background == Gory Details began as a blog hosted initially by Science News and later moved to National Geographic. Engelhaupt was inspired to create the blog based on books that she had read and reviewed for Science News. She wanted to write about “weird and morbid science” and “address the things that people are afraid to talk about.” She first presented the idea as a column for the magazine and was rejected, but was then


id: inferior-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Inferior (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:40.982637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inferior-book-20260505-0
summary:
Inferior: How Science Got Women Wrong and the New Research That's Rewriting the Story is a 2017 book by science journalist Angela Saini. The book discusses the effect of sexism on scientific research, and how that sexism influences social beliefs. Inferior was launched in June 2017 at the Royal Academy of Engineering. The book was published by Beacon Press in the United States and Fourth Estate Books in the United Kingdom. == Reception == According to journalist Chantal Da Silva of The Independent, Angela Saini "paints a disturbing picture of just how deeply sexist notions have been woven into the fabric of scientific research" and concluded that her work "presents the rest of the scientific community with an important challenge: to acknowledge and correct a deep-rooted bias – and to help rewrite the role of women in the story of human evolution". Science journalist Nicola Davis writing for The Guardian stated that Saini "discovers that many of society’s traditional beliefs about women are built on shaky ground" and that "Saini’s scrutiny of the stereotype of men as hunters, leaving women to tend hearth and home, is eye-opening". Journalist Anjana Vaswani in the Ahmedabad Mirror wrote that Saini "exposes Charles Darwin's


id: the-intelligent-man-s-guide-to-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Intelligent_Man's_Guide_to_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Intelligent_Man's_Guide_to_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:42.250683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-intelligent-man-s-guide-to-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science is a general guide to the sciences by the American writer and scientist Isaac Asimov. It was first published in 1960 by Basic Books. Revised versions were published as The New Intelligent Man's Guide to Science (1965), Asimov's Guide to Science (1972), and Asimov's New Guide to Science (1984). The book received positive reviews, praising it as a well-written work on science. == Background and publication history == Asimov was first contacted by Leon Svirsky of Basic Books in 1957 about the possibility of writing a book that would provide an overview of science, and the two met at Asimov's home on 13 May to discuss the details. Six days later, Asimov received a contract for the book, along with a $1500 advance. At this point in his life, it had been just over a year since Asimov had given up his teaching duties at Boston University and taken up writing full-time. He had published 11 nonfiction books, including books on chemistry, physics, astronomy, a college-level biochemistry textbook, and a collection of science essays. However, he was momentarily daunted by the prospect of writing a major book on all of science, and he delayed


id: man-and-matter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_and_Matter-0.md
category: reference
title: Man and Matter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_and_Matter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:43.608386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: man-and-matter-20260505-0
summary:
Man and Matter - Essays Scientific & Christian is a 1951 book written by a British chemist, museum curator and historian of science Frank Sherwood Taylor. The work presents a critical mind's account of the clash between religion and science. It provides insights into a unique perspective of a person, who has been received into the Catholic Church after forty years of struggling to find his way in a conflicted world of scientific and religious explanations. The book consists of a preface, personal introduction, and twelve essays, read to the followers of the Catholic Church. The essays reflect on various, more or less controversial issues dividing religion and science, such as materialism, pain, and morality. They have been written at different times and therefore represent the shifting views of the author, as he searches for decisive arguments. All essays have been intended to fall in line with "the Christian doctrine and common sense". == Book contents == === Preface === In the preface, the author informs the reader of the position he has assumed when writing the essays - one of a formerly confused, but now reassured, believer. === Personal introduction === First chapter, adequately titled Personal Introduction, gives insightful


id: the-merger-of-knowledge-with-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Merger_of_Knowledge_with_Power-0.md
category: reference
title: The Merger of Knowledge with Power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Merger_of_Knowledge_with_Power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:44.878360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-merger-of-knowledge-with-power-20260505-0
summary:
The Merger of Knowledge with Power: Essays in Critical Science is a book written in 1990 by Jerome Ravetz. The book contains a series of essays which touch upon science and policy, the role of ideologies in scientific progress, and broader themes of history and philosophy of Science, with critical attention to points of friction between science and society. "We can best understand this anthology as a 20-year continuation of his seminal study, Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems". In this book Ravetz invites us to consider science and its prodigious achievements on the face of the growing awareness that science is also at the root of many modern problems. In the opening essay "A critical awareness of science" he suggests adopting the perspective of the poor, and considering where science has failed them. In the essay on "Francis Bacon and the Reform of Philosophy" Ravetz argues that Bacon's audacious reform programme owed much more to his religion views, hopes and expectation than is normally accounted for. The Chapter "Ideological Commitment in the Philosophy of Science' offers Ravetz's first hand reading of the relevance of ideology in the philosophies of science of Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, Imre Lakatos and Paul


id: metaphysical-foundations-of-natural-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_Foundations_of_Natural_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_Foundations_of_Natural_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:46.180367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metaphysical-foundations-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (German: Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft) is a 1786 book by the philosopher Immanuel Kant. == Summary == The book is divided into four chapters. The chapters are concerned with the metaphysical foundations of phoronomy (now called kinematics), dynamics, mechanics, and phenomenology. == Reception == Kant's book was a basic influence on the rise of science departments of the universities in the German-speaking countries in the nineteenth century. Hans Christian Ørsted wrote "Differential and integral calculus consist of nothing but .. thought experiments and considerations of them. ... In his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, Kant has given us the most beautiful examples of this kind of presentation, without, however, drawing attention to it himself." Kurt Gödel was influenced by Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft. Gödel studied it while a member of the Vienna Circle. == Notes == == External links == Works related to The Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science at Wikisource


id: mission-earth-voyage-to-the-home-planet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission:_Earth,_Voyage_to_the_Home_Planet-0.md
category: reference
title: Mission: Earth, Voyage to the Home Planet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission:_Earth,_Voyage_to_the_Home_Planet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:47.522287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mission-earth-voyage-to-the-home-planet-20260505-0
summary:
Mission: Earth, Voyage to the Home Planet is a children's literature book by science writer June A. English and astronaut Thomas David Jones that was published in 1996 by Scholastic. Jones was among the crew members of the Space Shuttle Endeavour during an eleven-day mission in space, which was launched in April 1994 to study the ecological well-being of Earth using specialized radar technology. The book, which is illustrated with radar images and picturesque photographs, chronicles the mission and Jones' experiences of it. Mission: Earth, Voyage to the Home Planet received a generally favorable reception in media coverage and book reviewers. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette said, "The authors convey the awe and wonderment of seeing Earth from space and the intricate delicacy of the Earth's ecology". The Dallas Morning News said, "The astronaut's descriptions are vivid". A review in Booklist was more critical; it said, "The authors try to cover too much in so few pages, and the narrative, with several focal points, becomes simplified at times". School Library Journal wrote, "It provides a unique look at a new method of research and an opportunity for youngsters to read one scientist's account of what it's like to engage in this exciting


id: on-gaia-a-critical-investigation-of-the-relationship-between-life-and-earth-20260505-0
category: reference
title: On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:48.747051+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: on-gaia-a-critical-investigation-of-the-relationship-between-life-and-earth-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Gaia:_A_Critical_Investigation_of_the_Relationship_between_Life_and_Earth-0.md

summary:
On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth is a 2013 book by Earth system scientist Toby Tyrrell, which critically examines the Gaia hypothesis, originally proposed by James Lovelock in the 1970s. The Gaia hypothesis suggests that life on Earth actively contributes to maintaining the planet's habitability through complex interactions between living organisms and their environment. Tyrrell's book argues against the credibility of this hypothesis, drawing on evidence from a wide range of scientific disciplines including climate science, oceanography, atmospheric science, geology, ecology, and evolutionary biology. Through a detailed analysis of the interactions between life and Earth, Tyrrell concludes that the biologically mediated feedback mechanisms proposed by the Gaia hypothesis are not the main reason for Earth's past environmental stability and do not ensure protection against poor human stewardship of the planet. == Summary == The Gaia hypothesis, first proposed by James Lovelock in 1972 and later developed together with biologist Lynn Margulis, suggested that life on Earth regulates the planet to maintain conditions favorable for life, even implying altruistic acts by organisms for the benefit of the global environment. Although initially attracting interest and support by some scientists, the hypothesis was largely rejected by the

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Gaia:_A_Critical_Investigation_of_the_Relationship_between_Life_and_Earth


id: on-gaia-a-critical-investigation-of-the-relationship-between-life-and-earth-20260505-1
category: reference
title: On Gaia: A Critical Investigation of the Relationship between Life and Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:48.747051+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: on-gaia-a-critical-investigation-of-the-relationship-between-life-and-earth-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Gaia:_A_Critical_Investigation_of_the_Relationship_between_Life_and_Earth-1.md

summary:
== Reviews == Scott K. Johnson highlighted the book's thorough, evidence-based analysis, though he noted that it could be challenging for readers without a background in the subject. William H. Schlesinger viewed Tyrrell's book as a systematic and well-reasoned critique of the Gaia theory. Schlesinger appreciated Tyrrell's dispassionate examination and noted that the book effectively highlighted the flaws in the Gaia hypothesis, particularly its failure to account for the Earth's less-than-optimal conditions for life and its inability to explain the planet's climate stability over time. He also commended the book for being well-produced and easy to read. Schlesinger concluded that Tyrrell's work signified the end of the Gaia theory as a viable explanation in planetary ecology. Wilkinson acknowledged Tyrrell's extensive analysis of the Gaia hypothesis and recognized the significance Tyrrell placed on the idea, despite ultimately concluding that the concept as a whole is incorrect. Wilkinson appreciated Tyrrell's exploration of the different interpretations of Gaia, particularly the distinction between "coevolutionary Gaia" and "homeostatic Gaia," although he disagreed with Tyrrell's view that the coevolutionary aspect should be seen as a rival theory rather than part of Gaia. Wilkinson highlighted Tyrrell's emphasis on the difficulties of defining Gaia and the skepticism from

