# kb

id: citation-cartel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_cartel-0.md
category: reference
title: Citation cartel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_cartel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:19.166650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citation-cartel-20260505-0
summary:
A citation cartel is a group of academic authors who collude to cite one another's publications in order to artificially increase their citation impact. In many cases the cited works have no strong relevance to the works they are cited in. The practice of making excessive or spurious citations is known as citation stacking. Mutual citation can occur naturally when small numbers of authors publish in a specialist field, but the term "citation cartel" is usually used to describe the situation where mutual citation is done without reasonable excuse. Because of the difficulty of proving intent, publishers are reluctant to use the term "citation cartel", but are known to deal with individual journals and authors when cartel-like behavior is suspected. Alleged citation cartels have been found in numerous academic fields, including mathematics, medicine and dentistry. Possible citation cartels can be detected by network analysis of the citation graph. Some citation cartels submit papers claiming to be from developing countries to avoid publication fees in open-access journals. == See also == Clique Coercive citation == References ==


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-0.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
A conflict of interest (COI) is a situation in which a person or organization is involved in multiple interests, financial or otherwise, and serving one interest could involve working against another. Typically, this relates to situations in which the personal interest of an individual or organization might adversely affect a duty owed to make decisions for the benefit of a third party. An "interest" is a commitment, obligation, duty or goal associated with a specific social role or practice. By definition, a "conflict of interest" occurs if, within a particular decision-making context, an individual is subject to two coexisting interests that are in direct conflict with each other ("competing interests"). This is important because under these circumstances, the decision-making process can be disrupted or compromised, affecting the integrity or reliability of the outcomes. Typically, a conflict of interest arises when an individual occupies two social roles simultaneously, generating opposing benefits or loyalties. The interests involved can be pecuniary or non-pecuniary. The existence of such conflicts is an objective fact, not a state of mind, and does not in itself indicate any lapse or moral error. However, especially where a decision is being taken in a fiduciary context, it is important


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-1.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
==== Direct adversity to current client ==== An attorney owes the client undivided loyalty. The courts have described this principle as "integral to the nature of an attorney's duty". Without undivided loyalty, irreparable damage may be done "to the existing client's sense of trust and security – features essential to the effective functioning of the fiduciary relationship..." A key feature of the duty of loyalty is that an attorney may not act directly adverse to a current client or represent a litigation adversary of the client in an unrelated matter. The damage done is to the client's confidence that the lawyer is serving their interests faithfully. An example of a lawyer acting directly adverse to a client is when the lawyer sues the client. At the other end of the spectrum is when a lawyer represents business competitors of the client who are not adverse to it in a lawsuit or negotiation. Representing a client's business competitors in unrelated matters does not constitute direct adversity nor give rise to a loyalty conflict. As one state bar ethics committee has noted: Direct adversity may arise in litigation when an attorney sues a client or defends an adversary in an action their


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-2.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
the lawyer reasonably believes that the lawyer will be able to provide competent and diligent representation to each affected client; the representation is not prohibited by law; the representation does not involve the assertion of a claim by one client against another client represented by the lawyer in the same litigation or other proceeding before a tribunal; and each affected client gives informed consent, confirmed in writing. Informed consent requires that each affected client be fully advised about the material ways that the representation could adversely affect that client. In joint representations, the information provided should include the interests of the lawyer and other affected clients, the courses of action that could be foreclosed due to the joint representation, the potential danger that the client's confidential information might be disclosed, and the potential consequences if the lawyer had to withdraw at a later stage in the proceedings. Merely telling the client that there are conflicts, without further explanation, is not adequate disclosure. The lawyer must fully disclose the potential impairment to the lawyer's loyalty and explain how another unconflicted attorney might better serve the client's interests. ===== Prospective consent to future conflicts ===== It is not unusual in the current


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-3.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
physical, geographic, and departmental separation of attorneys; prohibitions against and sanctions for discussing confidential matters; established rules and procedures preventing access to confidential information and files; procedures preventing a disqualified attorney from sharing in the profits from the representation; continuing education in professional responsibility. Judicial disqualification, also referred to as recusal, refers to the act of abstaining from participation in an official action such as a court case/legal proceeding due to a conflict of interest of the presiding court official or administrative officer. Applicable statutes or canons of ethics may provide standards for recusal in a given proceeding or matter. Providing that the judge or presiding officer must be free from disabling conflicts of interest makes the fairness of the proceedings less likely to be questioned. In the practice of law, the duty of loyalty owed to a client prohibits an attorney (or a law firm) from representing any other party with interests adverse to those of a current client. The few exceptions to this rule require informed written consent from all affected clients, i.e., an "ethical wall". In some circumstances, a client can never waive a conflict of interest. In perhaps the most common example encountered by the general


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-4.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
An organizational conflict of interest (OCI) may exist in the same way as described above, for instance where a corporation provides two types of service to the government and these services conflict (e.g.: manufacturing parts and then participating in a selection committee comparing parts manufacturers). Corporations may develop simple or complex systems to mitigate the risk or perceived risk of a conflict of interest. These risks can be evaluated by a government agency (for example, in a U.S. Government RFP) to determine whether the risks create a substantial advantage to the organization in question over its competition, or will decrease the overall competitiveness of the bidding process. == Types == The following are the most common forms of conflicts of interests: Self-dealing, in which an official who controls an organization causes it to enter into a transaction with the official, or with another organization that benefits the official only. The official is on both sides of the "deal." Outside employment, in which the interests of one job conflict with another. Nepotism, in which a spouse, child, or other close relative is employed (or applies for employment) by an individual, or where goods or services are purchased from a relative or


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-5.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
=== Finance industry and economists === Economists (unlike other professions such as sociologists) do not formally subscribe to a professional ethical code. Close to 300 economists have signed a letter urging the American Economic Association (the discipline's foremost professional body), to adopt such a code. The signatories include George Akerlof, a Nobel laureate, and Christina Romer, who headed Barack Obama's Council of Economic Advisers. This call for a code of ethics was supported by the public attention the documentary Inside Job (winner of an Academy Award) drew to the consulting relationships of several influential economists. This documentary focused on conflicts that may arise when economists publish results or provide public recommendations on topics that affect industries or companies with which they have financial links. Critics of the profession argue, for example, that it is no coincidence that financial economists, many of whom were engaged as consultants by Wall Street firms, were opposed to regulating the financial sector. In response to criticism that the profession not only failed to predict the 2008 financial crisis but may actually have helped create it, the American Economic Association has adopted new rules in 2012: economists will have to disclose financial ties and other potential


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-6.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
Regulating conflict of interest in government is an aim of political ethics. Public officials are expected to put service to the public and their constituents ahead of their personal interests. Conflict of interest rules are intended to prevent officials from making decisions in circumstances that could reasonably be perceived as violating this duty of office. Limiting conflicts is vital to the success of a democracy. Rules in the executive branch tend to be stricter and easier to enforce than in the legislative branch. This is visible through one study that highlights how members of Congress with specific stock investments may vote on regulatory and interventionist legislation. Two problems make legislative ethics of conflicts difficult and distinctive. First, as James Madison wrote, legislators should share a "communion of interests" with their constituents. Legislators cannot adequately represent their constituents' interests without also representing some of their own. As Senator Robert S. Kerr said, "I represent the farmers of Oklahoma, although I have large farm interests. I represent the oil business in Oklahoma...and I am in the oil business...They don't want to send a man here who has no community of interest with them, because he wouldn't be worth a nickel to them."


