# kb

id: parapsychology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-4.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
Since the 1980s, contemporary parapsychological research has waned considerably in the United States. Early research was considered inconclusive, and parapsychologists faced strong skepticism from their academic colleagues. Some effects thought to be paranormal, for example, the effects of Kirlian photography (thought by some to represent a human aura), disappeared under more stringent controls, leaving those avenues of research at dead-ends. Most parapsychology research in the US is now confined to private institutions funded by private sources. After 28 years of research, Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory (PEAR), which studied psychokinesis, closed in 2007. Two universities in the United States have academic parapsychology laboratories. The Division of Perceptual Studies, a unit at the University of Virginia's Department of Psychiatric Medicine, studies the possibility of survival of consciousness after bodily death, near-death experiences, and out-of-body experiences. Gary Schwartz at the University of Arizona's Veritas Laboratory conducted laboratory investigations of mediums, criticized by scientific skeptics. Several private institutions, including the Institute of Noetic Sciences, conduct and promote parapsychological research. Over the last two decades, some new sources of funding for parapsychology in Europe have seen a "substantial increase in European parapsychological research so that the center of gravity for the field has swung


id: parapsychology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-5.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
The Ganzfeld experiment studies that were examined by Ray Hyman and Charles Honorton had methodological problems that were well documented. Honorton reported only 36% of the studies used duplicate target sets of pictures to avoid handling cues. Hyman discovered flaws in all of the 42 Ganzfeld experiments, and to assess each experiment, he devised a set of 12 categories of flaws. Six of these concerned statistical defects, and the other six covered procedural flaws such as inadequate documentation, randomization, security, and possibilities of sensory leakage. Over half of the studies failed to safeguard against sensory leakage, and all of the studies contained at least one of the 12 flaws. Because of the flaws, Honorton agreed with Hyman the 42 Ganzfeld studies could not support the claim for the existence of psi. Possibilities of sensory leakage in the Ganzfeld experiments included the receivers hearing what was going on in the sender's room next door as the rooms were not soundproof and the sender's fingerprints to be visible on the target object for the receiver to see. Hyman reviewed the autoganzfeld experiments and discovered a pattern in the data that implied a visual cue may have taken place. Hyman wrote the autoganzfeld


id: parapsychology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-6.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
The advent of powerful and inexpensive electronic and computer technologies has allowed the development of fully automated experiments studying possible interactions between mind and matter. In the most common experiment of this type, a random number generator (RNG), based on electronic or radioactive noise, produces a data stream that is recorded and analyzed by computer software. A subject attempts to mentally alter the distribution of the random numbers, usually in an experimental design that is functionally equivalent to getting more "heads" than "tails" while flipping a coin. In the RNG experiment, design flexibility can be combined with rigorous controls while collecting a large amount of data quickly. This technique has been used both to test individuals for psychokinesis and to test the possible influence on RNGs of large groups of people. Major meta-analyses of the RNG database have been published every few years since appearing in the journal Foundations of Physics in 1986. PEAR founder Robert G. Jahn and his colleague Brenda Dunne say that the experiments produced "a very small effect" not significant enough to be observed over a brief experiment but over a large number of trials resulted in a tiny statistical deviation from chance. According to Massimo


id: parapsychology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-7.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
A near-death experience (NDE) is an experience reported by a person who nearly died, or who experienced clinical death and then revived. NDEs include one or more of the following experiences: a sense of being dead; an out-of-body experience; a sensation of floating above one's body and seeing the surrounding area; a sense of overwhelming love and peace; a sensation of moving upwards through a tunnel or narrow passageway; meeting deceased relatives or spiritual figures; encountering a being of light, or a light; experiencing a life review; reaching a border or boundary; and a feeling of being returned to the body, often accompanied by reluctance. Interest in the NDE was spurred initially by the research of psychiatrists Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, George G. Ritchie, and Raymond Moody. In 1975, Moody wrote the best-selling book Life After Life and in 1977, he wrote a second book, Reflections on Life After Life. In 1998, Moody was appointed chair in "consciousness studies" at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. The International Association for Near-death Studies (IANDS) was founded in 1978 to meet the needs of early researchers and experiencers within this field of research. Later researchers, such as psychiatrist Bruce Greyson, psychologist Kenneth Ring, and


id: parapsychology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-8.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Evaluation === The scientific consensus is that there is insufficient evidence to support the existence of psi phenomena. Scientists critical of parapsychology state that its extraordinary claims demand extraordinary evidence if they are to be taken seriously. Scientists who have evaluated parapsychology have written the entire body of evidence is of poor quality and not adequately controlled. In support of this view, critics cite instances of fraud, flawed studies, and cognitive biases (such as clustering illusion, availability error, confirmation bias, illusion of control, magical thinking, and the bias blind spot) as ways to explain parapsychological results. Research has also shown that people's desire to believe in paranormal phenomena causes them to discount strong evidence that it does not exist. The psychologists Donovan Rawcliffe (1952), C. E. M. Hansel (1980), Ray Hyman (1989), and Andrew Neher (2011) have studied the history of psi experiments from the late 19th century up until the 1980s. Flaws and weaknesses were discovered in every experiment investigated, so the possibility of sensory leakage and trickery were not ruled out. The data from the Creery sister and the Soal-Goldney experiments were proven to be fraudulent, one of the subjects from the Smith-Blackburn experiments confessed to fraud,


id: parapsychology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-9.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
In 2003, James Alcock Professor of Psychology at York University published Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance: Reasons to Remain Doubtful about the Existence of Psi, where he claimed that parapsychologists never seem to take seriously the possibility that psi does not exist. Because of that, they interpret null results as indicating only that they were unable to observe psi in a particular experiment rather than taking it as support for the possibility that there is no psi. The failure to take the null hypothesis as a serious alternative to their psi hypotheses leads them to rely upon many arbitrary "effects" to excuse failures to find predicted effects, excuse the lack of consistency in outcomes, and excuse failures to replicate. Fundamental endemic problems in parapsychological research include, amongst others: insufficient definition of the subject matter, total reliance on negative definitions of their phenomena (e.g., psi is said to occur only when all known normal influences are ruled out); failure to produce a single phenomenon that neutral researchers can independently replicate; the invention of "effects" such as the psi-experimenter effect to explain away inconsistencies in the data and failures to achieve predicted outcomes; unfalsifiability of claims; the unpredictability of effects; lack


id: parapsychology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-10.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Physics === The ideas of psi (precognition, psychokinesis and telepathy) violate well-established laws of physics. Psychokinesis violates the inverse-square law, the second law of thermodynamics, and the conservation of momentum. There is no known mechanism for psi. On the subject of psychokinesis, the physicist Sean M. Carroll has written that both human brains and the spoons they try to bend are made, like all matter, of quarks and leptons; everything else they do emerges as properties of the behavior of quarks and leptons. The quarks and leptons interact through the four forces: strong, weak, electromagnetic, and gravitational. Thus, either it is one of the four known forces, or it is a new force, and any new force with a range over 1 millimeter must be at most a billionth the strength of gravity, or it will have been captured in experiments already done. This leaves no physical force that could account for psychokinesis. Physicist John G. Taylor, who investigated parapsychological claims, wrote that an unknown fifth force causing psychokinesis would have to transmit a great deal of energy. The energy would have to overcome the electromagnetic forces binding the atoms together. The atoms would need to respond more strongly