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Gaia:_A_Critical_Investigation_of_the_Relationship_between_Life_and_Earth


id: science-on-the-verge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_the_Verge-0.md
category: reference
title: Science on the Verge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_the_Verge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:50.018185+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-on-the-verge-20260505-0
summary:
Science on the verge is a book written in 2016 by group of eight scholars working in the tradition of Post-normal science. The book analyzes the main features and possible causes of the present science's crisis. == Content == Science on the verge, written by Alice Benessia, Silvio Funtowicz, Mario Giampietro, Ângela Guimarães Pereira, Jerome Ravetz, Andrea Saltelli, Roger Strand, and Jeroen P. van der Sluijs, with a preface by Dan Sarewitz, follows different threads of the present science's crisis (lost reproducibility, collapsing peer review, perverse metrics, evidence based policy's dysfunctions, techno-science and its hubris, science as metaphysics ...) and presents a first systematic analysis of the main causes of the present predicaments. Chapter 1. The chapter entitled 'Who will solve the crisis in science?' tackles the following questions: Is there a crisis? What is being done 'from within'? Is this sufficient? What are the diagnoses for the crisis' root causes, and what are the solutions 'from without'? Chapter 2. This is chapter entitled 'The fallacy of evidence based policy' tackles: Quantification as hypocognition; Socially constructed ignorance & uncomfortable knowledge; Ancien régime syndrome; Quantitative story telling. Chapter 3. This is chapter entitled 'Never late, never lost, never unprepared' treats: Trajectories


id: scientific-knowledge-and-its-social-problems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Knowledge_and_Its_Social_Problems-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Knowledge_and_Its_Social_Problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:51.283845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-knowledge-and-its-social-problems-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems is a 1971 book by Jerome Ravetz. It contains a reasoned illustration of science as a social process with all the failings and imperfections of other human endeavors. == Content == It is impossible to understand the social and ethical problems confronting science without recognizing the falsity of the assumption, crucial to traditional theories of science, that the results of scientific research must be essentially good and true. Dr. Ravetz demonstrates the role of choice and value-judgment, and the inevitability of error, in scientific research. Important aspects of the book are the social construction of facts, science as a craft with essential tacit elements, the role of choice and value judgment, and the inevitability of error. The book argues that the internal quality control system of industrialized science will suffer severe problems: "The problem of quality control in science is thus at the centre of the social problems of the industrialized science of the present period." James H. Moor (1973) summarizes the main claims of Ravetz's work are as follows: "First, historically the social character of science has undergone tremendous changes. Secondly, the traditional philosophies of science which conceive of science as an activity


id: uncertainty-and-quality-in-science-for-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_and_Quality_in_Science_for_Policy-0.md
category: reference
title: Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_and_Quality_in_Science_for_Policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:53.758566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uncertainty-and-quality-in-science-for-policy-20260505-0
summary:
Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy is a 1990 book by Silvio Funtowicz and Jerome Ravetz, in which the authors explain the notational system NUSAP (numeral, unit, spread, assessment, pedigree) and applies it to several examples from the environmental sciences. The work is considered foundational to the development of post-normal science. == Content == This work, written by the fathers of post-normal science, discusses the use of science for policy and its problems. The book emphasizes the need for craft skills with numbers – not only in statistics but also in cost-benefit analysis, and on the need of specific skills for policy-related research. It introduces for the first time NUSAP, a new notational system for the management of uncertainty and quality in quantitative information, and presents examples of its application to radiological hazards, the valuation of ecosystems, and to energy technologies. This work is one of the most quoted in the field of science and technology studies - see also Science, technology and society (STS), especially relation to the issue of "democratization of expertise". For Carrozza (2015) and Gooday (2006) this work, together with Ravetz's Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems (1971) constitutes the bedrock for the conceptualization of


id: unsavory-truth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsavory_Truth-0.md
category: reference
title: Unsavory Truth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsavory_Truth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:54.902622+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unsavory-truth-20260505-0
summary:
Unsavory Truth: How Food Companies Skew the Science of What We Eat is a 2018 book by American academic Marion Nestle. In the book, Nestle heavily criticizes research funded by food companies as motivated by increasing profits through marketing. == Background == Public awareness of nutrition has risen in recent decades. Companies have been funding nutrition research since at least the 1940s, and until 1990 disclosure policies of conflict of interest for academics were voluntary. Unsavory Truth was released while potential and actual conflicts of interest in research were being subject to increased attention, particularly around pharmaceutical companies, with relatively limited attention on food. The book was released as Coca-Cola was publicly criticized for pressuring journalists writing about Coca-Cola's health effects, and for its funding of health science for its own gain. === Marion Nestle === Nestle has researched food producers for over two decades, publishing works on specific types of foods rather than the entire industry. Her earlier publications included Food Politics (2002) and Safe Food (2003). In 2016, an email from an Australian public relations company warning Coca-Cola to monitor Nestle's comments was released in the 2016 Democratic National Committee email leak. == Content == The book covers


id: zoobiquity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoobiquity-0.md
category: reference
title: Zoobiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoobiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:56.141145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoobiquity-20260505-0
summary:
Zoobiquity is a 2012 non-fiction science book co-written by the cardiologist Barbara Natterson-Horowitz and Kathryn Bowers. It was a New York Times Bestseller. == Content == The book takes a cross-species approach to medical maladies, highlighting the many afflictions that plague humans as well as animals. It documents UCLA cardiologist Natterson-Horowitz’s experiences as a cardiovascular consultant to the Los Angeles Zoo. The authors also consulted medical and veterinary journals (such as Journal of the American College of Cardiology, Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, The New England Journal of Medicine, and Journal of Experimental Biology), as well as newspapers and science magazines. The book is divided into twelve chapters, with each focusing on a human condition alongside its animal parallel. Topics cover a broad range of disease-both physical and behavioral. The authors point out cross-species risk factors, such as the finding that both jaguars and many Ashkenazi Jewish women carry the BRCA1 genetic mutation that increases breast cancer risk. It also discusses practices that reduce risk factors in animals, noting that both dairy cows and spayed dogs are at reduced risk of breast cancer. The book highlights diseases that are found in both humans and animals, including obsessive-compulsive disorder in


id: above-and-beyond-1952-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_and_Beyond_(1952_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Above and Beyond (1952 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_and_Beyond_(1952_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:57.781437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: above-and-beyond-1952-film-20260505-0
summary:
Above and Beyond is a 1952 American World War II docudrama film directed by Melvin Frank and Norman Panama about Lt. Col. Paul W. Tibbets Jr., the pilot of the aircraft that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima in August 1945. The film stars Robert Taylor as Tibbets and features a love story with Eleanor Parker as his wife. == Plot == Col. Paul W. Tibbets Jr. is assigned to a dangerous mission testing a new bomber, the Boeing B-29 Superfortress. The perilous assignment has caused his wife Lucy to worry for his life and whether their marriage can survive the constant separations. After a year of scrutiny, Maj. Gen. Vernon C. Brent, who championed Tibbets as a test pilot, selects him to lead a new unit in the Pacific war flying the B-29, armed with a new secret weapon. Scientists of the Manhattan Project explain their secret weapon, the atomic bomb. Along with Maj. Bill Uanna, the only other person who knows what the mission will entail, Tibbets is expected to keep strict discipline over the personnel assigned to a B-29 conversion unit at Wendover Field, Utah. When families of crew members are brought to Wendover, tensions erupt between


id: apollo-13-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Apollo 13 (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:59.048022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apollo-13-film-20260505-0
summary:
Apollo 13 is a 1995 American docudrama film directed by Ron Howard and starring Tom Hanks, Kevin Bacon, Bill Paxton, Gary Sinise, Ed Harris and Kathleen Quinlan. The screenplay by William Broyles Jr. and Al Reinert dramatizes the aborted 1970 Apollo 13 lunar mission and is an adaptation of the 1994 book Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13, by astronaut Jim Lovell and Jeffrey Kluger. The film tells the story of astronauts Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise aboard the ill-fated Apollo 13 for the United States' fifth crewed mission to the Moon, which was intended to be the third to land. En route, an on-board explosion deprives their spacecraft of much of its oxygen supply and electrical power, which forces NASA's flight controllers to abandon the Moon landing and improvise scientific and mechanical solutions to get the three astronauts to Earth safely. Howard went to great lengths to create a technically accurate movie, employing NASA's assistance in astronaut and flight-controller training for his cast and obtaining permission to film scenes aboard a reduced-gravity aircraft for realistic depiction of the weightlessness experienced by the astronauts in space. Released in theaters by Universal Pictures in the United States on


id: apollo-13-film-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)-1.md
category: reference
title: Apollo 13 (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:59.048022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apollo-13-film-20260505-0
summary:
== Plot == On July 20, 1969, astronaut Jim Lovell hosts a party where guests watch Neil Armstrong's televised first steps on the Moon from Apollo 11. Lovell, who orbited the Moon on Apollo 8, tells his wife Marilyn that he will return to the Moon to walk on its surface. Three months later, as Lovell is conducting a VIP tour of NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building, his boss Deke Slayton informs him that his crew will fly Apollo 13 instead of 14, swapping flights with Alan Shepard's crew. Lovell, Ken Mattingly, and Fred Haise train for their mission. Days before launch in April 1970, Mattingly is exposed to German measles, and the flight surgeon demands his replacement with Mattingly's backup, Jack Swigert. Lovell resists breaking up his team, but relents when Slayton threatens to bump his crew to a later mission. As the launch date approaches, Marilyn has a nightmare about her husband dying in space, and tells Lovell she will not go to Kennedy Space Center to see him off for an unprecedented fourth launch. She later changes her mind and surprises him. On launch day, Flight Director Gene Kranz in Houston's Mission Control Center gives the go for


id: apollo-13-film-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)-2.md
category: reference
title: Apollo 13 (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:59.048022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apollo-13-film-20260505-0
summary:
Kathleen Quinlan as Marilyn Gerlach Lovell, Jim's wife Jean Speegle Howard (Ron Howard's mother) as Blanche Lovell, Jim's mother Mary Kate Schellhardt as Barbara Lovell, Jim's older daughter Max Elliott Slade as James "Jay" Lovell, Jim's older son Emily Ann Lloyd as Susan Lovell, Jim's younger daughter Miko Hughes as Jeffrey Lovell, Jim's younger son Rance Howard (Ron Howard's father) as the Lovell family minister Tracy Reiner as Mary Haise, Fred's wife Michele Little as Jane Conrad Cameos: Jim Lovell appears as Captain Leland Kirkemo of the recovery ship USS Iwo Jima; Howard had intended to make him an admiral, but Lovell himself, having retired as a captain, chose to appear in his actual rank (and wearing his own Navy uniform). Marilyn Lovell appears among the spectators during the launch sequence. Jeffrey Kluger appears as a television reporter. Horror film director Roger Corman, a mentor of Howard, appears as a congressman being given a VIP tour by Lovell of the Vehicle Assembly Building, as it had become something of a tradition for Corman to make a cameo appearance in his protégés' films. CBS News anchor Walter Cronkite appears in archive news footage and can be heard in newly recorded announcements,


id: apollo-13-film-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)-3.md
category: reference
title: Apollo 13 (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:59.048022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apollo-13-film-20260505-0
summary:
Principal photography for Apollo 13 started in August 1994. Howard anticipated difficulty in portraying weightlessness in a realistic manner. He discussed this with Steven Spielberg, who suggested filming aboard the KC-135 airplane, which can be flown in such a way as to create about 23 seconds of weightlessness, a method NASA has always used to train its astronauts for space flight. Howard obtained NASA's permission and assistance to obtain three hours and 54 minutes of filming time in 612 zero-g maneuvers. Filming in this environment was a time and cost saver because the stage recreation and computer graphics would have been expensive. The final three weeks of filming took place in the stages on the Universal Studios Lot in Universal City, California, where two life-size replicas of both the command module and the lunar module were built for simultaneous shooting on different soundstages. Air-cooling units lowered the temperatures inside each soundstage to around 38 °F (3 °C), to simulate the conditions necessary for condensation and the visibility of the actors' breath inside the spacecraft. Filming wrapped on February 25, 1995. The final scene to be filmed was the splashdown sequence at the film's conclusion, which was shot on a large,


id: apollo-13-film-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)-4.md
category: reference
title: Apollo 13 (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:59.048022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apollo-13-film-20260505-0
summary:
== Box office == Apollo 13 earned $25,353,380 from 2,347 theaters during its opening weekend, which made up 14.7% of the total US gross. Upon its opening, it was ranked number one at the box office, beating Pocahontas. Additionally, it surpassed Forrest Gump for having the largest opening weekend for a Tom Hanks film. Within five days, Apollo 13 generated $38.5 million, becoming the second-highest five-day opening of all time, behind Terminator 2: Judgment Day. The weekend of the film's opening earned $154 million from ticket sales, surpassing the previous record held by the combined Thanksgiving 1992 openings of Aladdin, The Bodyguard and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. It would continue to stay in the number one spot for four weeks until it was dethroned by Waterworld. Earning $355,237,933, Apollo 13 was the third-highest-grossing film of 1995, behind Die Hard with a Vengeance and Toy Story (which also starred Hanks). On September 19, 2025, Apollo 13 began a 30th anniversary re-release in IMAX screenings. As of September 21, 2025, the 2025 re-release has made $627,155 from screenings in 200 IMAX theaters. == Reception == On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 94% of 150 critics' reviews are positive.