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-7.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
=== Insurance claims adjusters === Insurance companies retain claims adjusters to represent their interest in adjusting claims. It is in the best interest of the insurance companies that the very smallest settlement is reached with its claimants. Based on the adjuster's experience and knowledge of the insurance policy it is very easy for the adjuster to convince an unknowing claimant to settle for less than what they may otherwise be entitled which could be a larger settlement. There is always a very good chance for a conflict of interest existing when one adjuster tries to represent both sides of a financial transaction such as an insurance claim. This problem is exacerbated when the claimant is told or believes, the insurance company's claims adjuster is fair and impartial enough to satisfy both their and the insurance company's interests. These types of conflicts could easily be avoided by the use of a third-party platform, independent of the insurers, which is agreed to, and named in the policy. === News media === Commercial news media have a conflict of interest in discussing anything that may impact their ability to communicate with their audience. Most news outlets, when reporting a story that involves a


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-8.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
=== Purchasing agents and sales personnel === A person working as the equipment purchaser for a company may earn a bonus proportionate to the amount the company is under budget at year-end. However, this becomes an incentive for the employee to purchase inexpensive, substandard equipment. Therefore, this is counter to the interests of those in the company who must actually use the equipment. W. Edwards Deming listed "purchasing on price alone" as number 4 of his famous 14 points, and he often said things to the effect that "He who purchases on price alone deserves to get rooked." === Real estate agents === Real estate brokers have an inherent conflict of interest with the sellers they represent, because the usual commission structures of brokers motivate them to sell quickly rather than to sell at a higher price. However, a broker representing a buyer has a distinct disincentive to negotiate a lower price on behalf of their client, because they will simultaneously be negotiating their own commission lower. === Self-regulation === Self-regulation of any group may also be a conflict of interest. If an entity, such as a corporation or government bureaucracy, is asked to eliminate unethical behavior within its own


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-9.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:20.421650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disclosure === Commonly, politicians and high-ranking government officials are required to disclose financial information—assets such as stock, debts such as loans, and/or corporate positions held, typically annually. To protect privacy (to some extent), financial figures are often disclosed in ranges such as "$100,000 to $500,000" and "over $2,000,000". Certain professionals are required either by rules related to their professional organization, or by statute, to disclose any actual or potential conflicts of interest. In some instances, the failure to provide full disclosure is a crime. However, there is limited evidence regarding the effect of conflict of interest disclosure despite its widespread acceptance. A 2012 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association showed that routine disclosure of conflicts of interest by American medical school educators to pre-clinical medical students were associated with an increased desire among students for limitations in some industry relationships. However, there were no changes in the perceptions of students about the value of disclosure, the influence of industry relationships on educational content, or the instruction by faculty with relevant conflicts of interest. One line of research suggests that disclosure can have "perverse effects" or, at least, is not the panacea regulators often take it


id: covid-19-proxalutamide-trial-in-brazil-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_proxalutamide_trial_in_Brazil-0.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 proxalutamide trial in Brazil
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_proxalutamide_trial_in_Brazil
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:21.631318+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-proxalutamide-trial-in-brazil-20260505-0
summary:
In the wake of the global COVID-19 pandemic, several lines of research targeted the development of a pharmaceutical treatment or cure for the disease. One of those researches involved a clinical trial that took place in Brazil and was led by Brazilian endocrinologist Flávio Cadegiani. == Background == In the beginning of the pandemic, it was believed that men were generally more prone to the illness than women and as a result of that, some researchers explored human male hormone blockers, also known as antiandrogens, as a treatment. The trial led by Cadegiani looked at the experimental prostate cancer and antiandrogen proxalutamide, and people from the Brazilian region of Amazon were recruited as patients in the study, given the surge in COVID-19 cases in that region in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil which would, according to the study's author, favor the accuracy of the research. Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro backed the unproven use of proxalutamide drug to treat COVID-19 as well as he previously did with ivermectin and hydroxychloroquine, both of which are also unproven treatments for the virus. == Method == A total of 645 patients with COVID-19 were administered proxalutamide at nine hospitals in


id: danish-committees-on-scientific-dishonesty-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Committees_on_Scientific_Dishonesty-0.md
category: reference
title: Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Committees_on_Scientific_Dishonesty
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:22.847740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: danish-committees-on-scientific-dishonesty-20260505-0
summary:
The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (Danish: Udvalgene vedrørende Videnskabelig Uredelighed, or UVVU) are a set of three committees under the Danish Ministry of Research and Information Technology: a committee for natural science, agricultural and veterinary science and technical science; a committee for health and medical science; and a committee for social science and the humanities. They have a common chairman. Previously obscure, the DCSD became embroiled in controversy after its January 2003 decision that the 2001 book The Skeptical Environmentalist by Bjørn Lomborg was "clearly contrary to the standards of good scientific practice", due to the author's systematically biased choice of data, and objectively was scientifically irredeemable, but Lomborg himself could not be subjectively convicted of intentional or gross negligence. Lomborg had argued in his book that claims by environmentalists about global warming, overpopulation, deforestation, and other matters are not scientifically substantiated. The DCSD further held that because of Lomborg's lack of scientific expertise, he had not shown intentional or gross negligence, and acquitted him of the accusations of scientific dishonesty. In February 2003, Lomborg filed a complaint with the Ministry, and in December 2003, the Ministry found that the DCSD's handling of the investigation in the case had


id: data-colada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Colada-0.md
category: reference
title: Data Colada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Colada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:24.002505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-colada-20260505-0
summary:
Data Colada is a blog dedicated to investigative analysis and replication of academic research, focusing in particular on the validity of findings in the social sciences. It is known for its advocacy against problematic research practices such as p-hacking, and for publishing evidence of data manipulation and research misconduct in several prominent cases, including celebrity professors Dan Ariely and Francesca Gino. Data Colada was established in 2013 by three behavioral science researchers: Uri Simonsohn, a professor at ESADE Business School, Barcelona/Spain (as of 2023), Leif Nelson, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and Joe Simmons, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania. == History == Around 2011, Simmons, Nelson and Simonsohn "bonded over the false, ridiculous, and flashy findings that the field [of behavioral sciences] was capable of producing", such as a paper by Cornell psychologist Daryl Bem that had supposedly found evidence for clairvoyance. They reacted by publishing an influential 2011 paper about false positive results in psychology, illustrating the problem with a parody research finding that supposedly showed that listening to the Beatles song "When I’m Sixty-Four" made experimental subjects one and a half years younger. The "Data Colada" blog was launched two years later, in


id: data-dredging-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging-0.md
category: reference
title: Data dredging
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:25.227717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-dredging-20260505-0
summary:
Data dredging, also known as data snooping or p-hacking, is the misuse of data analysis to find patterns in data that can be presented as statistically significant, thus dramatically increasing and understating the risk of false positives. This is done by performing many statistical tests on the data and only reporting those that come back with significant results. Thus data dredging is also often a misused or misapplied form of data mining. The process of data dredging involves testing multiple hypotheses using a single data set by exhaustively searching—perhaps for combinations of variables that might show a correlation, and perhaps for groups of cases or observations that show differences in their mean or in their breakdown by some other variable. Conventional tests of statistical significance are based on the probability that a particular result would arise if chance alone were at work, and necessarily accept some risk of mistaken conclusions of a certain type (mistaken rejections of the null hypothesis). This level of risk is called the significance. When large numbers of tests are performed, some produce false results of this type; hence 5% of randomly chosen hypotheses might be (erroneously) reported to be statistically significant at the 5% significance