id: parapsychology-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-11.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
Parapsychology relies on an ill-defined ontology and typically shuns exact thinking. The hypotheses and theories of parapsychology have not been proven and are in bad shape. Extremely little progress has taken place in parapsychology on the whole and parapsychology conflicts with established science. Parapsychology has poor research problems, being concerned with establishing the existence of its subject matter and having practically no theories to create proper research problems. While in parts of parapsychology there are attempts to use the methods of science there are also unscientific areas; and in any case parapsychological research can at best qualify as prescientific because of its poor theoretical foundation. Parapsychology is a largely isolated research area. The methods of parapsychologists are regarded by critics, including those who wrote the science standards for the California State Board of Education, to be pseudoscientific. Some of the more specific criticisms state that parapsychology does not have a clearly defined subject matter, an easily repeatable experiment that can demonstrate a psi effect on demand, nor an underlying theory to explain the paranormal transfer of information. James Alcock has stated that few of parapsychology's experimental results have prompted interdisciplinary research with more mainstream sciences such as physics or biology


id: parapsychology-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-12.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
For nearly thirty years the telepathic experiments conducted by Mr. G. A. Smith and myself have been accepted and cited as the basic evidence of the truth of thought transference... ...the whole of those alleged experiments were bogus, and originated in the honest desire of two youths to show how easily men of scientific mind and training could be deceived when seeking for evidence in support of a theory they were wishful to establish. The experiments of Samuel Soal and K. M. Goldney of 1941–1943 (suggesting the precognitive ability of a single participant) were long regarded as some of the best in the field because they relied upon independent checking and witnesses to prevent fraud. However, many years later, statistical evidence, uncovered and published by other parapsychologists in the field, suggested that Soal had cheated by altering some of the raw data. In 1974, many experiments by Walter J. Levy, J. B. Rhine's successor as director of the Institute for Parapsychology, were exposed as fraudulent. Levy had reported on a series of successful ESP experiments involving computer-controlled manipulation of non-human subjects, including rats. His experiments showed very high positive results. However, Levy's fellow researchers became suspicious about his methods. They


id: parapsychology-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology-13.md
category: reference
title: Parapsychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:50.897577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parapsychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== The psi assumption === A typical measure of psi phenomena is a statistical deviation from chance expectation. However, critics point out that statistical deviation is, strictly speaking, only evidence of a statistical anomaly, and the cause of the deviation is not known. Hyman contends that even if psi experiments that regularly reproduce similar deviations from chance could be designed, they would not necessarily prove psychic functioning. Critics have coined the term The psi assumption to describe "the assumption that any significant departure from the laws of chance in a test of psychic ability is evidence that something anomalous or paranormal has occurred...[in other words] assuming what they should be proving." These critics hold that concluding the existence of psychic phenomena based on chance deviation in inadequately designed experiments is affirming the consequent or begging the question. === Selection bias and meta-analysis === Selective reporting has been offered by critics as an explanation for the positive results reported by parapsychologists. Selective reporting is sometimes called a "file drawer" problem, which arises when only positive study results are made public, while studies with negative or null results are not made public. Selective reporting has a compounded effect on meta-analysis, which is


id: pasilalinic-sympathetic-compass-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasilalinic-sympathetic_compass-0.md
category: reference
title: Pasilalinic-sympathetic compass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasilalinic-sympathetic_compass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:52.066068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pasilalinic-sympathetic-compass-20260505-0
summary:
The pasilalinic-sympathetic compass, also referred to as the snail telegraph, was a device built to test the hypothesis that snails create a permanent telepathic link when they mate. The device was developed by French occultist Jacques-Toussaint Benoît (de l'Hérault), with the supposed assistance of an American colleague, Monsieur Biat-Chrétien in the 1850s. == The hypothesis == Benoit claimed that when snails mate, an etheric escargotic fluid forms a permanent telepathic link between them. This fluid forms an invisible thread that keeps the snails in "sympathetic communication" by using animal magnetism similar to an electric current pulsating along it. They claimed that this method would work instantly, wirelessly, over any distance, and be more reliable than a telegraph. This was not the first attempt to create a form of sympathetic communication. There are stories of Rosicrucians cutting pieces off the flesh of their arm and transplanting it with another person, with the alphabet tattooed on the flesh. By using a magnetized needle to prick the letters they wished to communicate, telepathy would be achieved. It was upon these stories that Benoit built his theory. William Brooke O'Shaughnessy is one prominent telegrapher who experimented with using human skin to send and receive


id: penta-water-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penta_Water-0.md
category: reference
title: Penta Water
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penta_Water
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:54.438628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: penta-water-20260505-0
summary:
Penta Water is a brand of bottled water produced by United Beverage, based in Southern California. Penta Water undergoes a patented process which the company claims to result in specific health benefits. These claims have been heavily contested by scientists and regulators and do not have any genuine scientific basis. == History == Penta Water was created by Bill Holloway in Carlsbad, California. Holloway says that he was diagnosed with fibromyalgia which he contracted due to working with mercury at a previous job. His son, Mike Holloway, then came up with the formula for the highly purified water by accident, and the resulting water "caused him to feel better and to lead a relatively normal life." At this point he realized that he should manufacture and sell this water. Southern California-based United Beverage acquired the patent for Penta Water in 2009, and is still manufacturing and distributing the water as of 2019. == Claims == Founder Bill Holloway claimed that "the water formula actually saved his life." He also claimed to have thousands of written testimonials from people with such conditions as cancer, arthritis, cirrhosis, heart disease, and teenage acne who claim to receive relief from his purified water as


id: perpetual-motion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion-0.md
category: reference
title: Perpetual motion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:55.586701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perpetual-motion-20260505-0
summary:
Perpetual motion is the motion of bodies that continues forever in an unperturbed system. A perpetual motion machine is a hypothetical machine that can do work indefinitely without an external energy source. This kind of machine is impossible, since its existence would violate the first and/or second laws of thermodynamics. These laws of thermodynamics apply regardless of the size of the system. Thus, machines that extract energy from finite sources cannot operate indefinitely because they are driven by the energy stored in the source, which will eventually be exhausted. A common example is devices powered by ocean currents, whose energy is ultimately derived from the Sun, which itself will eventually burn out. == History == The history of perpetual motion machines dates back to the Middle Ages. For millennia, it was not clear whether perpetual motion devices were possible or not, until the development of modern theories of thermodynamics showed that they were impossible. Despite this, many attempts have been made to create such machines, continuing into modern times. Modern designers and proponents often use other terms, such as "over unity", to describe their inventions. == Basic principles == Oh ye seekers after perpetual motion, how many vain chimeras have