id: apollo-13-film-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)-5.md
category: reference
title: Apollo 13 (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:59.048022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apollo-13-film-20260505-0
summary:
In the film, Lovell tells his wife he was given command of Apollo 13 instead of 14 because original commander Alan Shepard's "ear infection is flaring up again"; in fact, Shepard had no "ear infection"; he had been grounded since 1963 by Ménière's disease. This was surgically corrected four years later and he was returned to flight duty in May 1969; Manned Spacecraft Center management felt he needed more training time for a lunar mission. The film portrays the Saturn V launch vehicle being rolled out to the launch pad two days before launch. In reality, the launch vehicle was rolled out on the Mobile Launcher using the crawler-transporter two months before the launch date. The film depicts the crew hearing a bang shortly after Swigert followed directions from mission control to stir the oxygen and hydrogen tanks. In reality, the crew heard the bang 95 seconds later. The film depicts Sy Liebergot suggesting that the oxygen leak was in one or two of Odyssey's fuel cells, and the order to shut them down was passed up to the crew, forcing abort of the lunar landing mission. In reality, Mission Control did not order the shutdown; Haise found the cells


id: apollo-13-film-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)-6.md
category: reference
title: Apollo 13 (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:37:59.048022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apollo-13-film-20260505-0
summary:
If there was a hero, Glynn Lunney was, by himself, a hero, because when he walked in the room, I guarantee you, nobody knew what the hell was going on. Glynn walked in, took over this mess, and he just brought calm to the situation. I've never seen such an extraordinary example of leadership in my entire career. Absolutely magnificent. No general or admiral in wartime could ever be more magnificent than Glynn was that night. He and he alone brought all of the scared people together. And you've got to remember that the flight controllers in those days were—they were kids in their thirties. They were good, but very few of them had ever run into these kinds of choices in life, and they weren't used to that. All of a sudden, their confidence had been shaken. They were faced with things that they didn't understand, and Glynn walked in there, and he just kind of took charge. A DVD commentary track, recorded by Jim and Marilyn Lovell and included with the Signature Laserdisc and later included on both DVD versions, mentions several inaccuracies included in the film, all done for reasons of artistic license: In the film, Mattingly


id: the-beginning-or-the-end-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_or_the_End-0.md
category: reference
title: The Beginning or the End
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_or_the_End
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:00.346150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-beginning-or-the-end-20260505-0
summary:
The Beginning or the End is a 1947 American docudrama film about the development of the atomic bomb in World War II, directed by Norman Taurog, starring Brian Donlevy, Robert Walker, and Tom Drake, and released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The film dramatizes the creation of the atomic bomb in the Manhattan Project and the bombing of Hiroshima. The film originated in October 1945 as a project of actress Donna Reed and her high school science teacher, Edward R. Tompkins, who was a chemist at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Bob Considine wrote the treatment, which was sent to MGM scriptwriters. The title was supplied by President Harry S. Truman. At the time there was a legal requirement that permission be obtained to depict living well-known public figures. Many refused, but others, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer, co-operated. Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., the director of the Manhattan Project, was hired as a consultant for $10,000 (equivalent to $165,000 in 2025). Although the filmmakers put considerable effort into historical accuracy, particularly in details, the film is known for some key distortions of history. An entirely fictional sequence was added in which Truman agonizes over whether to authorize the attack; anti-aircraft shells


id: the-beginning-or-the-end-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_or_the_End-1.md
category: reference
title: The Beginning or the End
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_or_the_End
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:00.346150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-beginning-or-the-end-20260505-0
summary:
The idea for The Beginning or the End originated in October 1945 with actress Donna Reed, and her high school science teacher, Edward R. Tompkins, a chemist at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. According to The Hollywood Reporter issues of December 1945 and January 1946, MGM, Paramount and 20th Century-Fox were all interested in making a film about the Manhattan Project. Paramount's Hal B. Wallis was already working on his own version, titled Top Secret, but agreed to merge his project with MGM's and hand over his story and research, offering to serve as an adviser on the MGM treatment in return for a fixed fee and a percentage of the box office gross. The Beginning or the End had a number of working titles, including Atom Bomb, The Manhattan Project and Top Secret. Writer Bob Considine was hired to produce a treatment, which was submitted to MGM writers. The script underwent a number of revisions, with contributions from Robert Smith, Frank "Spig" Wead, Norman Krasna, David Hawkins, John Lee Mahin, Glenn Tryon, and Ayn Rand, who provided the montage of Hitler's conquests, a sequence in which a dying informant sends a message to Albert Einstein, and the scene in


id: the-beginning-or-the-end-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_or_the_End-2.md
category: reference
title: The Beginning or the End
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_or_the_End
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:00.346150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-beginning-or-the-end-20260505-0
summary:
Military technical advisers for The Beginning or the End included Colonel William A. Considine, Groves's assistant in charge of Security and Public Relations, Major Glen W. Landreth, Major Paul Van Sloun and Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Sweeney, the pilot of Bockscar, the bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Nagasaki. Scientists were alarmed by reports that MGM leading man Clark Gable was being considered for the role of Groves, but were relieved when Brian Donlevy was cast instead. Donlevy usually appeared in villainous supporting roles and indeed, many of the actors cast in the movie appeari films noir: Hume Cronyn for The Postman Always Rings Twice; Joseph Calleia, for Gilda and Deadline at Dawn; and Ludwig Stössel for Fritz Lang's Cloak and Dagger. The portly Groves apparently had no objection to his portrayal by the slim and handsome Donlevy, except for the way in which he was shown bossing industrialists around. He had a scene in which he warned Roosevelt that the invasion of Japan would be opposed by Japanese atomic weapons deleted. Eleanor Roosevelt objected to the casting of Lionel Barrymore as her late husband, due to political remarks that Barrymore had made about the president in 1944. Marx


id: the-beginning-or-the-end-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_or_the_End-3.md
category: reference
title: The Beginning or the End
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_or_the_End
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:00.346150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-beginning-or-the-end-20260505-0
summary:
=== Critical reception === Although The Beginning or the End was the first film to depict the story of the atomic bomb, both critics and the public were confused by the attempt to merge real events and fiction in a docudrama form. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times commented that "despite its generally able reenactments, this film is so laced with sentiment of the silliest and most theatrical nature that much of its impressiveness is marred." Variety, however, described the film as a "portentous tale in broad strokes of masterful scripting and production", and a "sum credit of everybody concerned that the documentary values are sufficiently there without becoming static". Time was less positive, noting that, "even as entertainment ... the picture seldom rises above cheery imbecility." In his Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists review, Harrison Brown considered the movie "poor", with a romantic angle "insipid in the extreme", but was most troubled by way scientific equipment was "over-glamorized" in the film, which he felt gave "a completely false impression of how scientists work." == See also == Day One (1989) Fat Man and Little Boy (1989) Nuclear Secrets, TV mini-series (2007) Manhattan, television series (2014–15) Oppenheimer (2023) ==


id: the-best-of-men-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Best_of_Men-0.md
category: reference
title: The Best of Men
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Best_of_Men
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:01.525844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-best-of-men-20260505-0
summary:
The Best of Men is a 2012 period drama television film, which dramatizes the pioneering work of Dr Ludwig Guttmann with paraplegic patients at Stoke Mandeville Hospital, which led to the foundation of the Paralympic Games. It stars Eddie Marsan and Rob Brydon, and aired on BBC Two. == Plot == Ludwig Guttmann (Marsan) is a Jewish refugee from Nazi Germany, sponsored to stay in the United Kingdom by CARA, while his patients were injured British servicemen, initially bewildered at finding themselves under the care of one of "the enemy". On arrival at the hospital, the patients are kept under sedation, and immobile in bed, a regime leading to bedsores, infection, and, in many cases, death. Dr Guttman insists that the best prognosis for the patients is if they are as mobile as possible. This leads him to clash with the existing staff of nurses and doctors at the hospital, who are accustomed to merely managing the decline of their patients. As he gradually wins the staff over with his determination and optimism, Guttmann faces a further problem in the hopelessness of some of the patients, particularly exemplified by the youngest inmate, William Heath (MacKay), who joined the army from


id: blueprint-for-disaster-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_for_Disaster-0.md
category: reference
title: Blueprint for Disaster
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_for_Disaster
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:02.771652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blueprint-for-disaster-20260505-0
summary:
Blueprint for Disaster is a Canadian documentary television series that premiered in 2004 on Discovery Channel Canada. Produced by Temple Street Productions, the program investigates why and how various disasters have happened. Toronto-based Voice Artist Adrian Bell provided the narration for the first series. As of 2008, two seasons have been produced. == Episodes == === Season 1 === === Season 2 === == See also == Seconds from Disaster Seismic Seconds Mayday Trapped == References == == External links == Official website at the Wayback Machine (archived September 30, 2005) by the Discovery Channel Temple Street Productions Blueprint for Disaster at IMDb


id: the-challenge-2023-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Challenge_(2023_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Challenge (2023 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Challenge_(2023_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:04.208991+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-challenge-2023-film-20260505-0
summary:
The Challenge (Russian: Вызов, romanized: Vyzov) is a 2023 Russian space drama film co-written and directed by Klim Shipenko. Filmed on the International Space Station (ISS), it is the first fictional, feature-length film featuring actors to be shot in space. The film stars Yulia Peresild as a surgeon sent to space to help an injured cosmonaut. The cast also includes Miloš Biković and Vladimir Mashkov. The film crew was accompanied by cosmonauts Anton Shkaplerov, Oleg Novitsky, and Pyotr Dubrov, and NASA astronaut Mark T. Vande Hei. The Challenge marks the first collaboration between the Russian space corporation Roscosmos and the public broadcaster Channel One, with an approximate budget of around 1.155 billion rubles. Filming on the ISS took place for nearly two weeks. The Challenge premiered on Cosmonautics Day and was theatrically released in Serbia and Russia on 20 April 2023 by Central Partnership, on CosMAX, an analogue of IMAX. The film generated more than 1 billion rubles at the box office by the thirteenth day of theatrical showings. It holds the record for the highest-grossing Russian film on its opening day, and it grossed over 2 billion rubles against a production budget of 905 million rubles. == Plot ==