id: data-dredging-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging-1.md
category: reference
title: Data dredging
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:25.227717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-dredging-20260505-0
summary:
=== Post-hoc grouping === If a dataset contains multiple features, then one or more of the features can be used as grouping, and potentially create a statistically significant result. For example, if a dataset of patients records their age and sex, then a researcher can consider grouping them by age and check if the illness recovery rate is correlated with age. If it does not work, then the researcher might check if it correlates with sex. If not, then perhaps it correlates with age after controlling for sex, etc. The number of possible groupings grows exponentially with the number of features. === Hypothesis suggested by non-representative data === Suppose that a study of a random sample of people includes exactly two people with a birthday of August 7: Mary and John. Someone engaged in data dredging might try to find additional similarities between Mary and John. By going through hundreds or thousands of potential similarities between the two, each having a low probability of being true, an unusual similarity can almost certainly be found. Perhaps John and Mary are the only two people in the study who switched minors three times in college. A hypothesis, biased by data dredging, could


id: data-dredging-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging-2.md
category: reference
title: Data dredging
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:25.227717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-dredging-20260505-0
summary:
== Appearance in media == One example is the chocolate weight loss hoax study conducted by journalist John Bohannon, who explained publicly in a Gizmodo article that the study was deliberately conducted fraudulently as a social experiment. This study was widespread in many media outlets around 2015, with many people believing the claim that eating a chocolate bar every day would cause them to lose weight, against their better judgement. This study was published in the Institute of Diet and Health. According to Bohannon, to reduce the p-value to below 0.05, taking 18 different variables into consideration when testing was crucial. == Remedies == While looking for patterns in data is legitimate, applying a statistical test of significance or hypothesis test to the same data until a pattern emerges is prone to abuse. One way to construct hypotheses while avoiding data dredging is to conduct randomized out-of-sample tests. The researcher collects a data set, then randomly partitions it into two subsets, A and B. Only one subset—say, subset A—is examined for creating hypotheses. Once a hypothesis is formulated, it must be tested on subset B, which was not used to construct the hypothesis. Only where B also supports such a


id: data-fabrication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_fabrication-0.md
category: reference
title: Data fabrication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_fabrication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:26.387426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-fabrication-20260505-0
summary:
In scientific inquiry and academic research, data fabrication is the intentional misrepresentation of research results. As with other forms of scientific misconduct, it is the intent to deceive that marks fabrication as unethical, and thus different from scientists deceiving themselves. There are many ways data can be fabricated. Experimental data can be fabricated by reporting experiments that were never conducted, and accurate data can be manipulated or misrepresented to suit a desired outcome. One of the biggest problems with this form of scientific fraud is that "university investigations into research misconduct are often inadequate, opaque and poorly conducted. They challenge the idea that institutions can police themselves on research integrity." Sometimes intentional fabrication can be difficult to distinguish from unintentional academic incompetence or malpractice. Examples of this include the failure to account for measurement error, or the failure to adequately control experiments for any parameters being measured. Fabrication can also occur in the context of undergraduate or graduate studies wherein a student fabricates a laboratory or homework assignment. Such cheating, when discovered, is usually handled within the institution, and does not become a scandal within the larger academic community (as cheating by students seldom has any academic significance). == Consequences


id: data-sharing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing-0.md
category: reference
title: Data sharing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:27.558145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-sharing-20260505-0
summary:
Data sharing denotes the dissemination of research datasets to enable access and use by other investigators. Policies governing this practice are increasingly instituted by funding agencies, academic institutions, and scholarly journals, reflecting the consensus that transparency and openness constitute foundational principles of the scientific method. A number of funding agencies and science journals require authors of peer-reviewed papers to share any supplemental information (raw data, statistical methods or source code) necessary to understand, develop or reproduce published research. A great deal of scientific research is not subject to data sharing requirements, and many of these policies have liberal exceptions. In the absence of any binding requirement, data sharing is at the discretion of the scientists themselves. In addition, in certain situations governments and institutions prohibit or severely limit data sharing to protect proprietary interests, national security, and subject/patient/victim confidentiality. Data sharing may also be restricted to protect institutions and scientists from use of data for political purposes. Data and methods may be requested from an author years after publication. In order to encourage data sharing and prevent the loss or corruption of data, a number of funding agencies and journals established policies on data archiving. Access to publicly archived data


id: data-sharing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing-1.md
category: reference
title: Data sharing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:27.558145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-sharing-20260505-0
summary:
The idea is: An article about computational science in a scientific publication is not the scholarship itself, it is merely advertising of the scholarship. The actual scholarship is the complete software development environment and the complete set of instructions which generated the figures. The Data Observation Network for Earth (DataONE) and Data Conservancy are projects supported by the National Science Foundation to encourage and facilitate data sharing among research scientists and better support meta-analysis. In environmental sciences, the research community is recognizing that major scientific advances involving integration of knowledge in and across fields will require that researchers overcome not only the technological barriers to data sharing but also the historically entrenched institutional and sociological barriers. Dr. Richard J. Hodes, director of the National Institute on Aging has stated, "the old model in which researchers jealously guarded their data is no longer applicable". The Alliance for Taxpayer Access is a group of organizations that support open access to government sponsored research. The group has expressed a "Statement of Principles" explaining why they believe open access is important. They also list a number of international public access policies. This is no more so than in timely communication of essential information to


id: ease-guidelines-for-authors-and-translators-of-scientific-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EASE_Guidelines_for_Authors_and_Translators_of_Scientific_Articles-0.md
category: reference
title: EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Scientific Articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EASE_Guidelines_for_Authors_and_Translators_of_Scientific_Articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:28.731419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ease-guidelines-for-authors-and-translators-of-scientific-articles-20260505-0
summary:
EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Scientific Articles to be Published in English (often shortened to EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators or EASE Guidelines) were first published by the European Association of Science Editors (EASE) in 2010. Updated versions are periodically released at the EASE Guidelines page of the EASE website. EASE Guidelines summarize the most important editorial recommendations, aiming to make international scientific communication more efficient and to aid in preventing scientific misconduct. They also support the global initiative Healthcare Information For All by 2015 by advising authors to make abstracts of their papers highly informative, reliable, and easily understandable. The document has been translated into many languages to facilitate its popularization worldwide and help scientists from non-Anglophone countries. == History == EASE Guidelines are a result of long discussions on the electronic EASE Forum and during the 2009 EASE conference in Pisa, as well as subsequent consultations within the EASE Council. == Contents == The document includes a succinct set of practical guidelines explaining how to write complete, concise and clear manuscripts. It is supplemented with a list for further reading as well as several short appendices (Abstracts; Ambiguity; Cohesion; Ethics; Plurals; Simplicity; Spelling; Text-tables) that


id: expression-of-concern-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_of_concern-0.md
category: reference
title: Expression of concern
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_of_concern
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:29.932901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expression-of-concern-20260505-0
summary:
In academic publishing, an expression of concern is a notice issued by a publisher against a particular publication, warning that it may contain errors or be otherwise untrustworthy. == Definitions == Expressions of concern are part of the post-publication process used to maintain the integrity of the scientific record. They are typically issued when credible allegations regarding the validity or ethics of a study arise, but conclusive evidence is not yet available to justify a retraction or correction. In such cases, journal editors may publish a statement indicating that concerns have been raised and that the article is under investigation. == Guidelines and editorial practices == Publishing practices around expressions of concern vary between journals and publishers. The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) recommends their use when: There is inconclusive evidence of research or publication misconduct. There is evidence that the findings are unreliable, but the authors' institution has not investigated or refused to investigate. An investigation is ongoing and a judgment is not yet available. The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors also acknowledges the role of expressions of concern in its 2019 recommendations that a publisher may choose to issue an expression of concern while an investigation of