id: perpetual-motion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion-1.md
category: reference
title: Perpetual motion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:55.586701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perpetual-motion-20260505-0
summary:
"Epistemic impossibility" describes things which absolutely cannot occur within our current formulation of the physical laws. This interpretation of the word "impossible" is what is intended in discussions of the impossibility of perpetual motion in a closed system. The conservation laws are particularly robust from a mathematical perspective. Noether's theorem, which was proven mathematically in 1915, states that any conservation law can be derived from a corresponding continuous symmetry of the action of a physical system. The symmetry which is equivalent to conservation of energy is the time invariance of physical laws. Therefore, if the laws of physics do not change with time, then the conservation of energy follows. For energy conservation to be violated to allow perpetual motion would require that the foundations of physics would change. Scientific investigations as to whether the laws of physics are invariant over time use telescopes to examine the universe in the distant past to discover, to the limits of our measurements, whether ancient stars were identical to stars today. Combining different measurements such as spectroscopy, direct measurement of the speed of light in the past and similar measurements demonstrates that physics has remained substantially the same, if not identical, for all of


id: perpetual-motion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion-2.md
category: reference
title: Perpetual motion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:55.586701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perpetual-motion-20260505-0
summary:
Another theoretical machine involves a frictionless environment for motion. This involves the use of diamagnetic or electromagnetic levitation to float an object. This is done in a vacuum to eliminate air friction and friction from an axle. The levitated object is then free to rotate around its center of gravity without interference. However, this machine has no practical purpose because the rotated object cannot do any work as work requires the levitated object to cause motion in other objects, bringing friction into the problem. Furthermore, a perfect vacuum is an unattainable goal since both the container and the object itself would slowly vaporize, thereby degrading the vacuum. To extract work from heat, thus producing a perpetual motion machine of the second kind, the most common approach (dating back at least to Maxwell's demon) is unidirectionality. Only molecules moving fast enough and in the right direction are allowed through the demon's trap door. In a Brownian ratchet, forces tending to turn the ratchet one way are able to do so while forces in the other direction are not. A diode in a heat bath allows through currents in one direction and not the other. These schemes typically fail in two ways:


id: perpetual-motion-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion-3.md
category: reference
title: Perpetual motion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_motion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:55.586701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perpetual-motion-20260505-0
summary:
The drinking bird toy functions using small ambient temperature gradients and evaporation. It runs until all water is evaporated. A capillary action-based water pump functions using small ambient temperature gradients and vapour pressure differences. With the "capillary bowl", it was thought that the capillary action would keep the water flowing in the tube, but since the cohesion force that draws the liquid up the tube in the first place holds the droplet from releasing into the bowl, the flow is not perpetual. A Crookes radiometer consists of a partial vacuum glass container with a lightweight propeller moved by (light-induced) temperature gradients. Any device picking up minimal amounts of energy from the natural electromagnetic radiation around it, such as a solar-powered motor. Any device powered by changes in air pressure, such as some clocks (Cox's timepiece, Beverly Clock). The motion leeches energy from moving air which in turn gained its energy from being acted on. A heat pump, due to it having a COP above 1: the energy it consumes as work is less than the energy it moves as heat. The Atmos clock uses changes in the vapor pressure of ethyl chloride with temperature to wind the clock spring. A


id: pet-psychic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet_psychic-0.md
category: reference
title: Pet psychic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet_psychic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:56.779448+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pet-psychic-20260505-0
summary:
A pet psychic is a person who claims to communicate by psychic means with animals, either living or dead. They are also known as animal communicators, and their practice as intuitive animal communication or intuitive interspecies communication. The term psychic refers to the claimed ability to perceive information unavailable to the normal senses by what is claimed to be extrasensory perception. It is the opinion of scientific skeptics that people believe in such abilities due to cognitive biases and the use of various techniques by the practitioners, including intentional deception. == Claims == Pet psychics rely on different techniques when doing an animal "reading". These psychics allegedly communicate with animals and connect with an animal's spirit. Some claim that the readings are done by communicating with their electromagnetic energy, similar to reiki and/or therapeutic touch healing. Others claim the animal does not need to be alive or physically close to the psychic, as phone readings are sometimes done. In the early twentieth century, the Association for Research and Enlightenment began researching paranormal and psychic abilities in humans. The first animal communicators claimed they could communicate telepathically with animals living or dead. == Scientific analysis == Skeptical investigator Joe Nickell reported


id: phiten-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phiten-0.md
category: reference
title: Phiten
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phiten
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:57.975988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phiten-20260505-0
summary:
The Company Phiten, headquartered in Nakagyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan, sells quasi-drugs, cosmetics, hair care products, sports-related products, health foods, and health goods. == Overview == AQUA TITAN/AQUA-TITANIUM products worn as necklaces (such as RAKUWA Neck) are well known and used by many famous athletes. Some of the athletes who have made endorsement agreements with Phiten are Yuzuru Hanyu, Hideki Matsuyama,Tomoaki Kanemoto, Yoshio Itoi, Yoshihiro Maru, Tetsuto Yamada, Daichi Osera, Katsuya Kakunaka, Sora Matsushima, Hina Hayata and Hikari Fujita. Athletes who have signed agreements with Phiten in the past include Daisuke Matsuzaka, Yu Darvish, Yukari Baba, Shintaro Fujinami, Yasuyuki Kataoka, Toshiaki Imae, Yuki Saito, Kengo Nakamura, Tsuyoshi Shinjo, Shinnosuke Abe, Shingo Katayama, Randy Johnson, Paula Radcliffe and Naoko Takahashi. The company makes endorsement agreements exclusively with athletes who need and enjoy Phiten products. The company also develops and sells sportswear, although the variety and production numbers are very small. The company is also involved in the development of health food products with functional claims. In 2007, it became the first Japanese company to sign the MLB/Major League Baseball Authentication Program. == Aqua Metal == There is still a lack of scientific evidence to support the efficacy of Aqua Titan/Aqua-Titanium, and there has


id: phrenology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology-0.md
category: reference
title: Phrenology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:59.145844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phrenology-20260505-0
summary:
Phrenology is a pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It is based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules. It was said that the brain was composed of different muscles, so those that were used more often were bigger, resulting in the different skull shapes. This provided reasoning for the common presence of bumps on the skull in different locations. The brain "muscles" not being used as frequently remained small and were therefore not present on the exterior of the skull. Although both of those ideas have a basis in reality, phrenology generalizes beyond empirical knowledge in a way that departs from science. The central phrenological notion that measuring the contour of the skull can predict personality traits is discredited by empirical research. Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall in 1796, the discipline was influential in the 19th century, especially from about 1810 until 1840. The principal British centre for phrenology was Edinburgh, where the Edinburgh Phrenological Society was established in 1820. Phrenology is today recognized as pseudoscientific. The methodological rigor of phrenology was doubtful


id: phrenology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology-1.md
category: reference
title: Phrenology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:59.145844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phrenology-20260505-0
summary:
Phrenology is a process that involves observing and/or feeling the skull to determine an individual's psychological attributes. Franz Joseph Gall believed that the brain was made up of 27 individual organs that determined personality, the first 19 of these "organs" he believed to exist in other animal species. Phrenologists would run their fingertips and palms over the skulls of their patients to feel for enlargements or indentations. The phrenologist would often take measurements with a tape measure of the overall head size and more rarely employ a craniometer, a special version of a caliper. In general, instruments to measure sizes of cranium continued to be used after the mainstream phrenology had ended. The phrenologists put emphasis on using drawings of individuals with particular traits, to determine the character of the person and thus many phrenology books show pictures of subjects. From absolute and relative sizes of the skull the phrenologist would assess the character and temperament of the patient. Gall's list of the "brain organs" was specific. An enlarged organ meant that the patient used that particular "organ" extensively. The number—and more detailed meanings—of organs were added later by other phrenologists. The 27 areas varied in function, from sense of