id: the-challenge-2023-film-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Challenge_(2023_film)-1.md
category: reference
title: The Challenge (2023 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Challenge_(2023_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:04.208991+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-challenge-2023-film-20260505-0
summary:
Maxim Stoyanov as Roman Biker, a mission candidate Benik Arakelyan as Rafik, a mission candidate Arthur Beschastnyy as Vasily 'Vasya', a mission candidate Andrey Kuzichev as Valery 'Valera', a mission candidate Sergey Godin as Pavel, a mission candidate Simon Steinberg as Kirill, a mission candidate Mikhail Troynik as Sergey, Zhenya Belyaeva's husband Varvara Volodina as Masha, Zhenya Belyaeva's daughter Danila Fedyunin as Borya, Masha's boyfriend Sofya Skya as Tatiana 'Tanya', an anesthesiologist Marianna Korobeynikova as Ksenia Bogdanova, wife of cosmonaut Oleg Bogdanov == Production == === Background and pre-production === The screening process began on 15 March 2021, as a joint project between Russia's federal space corporation Roscosmos, the state-controlled television network Channel One and production company Yellow, Black and White. The streaming service START took part in partnership with Tinkoff Bank and MegaFon, a company supported by the Cinema Fund Russia. The filming equipment was launched on Progress MS-17 and returned on Soyuz MS-18. According to Konstantin Ernst, Director General of Channel One, the filmmakers wanted to confirm Russia's power in the space sector and restore the prestige of the cosmonaut profession in the eyes of the younger generation (as an example, Yulia Peresild herself did not dream of


id: the-challenge-2023-film-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Challenge_(2023_film)-2.md
category: reference
title: The Challenge (2023 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Challenge_(2023_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:04.208991+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-challenge-2023-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== Marketing === On New Year's Eve, Channel One released the first musical number, and the first teaser trailer was released on 1 January 2023. The second trailer was released on 7 March 2023. On 6 April 2023, the premiere took place on Okhotny Ryad Street, under the descent module of the Soyuz MS-18 spacecraft that was installed near Manezhnaya Square, Moscow. On 10 April, the Cosmos Pavilion No. 32 at the Exhibition of Achievements of National Economy hosted the presentation and cancellation ceremony for a new postage stamp, part of the country's "Modern Russian Cinematography" series, depicting the movie's poster art. The 30-ruble stamp was issued the following Friday to coincide with the film's theatrical release and was accompanied by special postal cancellations at stations in Moscow, Star City and Korolyov in the Moscow Oblast, and elsewhere in Perm, Chelyabinsk and Baikonur. To minimize competition with other films, foreign films such as The Super Mario Bros. Movie and Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves were temporarily removed from the cinema schedule during the rental period. The tagline is "Become a star, by flying to the stars!" === Theatrical === The Challenge was released by Central Partnership, which is part


id: the-challenger-disaster-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Challenger_Disaster-0.md
category: reference
title: The Challenger Disaster
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Challenger_Disaster
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:05.437111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-challenger-disaster-20260505-0
summary:
The Challenger (US title: The Challenger Disaster) is a 2013 TV movie starring William Hurt about Richard Feynman's investigation into the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. The film was co-produced by the BBC, the Science Channel, and Open University, and it premiered on 12 May 2013 on BBC2. It is based on two books What Do You Care What Other People Think? (1988) and Truth, Lies and O-Rings. The film follows Feynman (William Hurt) as he attempts to expose the truth in the disaster. It aired in the U.S. on the Discovery Channel and the Science Channel on 16 November 2013. == Plot == Dr. Richard Feynman, a physics professor at Caltech, gives a guest lecture to students, lamenting on both the power and limitations of science. While driving home, he hears on the radio that the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded on takeoff and that it is very likely the astronauts perished in the accident. Several days later, he receives a phone call from a former student of his, who asks him to sit on the Presidential Commission to determine what caused the accident. Feynman, a vocal opponent of the political games politicians and government play, initially is unsure if


id: challenger-1990-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_(1990_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Challenger (1990 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_(1990_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:07.293372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: challenger-1990-film-20260505-0
summary:
Challenger is a 1990 American disaster drama television film based on the events surrounding the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986. Its production was somewhat controversial as the families of the astronauts generally objected to it. A prologue states that the film was "researched with the consultation of the National Aeronauts and Space Administration" and partly filmed at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. == Plot == The film concentrates on the safety inspections and arguments surrounding the O-rings that ultimately were blamed for the explosion of Challenger. While doing this, it also aims to show the personal humanity of the seven crew members. Generally, the film supports the Space Shuttle program and the dedication of NASA personnel in general while criticizing NASA management. After beginning on the eve of the launch, the rest of the film is told through flashback, beginning on July 19, 1985, when Christa McAuliffe was officially selected to be the first teacher to travel into space. The film ends just as the shuttle takes off on January 28, 1986, following a symbolic scene of each of the seven crew members and passengers reciting in their thoughts John Gillespie Magee Jr.'s poem "High Flight". U.S.


id: creation-2009-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_(2009_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Creation (2009 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_(2009_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:09.638572+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creation-2009-film-20260505-0
summary:
Creation is a 2009 British biographical drama film about Charles Darwin's relationship with his wife Emma and his memory of their eldest daughter Annie, as he struggles to write On the Origin of Species. The film, directed by Jon Amiel and starring real life couple Paul Bettany and Jennifer Connelly as Charles and Emma Darwin, is a somewhat fictionalised account based on Randal Keynes's Darwin biography Annie's Box. == Plot == British naturalist Charles Darwin is a young father who lives a quiet life in an idyllic village. He is a brilliant and deeply emotional man, devoted to his wife and children. Darwin is especially fond of his eldest daughter Annie, a precocious and inquisitive ten-year-old. He teaches her much about nature and science, including his theory of evolution, and tells her stories of his travels. Her favourite story, despite the sad ending, is about the young orangutan Jenny, who is brought from Borneo to the London Zoo, where she finally died of pneumonia in the arms of her keeper. Darwin is furious when he learns that the family clergyman has made Annie kneel on rock salt as punishment for contradicting him about dinosaurs, which she takes as having become


id: creation-2009-film-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_(2009_film)-1.md
category: reference
title: Creation (2009 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_(2009_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:09.638572+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creation-2009-film-20260505-0
summary:
== Releases == The film had its world premiere on 10 September 2009 at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival as the opening night gala presentation, the first non-Canadian film since 1996 to be so honoured. On 24 September 2009, Variety reported that Newmarket Films had acquired the rights to the film, which Newmarket released on 22 January in the U.S. The film was released in the U.K. on 25 September 2009, in Greece on 15 October 2009, in Japan on 20 October 2009 (Tokyo International Film Festival), in New Zealand on 24 December 2009, in the Netherlands on 7 January 2010, in Belgium on 20 January 2010, and in the U.S. and Canada on 22 January 2010. According to producer Jeremy Thomas, the United States was one of the last countries to find a distributor, due to the prominence of controversy about evolution and creation. Thomas said, in the beginning of September 2009: It is unbelievable to us that this is still a really hot potato in America. There's still a great belief that He [God] made the world in six days. It's quite difficult for us in the U.K. to imagine religion in America. We live in a


id: day-one-1989-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_One_(1989_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Day One (1989 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_One_(1989_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:10.888395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: day-one-1989-film-20260505-0
summary:
Day One is a made-for-TV docudrama film about the Manhattan Project, the research and development of the atomic bomb during World War II. It is based on the book by Peter H. Wyden. The film was written by David W. Rintels and directed by Joseph Sargent. It starred Brian Dennehy as General Leslie Groves, David Strathairn as Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Michael Tucker as Dr. Leo Szilard. It premiered in the United States on March 5, 1989 on the CBS network. It won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama/ or Comedy Special at the 41st Primetime Emmy Awards in 1989. The movie received critical acclaim for its historical accuracy despite being a dramatization. == Plot == Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard flees Germany on the last train out and leaves Europe during World War II. He attempts to convince the military in England that a nuclear bomb can be built and that the Germans are already working on it. His idea is filed and ignored. He eventually arrives in the United States where, with the help of Albert Einstein, he persuades the Federal government after a year to build an atomic bomb. The Manhattan Project is started and General


id: end-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: End Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:12.078299+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: end-day-20260505-0
summary:
End Day is a 2005 docu-drama produced by the BBC. It aired on the National Geographic Channel, on the TV series National Geographic Channel Presents, and BBC Three. It depicts a set of five doomsday scenarios. The documentary follows the fictional scientist Dr. Howell, played by Glenn Conroy, as he travels from his London hotel room to his laboratory in New York City, and shows how each scenario affects his journey as well as those around him, with various experts providing commentary on that specific disaster as it unfolds. After each 'End Day' runs its course, the day repeats, this time with the next scenario panning out. The following descriptions of the program were released by the BBC: "Imagine waking up to the last day on Earth..." "Inspired by the predictions of scientists, End Day creates apocalyptic scenarios that go beyond reality. In a single hour, explore five different fictional disasters, from a giant tsunami hitting New York to a deadly meteorite strike on Berlin." == Scenarios == === Mega-Tsunami === A volcanic eruption of Cumbre Vieja on the island of La Palma in the Canary Islands triggers a massive landslide. A sizable portion of the island collapses into the


id: fallout-irish-tv-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout_(Irish_TV_series)-0.md
category: reference
title: Fallout (Irish TV series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallout_(Irish_TV_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:13.307917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fallout-irish-tv-series-20260505-0
summary:
Fallout is a RTÉ two-part fictional, doom laden docudrama. It deals with the nuclear fallout following a hypothetical disaster in the Sellafield Nuclear Reprocessing Plant in Cumbria on the British coast of the Irish Sea. The docu-drama suggests that, due to a changing wind direction, Ireland would bear the brunt of the British accident. The docu-drama was based on the false premise, that such an accident as depicted in the drama could happen and that parts of Ireland would need to be evacuated following a serious accident at Sellafield. Dr Ann McGarry, chief executive of the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, said: "The scenario envisaged in the programme is not realistic and grossly exaggerates the amount of radioactivity that could reach Ireland. The RPII cannot envisage any realistic scenario that would cause the radiation levels in Ireland to reach the concentrations as what was depicted in the drama". Following the dramatized accident, the docu-drama depicts Irish evacuation riots, societal collapse and widespread health impacts. == Episodes == === Part one === Part One aired on 23 April 2006, and focuses on the immediate aftermath of the incident and the implications which may arise for the Irish population. The plot is


id: the-food-that-built-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Food_That_Built_America-0.md
category: reference
title: The Food That Built America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Food_That_Built_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:14.590588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-food-that-built-america-20260505-0
summary:
The Food That Built America is an American nonfiction docudrama series for the History Channel, that premiered on August 11, 2019. Each episode outlines the development of a popular type of food or restaurant in the United States, typically focusing on the rise of two major companies that become rivals. Historical events in the relevant timelines are re-enacted for dramatic effect and interspersed with commentary by culinary historians, business experts, and food enthusiasts. The series was first announced in March 2019 and premiered on August 11, 2019. To date, it has aired six complete seasons; a seventh premiered on April 19, 2026. It is the fourth installment of the That Built franchise. == Episodes == === Series overview === === Season 1 (2019) === === Season 2 (2021) === === Season 3 (2022) === === Season 4 (2023) === === Season 5 (2024) === === Season 6 (2025) === === Season 7 (2026) === == Production == In March 2019, the series was green-lit. In May 2020, the series was renewed for a second season. Yoshi Stone is the series' showrunner. Along with Stone, Kim Woodard, Greg Henry, and Isaac Holub executive produce for Lucky 8. Jim Pasquarella and Mary