id: inauthentic-text-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inauthentic_text-0.md
category: reference
title: Inauthentic text
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inauthentic_text
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:31.197420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inauthentic-text-20260505-0
summary:
An inauthentic text is a computer-generated expository document meant to appear as genuine, but which is actually meaningless. Frequently they are created in order to be intermixed with genuine documents and thus manipulate the results of search engines, as with Spam blogs. They are also carried along in email in order to fool spam filters by giving the spam the superficial characteristics of legitimate text. Sometimes nonsensical documents are created with computer assistance for humorous effect, as with Dissociated press or Flarf poetry. They have also been used to challenge the veracity of a publication—MIT students submitted papers generated by a computer program called SCIgen to a conference, where they were initially accepted. This led the students to claim that the bar for submissions was too low. With the amount of computer generated text outpacing the ability of people to humans to curate it, there needs some means of distinguishing between the two. Yet automated approaches to determining absolutely whether a text is authentic or not face intrinsic challenges of semantics. Noam Chomsky coined the phrase "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" giving an example of grammatically correct, but semantically incoherent sentence; some will point out that in certain contexts one


id: india-research-watch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Research_Watch-0.md
category: reference
title: India Research Watch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Research_Watch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:32.356710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: india-research-watch-20260505-0
summary:
India Research Watch (IRW) is a volunteer-run non-profit organization established in 2022 to combat scientific misconduct and research fraud in India. The group monitors cases of suspected research fraud, plagiarism, duplicate publication, data fabrication, and related malpractice reported anonymously. == History == IRW was founded in 2022 by Achal Agrawal, an engineer and research scientist who earned a PhD at the Paris-Saclay University. Agrawal, a former professor of computer science, became concerned after he realised that a first-year student had published a research paper by simply paraphrasing another work. In its early work, IRW analysed public databases and launched anonymous tip lines to gather information on suspected misconduct. As of July 2025, IRW members, comprising scientists, students, and data analysts from various institutions, investigate tips about suspect papers and flag issues publicly (e.g., on PubPeer or social media) to pressure journals and universities to take disciplinary action. IRW and its founder, Achal Agrawal, were recognised by Nature's 10 in 2025. == Activities == IRW published an article in The Hindu, on 17 November 2023, presenting data on a rising trend of scientific misconduct by showing evidence from Retraction Data. This article was among the earliest in Indian media to discuss


id: international-publisher-ltd-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.-0.md
category: reference
title: International Publisher Ltd.
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:33.619345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-publisher-ltd-20260505-0
summary:
International Publisher Ltd. (or International Publisher LLC) is an academic paper mill company that coordinates the sale of fake authorships on research papers for publication in an academic journal. The company is headquartered in Moscow (Russia) with offices in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Iran, and lists its chief editor as Ksenia Badziun. Its website has existed since 2018. Buyers can preselect a number of critera for their desired article. Many papers are created specifically for the purpose of selling co-authorships, and only after a sufficient number of slots are sold, and the company recruits writers to produce at least some of these papers. Others may be otherwise legitimate articles; there is evidence that it also approaches authors published in high-quality journals to sell co-authorship slots. Slots are priced according to the prestige of the journal and the position of the slot in the list of purported collaborators. == Discovery and investigation == The company was exposed by scientific misconduct tracking website Retraction Watch in 2019. In 2022, a report on arXiv was covered by Science Magazine detailing how International Publisher Ltd. had published hundreds of academic papers across diverse academic journals, including from respected publishing companies. Some of these publishers have


id: invalid-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Invalid science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:34.957128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invalid-science-20260505-0
summary:
Invalid science consists of scientific claims based on experiments that cannot be reproduced or that are contradicted by experiments that can be reproduced. Recent analyses indicate that the proportion of retracted claims in the scientific literature is steadily increasing. The number of retractions has grown tenfold over the past decade, but they still make up approximately 0.2% of the 1.4 million papers published annually in scholarly journals. The U.S. Office of Research Integrity (ORI) investigates scientific misconduct. == Incidence == Science magazine ranked first for the number of articles retracted at 70, just edging out PNAS, which retracted 69. 32 of Science's retractions were due to fraud or suspected fraud, and 37 to error. A subsequent "retraction index" indicated that journals with relatively high impact factors, such as Science, Nature and Cell, had a higher rate of retractions. Under 0.1% of papers in PubMed had were retracted of more than 25 million papers going back to the 1940s. The fraction of retracted papers due to scientific misconduct was estimated at two-thirds, according to studies of 2,047 papers published since 1977. Misconduct included fraud and plagiarism. Another one-fifth were retracted because of mistakes, and the rest were pulled for unknown or


id: invalid-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Invalid science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:34.957128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invalid-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Peer review === Peer review is the primary validation technique employed by scientific publications. However, a prominent medical journal tested the system and found major failings. It supplied research with induced errors and found that most reviewers failed to spot the mistakes, even after being told of the tests. A pseudonymous fabricated paper on the effects of a chemical derived from lichen on cancer cells was submitted to 304 journals for peer review. The paper was filled with errors of study design, analysis and interpretation. 157 lower-rated journals accepted it. Another study sent an article containing eight deliberate mistakes in study design, analysis and interpretation to more than 200 of the British Medical Journal's regular reviewers. On average, they reported fewer than two of the problems. Peer reviewers typically do not re-analyze data from scratch, checking only that the authors' analysis is properly conceived. === Statistics === ==== Type I and type II errors ==== Scientists divide errors into type I, incorrectly asserting the truth of a hypothesis (false positive) and type II, rejecting a correct hypothesis (false negative). Statistical checks assess the probability that data which seem to support a hypothesis come about simply by chance. If the


id: invalid-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Invalid science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:34.957128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invalid-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lack of access to data and software === Clinical trials are generally too costly to rerun. Access to trial data is the only practical approach to reassessment. A campaign to persuade pharmaceutical firms to make all trial data available won its first convert in February 2013 when GlaxoSmithKline became the first to agree. Software used in a trial is generally considered to be proprietary intellectual property and is not available to replicators, further complicating matters. Journals that insist on data-sharing tend not to do the same for software. Even well-written papers may not include sufficient detail and/or tacit knowledge (subtle skills and extemporisations not considered notable) for the replication to succeed. One cause of replication failure is insufficient control of the protocol, which can cause disputes between the original and replicating researchers. == Reform == === Statistics training === Geneticists have begun more careful reviews, particularly of the use of statistical techniques. The effect was to stop a flood of specious results from genome sequencing. === Protocol registration === Registering research protocols in advance and monitoring them over the course of a study can prevent researchers from modifying the protocol midstream to highlight preferred results. Providing raw data for


id: least-publishable-unit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_publishable_unit-0.md
category: reference
title: Least publishable unit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_publishable_unit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:36.209792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: least-publishable-unit-20260505-0
summary:
In academic publishing, the least publishable unit (LPU), also smallest publishable unit (SPU), minimum publishable unit (MPU), loot, or publon, is the minimum amount of information that can be used to generate a publication in a peer-reviewed venue, such as a journal or a conference. (Maximum publishable unit and optimum publishable unit are also used.) The term is often used as a joking, ironic, or derogatory reference to the strategy of artificially inflating the quantity of one's publications. Publication of the results of research is an essential part of science. The number of publications is often used to assess the work of a scientist and as a basis for distributing research funds. In order to achieve a high rank in such an assessment, there is a trend to split up research results into smaller parts that are published separately, thus inflating the number of publications. This process has been described as splitting the results into the smallest publishable units. "Salami publication", sometimes also referred to as "salami slicing" or "salami science", is a variant of the smallest-publishable-unit strategy. In salami publishing, data gathered by one research project is separately reported (wholly or in part) in multiple end publications. Salami publishing,