id: phrenology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology-2.md
category: reference
title: Phrenology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:59.145844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phrenology-20260505-0
summary:
The popularization of phrenology in the middle and working classes was due in part to the idea that scientific knowledge was important and an indication of sophistication and modernity. Cheap and plentiful pamphlets, as well as the growing popularity of scientific lectures as entertainment, also helped spread phrenology to the masses. Combe created a system of philosophy of the human mind that became popular with the masses because of its simplified principles and wide range of social applications that were in harmony with the liberal Victorian world view. George Combe's book On the Constitution of Man and its Relationship to External Objects sold more than 200,000 copies through nine editions. Combe also devoted a large portion of his book to reconciling religion and phrenology, which had long been a sticking point. Another reason for its popularity was that phrenology balanced between free will and determinism. A person's inherent faculties were clear, and no faculty was viewed as evil, though the abuse of a faculty was. Phrenology allowed for self-improvement and upward mobility, while providing fodder for attacks on aristocratic privilege. Phrenology also had wide appeal because of its being a reformist philosophy not a radical one. Phrenology was not limited


id: phrenology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology-3.md
category: reference
title: Phrenology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:59.145844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phrenology-20260505-0
summary:
Phrenology was mostly discredited as a scientific theory by the 1840s. This was due only in part to a growing amount of evidence against phrenology. Phrenologists had never been able to agree on the most basic mental organ numbers, going from 27 to over 40, and had difficulty locating the mental organs. Phrenologists relied on cranioscopic readings of the skull to find organ locations. Jean Pierre Flourens' experiments on the brains of pigeons indicated that the loss of parts of the brain either caused no loss of function, or the loss of a completely different function than what had been attributed to it by phrenology. Flourens' experiment, while not perfect, seemed to indicate that Gall's supposed organs were imaginary. Scientists had also become disillusioned with phrenology since its exploitation with the middle and working classes by entrepreneurs. The popularization had resulted in the simplification of phrenology and mixing in it of principles of physiognomy, which had from the start been rejected by Gall as an indicator of personality. Phrenology from its inception was tainted by accusations of promoting materialism and atheism, and being destructive of morality. These were all factors that led to the downfall of phrenology. Recent studies, using


id: phrenology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology-4.md
category: reference
title: Phrenology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:59.145844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phrenology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criminology === Phrenology was one of the first to bring about the idea of rehabilitation of criminals instead of vindictive punishments that would not stop criminals, only with the reorganizing a disorganized brain would bring about change. Voisin believed along with others the accuracy of phrenology in diagnosing criminal tendencies. Diagnosis could point to the type of offender, the insane, an idiot or brute, and by knowing this an appropriate course of action could be taken. A strict system of reward and punishment, hard work and religious instruction, was thought to be able to correct those who had been abandoned and neglected with little education and moral ground works. Those who were considered intellectually disabled could be put to work and housed collectively while only criminals of intellect and vicious intent needed to be confined and isolated. Phrenology also advocated variable prison sentences, the idea being that those who were only defective in education and lacking in morals would soon be released while those who were "mentally deficient" could be watched and the truly abhorrent criminals would never be released. For other patients phrenology could help redirect impulses, one homicidal individual became a butcher to control his impulses, while


id: phrenology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology-5.md
category: reference
title: Phrenology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:59.145844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phrenology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ireland === Phrenology arrived in Ireland in 1815, through Spurzheim. While Ireland largely mirrored British trends, with scientific lectures and demonstrations becoming a popular pastime of the age, by 1815 phrenology had already been ridiculed in some circles priming the audiences to its skeptical claims. Because of this the general public valued it more for its comic relief than anything else; however, it did find an audience in the rational dissenters who found it an attractive alternative to explain human motivations without the attached superstitions of religion. The supporters of phrenology in Ireland were relegated to scientific subcultures because the Irish scholars neglected marginal movements like phrenology, denying it scientific support in Ireland. In 1830 George Combe came to Ireland, his self-promotion barely winning out against his lack of medical expertise, still only drawing lukewarm crowds. This was due to not only the Vatican's decree that phrenology was subversive of religion and morality but also that, based on phrenology, the "Irish Catholics were sui generis a flawed and degenerate breed". Because of the lack of scientific support, along with religious and prejudicial reasons, phrenology never found a wide audience in Ireland. === United States === The first publication in


id: phrenology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology-6.md
category: reference
title: Phrenology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:23:59.145844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phrenology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Intellectual faculties === These are to know the external world and physical qualities. Coloring Eventuality Form Hearing Individuality Language Locality Number Order Sight Size Smell Taste Time Touch Tune Weight === Reflecting faculties === These produce ideas of relation or reflect. They minister to the direction and gratification of all the other powers: Causality Comparison == Phrenology as popular science == Part of phrenology's rise in popularity was the availability of ideas from scholars that were shared throughout the nineteenth century. Various societies all over Europe and in the United States kept the middle class well informed on the developments in the pseudoscientific field of research by way of regularly publishing journals. One of the earliest publications of phrenology was George Combe's Phrenological Journal which sat among other books, pamphlets, and articles he published in order to popularize the pseudoscience. As mentioned previously, phrenology had a wide reach and a multi-faceted appeal from nobility to working class, and this would be his breakthrough publication in Great Britain. The most compelling argument Combe would make for the superiority of European nations and people over that of the rest of the world would be in an article he published titled "On


id: physiognomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Physiognomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:00.325563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiognomy-20260505-0
summary:
Physiognomy or face reading, sometimes known by the later term anthroposcopy, is the practice of assessing a person's character or personality from their outer appearance—especially the face. The term physiognomy can also refer to the general appearance of a person, object, or terrain without reference to its implied characteristics—as in the physiognomy of an individual plant (see plant life-form) or of a plant community (see vegetation). Physiognomy as a practice meets the contemporary definition of pseudoscience and is regarded as such by academics because of its unsupported claims; popular belief in the practice of physiognomy is nonetheless still widespread and modern advances in artificial intelligence have sparked renewed interest in the field of study. The practice was well-accepted by ancient Greek philosophers, but fell into disrepute in the 16th century while practised by vagabonds and mountebanks. It revived and was popularised by Johann Kaspar Lavater, before falling from favour in the late 19th century. Physiognomy in the 19th century is particularly noted as a basis for scientific racism. Physiognomy as it is understood today is a subject of renewed scientific interest, especially as it relates to machine learning and facial recognition technology. The main interest for scientists today are the


id: physiognomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Physiognomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:00.325563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiognomy-20260505-0
summary:
Lavater received mixed reactions from scientists, with some accepting his research and others criticizing it. His harshest critic was scientist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, who said pathognomy, or discovering the character of a person by observing their behavior, was more effective. English religious writer Hannah More (1745–1833) complained to her contemporary writer Horace Walpole, "In vain do we boast ... that philosophy had broken down all the strongholds of prejudice, ignorance, and superstition; and yet, at this very time ... Lavater's physiognomy books sell at fifteen guineas a set." === Thomas Browne === Lavater found confirmation of his ideas from the English physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682), and the Italian Giambattista Della Porta (1535–1615). Browne in his Religio Medici (1643) discusses the possibility of the discernment of inner qualities from the outer appearance of the face, and wrote: there is surely a Physiognomy, which those experienced and Master Mendicants observe. ... For there are mystically in our faces certain Characters that carry in them the motto of our Souls, wherein he that cannot read A.B.C. may read our natures. Browne reaffirmed his physiognomic beliefs in Christian Morals (circa 1675): Since the Brow speaks often true, since Eyes and Noses have Tongues,