id: from-the-earth-to-the-moon-miniseries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_the_Earth_to_the_Moon_(miniseries)-0.md
category: reference
title: From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_the_Earth_to_the_Moon_(miniseries)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:15.915845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: from-the-earth-to-the-moon-miniseries-20260505-0
summary:
From the Earth to the Moon is a 1998 American twelve-part television miniseries co-produced by Ron Howard, Brian Grazer, Tom Hanks and Michael Bostick. The series aired on HBO from April 5 to May 10, 1998. In docudrama format, it tells the story of the Apollo program during the 1960s and early 1970s. Largely based on Andrew Chaikin's 1994 book, A Man on the Moon, the series is known for its accurate telling of the story of Apollo and the special effects under visual director Ernest D. Farino. The series takes its title from, but is not based upon, Jules Verne's 1865 science fiction novel From the Earth to the Moon. Hanks appears in every episode, introducing each of the first eleven. The twelfth and final episode, represented in pseudo-documentary format, is narrated by Blythe Danner, interspersed with a reenactment of the production of Georges Méliès' 1902 film Le Voyage dans la Lune, also in part inspired by Verne's novel. Hanks narrates and appears in these scenes as Méliès' assistant, with Tchéky Karyo as Méliès. == Cast == The miniseries has a fairly large cast. It portrays 30 of the 32 astronauts who flew, or were preparing to fly, the


id: gagarin-first-in-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gagarin:_First_in_Space-0.md
category: reference
title: Gagarin: First in Space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gagarin:_First_in_Space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:17.114395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gagarin-first-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
Gagarin: First in Space a.k.a.. First man In Space (Russian: Гагарин. Первый в космосе, romanized: Gagarin. Pervyy v kosmose) is a 2013 Russian docudrama biopic about the first man in space, Yuri Gagarin, and the 1961 mission of Vostok 1. It was released by Central Partnership theatrically in Russia on June 6, 2013, and in the United Kingdom on DVD on June 23, 2014 by Entertainment One. The film's running time of 108 minutes approximates the time it took Gagarin to go around the Earth before returning. It stars Yaroslav Zhalnin as Soviet fighter pilot and cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. The film received mixed reviews, with some critics praising the film's acting, direction and storytelling with others touching on the film's "cheap-looking" visual effects. The film received criticism for its state funding and ignoring the aftermath of the flight. == Plot == On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin blasted off in a Vostok rocket, becoming the first human in space and orbiting Earth for 108 minutes. He was one of the first group of cosmonauts who were selected from over three thousand fighter pilots throughout the Soviet Union. The legendary top twenty who were selected were the ace of


id: hawking-2004-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_(2004_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Hawking (2004 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_(2004_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:18.382720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hawking-2004-film-20260505-0
summary:
Hawking is a 2004 biographical drama television film directed by Philip Martin and written by Peter Moffat. Starring Benedict Cumberbatch, it chronicles Stephen Hawking's early years as a PhD student at the University of Cambridge, following his search for the beginning of time, and his struggle against motor neurons disease. It premiered in the UK in April 2004. The film received positive reviews, with critics particularly lauding Cumberbatch's performance as Hawking. It received two British Academy Television Awards nominations: Best Single Drama and Best Actor (Cumberbatch). Cumberbatch won the Golden Nymph for Best Performance by an Actor in a TV Film or Miniseries. Cumberbatch's portrayal of Hawking was the first portrayal of the physicist on screen not by himself. == Plot == At Stephen Hawking's 21st birthday party he meets a new friend, Jane Wilde. There is a strong attraction between the two and Jane is intrigued by Stephen's talk of stars and the universe, but realises that there is something very wrong with Stephen when he suddenly finds that he is unable to stand up. A stay in hospital results in a distressing diagnosis. Stephen has motor neurone disease and doctors don't expect him to survive for more than


id: the-heavy-water-war-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Heavy_Water_War-0.md
category: reference
title: The Heavy Water War
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Heavy_Water_War
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:19.725393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-heavy-water-war-20260505-0
summary:
The Heavy Water War (original title Kampen om tungtvannet and alternative title The Saboteurs (United Kingdom)) is a six-episode war drama television miniseries written by Petter S. Rosenlund and produced by Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. It is a Norwegian/Danish/British co-production directed by Per-Olav Sørensen based on the true story of the German nuclear weapon project during the Second World War and the heavy water sabotage in Norway to disrupt it, with a particular emphasis on the role of the Norwegian intelligence officer Leif Tronstad. The first two episodes were initially broadcast on NRK1, on 4 January 2015. The opening episodes had 1,259,000 viewers, which was a record for the opening of a drama series in Norway. In Denmark, the initial broadcast was on 4 May 2015 on TV 2 titled Kampen om det tunge vand. In the UK, the miniseries, retitled The Saboteurs, was aired by More4 from 19 June 2015 and had a good critical reception. The series was released in the UK on DVD and Blu-ray on 10 August 2015. In Poland the show premiered on 15 January 2016 on ipla VOD to very good reviews. Viewing rights for France were bought by Entertainment One, for Benelux by Lumière,


id: hiroshima-1995-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima_(1995_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Hiroshima (1995 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima_(1995_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:21.047019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hiroshima-1995-film-20260505-0
summary:
Hiroshima is a 1995 Japanese-Canadian war drama film directed by Koreyoshi Kurahara and Roger Spottiswoode about the decision-making processes that led to the dropping of the atomic bombs by the United States on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki toward the end of World War II. The three-hour film was made for television (Showtime Network) and had no theatrical release. A combination of dramatization, historical footage, and eyewitness interviews, the film alternates between documentary footage and dramatic recreations. The dramatizations and most of the original footage are presented as sepia-toned images, serving to blur the distinction between them. The languages are English and Japanese, with subtitles, and the actors are largely Canadian and Japanese. == Synopsis == The film opens on 12 April 1945 with the death of Franklin Roosevelt and the succession of Harry Truman to the presidency. In Europe, the Germans are close to surrender, but in the Pacific the bloody battle for Okinawa is still under way. American casualties have almost reached 900,000, with Japanese casualties at 1.1 million; 8 million Asian civilians have died in the war that began with Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. The new president knows nothing about the nuclear weapons being


id: hiroshima-bbc-history-of-world-war-ii-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima:_BBC_History_of_World_War_II-0.md
category: reference
title: Hiroshima: BBC History of World War II
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima:_BBC_History_of_World_War_II
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:22.166321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hiroshima-bbc-history-of-world-war-ii-20260505-0
summary:
Hiroshima is a BBC docudrama that premiered as a television special on 5 August 2005, marking the eve of the 60th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. The programme was aired on the Discovery Channel and BBC America in the United States. The documentary features historical reenactments using firsthand eyewitness accounts and computer-generated imagery of the explosion. The film won an Emmy and three BAFTA awards in 2006. == Summary == The documentary recounts the world's first nuclear attack and examines the repercussions. Covering a three-week period from the Trinity test to the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, the program chronicles America's political gamble and the planning for the momentous event. Archival film, dramatizations, and special effects depict what occurred aboard the Enola Gay and inside the nuclear blast. == Eyewitness interviews == Six Japanese survivors are interviewed: Kinuko Laskey (a nurse in a communications hospital), Morio Ozaki (an army cadet), Teruko Fujii (16-year-old tram driver), Thomas Takashi Tanemori (an eight-year-old schoolboy), Dr. Shuntaro Hida (a doctor at a military hospital), and Akiko Takakura (a 17-year-old city bank clerk). From the United States the interviewees are Paul Tibbets (the commanding officer and pilot of the Enola Gay), Theodore Van Kirk


id: hostile-waters-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostile_Waters_(film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Hostile Waters (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostile_Waters_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:23.327466+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hostile-waters-film-20260505-0
summary:
Hostile Waters is a British 1997 television film about the loss of the Soviet Navy's K-219, a Yankee I class nuclear ballistic missile sub. The film stars Rutger Hauer as the commander of K-219 and claims to be based on the true story, also described in the 1997 book of the same name. The film was produced by World Productions for the BBC and HBO, in association with Invision Productions and UFA Filmproduktions. It was written by Troy Kennedy Martin and directed by David Drury, and was first transmitted on BBC One on 26 July 1997. == Plot == In 1986, the Soviet Navy submarine K-219 performs a Crazy Ivan, and USS Aurora collides with her, causing a rupture of the seal on one of its ballistic missile tubes. The leaking seawater causes a corrosive reaction which floods the sub with toxic gas. The corrosive reaction starts a fire that floods the sub with more toxic gas and smoke. The captain surfaces the boat, moves the crew out to the deck, and attempts to vent the sub. The chief engineer informs the captain that the fire may cook off the nukes and cause a nuclear explosion. The launch doors are


id: life-story-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Story_(film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Life Story (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Story_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:37.077338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: life-story-film-20260505-0
summary:
Life Story (known in a much-shortened version in the United States as The Race for the Double Helix) is a 1987 television historical drama which depicts the progress toward, and the competition for, the discovery of the structure of DNA in the early 1950s. It was directed by Mick Jackson for the BBC's Horizon science series, and stars Jeff Goldblum, Tim Pigott-Smith, Juliet Stevenson, and Alan Howard. It won several awards in the UK and U.S., including the 1988 BAFTA TV Award for Best Single Drama. == Summary == The film dramatises the rivalries of the two teams of scientists attempting to discover the structure of DNA: Francis Crick and James D. Watson at Cambridge University; and Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College London. They are also competing with other scientists in the UK, and with international scientists such as American Linus Pauling. The film manages to convey the loneliness and competitiveness of scientific research but also educates the viewer about how DNA's structure was discovered. It explores the tension between the patient, dedicated laboratory work of Franklin and the sometimes uninformed intuitive leaps of Watson and Crick, against a background of institutional turf wars, personality conflicts, and


id: the-men-who-built-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Men_Who_Built_America-0.md
category: reference
title: The Men Who Built America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Men_Who_Built_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:38.312359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-men-who-built-america-20260505-0
summary:
The Men Who Built America (also known as The Innovators: The Men Who Built America in some international markets) is an eight-hour, four-part miniseries docudrama by the History Channel. It is the first installment of the That Built franchise. == Overview == The series focuses on the lives of Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, J. P. Morgan, and Henry Ford. It tells how their industrial innovations and business empires revolutionized modern society. The series is directed by Patrick Reams and Ruán Magan and is narrated by Campbell Scott. It averaged 2.6 million total viewers (1.2 million adults 25–54 and 1 million adults 18–49) across four nights. == Cast == Additional narration was provided by H. W. Brands, Mark Cuban, Donny Deutsch, Donald Trump, Jim Cramer, and Steve Case. William Jennings Bryan – James Kidd Andrew Carnegie – (The Elder) – Adam Jonas Segaller Andrew Carnegie – (The Younger) – AJ Achinger Thomas Edison – Justin Morck James Fisk – Kenneth Cavett Henry Ford – Cary Donaldson Henry Clay Frick – John C. Bailey Jay Gould – Cameron McNary William McKinley – Dan Odell J. P. Morgan – (The Elder) – Ray Reynolds J. P. Morgan – (The Younger)