id: ivan-oransky-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Oransky-0.md
category: reference
title: Ivan Oransky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Oransky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:37.417741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ivan-oransky-20260505-0
summary:
Ivan Oransky (born 1972) is an American physician and journalist. He co-founded the blog Retraction Watch in 2010 to document retractions in academic publishing and has since campaigned for greater transparency and accountability in research publishing. He is known for his advocacy of scientific integrity by tracking research misconduct and promoting institutional reforms. His opinions and statistics on scientific misconduct have been described in the media. == Education and career == Oransky graduated cum laude with a B.A. in biology from Harvard College in 1994, where he served as executive editor of The Harvard Crimson. He obtained his M.D. from the New York University School of Medicine in 1998, where he served during his studies as editor-in-chief of "Pulse", the medical student section of the Journal of the American Medical Association. Oransky has held senior editorial positions including deputy editor of The Scientist (2004–2008), managing editor for online content at Scientific American (2008–2009), executive editor of Reuters Health (2009–2013), vice president and global editorial director of MedPage Today (2013–2017), and vice president of editorial at Medscape (2018–2020). From 2017 to 2021, he served as president of the Association of Health Care Journalists. He has also taught medical journalism at New


id: outcome-switching-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome_switching-0.md
category: reference
title: Outcome switching
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome_switching
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:38.622125+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outcome-switching-20260505-0
summary:
Outcome switching is the practice of changing the primary or secondary outcomes of a clinical trial after its initiation. An outcome is the goal of the clinical trial, such as survival after five years for cancer treatment. Outcome switching can lead to bias and undermine the reliability of the trial, for instance when outcomes are switched after researchers already have access to trial data. That way, researchers can cherry pick an outcome which is statistically significant. == Problem == Outcome switching can undermine the reliability of the trial, for instance when outcomes are switched when researchers already have access to the trial data. It can lead to bias in terms of benefits and harms. For example, when the findings using the original protocol were statistically insignificant, a study may cherry pick a new outcome measure that is statistically significant. If there are a large number of outcomes to choose from, it is likely at least one will show significant findings, assuming no correction is made for multiple testing. Incomplete or misleading reporting of outcomes is an example of unethical research practice. == Possible solutions == Primary outcomes for clinical trials need to be defined upfront to prevent a biased selection


id: ashok-pandey-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Pandey-0.md
category: reference
title: Ashok Pandey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Pandey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:41.180843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ashok-pandey-20260505-0
summary:
Ashok Kumar Pandey (born 1 January 1956) is an Indian chemist and biotechnologist, who had served as Distinguished Scientist at CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Government of India, and Executive Director at the Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability. With over 1450 research papers, 16 patents, 95 books, he became India's most prolific researcher. By 2018, he was one of the most highly cited researchers in the world, within the top 1% according to Web of Science; and number 1 from India by 2021. For his enormous research outputs, Human Resource Development minister Shri Prakash Javadekar honoured him as the "most outstanding researcher" in biology in 2018. Pandey was the editor and then editor-in-chief of Elsevier's journal Bioresource Technology for over a decade. By 2025, 43 of the research papers he co-authored in the journal were retracted, as Elsevier established that he added his name in those papers and violated the journal's policies in the peer review process. In most of his papers, he added his named after he received the manuscripts, and then handled the entire peer reviewing. Elsevier also retracted several papers by different researchers which Pandey edited and handled the reviewing, but Pandey's name was there


id: ashok-pandey-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Pandey-1.md
category: reference
title: Ashok Pandey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Pandey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:41.180843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ashok-pandey-20260505-0
summary:
=== Modus operandi === Pandey had no research or intellectual contributions to most of the retracted papers. As Elsevier investigation announced, different researchers submit their manuscripts to the journal, he returned the manuscript and when the authors revised and resubmit their manuscript, his name was incorporated as one of the authors. Then, he handled the entire peer reviewing process. The same pattern was verified in 35 of his research papers. As Elsevier retraction notice described:Review of the initial submission of this paper was handled by the then journal Editor-in-Chief (Ashok Pandey) and revision required. Upon submission of the revised version, the journal Editor-in-Chief was added as a co-author. No justification was provided for this addition. A second editor was assigned to the paper, eventually accepting the paper for publication. This compromised the editorial process and breached the journal's policies.Elsevier also pointed out that Pandey's name was in four other research papers in which his name was included in the initial manuscripts, but was removed in the final publication. It is Elsevier's policy that if any editor is an author or co-author in the same journal, editorial duty and peer reviewing are handled by other editors. In his defence, Pandey told


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-0.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:42.480342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
Predatory publishing, also known as write-only publishing or deceptive publishing, is an exploitative and fraudulent academic publishing model in which journals or publishers prioritize their own financial or reputational gain over the advancement of scholarship. It is characterized by misleading or false information about editorial practices, a deviation from standard peer-review procedures, lack of transparency, and the use of aggressive or coercive solicitation tactics to attract authors. Predatory publishers often exploit the pressures on researchers to publish, undermining the integrity and credibility of scholarly communication. The phenomenon of "open-access predatory publishers" was first noticed by Jeffrey Beall around 2012, when he described "publishers that are ready to publish any article for payment". However, criticisms about the label "predatory" have been raised. A lengthy review of the controversy started by Beall appears in The Journal of Academic Librarianship. Predatory publishers are so regarded because scholars are tricked into publishing with them, although some authors may be aware that the journal is poor quality or even fraudulent but publish in them anyway. New scholars from developing countries are said to be especially at risk of being misled by predatory publishers. A 2022 report found that "nearly a quarter of the respondents from


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-1.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:42.480342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== "Dr Fraud" experiment === In 2015, four researchers created a fictitious sub-par scientist named Anna O. Szust (oszust is Polish for "fraudster"), and applied on her behalf for an editor position to 360 scholarly journals. Szust's qualifications were dismal for the role of an editor; she had never published a single article and had no editorial experience. The books and book chapters listed on her CV were made-up, as were the publishing houses that published the books. One-third of the journals to which Szust applied were sampled from Beall's List of predatory journals. Forty of these predatory journals accepted Szust as editor without any background vetting and often within days or even hours. By comparison, she received minimal to no positive response from the "control" journals which "must meet certain standards of quality, including ethical publishing practices". Among journals sampled from the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), 8 of 120 accepted Szust. The DOAJ has since removed some of the affected journals in a 2016 purge. None of the 120 sampled journals listed in Journal Citation Reports (JCR) offered Szust the position. The results of the experiment were published in Nature in March 2017, and widely presented in


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-2.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:42.480342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
The publisher is not a member of any recognized professional organisation committed to best publishing practices (like COPE or EASE) The journal is not indexed in well-established electronic databases (like MEDLINE or Web of Science) The publisher claims to be a "leading publisher" even though it just got started The journal and the publisher are unfamiliar to you and all your colleagues The papers of the journal are of poor research quality, and may not be academic at all (for instance allowing for obvious pseudo-science) There are fundamental errors in the titles and abstracts, or frequent and repeated typographical or factual errors throughout the published papers The journal website is not professional The journal website does not present an editorial board or gives insufficient detail on names and affiliations The journal website does not reveal the journal's editorial office location or uses an incorrect address The publishing schedule is not clearly stated The journal title claims a national affiliation that does not match its location (such as "American Journal of ..." while being located on another continent) or includes "International" in its title while having a single-country editorial board The journal mimics another journal title or the website of said