id: physiognomy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy-2.md
category: reference
title: Physiognomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:00.325563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiognomy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criminology === During the late 19th century, English psychometrician Sir Francis Galton attempted to define physiognomic characteristics of health, disease, beauty, and criminality, via a method of composite photography. Galton's process involved the photographic superimposition of two or more faces by multiple exposures. After averaging together photographs of violent criminals, he found that the composite image appeared "more respectable" than any of the faces comprising it; this was likely due to the irregularities of the skin across the constituent images being averaged out in the final blend. With the advent of computer technology during the early 1990s, Galton's composite technique has been adopted and greatly improved using computer graphics software. Physiognomy also became of use in the field of Criminology through efforts made by Italian army doctor and scientist, Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso, during the mid-19th century, championed the notion that "criminality was inherited and that criminals could be identified by physical attributes such as hawk-like noses and bloodshot eyes". Lombroso took inspiration from Charles Darwin's recently released theories of evolution and carried many of the misunderstandings that he had regarding evolution into the propagation of the use of physiognomy in criminology. His logic stemmed from the idea that "criminals


id: physiognomy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy-3.md
category: reference
title: Physiognomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiognomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:00.325563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiognomy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Artificial intelligence === Artificial intelligence (AI) has been reported to heavily employ physiognomy, such as the ability to predict homosexuality, criminality, and political affiliation from images of faces or other records of outwards appearance. Critics have said that this is a result of the biased databases that AI systems are trained on, and have noted its use and potential weaponization by governments and corporations. == Scientific investigation == Due to its legacy of racism and junk science masquerading as criminology, scientific study or discussion of the relationship between facial features and character has become taboo. It had previously posited many links. For example, there is evidence that character can influence facial appearance. Also, facial characteristics influence first impressions of others, which influences our expectations and behavior, which in turn influences character. Lastly, there are several biological factors that influence both facial appearance and character traits, such pre- and post-natal hormone levels and gene expression. The relationship between facial features and character traits such as political or sexual orientation is complex, but involves the fact that facial features can shape social behavior, partially as a result of the self-fulfilling prophecy effect. The self-fulfilling prophesy effect asserts that people perceived to


id: pigasus-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigasus_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Pigasus Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigasus_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:01.599134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pigasus-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Pigasus Award is the name of an annual tongue-in-cheek award, which was presented by the late James Randi, a skeptic. The purpose of the award was to expose parapsychological, paranormal, and psychic frauds whom Randi had noted over the previous year. Randi usually made his announcements of the awards from the previous year on April 1 (April Fools' Day). == History == The award was originally called the Uri trophy, after Uri Geller, and was first announced in the appendix of Randi's book Flim-Flam!. The 1982 edition lists the award's "recipients" in 1979, 1980 and 1981. In Flim-Flam!, Randi states: The trophy consists of a stainless-steel spoon bent in a pleasing curve (paranormally, of course) and supported by a base of plastic. Please note that the base is flimsy and quite transparent. I am personally responsible for the nomination of the candidates. The sealed envelopes are read by me, while blindfolded, at the official announcement ceremony on April 1. Any baseless claims are rationalized in approved parapsychological fashion, and the results will be published immediately without being checked in any way. Winners are notified telepathically and are allowed to predict their victory in advance. The bent spoon trophy is


id: pigasus-award-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigasus_Award-1.md
category: reference
title: Pigasus Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigasus_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:01.599134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pigasus-award-20260505-0
summary:
=== Category 2 – Funding === 1979 – The McDonnell Foundation, who gave $500,000 to Washington University in St. Louis to study spoon-bending children. (See Project Alpha) 1980 – The Millennium Foundation for giving $1 million to parapsychological research. (The award was withdrawn in 1982 when the foundation decided, instead, to invest the million dollars in a "psychically discovered" oil site, which turned out to be dry.) 1981 – The Pentagon for spending $6 million to determine whether or not burning a photograph of a Soviet missile would destroy the missile. (Randi 1982, pp. 327–329) 1996 – Robert Bigelow for funding John E. Mack and Budd Hopkins, and for purchasing the so-called Skinwalker Ranch in Utah known for alleged UFO attacks, "interdimensional portals", and cattle mutilations. 1999 – The Human Resources Administration of the City of New York, for training welfare recipients to work as telephone psychics. 2001 – The University of Paris for awarding a doctorate in Sociology to Élizabeth Teissier for a 900-page thesis on the validity of astrology. 2004 – The United States Air Force Research Laboratory, who paid $25,000 to Eric W. Davis at a Las Vegas company called Warp Drive Metrics to study the "conveyance


id: polygraph-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph-0.md
category: reference
title: Polygraph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:02.796379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polygraph-20260505-0
summary:
A polygraph, often incorrectly referred to as a lie detector test, is a pseudoscientific device or procedure that measures and records several physiological indicators such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity while a person is asked and answers a series of questions. The belief underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated with non-deceptive answers; however, there are no specific physiological reactions associated with lying, making it difficult to identify factors that separate those who are lying from those who are telling the truth. In some countries, polygraphs are used as an interrogation tool with criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private sector employment. Some United States law enforcement and federal government agencies, as well as many police departments, use polygraph examinations to interrogate suspects and screen new employees. Within the US federal government, a polygraph examination is also referred to as a psychophysiological detection of deception examination. Assessments of polygraphy by scientific and government bodies generally suggest that polygraphs are highly inaccurate, may easily be defeated by countermeasures, and are an imperfect or invalid means of assessing truthfulness. A comprehensive 2003 review


id: polygraph-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph-1.md
category: reference
title: Polygraph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:02.796379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polygraph-20260505-0
summary:
Although the CQT [Control Question Test] may be useful as an investigative aid and tool to induce confessions, it does not pass muster as a scientifically credible test. CQT theory is based on naive, implausible assumptions indicating (a) that it is biased against innocent individuals and (b) that it can be beaten simply by artificially augmenting responses to control questions. Although it is not possible to adequately assess the error rate of the CQT, both of these conclusions are supported by published research findings in the best social science journals (Honts et al., 1994; Horvath, 1977; Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984; Patrick & Iacono, 1991). Although defense attorneys often attempt to have the results of friendly CQTs admitted as evidence in court, there is no evidence supporting their validity and ample reason to doubt it. Members of scientific organizations who have the requisite background to evaluate the CQT are overwhelmingly skeptical of the claims made by polygraph proponents. Polygraphs measure arousal, which can be affected by anxiety, anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), nervousness, fear, confusion, hypoglycemia, psychosis, depression, substance-induced states (nicotine, stimulants), substance-withdrawal state (alcohol withdrawal) or other emotions; polygraphs do not measure "lies". A polygraph cannot differentiate