id: micro-men-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Men-0.md
category: reference
title: Micro Men
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Men
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:39.524190+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: micro-men-20260505-0
summary:
Micro Men is a 2009 one-off BBC drama television programme set in the late 1970s and the early-mid 1980s, about the rise of the British home computer market and the early fortunes of Sinclair and Acorn Computers. It focuses on the rivalry between Sir Clive Sinclair (played by Alexander Armstrong), who developed the ZX Spectrum, and Chris Curry (played by Martin Freeman), the man behind the BBC Micro. == Plot == The drama is centred on two of the leading players and their respective companies in the home computer market of the late 1970s and early 1980s focusing on the race to win a grant from the BBC to become the provider of a home computer for the BBC's programming for schools. Certain parts of the drama are based on historical fact while others are a dramatisation. The main characters are ZX Spectrum creator Clive Sinclair and BBC Micro creators Chris Curry, Sophie Wilson, Steve Furber and Hermann Hauser. The real-life Wilson also makes a brief cameo as a barmaid. == Cast == Alexander Armstrong as Clive Sinclair Martin Freeman as Chris Curry Edward Baker-Duly as Hermann Hauser Sam Phillips as Steve Furber Stefan Butler as Roger Wilson Colin Michael


id: moonshot-2009-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonshot_(2009_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Moonshot (2009 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonshot_(2009_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:40.719017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moonshot-2009-film-20260505-0
summary:
Moonshot is a 2009 television film depicting the story leading up to the landing of Apollo 11's Lunar Module Eagle on the surface of the Moon on 20 July 1969. == Cast == James Marsters as Buzz Aldrin Andrew Lincoln as Michael Collins Ursula Burton as Marilyn Lovell Daniel Lapaine as Neil Armstrong William Hope as Psychologist Anna Maxwell Martin as Janet Armstrong Colin Stinton as Bob Gilruth Michael J. Reynolds as Gene Aldrin Nigel Whitmey as Deke Slayton Richard Dillane as Tom Stafford Ian Porter as Bill Anders == Production == The film utilizes actual footage taken during the time period known as the Space Race. == Reception == Mike Hale of The New York Times opined that it was "better than average" for a television film and that it featured "sensible" dialogue and "adequate" performances while mostly avoiding "opportunities for cheap emotion". Jason Bailey of DVD Talk rated the film 3/5 stars, opining that it "ingeniously intermingl[es] drama and documentary to tell a truly fascinating story with skill, if not a tremendous amount of depth." Michele Hewitson of The New Zealand Herald called the film an "uneasy mix of fact and licence" and a "competent but hardly inspiring


id: mystery-diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_Diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Mystery Diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_Diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:41.956421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystery-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Mystery Diagnosis is a television docudrama series that aired on Discovery Health Channel and OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. Each episode focuses on two or more individuals who have struggled with obscure medical ailments, and their quest for a diagnosis. The program details the patients' and doctors' difficulty in pinpointing a diagnosis; often due to nonspecific symptoms, masquerading syndromes, the rarity of the condition or disease, or the patient's case being an unusual manifestation of said condition or disease. The series debuted on Discovery Health Channel in 2005, and was continued when the Oprah Winfrey Network replaced Discovery Health on January 1, 2011. The last season premiered January 5, 2011. == Description == Each episode tells the stories of two patients who experienced difficult to diagnose medical conditions. Each segment generally begins with a short description of the patient's life before they fell ill (or in the case of a young child, the parents' life before the child was born). The symptoms that the person experienced are described from their onset, usually becoming progressively worse; the progression is often re-enacted by actors while the original patient narrates. The show chronicles the patient's visits from doctor to doctor, where they may receive


id: list-of-mystery-diagnosis-episodes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mystery_Diagnosis_episodes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Mystery Diagnosis episodes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mystery_Diagnosis_episodes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:43.258057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mystery-diagnosis-episodes-20260505-0
summary:
The following is an episode list of the Discovery Health Channel, and later OWN, series, Mystery Diagnosis. == Series overview == == Episodes == === Season 1 (2005) === === Season 2 (2006) === === Season 3 (2007) === === Season 4 (2007) === === Season 5 (2008) === === Season 6 (2008–09) === === Season 7 (2009) === === Season 8 (2010) === === Season 9 (2010) === === Season 10 (2011) === == References == == External links == Mystery Diagnosis at IMDb


id: the-mystery-of-matter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mystery_of_Matter-0.md
category: reference
title: The Mystery of Matter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mystery_of_Matter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:44.459671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mystery-of-matter-20260505-0
summary:
The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements is a 2014 American documentary miniseries, which premiered nationwide on August 19, 2015. The PBS documentary, in three-episodes of one hour each, was directed by Stephen Lyons and Muffie Meyer. The series, which took ten years to make, describes the search for the basic chemical elements that form matter by focusing on the lives and times of seven scientific visionaries. Hosted by actor Michael Emerson, the series depicts the creative process of the scientists, with actors describing the process of discovery in the scientists' own words and reenacting their major discoveries using replicas of their original laboratory equipment. == Episodes == == Participants == The documentary is narrated by Michael Emerson and includes the following participants (alphabetized by last name): == Gallery == === The seven featured scientists === === Cast and advisors === == Reviews and criticism == According to Carman Drahl of Forbes magazine, "Chemists will quickly recognize the life stories of giants in their field. This show wasn’t designed just for chemists, however. The target audience includes teachers, students, and curious TV viewers." The series, based on a National Science Foundation project description, tells "a 'detective story' of chemistry,


id: nise-the-heart-of-madness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nise:_The_Heart_of_Madness-0.md
category: reference
title: Nise: The Heart of Madness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nise:_The_Heart_of_Madness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:45.716091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nise-the-heart-of-madness-20260505-0
summary:
Nise: The Heart of Madness (Portuguese: Nise: O Coração da Loucura) is a 2015 Brazilian docudrama film directed by Roberto Berliner. Starring Glória Pires, the film is based on the life of psychiatrist Nise da Silveira, a pioneer of occupational therapy in Brazil. Nise also features Fabrício Boliveira, Fernando Eiras, Perfeito Fortuna, Roberta Rodrigues, Augusto Madeira, Simone Mazzer, and Zé Carlos Machado. == Plot == In 1944, the doctor Nise da Silveira returns to work in a psychiatric hospital in the suburbs of Rio de Janeiro and refuses to use electroshock and lobotomy in the treatment of schizophrenics. Insulated from the other doctors, she must reorganize the abandoned occupational-therapy sector, where she forms a new clinical approach of listening and observing, further alienating herself from her colleagues. Insisting that those under her care be referred to as clients, rather than patients, she encourages the freedom of expression through art, discovering her clients' talents. She opens the Casa das Palmeiras, a clinic and studio, at the hospital, and later starts a museum dedicated to her clients' artwork. == Production == According to director Roberto Berliner, the idea for Nise came from Bernardo Horta, brother of the film's director of photography, André


id: nuclear-secrets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Secrets-0.md
category: reference
title: Nuclear Secrets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Secrets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:46.972057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuclear-secrets-20260505-0
summary:
Nuclear Secrets, aka Spies, Lies and the Superbomb, is a 2007 BBC Television docudrama series which looks at the race for nuclear supremacy from the Manhattan Project through to Pakistan's nuclear weapons programme. == Production == The series was produced by the BBC in co-production with National Geographic Society and NDR (Norddeutscher Rundfunk). == Episodes == === Episode one: The Spy From Moscow === "Soviet Colonel Oleg Penkosky spied in the build-up to the gravest nuclear crisis of all time, when the world came close to annihilation." In 1960, Soviet Military Intelligence Officer Oleg Penkovsky passes a letter offering to share secrets with the U.S. Government to American students visiting Moscow, but Washington fails to respond. Penkovsky later passes a letter to British Trade Delegation representative Greville Wynne warning that Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev was planning an all-out nuclear attack. Penkovsky meets with MI6 officer Harry Shergold and Central Intelligence Agency agent Joe Bulik a short time later on a trip to London and warns that the Soviets have been arming Cuba. Penkovsky is instructed to gather info on missile strategy and is given British industrial secrets to help maintain his cover upon his return to Moscow. Chief Marshall Sergei


id: nuclear-secrets-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Secrets-1.md
category: reference
title: Nuclear Secrets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Secrets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:46.972057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuclear-secrets-20260505-0
summary:
=== Episode three: Superbomb === "After the Second World War, America was looking forward to a bright Atomic future. As the only country with the atom bomb it felt secure. 29th of August 1949, the Soviets stun the world by exploding their own atom bomb. Suddenly the West itself was under threat. Edward Teller, a leading physicist from Hungary, believed the only way to save the world from Soviet Communism was to build an even bigger bomb, the hydrogen bomb, or Super." In 1950, Edward Teller briefs the team at Los Alamos National Laboratory about plans to construct a hydrogen bomb but U.S. Presidential Advisor Robert Oppenheimer opposes him. Oppenheimer is summoned to the White House to discuss whether Soviet spy Klaus Fuchs passed on info about the Super. Soviet Chairman Stalin instructs Andrei Sakharov to work under Beria on the Soviet hydrogen bomb project. U.S. Atomic Energy Commissioner Lewis Strauss supports Teller and U.S. President Harry S. Truman commissions the project. Kitty Oppenheimer fears her communist connections may compromise her husband and his moral objections to the project. Sakharov reviews Fuchs' info on Teller's Super but has his own plans for a simpler but less powerful bomb. Federal Bureau


id: operation-swallow-the-battle-for-heavy-water-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Swallow:_The_Battle_for_Heavy_Water-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Swallow: The Battle for Heavy Water
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Swallow:_The_Battle_for_Heavy_Water
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:48.197659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-swallow-the-battle-for-heavy-water-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Swallow: The Battle for Heavy Water (original title: Kampen om tungtvannet, French title: La Bataille de l'eau lourde) is a Norwegian-French film from 1948. The history is based on the best known commando raid in Norway during World War II, where the resistance group Norwegian Independent Company 1 destroyed the heavy water plant at Vemork in Telemark in February 1943. The film is basically a reconstruction of real events, a docudrama, with many of the participants playing themselves in the film. It was filmed on location in Norway. == Cast == == Reception == It was the second most popular film at the French box office in 1948. == See also == The Heroes of Telemark, a 1965 film The Heavy Water War, a 2015 TV series == References == == External links == Operation Swallow: The Battle for Heavy Water at IMDb