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-3.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:42.480342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Growth and structure === A study in 2015 found that predatory journals rapidly increased their publication volumes from 53,000 in 2010 to an estimated 420,000 articles in 2014, published by around 8,000 active journals. Early on, publishers with more than 100 journals dominated the market, but since 2012 publishers in the 10–99 journal size category have captured the largest market share. As of 2022, almost one third of the 100 largest publishers (by journal count) could be deemed predatory. The regional distribution of both the publisher's country and authorship is highly skewed, with three-quarters of the authors from Asia or Africa. Authors paid an average fee of US $178 each for articles to be published rapidly without review, typically within two to three months of submission. As reported in 2019, some 5% of Italian researchers have published in predatory journals, with a third of those journals engaging in fraudulent editorial practices. == Causes and impact == The root cause of exploitative practices is the author-facing article-processing charge (APC) business model, in which authors are charged to publish rather than to read. Such a model provides incentives for publishers to focus on the quantity of articles published, rather than their


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-4.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:42.480342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
University of Colorado Denver librarian and researcher Jeffrey Beall, who coined the term "predatory publishing", first published his list of predatory publishers in 2010. Beall's list of potential, possible, or probable predatory scholarly open-access publishers attempted to identify scholarly open-access publishers with questionable practices. In 2013, Nature reported that Beall's list and web site were "widely read by librarians, researchers, and open-access advocates, many of whom applaud his efforts to reveal shady publishing practices." Others have raised the objection that "(w)hether it's fair to classify all these journals and publishers as 'predatory' is an open question—several shades of gray may be distinguishable." Beall's analyses have been called sweeping generalizations with no supporting evidence, and he has also been criticized for being biased against open-access journals from less economically developed countries. A 2018 study has shown that Beall's criteria of "predatory" publishing were in no way limited to OA publishers and that, applying them to both OA and non-OA journals in the field of library and information science, even top tier non-OA journals could be qualified as predatory. Similarly, another study reported on the difficulties of demarcating predatory and non-predatory journals in biomedicine. One librarian wrote that Beall's list "attempts a


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-5.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:42.480342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
==== Cabells' Predatory Reports ==== At the May 2017 meeting of the Society for Scholarly Publishing, Cabell's International, a company that offers scholarly publishing analytics and other scholarly services, announced that it intended to launch a blacklist of predatory journals (not publishers) in June, and said that access would be by subscription only. The company had started work on its blacklist criteria in early 2016. In July 2017, both a black list and a white list were offered for subscription on their website. ==== Other blacklists ==== Since Beall's list closed, other list groups have started. These include Kscien's list, which used Beall's list as a starting point, updating it to add and remove publishers. In 2020, the Ministry of Science and Technology of China ordered Chinese Center of Scientometrics to launch a blacklist called Chinese Early Warning Journal List (EWJL). EWJL classifies journals into three grades: low, medium, or high risk, rather than two (predatory or not) like most other lists. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing criticism of this list as well. According to a 2020 systematic review of 93 lists, only three were assessed as evidence-based according to the authors' criteria. === Science funders === Multiple science funders


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-6.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:42.480342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
More transparent peer review, such as open peer review and post-publication peer review, has been advocated to combat predatory journals. Others have argued instead that the discussion on predatory journals should not be turned "into a debate over the shortcomings of peer review—it is nothing of the sort. It is about fraud, deception, and irresponsibility..." In an effort to "set apart legitimate journals and publishers from non-legitimate ones", principles of transparency and best practice have been identified and issued collectively by the Committee on Publication Ethics, the DOAJ, the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association, and the World Association of Medical Editors. Various journal review websites (crowd-sourced or expert-run) have been started, some focusing on the quality of the peer review process and extending to non-OA publications. A group of libraries and publishers launched an awareness campaign. A number of measures have been suggested to further combat predatory journals. Others have called on research institutions to improve the publication literacy notably among junior researchers in developing countries. Some organisations have also developed criteria in which predatory publishers could be spotted through providing tips. As Beall has ascribed predatory publishing to a consequence of gold open access (particularly its author-pays variant), one


id: research-integrity-risk-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Integrity_Risk_Index-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Integrity Risk Index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Integrity_Risk_Index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:43.737552+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-integrity-risk-index-20260505-0
summary:
Research Integrity Risk Index (RI²) is a diagnostic, bibliometric framework designed to assess institutional exposure to selected research-integrity-related risks. Developed in 2025 by Lokman Meho (لقمان محّو), a professor and University Librarian at the American University of Beirut, RI² is presented as complementary to conventional global university rankings, which primarily emphasize publication volume and citation counts. RI² evaluates universities using three institution-level bibliometric indicators associated with integrity risk signals in scholarly publishing: retracted journal articles, publications in journals that were subsequently delisted from major bibliographic databases, and institutional self-citation patterns. The framework emerged amid broader debates over the limitations of citation- and volume-based ranking methodologies in capturing research integrity-related risks. == How does RI² work? == === Methodology === RI² assesses academic institutions using three bibliometric indicators derived from verifiable publications and citation data. Delisted Journal Risk (D Rate) measures the percentage of an institution's research output published in journals that were later delisted from Scopus or Web of Science following those databases' re-evaluation processes for editorial or publishing standards. Retraction Risk (R-Rate) measures the number of retracted journal articles per 1,000 published articles over a defined publication window. Retraction data are compiled and cross-validated using multiple independent sources, including


id: research-paper-mill-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_paper_mill-0.md
category: reference
title: Research paper mill
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_paper_mill
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:45.046275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-paper-mill-20260505-0
summary:
In research, a paper mill is a business that produces poor quality or completely fraudulent journal papers that seem to resemble genuine research, as well as sells authorship on such papers. Paper mills are an example of academic dishonesty that affects all fields of academic publishing including academic writing, scientific writing and medical writing, and represents a failure of research ethics and research integrity. == Activities == In some cases, paper mills are sophisticated operations that sell authorship positions on legitimate (but poor quality) research, but in many cases the papers contain fraudulent data and can be heavily plagiarized or otherwise unprofessional. These services are advertised on platforms such as Facebook, Telegram and WhatsApp. Activities include contract cheating, academic ghostwriting and medical ghostwriting. It may include data fabrication, leading to junk science and retractions in academic literature. == History and prevalence == Research paper mills first emerged as a significant problem during the 2010s, though the earliest known papers attributed to paper mills are known from the 2000s, at least as early as 2004. In 2013, Science published an investigation of various kinds of research misconduct in China, including noting the practice of buying papers from an online catalogue. In


id: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing-0.md
category: reference
title: Retraction in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:46.401926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
In academic publishing, a retraction is a mechanism by which the content of a paper published in an academic journal is disavowed so that its results and conclusions can no longer be relied upon. Retracted articles are not usually removed from the published literature but marked as retracted. In some rare cases a retracted article may be removed from publication, such as if it is defamatory, breaches copyright, violates personal privacy, is the subject of a court order, or might pose a health risk to the public. The purpose of retraction is to correct the literature and ensure its integrity, not to punish the authors. Detailed guideline on retraction have been published. Papers are typically retracted as seriously flawed and essentially incorrect, due to error or misdeeds, as distinct from small corrections to published articles. Although the majority of retractions in biomedical and life sciences are linked to scientific misconduct, they are often cited as evidence of the self-correcting nature of science. However, some scholars argue this view is misleading, describing it as a myth. A retraction may simply be due to a paper later being found to be in serious error, as in the historical case of Benjamin Wilson's