id: polygraph-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph-2.md
category: reference
title: Polygraph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:02.796379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polygraph-20260505-0
summary:
== Use == Law enforcement agencies and intelligence agencies in the United States are by far the largest users of polygraph technology. In the United States alone most federal law enforcement agencies either employ their own polygraph examiners or use the services of examiners employed by other agencies. In 1978 Richard Helms, the eighth Director of Central Intelligence, stated: We discovered there were some Eastern Europeans who could defeat the polygraph at any time. Americans are not very good at it, because we are raised to tell the truth and when we lie it is easy to tell we are lying. But we find a lot of Europeans and Asiatics can handle that polygraph without a blip, and you know they are lying and you have evidence that they are lying. Susan McCarthy of Salon said in 2000 that "The polygraph is an American phenomenon, with limited use in a few countries, such as Canada, Israel and Japan." === Armenia === In Armenia, government administered polygraphs are legal, at least for use in national security investigations. The National Security Service (NSS), Armenia's primary intelligence service, requires polygraph examinations of all new applicants. === Australia === Polygraph evidence became inadmissible in


id: polygraph-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph-3.md
category: reference
title: Polygraph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:02.796379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polygraph-20260505-0
summary:
In 2018, Wired magazine reported that an estimated 2.5 million polygraph tests were given each year in the United States, with the majority administered to paramedics, police officers, firefighters, and state troopers. The average cost to administer the test is more than $700 and is part of a $2 billion industry. In 2007, polygraph testimony was admitted by stipulation in 19 states, and was subject to the discretion of the trial judge in federal court. The use of polygraph in court testimony remains controversial, although it is used extensively in post-conviction supervision, particularly of sex offenders. In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993), the old Frye standard was lifted and all forensic evidence, including polygraph, had to meet the new Daubert standard in which "underlying reasoning or methodology is scientifically valid and properly can be applied to the facts at issue." While polygraph tests are commonly used in police investigations in the US, no defendant or witness can be forced to undergo the test unless they are under the supervision of the courts. In United States v. Scheffer (1998), the US Supreme Court left it up to individual jurisdictions whether polygraph results could be admitted as evidence in court


id: polygraph-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph-4.md
category: reference
title: Polygraph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:02.796379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polygraph-20260505-0
summary:
In 1995, Harold James Nicholson, a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) employee later convicted of spying for Russia, had undergone his periodic five-year reinvestigation, in which he showed a strong probability of deception on questions regarding relationships with a foreign intelligence unit. This polygraph test later led to an investigation which resulted in his eventual arrest and conviction. In most cases, however, polygraphs are more of a tool to "scare straight" those who would consider espionage. Jonathan Pollard was advised by his Israeli handlers that he was to resign his job from American intelligence if he was ever told he was subject to a polygraph test. Likewise, John Anthony Walker was advised by his handlers not to engage in espionage until he had been promoted to the highest position for which a polygraph test was not required, to refuse promotion to higher positions for which polygraph tests were required, and to retire when promotion was mandated. In 1983, CIA employee Edward Lee Howard was dismissed when, during a polygraph screening, he truthfully answered a series of questions admitting to minor crimes such as petty theft and drug abuse. In retaliation for his perceived unjust punishment for minor offenses, he later sold


id: polygraph-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph-5.md
category: reference
title: Polygraph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:02.796379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polygraph-20260505-0
summary:
== History == Earlier societies utilized elaborate methods of lie detection which mainly involved torture. For instance, in the Middle Ages, boiling water was used to detect liars, as it was believed honest men would withstand it better than liars. Early devices for lie detection include an 1895 invention of Cesare Lombroso used to measure changes in blood pressure for police cases, a 1904 device by Vittorio Benussi used to measure breathing, the Mackenzie-Lewis Polygraph first developed by James Mackenzie in 1906 and an abandoned project by American William Moulton Marston which used blood pressure to examine German prisoners of war (POWs). Marston said he found a strong positive correlation between systolic blood pressure and lying. Marston wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his undergraduate studies. He entered Harvard Law School and graduated in 1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917. Marston's main inspiration for the device was his wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston. "According to Marston’s son, it was his mother Elizabeth, Marston's wife, who suggested to him that 'When she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb'" (Lamb, 2001). Although Elizabeth is not listed as Marston’s collaborator in his early work,


id: polygraph-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph-6.md
category: reference
title: Polygraph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:02.796379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polygraph-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hand-held lie detector for US military === A hand-held lie detector is being deployed by the US Department of Defense according to a report in 2008 by investigative reporter Bill Dedman of NBC News. The Preliminary Credibility Assessment Screening System, or PCASS, captures less physiological information than a polygraph, and uses an algorithm, not the judgment of a polygraph examiner, to render a decision whether it believes the person is being deceptive or not. The device was first used in Afghanistan by US Army troops. The Department of Defense ordered its use be limited to non-US persons, in overseas locations only. === Notable cases === Polygraphy has been faulted for failing to trap known spies such as double-agent Aldrich Ames, who passed two polygraph tests while spying for the Soviet Union. Ames failed several tests while at the CIA that were never acted on. Other spies who passed the polygraph include Karl Koecher, Ana Montes, and Leandro Aragoncillo. CIA spy Harold James Nicholson failed his polygraph examinations, which aroused suspicions that led to his eventual arrest. Polygraph examination and background checks failed to detect Nada Nadim Prouty, who was not a spy but was convicted for improperly obtaining US


id: polyvagal-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvagal_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Polyvagal theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvagal_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:03.987197+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polyvagal-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Polyvagal theory (PVT) is a collection of proposed evolutionary, neuroscientific, and psychological constructs pertaining to the role of the vagus nerve in emotion regulation, social connection, and fear responses. The theory was introduced in 1994 by Stephen Porges. PVT is popular among some clinical practitioners and patients. However, multiple aspects of the theory are widely criticized for being at odds with known science. For example, neuroanatomists point out that the theory is incorrect in claiming direct communication between the brainstem branchiomotor nuclei and the visceromotor portion of the nucleus ambiguus. Evolutionary biologists consider the presence of myelinated vagus nerve fibers in lungfish leading from the nucleus ambiguus to the heart a contradiction of the theory's view of the mammalian nucleus ambiguus. Polyvagal theory takes its name from the vagus nerve, a cranial nerve that forms a primary component of the parasympathetic nervous system. The traditional view of the autonomic nervous system presents a two-part system: the sympathetic nervous system, which is more activating ("fight or flight"), and the parasympathetic nervous system, which supports health, growth, and restoration ("rest and digest"). Polyvagal theory views the parasympathetic nervous system as being further split into two distinct branches: a "ventral vagal system" which