id: oppenheimer-tv-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppenheimer_(TV_series)-0.md
category: reference
title: Oppenheimer (TV series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppenheimer_(TV_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:49.442407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oppenheimer-tv-series-20260505-0
summary:
Oppenheimer is a seven-part biographical drama based on the life and career of American theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer. Written by Peter Prince and directed by Barry Davis, the series is a co-production between the BBC and WGBH. It stars Sam Waterston in the title role, with Jana Shelden, Christopher Muncke, Edward Hardwicke, and David Suchet in supporting roles, and is narrated by John Carson. Oppenheimer premiered in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on 29 October 1980, and concluded on 10 December 1980, consisting of seven episodes. The series won three BAFTA TV Awards, including Best Drama Series or Serial, from seven nominations. It received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Limited Series and Outstanding Writing in a Limited Series or a Special for Prince. For his portrayal of Oppenheimer, Waterston was nominated for a BAFTA TV Award and a Golden Globe Award. == Plot synopsis == The series depicts Oppenheimer's wartime role as head of the weapons laboratory of the Manhattan Project, during which he was under constant surveillance by the US federal government because of his association with communists. It culminates in a U.S. Atomic Energy Commission hearing in 1954, in which Oppenheimer is stripped of


id: project-blue-book-tv-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Blue_Book_(TV_series)-0.md
category: reference
title: Project Blue Book (TV series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Blue_Book_(TV_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:50.837446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-blue-book-tv-series-20260505-0
summary:
Project Blue Book is an American historical drama television series that premiered on History on January 8, 2019. The main role of Dr. J. Allen Hynek is played by Aidan Gillen, and the first season consisted of ten episodes. The series is based on the real-life Project Blue Book, a series of studies on unidentified flying objects conducted by the United States Air Force. On February 10, 2019, History renewed the series for a 10-episode second season which premiered on January 21, 2020. In May 2020, it was announced that the series had been canceled. == Premise == The series revolves around the real-life Project Blue Book, a secret series of investigations into supposed UFO encounters and unexplained phenomena undertaken by the United States Air Force with skeptical astrophysics professor — and eventual ufologist — Dr. J. Allen Hynek in the 1950s and 1960s. With his partner, Air Force veteran Captain Michael Quinn, they investigate sightings across the U.S., and Dr. Hynek discovers that not everything can be explained by science. == Cast and characters == === Main === Aidan Gillen as Dr. J. Allen Hynek, an astronomer, astrophysicist, professor, and UFOlogist working on Project Blue Book. Skeptical about the


id: race-for-the-bomb-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_for_the_Bomb-0.md
category: reference
title: Race for the Bomb
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_for_the_Bomb
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:52.072942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-for-the-bomb-20260505-0
summary:
Race for the Bomb (French: La Course à la bombe) is a 1987 three-part television miniseries about the Manhattan Project, starting from the initial stages of scientific discovery that led to the creation of the atomic bomb, discovery of the Ulam-Teller thermonuclear weapons design and ending with the beginning of the arms race. The series was directed by Allan Eastman and Jean-François Delassus. The production was a joint production of a Canadian firm, Ronald Cohen Productions, a French firm, Société Philippe Dussart and Jadran Film of Zagreb (former Yugoslavia). In Canada the series aired on both CBC Television in English and Télévision de Radio-Canada in French, while in France it aired on TF1. A lot of collateral roles have been performed by actors from the former Yugoslavia. The series covers the development of many aspects related to the origin of the bomb, such as scientific, political, and personal. It stars Tom Rack as Robert Oppenheimer, Maury Chaykin as Leslie Groves, Miki Manojlović as Edward Teller, Jean-Paul Muel as Leo Szilard, Michael Ironside as Werner Heisenberg, Géza Kovács as Otto Frisch, Jean-Claude Deret as Niels Bohr, Denis Forest as Klaus Fuchs, Peter Dvorsky as Ernest Lawrence, Leslie Nielsen as Lewis Strauss


id: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Right Stuff (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:53.383426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-0
summary:
The Right Stuff is a 1983 American epic historical drama film written and directed by Philip Kaufman and based on the 1979 book of the same name by Tom Wolfe. The film follows the Navy, Marine, and Air Force test pilots who were involved in aeronautical research at Edwards Air Force Base, California, as well as the Mercury Seven, the seven military pilots who were selected to be the astronauts for Project Mercury, the first human spaceflight by the United States. The film stars Sam Shepard, Ed Harris, Scott Glenn, Fred Ward, Dennis Quaid, Barbara Hershey and Kim Stanley (in her final film); Levon Helm narrates and plays Air Force test pilot Jack Ridley. The Right Stuff was a box-office bomb, grossing about $21 million (domestically) against a $27 million budget. However, it received widespread critical acclaim and was nominated for eight Oscars at the 56th Academy Awards, four of which it won. The film was a huge success on the home video market. In 2013, it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." The film was ranked #19 on the American Film Institute's


id: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)-1.md
category: reference
title: The Right Stuff (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:53.383426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== Development === In 1979, independent producers Robert Chartoff and Irwin Winkler outbid Universal Pictures for the movie rights to Tom Wolfe's book, paying $350,000. They hired William Goldman to write the screenplay. Goldman wrote in his memoirs that his adaptation focused on the astronauts, and he entirely ignored Chuck Yeager. Goldman was inspired to accept the job because he wanted to say something patriotic about America in the wake of the Iran hostage crisis. Winkler writes in his memoirs that he was disappointed that Goldman's adaptation ignored Yeager. In June 1980, United Artists agreed to finance the film up to $20 million, and the producers began looking for a director. Michael Ritchie was originally attached but fell through; so did John Avildsen who, four years prior, had won an Oscar for his work under Winkler and Chartoff on the original Rocky. (The Right Stuff would have reunited Avildsen with both producers and also with a fourth Rocky veteran, composer Bill Conti.) Ultimately, Chartoff and Winkler approached director Philip Kaufman, who agreed to make the film but did not like Goldman's script. Kaufman disliked the emphasis on patriotism and wanted Yeager put back in the film. Eventually, Goldman quit the


id: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)-2.md
category: reference
title: The Right Stuff (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:53.383426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== Historical accuracy === Although The Right Stuff was based on historic events and real people, as previously interpreted by Tom Wolfe in his book, some substantial dramatic liberties were taken. Neither Yeager's flight in the X-1 to break the sound barrier early in the film or his later nearly-fatal flight in the NF-104A was spur-of-moment capriciously decided event, as the film seems to imply. Both were actually part of the routine testing program for both aircraft. Yeager had already test-flown both aircraft a number of times and was very familiar with them. Jack Ridley had actually died in 1957, even though his character appears in several key scenes taking place after that, most notably including Yeager's 1963 flight of the NF-104A. Other notable inaccuracies include the early termination of Glenn's flight after three orbits, instead of seven, when the flight was scheduled for at most three orbits, and the engineers who built the Mercury craft portrayed as Germans though they were mostly Americans. The Right Stuff depicts Cooper arriving at Edwards in 1953, reminiscing with Grissom there about the two of them having supposedly flown together at the Langley Air Force Base, and then hanging out with Grissom and


id: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)-3.md
category: reference
title: The Right Stuff (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:53.383426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-0
summary:
Douglas A-4 Skyhawk LTV A-7 Corsair II North American F-86 Sabre Convair F-106 Delta Dart McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star Northrop T-38 Talon A number of aircraft significant to the story had to be recreated. The first was an essentially static X-1 that had to at least roll along the ground and realistically "belch flame" by a simulated rocket blast from the exhaust pipes. A series of wooden mock-up X-1s were used to depict interior shots of the cockpit, the mating up of the X-1 to a modified B-29 fuselage and bomb bay and ultimately to recreate flight in a combination of model work and live-action photography. The "follow-up" X-1A was also an all-wooden model. The U.S. Navy's Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket that Crossfield duelled with Yeager's X-1 and X-1A was recreated from a modified Hawker Hunter jet fighter. The climactic flight of Yeager in a Lockheed NF-104A was originally to be made with a modified Lockheed F-104 Starfighter but ultimately, Wilmore decided that the production had to make do with a repainted Luftwaffe F-104G, which lacks the rocket engine of the NF-104. Wooden mock-ups of the Mercury space capsules


id: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)-4.md
category: reference
title: The Right Stuff (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:53.383426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reviews === The Right Stuff received overwhelming acclaim from critics. The film holds a 96% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 52 reviews, with an average score of 8.80/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "The Right Stuff packs a lot of movie into its hefty running time, spinning a colorful, fact-based story out of consistently engaging characters in the midst of epochal events." On Metacritic — which assigns a weighted mean score — the film has a score of 91 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Roger Ebert named The Right Stuff best film of 1983 and wrote: "There was a lot going on, and there's a lot going on in the movie, too. The Right Stuff is an adventure film, a special effects film, a social commentary and a satire... it joins a short list of recent American movies that might be called experimental epics: movies that have an ambitious reach through time and subject matter, that spend freely for locations or special effects, but that consider each scene as intently as an art film.... It's a great film." He later named it one of the best films of the decade, and wrote:


id: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)-5.md
category: reference
title: The Right Stuff (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:53.383426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-right-stuff-film-20260505-0
summary:
== Home media == On June 23, 2003, Warner Home Video released a two-disc DVD Special Edition that featured scene-specific commentaries with key cast and crew members, deleted scenes, three documentaries on the making of The Right Stuff including interviews with Mercury astronauts and Chuck Yeager, and a feature-length PBS documentary, John Glenn: American Hero. The extras are also included in the November 5, 2013 release of the 30th Anniversary edition, which also includes a 40-page book binding case, with the film in Blu-ray format. The extras are in standard DVD format. In addition, the British Film Institute published a book on The Right Stuff by Tom Charity in October 1997 that offered a detailed analysis and behind-the-scenes anecdotes. == Soundtrack == Although an album mix had been prepared by Bill Conti in 1983, and the poster indeed contains the credit "Original Soundtrack Available On Geffen Records"), the soundtrack album release was canceled following the film's disappointing box office. In 1986, Conti conducted a re-recording of selections from the score and from his music for North and South, performed by the London Symphony Orchestra and released by Varèse Sarabande The original soundtrack was released by Varèse Sarabande on September 20,


id: the-right-stuff-tv-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(TV_series)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Right Stuff (TV series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(TV_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:54.673669+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-right-stuff-tv-series-20260505-0
summary:
The Right Stuff is an American historical drama limited television series, loosely based on the 1979 book of the same name by Tom Wolfe and its 1983 film adaptation, that premiered on October 9, 2020, on Disney+. It is the third installment in the titular franchise. It explores the origins and growth of the United States' space program. On April 3, 2021, Disney+ canceled the series due to a redesign in the NatGeo channel's focus. Show financier Warner Bros. Television is looking to shop the series to other networks. The series was removed from Disney+ on May 26, 2023, amidst the Disney+ and Hulu purge. == Premise == The Right Stuff takes a "gritty, anti-nostalgic look at what would become America's first reality show as the obsessive original Mercury Seven astronauts and their families become instant celebrities in a competition that will either kill them or make them immortal. The eight-part, one-hour-per-episode drama will follow the protagonists from the Mojave Desert to the edges of space, with future seasons carrying through to humankind’s greatest achievement: the moon landing." == Cast and characters == === Main === Jake McDorman as Alan Shepard Patrick J. Adams as John Glenn Colin O'Donoghue as