id: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing-1.md
category: reference
title: Retraction in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:46.401926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Retraction for error === 2025 - A controversial paper claiming that the ancient village of Tall el-Hammam in the Jordan Valley near the Dead Sea was destroyed by a cosmic airburst was retracted by the journal because the evidence did not support the conclusions; the authors maintained their position, and intended to republish the original article with new data. 2013 - Study on the Mediterranean diet published in New England Journal of Medicine and widely covered by media was retracted due to unreported non-random assignments. This was part of a larger effort by anesthesiologist John Carlisle to verify proper randomization in thousands of studies; he found problems in about 2% of those analyzed. 2012 - Séralini affair - Article suggesting reported an increase in tumors among rats fed genetically modified corn and the herbicide RoundUp retracted due to criticism of experimental design. According to the editor of the journal, a "more in-depth look at the raw data revealed that no definitive conclusions can be reached with this small sample size". 2003 - A study on the relationship between use of the drug ecstasy and dopaminergic neurotoxicity in primates published in Science was retracted, due to methamphetamine unintentionally being used


id: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing-2.md
category: reference
title: Retraction in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:46.401926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Retraction for fraud or misconduct === 2025 An article written by Aidan Toner-Rodgers, a doctoral student of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), intended to be published in The Quarterly Journal of Economics, claimed that artificial intelligence had been shown to massively improve efficiency at an unnamed materials science lab. Despite not having been peer-reviewed, the paper, available through ArXiv, enjoyed favourable coverage from outlets such as The Wall Street Journal, The Atlantic, and Nature. In addition, it was praised by MIT economists Daron Acemoglu and David Autor, the former of whom had been co-awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for 2024. The economists were then contacted in January 2025 by a computer scientist with experience in material science, who had disputed the legitimacy of the data, which was followed by an internal review conducted at MIT in early February; the review concluded that the paper was fraudulent, with Toner-Rodgers being expelled from the school. MIT requested that the paper be removed from arXiv. A press release from MIT's economics department issued on 16 May 2025 stated that they "[had] no confidence in the provenance, reliability or validity of the data and [had] no confidence


id: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing-3.md
category: reference
title: Retraction in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:46.401926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Retraction for ethical violations === 2019 An article by Wendy Rogers (Macquarie University, Australia) and colleagues on BMJ Open called for the mass retraction of more than 400 scientific papers on organ transplantation, due to concerns that the organs had been obtained unethically from Chinese prisoners. Rogers said the journals, researchers and clinicians who used these studies were complicit in these methods of organ trafficking. According to the study, the transplant research community had failed to live up to ethical standards, continuing to publish articles based on use of organs from death row inmates. In 2019, PLOS ONE retracted 21 articles related to this incident. 2017 The journal Liver International retracted a Chinese study of liver transplantation because 564 livers grafted in the course of the research over 4 years could not be traced. The experts pointed out that it was implausible a hospital could have so many freely donated livers for transplantation, given the small number of donors in China at the time. === Retraction over data provenance === 2020 On 22 May 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, an article was published in The Lancet which claimed to find evidence, based on a database of 96032 COVID-19 patients,


id: salami-slicing-tactics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami_slicing_tactics-0.md
category: reference
title: Salami slicing tactics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami_slicing_tactics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:48.965892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: salami-slicing-tactics-20260505-0
summary:
Salami slicing tactics, also known as salami slicing, salami tactics, the salami-slice strategy, or salami attacks, is the practice of using a series of many small actions to produce a much larger action or result that would be difficult or unlawful to perform all at once. Salami tactics are a generally subversive strategy used extensively in geopolitics, such as countries attempting to expand their borders, and war games as a method of achieving goals gradually without provoking significant escalation. Perhaps the most famous example of the salami tactic was through WWII and into the start of the Cold War, with the formation of the Eastern Bloc in Europe by the USSR. By the time WWII ended, Eastern Europe was under the control of the Soviets. This advantage was used to ensure the election of submissive communist satellite states in several countries. As a result, from 1945 to 1949 through a series of slices, the USSR was able to bring Albania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Hungary, and East Germany under its control without escalating incidents between its near peer adversaries. In finance, the term "salami attack" is used to describe schemes by which large sums are fraudulently accumulated by repeated transfers of


id: scientific-plagiarism-in-germany-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_plagiarism_in_Germany-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific plagiarism in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_plagiarism_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:50.279062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-plagiarism-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific plagiarism in Germany became widely discussed during the Guttenberg plagiarism scandal, which has led to other, mostly doctoral, dissertations being scrutinised. Initially focused on the dissertations of notable persons submitted at German institutions, non-doctoral works in languages other than German submitted at institutions outside Germany have since also been scrutinised. This scrutiny has found extensive plagiarism in the work of several notable persons, including cabinet members, and in a significant number of cases – but not all – their academic degree has been rescinded. As of 2024, the German VroniPlag Wiki has, since it started in 2011, published the plagiarism found in over 200 works; in at least 90 of these cases the academic degree was rescinded. Each year, about 30,000 doctorates are completed in Germany. However, academic misconduct has been a topic in Germany for centuries, especially at the doctoral level since one of the rights and privileges that come with an academic degree at this level is the title of doctor. In Germany, this title has been regarded since the 16th century "almost equal to a noble title." While the legal privileges of royalty and nobility were abolished in Germany in 1919 following the German revolution and


id: secretariat-on-the-responsible-conduct-of-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretariat_on_the_Responsible_Conduct_of_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: Secretariat on the Responsible Conduct of Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretariat_on_the_Responsible_Conduct_of_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:51.521942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secretariat-on-the-responsible-conduct-of-research-20260505-0
summary:
The Secretariat on the Responsible Conduct of Research (SRCR) is an agency of Canada's federal government that provides ethical oversight in scientific research. The agency was established in 2011 and contains two volunteer panels. It is the successor to a research integrity group established in 1994 and adopted its framework. As of 2019, it has investigated 274 cases, which has resulted in 133 researchers being disciplined for academic misconduct. The organization determines consequences such as funding bans. It mostly relies on affiliated universities to report suspected violations and to do their own internal investigations. Formal complaints are not required for the organization to get involved. The organization has limited transparency and does not release information about the cases it investigates, even where there is police involvement, due to privacy implications. In 2024, when researching the Prince Albert School Study, scientist Janice Parente was told by the organization that it does not oversee privately funded research, which accounts for 85% of research conducted in Canada, and that these research subjects should instead seek recourse through the court system. == See also == Education in Canada United States Office of Research Integrity == References == == External links == Official website


id: source-criticism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-0.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:52.780892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
Source criticism (or information evaluation) is the process of evaluating an information source, i.e.: a document, a person, a speech, a fingerprint, a photo, an observation, or anything used in order to obtain knowledge. In relation to a given purpose, a given information source may be more or less valid, reliable or relevant. Broadly, "source criticism" is the interdisciplinary study of how information sources are evaluated for given tasks. == Meaning == Problems in translation: The Danish word kildekritik, like the Norwegian word kildekritikk and the Swedish word källkritik, derived from the German Quellenkritik and is closely associated with the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886). Historian Wolfgang Hardtwig wrote: His [Ranke's] first work Geschichte der romanischen und germanischen Völker von 1494–1514 (History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations from 1494 to 1514) (1824) was a great success. It already showed some of the basic characteristics of his conception of Europe, and was of historiographical importance particularly because Ranke made an exemplary critical analysis of his sources in a separate volume, Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber (On the Critical Methods of Recent Historians). In this work he raised the method of textual criticism used in the late eighteenth century, particularly in