id: polyvagal-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvagal_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Polyvagal theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvagal_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:03.987197+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polyvagal-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Proposed ventral vagal complex (VVC) === With increased neural complexity as seen in mammals (due to phylogenetic development), there is said to have evolved a more sophisticated system to enrich behavioral and affective responses to an increasingly complex environment. The ventral branch of the vagus originates in the nucleus ambiguus and is myelinated to provide more speed in responding. Polyvagal theory calls this the "smart vagus" because it associates it with the regulation of sympathetic "fight or flight" behaviors by way of social affiliative behaviors. These behaviors are said to include social communication and self-soothing and calming. In other words, this branch of the vagus is said to inhibit or disinhibit defensive limbic circuits, depending on the situation. Note: Attributing defensive behaviours purely to the limbic system is an oversimplification, as these are triggered by perceived threats, thus requiring an interplay of brain areas performing sensory integration, memory, and semantic knowledge with the limbic system to be elicited. Similarly, the regulation of emotions requires a complex interplay of higher cognitive areas with limbic ones. The vagus nerve mediates the control of supradiaphragmatic visceral organs, such as the esophagus, bronchi, pharynx, and larynx. It also exerts an important influence on


id: polyvagal-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvagal_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Polyvagal theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvagal_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:03.987197+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polyvagal-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neuroscientific claims === Neuhuber and Berthoud (2022) state that polyvagal theory's "basic phylogenetic and functional-anatomical tenets do not withstand closer scrutiny". They argue that polyvagal theory incorrectly portrays the role of the different vagal nuclei in mediating the freeze response. According to their analysis, the evidence "does not support a role of the 'dorsal vagal complex' in freezing as proposed by the PVT" and the dorsal vagal complex "should not be linked to passive defensive behavior". Regarding the proposed "ventral vagal complex", they state that "the PVT, by construeing a 'new ventral vagal complex' encompassing the entire branchiomotor column ascribed to the vagus much more than it actually can serve." They see it as "misleading to propose that brainstem branchiomotor ('source') nuclei 'communicate directly with the visceromotor portion of the nucleus ambiguus'", and conclude that the relevant networks "should not be termed 'ventral vagal complex'. This terminology may insinuate that the vagus is a "prime mover". This not the case [...]". Taylor, Wang & Leite (2022) similarly regard it as "invalid to refer to this as a 'vagal system' or to postulate the existence of a 'smart vagus'." === Evolutionary claims === Grossman and Taylor (2007) argue that there


id: postpartum-confinement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpartum_confinement-0.md
category: reference
title: Postpartum confinement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpartum_confinement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:05.181298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postpartum-confinement-20260505-0
summary:
Postpartum confinement is a traditional practice following childbirth. Those who follow these customs typically begin immediately after the birth, and the seclusion or special treatment lasts for a culturally variable length: typically for one month or 30 days, 26 days, up to 40 days, two months, or 100 days. This postnatal recuperation can include care practices in regards of "traditional health beliefs, taboos, rituals, and proscriptions." The practice used to be known as "lying-in", which, as the term suggests, centres on bed rest. In some cultures, it may be connected to taboos concerning impurity after childbirth. == Overview == Postpartum confinement refers both to the mother and the baby. Human newborns are so underdeveloped that pediatricians such as Harvey Karp refer to the first three months as the "fourth trimester". The weeks of rest while the mother heals also protect the infant as it adjusts to the world, and both learn the skills of breastfeeding. Almost all countries have some form of maternity leave. Many countries encourage men to take some paternal leave, but even those that mandate that some of the shared parental leave must be used by the father ("father's quota") acknowledge that the mother needs time off


id: postpartum-confinement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpartum_confinement-1.md
category: reference
title: Postpartum confinement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpartum_confinement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:05.181298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postpartum-confinement-20260505-0
summary:
===== Everyday habits and personal hygiene practices ===== Traditionally in China, the mother and child were kept separate from the rest of the household. The mother was not permitted to bathe, wash her hair, or weep, because these activities were believed to put the mother at risk of falling ill by catching cold and affect the quality of her breast milk. Nowadays, however, new mothers may wash their hair or take a bath or shower infrequently during the postpartum period, but it is claimed to be important to dry their body immediately afterwards with a clean towel and their hair properly using a hair dryer. It is also claimed to be important for women to wrap up warm and minimize the amount of skin exposed, as it was believed that they may catch a cold during this vulnerable time. In Dalian, some women even take to wrapping themselves in plastic to avoid the wind. Ref ===== Special foods ===== The custom of confinement advises new mothers to choose energy and protein-rich foods to recover energy levels, help shrink the uterus, and for the perineum to heal. This is also important for the production of breastmilk. Among the traditionally recommended galactogogues


id: postpartum-confinement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpartum_confinement-2.md
category: reference
title: Postpartum confinement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpartum_confinement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:05.181298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postpartum-confinement-20260505-0
summary:
==== Korea ==== In Korea, the traditional postpartum practice is known as sanhujori (산후조리), and women historically observed a confinement period called samchil-il (삼칠일, "three seven days," or 21 days). In the past, during the samchil-il period, geumjul (taboo rope) made with saekki and various symbolic objects, such as chili peppers (for a boy) and coal (for a girl), was hung over the gate to denote the childbirth and restrict visitor access. Sanhujori practices traditionally include consuming warm foods believed to aid recovery, such as seaweed soup (miyeokguk), which is rich in iron and iodine and is considered essential for postpartum mothers. New mothers are also encouraged to keep warm, rest extensively, and avoid cold foods and environments. Since the late 20th century, South Korea has seen the widespread establishment of specialized postpartum care facilities known as sanhujoriwon (산후조리원). These centers provide professional nursing care, newborn monitoring, lactation support, and traditional postpartum meals in a residential setting, typically for a stay of approximately two weeks. A 2023 study examining first-time mothers' satisfaction with sanhujoriwon found that both individual factors and environmental ecological factors influenced maternal satisfaction with these facilities. The growth of sanhujoriwon parallels the development of postpartum care centers


id: postpartum-confinement-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpartum_confinement-3.md
category: reference
title: Postpartum confinement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpartum_confinement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:05.181298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postpartum-confinement-20260505-0
summary:
==== Malaysia ==== In Malaysia, postpartum confinement is practiced across ethnic Malay, Chinese, and Indian communities, each with distinct traditions. Malay mothers typically observe a 44-day confinement period, during which they undergo traditional practices including bertungku (application of a heated stone to the abdomen) and traditional massage (urut). Special herbal baths are also common throughout the recovery period. A comparative study of confinement practices in Singapore found that Chinese and Indian mothers tended to follow more specific dietary regimens than Malay mothers, and that Chinese mothers were more likely to depend on confinement nannies for support. ==== Vietnam ==== Vietnamese postpartum confinement traditions emphasize keeping the mother warm to avoid gio (wind), which is believed to cause headaches, joint pain, and other long-term ailments. New mothers are encouraged to stay warm, avoid cold water and drafts, and consume warming foods and herbal preparations. A 2021 meta-ethnography examining postpartum practices among Southeast and East Asian immigrant mothers found that Vietnamese women, along with Chinese, Korean, and Hmong women, frequently adapted their traditional confinement practices when living abroad, negotiating between cultural expectations and the realities of their new environments. === Europe === The term used in English, now old-fashioned or archaic, was