id: the-salisbury-poisonings-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Salisbury_Poisonings-0.md
category: reference
title: The Salisbury Poisonings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Salisbury_Poisonings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:55.990853+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-salisbury-poisonings-20260505-0
summary:
The Salisbury Poisonings is a fact-based drama television series, starring Anne-Marie Duff, Rafe Spall and Annabel Scholey which portrays the 2018 Novichok poisonings and decontamination crisis in Salisbury, England, and the subsequent Amesbury poisonings. The series was broadcast in three parts on BBC One in June 2020, and has been shown in four parts elsewhere. It was created by Adam Patterson and Declan Lawn for Dancing Ledge Productions. == Synopsis == On 4 March 2018, emergency services receive a call to attend to Sergei and Yulia Skripal who have been found unconscious on a park bench in Salisbury city centre. Medical practitioners are initially puzzled by their illness, and police and the local public health department become involved. A national emergency is precipitated when it is learned that Skripal is a former Russian military intelligence officer who acted as a double agent for the UK's intelligence services during the 1990s and early 2000s. It emerges that he and his daughter were poisoned with a highly potent Novichok agent which was smeared on the front-door handle of their residence. The docudrama also deals with the incidental exposure of several other persons, including a police officer and an uninvolved couple who found


id: seven-wonders-of-the-industrial-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Industrial_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Seven Wonders of the Industrial World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Industrial_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:57.195169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seven-wonders-of-the-industrial-world-20260505-0
summary:
Seven Wonders of the Industrial World is a 7-part British docudrama television miniseries that originally aired from 4 September 2003 (2003-09-04) to 16 October 2003 (2003-10-16) on BBC and was later released on DVD. The programme examines seven engineering feats that occurred since the Industrial Revolution. The same feats are covered in a companion book of the same name by producer Deborah Cadbury. == Production == The programmes were dramatised versions of actual events: actors played the various figures involved, reciting monologues and dialogue based on their letters and writings. It cost approximately £1 million to create the 7-part documentary. A book of the same name was released by producer Deborah Cadbury, exploring the same feats. == Awards == 2004 British Academy Television Awards Nominated: Huw Wheldon Award for Factual Series or Strand 2004 British Academy Television Craft Awards Nominated: Best Photography (Factual): Mike Spragg RTS Television Awards 2004 Nominated: Best Production Design (Entertainment & Non Drama) Nominated: Best Science & Natural History == The list == == Episodes == === The Great Ship === This episode focuses on the construction of the SS Great Eastern, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel to be both the first ship entirely made out


id: smallpox-2002-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox_2002-0.md
category: reference
title: Smallpox 2002
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox_2002
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:58.459297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: smallpox-2002-20260505-0
summary:
Smallpox 2002: Silent Weapon is a fictional docudrama produced by Wall to Wall, showing how a single act of bioterrorism leads to terrifying consequences globally. == Background == The premise of it was one man who, in 2002, creates the smallpox virus himself, infects himself, and touches ten people in New York City. This eventually leads to a pandemic across the world that is later defeated, but not before 60 million people are killed. The film was commissioned before the September 11 attacks and is presented in the form of a fictional documentary, including false interviews and stock footage. The tagline for the movie was, "Drama, until it happens". == Reception == Newspaper reviews of the documentary were mixed, varying from "a sick stunt" to "extraordinarily good". The docudrama proved very popular with viewers, attracting 3.4m viewers, 15% of the audience, to a 9:00pm slot on BBC2 according to overnight returns. == Notes == The film was renamed Smallpox when it aired on FX on 2 January 2005. == References == == External links == Smallpox 2002: Silent Weapon at IMDb


id: space-race-tv-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race_(TV_series)-0.md
category: reference
title: Space Race (TV series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race_(TV_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:59.711316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-race-tv-series-20260505-0
summary:
Space Race is a BBC docudrama series first shown in Britain on BBC2 between 14 September and 5 October 2005, chronicling the major events and characters in the American/Soviet space race up to the first landing of a man on the Moon. It focuses on Sergei Korolev, the Soviet chief rocket designer, and Wernher von Braun, his American counterpart. The series was a joint effort between British, German, American and Russian production teams. == Reception == === Awards === Royal Television Society 2006 Nominated: RTS Television Award for Best Production Design (Drama): Alan Spalding Sir Arthur Clarke Award 2006 Won: Sir Arthur Clarke Award for Best Presentation (TV & Radio) == Episodes == === Episode 1: "Race For Rockets" (1944–1949) === The results of Wernher von Braun's work on the V-2 for the Nazis at Mittelwerk and Peenemünde is shown, and his final activities within Germany during the last years of the Second World War, as both American and Soviet forces race to capture German rocket technology. However, when the Americans gain the upper hand by recovering von Braun and most of his senior staff, along with all their technical documents and much other materiel. Sergei Korolev's is released from


id: space-race-tv-series-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race_(TV_series)-1.md
category: reference
title: Space Race (TV series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race_(TV_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:38:59.711316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-race-tv-series-20260505-0
summary:
== Inaccuracies and errors == Most of the historical and technological data presented in the series are heavily simplified, and sometimes contain outright untruths or errors. The series would best be described and interpreted as giving a general impression of the subject matter, rather than rigorous factual account. === Factual errors === An early scene shows Serov executing Polish resistance fighters who discovered a V-2. This did not happen. A team of British and Polish soldiers and scientists formed a mission to retrieve a fallen V-2 near the Blizna V-2 missile launch site in Poland. Footage showing early rocket club activity of von Braun actually shows Reinhold Tiling's rockets, a rival to the VfR club that von Braun belonged to. The VfR rockets were crude engines attached to sticks. Key figures are missing from the presented history. Andrei Tupolev, Vladimir Chelomei and Mikhail Yangel are also conspicuously absent, for example, even in the sequence depicting the disastrous explosion of Yangel's prototype R-16 ICBM. In the series, Glushko is generally identified with all rocket projects competing with Korolev within the USSR, even those for which he had only partial responsibility or was a subcontractor. The narrator said twice that the Mercury-Redstone


id: spanish-flu-the-forgotten-fallen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Flu:_The_Forgotten_Fallen-0.md
category: reference
title: Spanish Flu: The Forgotten Fallen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Flu:_The_Forgotten_Fallen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:39:01.093899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spanish-flu-the-forgotten-fallen-20260505-0
summary:
Spanish Flu: The Forgotten Fallen is a 2009 television drama. It is a dramatization of Dr James Niven's attempts to deal with the Spanish flu, a 1918-1920 flu pandemic, in Manchester. It was written by Peter Harness and it starred Bill Paterson as Niven, along with Mark Gatiss, Kenneth Cranham and Charlotte Riley. It was first broadcast on BBC Four on 5 August 2009. == Plot == As millions of soldiers return home from the First World War, a new disease begins to sweep through Britain. Focusing on an outbreak in Manchester, its Medical Officer of Health James Niven struggles to combat the pandemic as the public, for various reasons, fail to take action. == Cast == Bill Paterson as Dr James Niven Mark Gatiss as Ernest Dunks Charlotte Riley as Peggy Lytton Kenneth Cranham as MJ O'Loughlin == Reception == The series was broadcast around the time of the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which several reviews noted the timeliness of. Tim Teeman of The Times called it 'brilliantly acted and written'. == References == == External links == Spanish Flu: The Forgotten Fallen at BBC Online Spanish Flu: The Forgotten Fallen at IMDb


id: supervolcano-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano_(film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Supervolcano (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:39:02.368027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supervolcano-film-20260505-0
summary:
Supervolcano is a 2005 disaster drama television film directed by Tony Mitchell and written by Edward Canfor-Dumas. It is based on the speculated and potential eruption of the volcanic Yellowstone Caldera, located in Yellowstone National Park. The film stars an ensemble cast consisting of Michael Riley, Gary Lewis, Shaun Johnston, Adrian Holmes, Jennifer Copping, Rebecca Jenkins, Tom McBeath, Robert Wisden, Susan Duerden, Jane McLean, Sam Charles, and Kevin McNulty. Supervolcano premiered on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 13 March 2005, before airing on Discovery Channel in Canada and the United States on 10 April 2005. The film was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and a BAFTA Award for its visual effects. == Plot == Richard Lieberman, the scientist in charge at Yellowstone Volcano Observatory, gives a press conference with his colleagues Jock Galvin, Dave, Matt and Nancy, and their boss, Michael Eldridge, to present their new virtual imagery simulator VIRGIL, which Eldridge claims will greatly aid in their research. Reporter Maggie Chin asks about the possibility of an eruption, which Rick dismisses as a remote possibility. After an earthquake triggers a tsunami on one of the park's lakes, Maggie interviews Kenneth "Ken" Wylie on TV about his


id: surviving-disaster-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surviving_Disaster-0.md
category: reference
title: Surviving Disaster
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surviving_Disaster
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:39:04.122504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surviving-disaster-20260505-0
summary:
Surviving Disaster is a 2006 BBC, Discovery Channel, and ProSieben co-production documentary-drama series about disasters in the 20th century, starring people who survived them. It was produced in association with France 5. It is narrated by Bernard Hill. == Episodes == "Munich Air Crash" – 1958 Munich air disaster "Eruption at Mount St. Helens" – 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens "Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster" – 1986 Chernobyl disaster "San Francisco Earthquake" – 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake "Fastnet Yacht Race" – 1979 Fastnet race "Iran Hostage Rescue" – 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis "The Sinking of the Estonia" – 1994 sinking of the Estonia == References == == External links == Surviving Disaster at IMDb


id: the-tesla-files-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tesla_Files-0.md
category: reference
title: The Tesla Files
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tesla_Files
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:39:05.255589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-tesla-files-20260505-0
summary:
The Tesla Files is a dramatized documentary series, broadcast in 2018 on the History Channel, based on mysteries surrounding the legacy of inventor Nikola Tesla. == Overview == A team investigates mysteries involving the work of Nikola Tesla. Shortly before his death in 1943, Tesla claimed to have had 80 trunks containing details of his work, but much fewer were ever found: in the first episode, the team investigates whether there was a cover-up to suppress his work. The team also performs experiments in an attempt to validate some of Tesla's claims. == Episodes == The show lasted one season consisting of five episodes on The History Channel. === Season 1 === == References == == External links == Official website The Tesla Files at IMDb Tesla Files on TVGuide


id: that-built-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That_Built-0.md
category: reference
title: That Built
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That_Built
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:39:06.446531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: that-built-20260505-0
summary:
That Built is an American television franchise a docudrama broadcast on The History Channel that covers various historic subjects and the notable people involved roughly spanning the Industrial Revolution of the 1860s to the present. The series started with the miniseries The Men Who Built America in 2012. To date, the longest running of these series is The Food That Built America, which premiered on August 11, 2019. The sixth season premiered on February 23, 2025. == List == The Men Who Built America (2012) The Cars That Made America (2017) The Men Who Built America: Frontiersmen (2018) The Food That Built America (2019–) The Cars That Built the World (2021) The Titans That Built America (2021) The Machines That Built America (2021) The Engineering That Built the World (2021) The Toys That Built America (2021–2023) The Booze, Bets and Sex That Built America(2022) The Mega-Brands That Built America(2023) How Disney Built America (2024) The Icons That Built America (2024) == References ==