id: power-balance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Balance-0.md
category: reference
title: Power Balance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Balance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:06.337286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: power-balance-20260505-0
summary:
Power Balance is the original brand of hologram bracelets claimed by its manufacturers and vendors to use "holographic technology" to "resonate with and respond to the natural energy field of the body" to increase athletic performance. Numerous independent studies of the device have found it to be no more effective than a placebo for enhancing athletic performance. As a result, in 2010, the Australian distributor, Power Balance Australia Pty Ltd, was forced by the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC) to retract any previous claims. == History == The product was originally promoted at trade shows in the beginning of 2006 using applied kinesiology as its effective sales tool. The bracelets went on sale in 2007 and had several celebrity endorsements. The bracelets became a trend among high school, collegiate, and professional sports teams between 2008 and 2012. This sustained prevalence compelled journalist Darren Rovell to remark that "a growing number of professional sportsmen and their attendants are starting to sound like New Age crystal healers." CNBC Sports named Power Balance Product of the Year in 2010 for its strong sales and celebrity endorsements. Power Balance headquarters, which was located in Laguna Niguel, California, at the time, denied that they


id: power-balance-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Balance-1.md
category: reference
title: Power Balance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Balance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:06.337286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: power-balance-20260505-0
summary:
Experts are of the opinion that the Power Balance bracelet is nothing more than a placebo. Victor Thompson, a sports psychologist based in London, said: "I'm not aware of any research that supports the technology behind these bands." Greg Whyte, professor of applied sport and exercise science at Liverpool John Moores University, said that "for generations there have been devices that claim to mediate the body's flow of energy. In most instances, the 'proof' is based on anecdotal evidence." The Center for Inquiry noted Power Balance's use of pseudoscientific applied kinesiology tests, which it described as "problematic and full of flaws." The illustrative videos on the company's website were considered vague and unclear, and the Center noted that "most people's flexibility seems to improve from their first stretch to their second stretch regardless of whether they are wearing the bracelet." In 2010, Harriet A. Hall wrote in the Skeptical Inquirer that she would believe anyone who claimed that a Power Balance product made them feel better, or that their performance was improved, but would not be convinced that "the improvement has anything to do with bioresonating frequencies in the holograms—or even with the cards themselves. It's like the tooth fairy.


id: pranic-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pranic_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Pranic therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pranic_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:07.489104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pranic-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Pranic therapy is the umbrella term for pseudoscientific forms of energy healing. It is a range of holistic therapies and alternative medicine that claim to have healing benefits. It is a form of energy healing which has shown in some medical studies to be effective in reducing pain, anxiety and other physical and mental conditions. == History == Pranic therapies are techniques that include pranic healing is a modern interpretation of numerous ancient healing techniques, including Chinese Qi, Chakras and most notably Prana, from which it gets its name. Starting as an eastern alternative medicine, it has become more commonly used in the west in recent years, and often used in spas and similar businesses. India where prana is used across various alternative medical techniques, has also seen a rise in pranic therapies. Medical practices in the United States have also used pranic therapies on patients, although successful treatments have not been accurately measured. Its adoption in the west has led to some using the technique as a front for unethical practices, or to make unsubstantiated claims. == Principles == Pranic therapies focus on 11 major chakras in the body, each of which corresponds with the position of a vital


id: precognition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition-0.md
category: reference
title: Precognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:09.812996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: precognition-20260505-0
summary:
Precognition (from the Latin prae- 'before', and cognitio 'acquiring knowledge') is the purported psychic phenomenon of seeing, or otherwise becoming directly aware of, events in the future. There is no accepted scientific evidence that precognition is a real effect, and it is widely considered to be pseudoscience. Precognition violates the principle of causality, that an effect cannot occur before its cause. Precognition has been widely believed in throughout history. Despite the lack of scientific evidence, many people believe it to be real; it is still widely reported and remains a topic of research and discussion within the parapsychology community. == Precognitive phenomena == Precognition is sometimes treated as an example of the wider phenomenon of prescience or foreknowledge, to understand by any means what is likely to happen in the future. It is distinct from premonition, which is a vaguer feeling of some impending disaster. Related activities such as predictive prophecy and fortune telling have been practised throughout history. Precognitive dreams are the most widely reported occurrences of precognition. Usually, a dream or vision can only be identified as precognitive after the putative event has taken place. When such an event occurs after a dream, it is said to have


id: precognition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition-1.md
category: reference
title: Precognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:09.812996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: precognition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early 20th century === In the early 20th century J. W. Dunne, a British soldier and aeronautics engineer, experienced several dreams which he regarded as precognitive. He developed techniques to record and analyse them, identifying any correspondences between his future experiences and his recorded dreams. He reported his findings in his 1927 book An Experiment with Time. In it he alleges that 10% of his dreams appeared to include some element of future experience. He also persuaded some friends to try the experiment on themselves, with mixed results. He noted a strong cognitive bias in which subjects, including himself, were reluctant to ascribe their dream correspondences to precognition and determinedly sought alternative explanations. Dunne concluded that precognitive elements in dreams are common and that many people unknowingly have them. He suggested also that dream precognition did not reference future events of all kinds, but specifically the future experiences of the dreamer. He was led to this idea when he found that a dream of a volcanic eruption appeared to foresee not the disaster itself but his subsequent misreading of an inaccurate account in a newspaper. Edith Lyttelton, who became President of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), regarded his


id: precognition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition-2.md
category: reference
title: Precognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:09.812996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: precognition-20260505-0
summary:
The dream should be reported to a credible witness before the event. The time interval between the dream and the event should be short. The event should be unexpected at the time of the dream. The description should be of an event destined literally, and not symbolically, to happen. The details of dream and event should tally. David Ryback, a psychologist in Atlanta, used a questionnaire survey approach to investigate precognitive dreaming in college students during the 1980s. His survey of over 433 participants showed that 290 or 66.9 per cent reported some form of paranormal dream. He rejected many of these reports, but claimed that 8.8 per cent of the population was having actual precognitive dreams. === 21st century === In 2011 the psychologist Daryl Bem, a Professor Emeritus at Cornell University, published findings showing statistical evidence for precognition in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. The paper was heavily criticised, and the criticism widened to include the journal itself and the validity of the peer-review process. In 2012, an independent attempt to reproduce Bem's results was published, but it failed to do so. The widespread controversy led to calls for improvements in practice and for more research.


id: princeton-engineering-anomalies-research-lab-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_Engineering_Anomalies_Research_Lab-0.md
category: reference
title: Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_Engineering_Anomalies_Research_Lab
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:24:11.025440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: princeton-engineering-anomalies-research-lab-20260505-0
summary:
The Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research (PEAR) was a research program at Princeton University that studied parapsychology. Established in 1979 by then Dean of Engineering Robert G. Jahn, PEAR conducted formal studies on two primary subject areas, psychokinesis (PK) and remote viewing. Owing to the controversial nature of the subject matter, the program had a strained relationship with Princeton and was considered by the administration and some faculty to be an embarrassment to the university. Critics stated that it lacked scientific rigor, used poor methodology, and misused statistics, and characterized it as pseudoscience. PEAR closed in February 2007, being incorporated into the "International Consciousness Research Laboratories (ICRL). == Parapsychological experiments with random event generators == PEAR employed electronic random event generators (REGs) to explore the ability of test subjects to use psychokinesis to influence the random output distribution of these devices to conform to their pre-recorded intentions to produce higher numbers, lower numbers, or nominal baselines. Most of these experiments utilized a microelectronic REG, but experiments were also conducted with "a giant, wall-mounted pachinko-like machine with a cascade of bouncing balls". In 1986 associates of PEAR published data collected over the course of seven years from a group of subjects attempting