id: source-criticism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-1.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:52.780892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
Empiricism evaluates sources by considering the observations (or sensations) on which they are based. Sources without basis in experience are not seen as valid. Rationalism provides low priority to sources based on observations. In order to be meaningful, observations must be explained by clear ideas or concepts. It is the logical structure and the well definedness that is in focus in evaluating information sources from the rationalist point of view. Historicism evaluates information sources on the basis of their reflection of their sociocultural context and their theoretical development. Pragmatism evaluate sources on the basis of how their values and usefulness to accomplish certain outcomes. Pragmatism is skeptical about claimed neutral information sources. The evaluation of knowledge or information sources cannot be more certain than is the construction of knowledge. If one accepts the principle of fallibilism then one also has to accept that source criticism can never 100% verify knowledge claims. As discussed in the next section, source criticism is intimately linked to scientific methods. The presence of fallacies of argument in sources is another kind of philosophical criterion for evaluating sources. Fallacies are presented by Walton (1998). Among the fallacies are the ad hominem fallacy (the use of personal


id: source-criticism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-2.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:52.780892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
Photos are often manipulated during wars and for political purposes. One well known example is Joseph Stalin's manipulation of a photograph from May 5, 1920, on which Stalin's predecessor Lenin held a speech for Soviet troops that Leon Trotsky attended. Stalin had later Trotsky retouched out of this photograph. (cf. King, 1997). A recent example is reported by Healy (2008) about North Korean leader Kim Jong Il. === Internet sources === Much interest in evaluating Internet sources (such as Wikipedia) is reflected in the scholarly literature of library and information science and in other fields. Mintz (2002) is an edited volume about this issue. Examples of literature examining Internet sources include Chesney (2006), Fritch & Cromwell (2001), Leth & Thurén (2000) and Wilkinson, Bennett, & Oliver (1997). === Archaeology and history === "In history, the term historical method was first introduced in a systematic way in the sixteenth century by Jean Bodin in his treatise of source criticism, Methodus ad facilem historiarium cognitionem (1566). Characteristically, Bodin's treatise intended to establish the ways by which reliable knowledge of the past could be established by checking sources against one another and by so assessing the reliability of the information conveyed by them,


id: source-criticism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-3.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:52.780892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
The most important legal sources are created by parliaments, governments, courts, and legal researchers. They may be written or informal and based on established practices. Views concerning the quality of sources differ among legal philosophies: Legal positivism is the view that the text of the law should be considered in isolation, while legal realism, interpretivism (legal), critical legal studies and feminist legal criticism interprets the law on a broader cultural basis. == See also == == Notes == == References == American Library Association (1994) Evaluating Information: A Basic Checklist. Brochure. American Library Association Anderson, Richard C. (1978). Schema-directed processes in language comprehension. IN: NATO International Conference on Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 1977, Amsterdam: Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Ed. by A. M. Lesgold, J. W. Pellegrino, S. D. Fokkema & R. Glaser. New York: Plenum Press (pp. 67–82). Anderson, Richard C. & Pichert, J. W. (1977). Recall of previously unrecallable information following a shift of perspective. Urbana, Il: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading, April. 1977. (Technical Report 41). Available in full-text from: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/31/83/58.pdf Bazerman, Charles (1995). The Informed Writer: Using Sources in the Disciplines. 5th ed. Houghton Mifflin. Bee, Ronald E. (1983). Statistics and Source Criticism.


id: source-criticism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-4.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:52.780892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
== External links == The Source Compass: Source Criticism The History Sourcebook: The Need for Source Criticism


category: reference
title: The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:54.027328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic-0.md

summary:
The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic (Latin: Epistola fratris Rogerii Baconis de secretis operibus artis et naturae, et de nullitate magiae) is a work on the technical applications of natural phenomena and speculative designs for future mechanisms. According to Simon Singh, it is the first European book that systematically outlines the principles of cryptography. Most scholars attribute the authorship to Franciscan monk Roger Bacon, an English philosopher and natural scientist of the mid-13th century. The Letter is the concluding work in a series by Roger Bacon aimed at compiling contemporary mathematical, physical, and linguistic knowledge, while establishing clear distinctions between magic, religion, and what later became technical and humanistic sciences. The Letter also includes reflections on the education and moral qualities of the clergy. Some of Bacon's philosophical and theological positions were deemed heretical by the Catholic Church, leading to his imprisonment. However, there is no definitive evidence that the Letter directly contributed to his incarceration. == History of creation == Around 1257, Bacon joined the Franciscan Order, hoping for support in his scientific pursuits. Instead, he faced restrictions from senior members of the order, who, from 1257

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic

parent:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-0


category: reference
title: The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:54.027328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-1

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic-1.md

summary:
== Content of the book == In a brief preface, Bacon expresses admiration for the power of nature, stating that only the art of harnessing nature surpasses it. The opening section, "Against the False Invocation of Spirits", comprises two chapters. The first debunks ventriloquists and tricksters who pass off sleight of hand, mechanical, or optical instruments as miracles, or mimic animal voices. It reveals the secret behind telekinesis tricks performed at dusk or night, using light and shadow. The second chapter refutes the reality of spiritualist séances from a philosophical perspective, arguing that spirits either will not interact with humans or will not aid in base pursuits due to the inferiority of human power compared to spirits. The section "On Songs, Signs, and Their Uses" includes six chapters exposing various forms of divination, predictions, and charms. In "Symbols, Signs, and Magical Rituals," Bacon rejects the supernatural power of mysterious signs in sages' books, suggesting they are encrypted descriptions of natural laws meant to remain secret. He considers only fools attribute magical power to obscure formulas. "Some Affairs of Church Authorities" criticizes clergy engaging in divination with holy water or heated iron, particularly to determine guilt in cases of adultery or

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic

parent:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-0


category: reference
title: The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:54.027328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-2

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic-2.md

summary:
==== In German ==== A 1613 Basel edition and a 1750 Vienna edition appeared, followed by a 1776 translation by Hamberger. ==== In Russian ==== In 2005, Moscow published a translation of Opus Majus and the first eight chapters of the Letter, edited by Ivan Lupandin. == Relevance of the book == The Letter has captivated researchers for eight centuries due to its harmonious coexistence of magic and science. It connects Bacon's works on mathematics, natural science, philosophy, and theology, establishing hierarchies and parallels, embodying the medieval struggle between magic, science, and religion. Historian John Rose names Bacon among the six greatest figures in history as a philosopher, theologian, scientist, and writer. However, early 21st-century scholars view Bacon's scientific contributions as limited due to their fragmentary nature. The book's historical and scientific relevance lies in its empirical facts and philosophical reflections, including Bacon's concept of spiritual experience or intuition as part of scientific discovery, a precursor to heuristics and intuition in science. The chapter "On the Wondrous Art of Instruments" anticipates Leonardo da Vinci's designs, predicting submarines, scuba gear, cars, and jacks. Bacon's famous quote, "Of the three ways by which people suppose they acquire knowledge of things—authority, reasoning, and

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic


id: united-states-office-of-research-integrity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Office_of_Research_Integrity-0.md
category: reference
title: United States Office of Research Integrity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Office_of_Research_Integrity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:55.217424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: united-states-office-of-research-integrity-20260505-0
summary:
The Office of Research Integrity (ORI) is a U.S. government agency that focuses on research integrity, especially in health. It was created when the Office of Scientific Integrity (OSI) in the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Office of Scientific Integrity Review (OSIR) in the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health merged in May 1992. The Office of Research Integrity oversees and directs Public Health Service (PHS) research integrity activities on behalf of the Secretary of Health and Human Services, except for the regulatory research integrity activities of the Food and Drug Administration. Organizationally, ORI is located within the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health (OASH) within the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), in the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). == Activities == ORI carries out its responsibility by: Developing policies, procedures and regulations related to the detection, investigation, and prevention of research misconduct and the responsible conduct of research; Reviewing and monitoring research misconduct investigations conducted by applicant and awardee institutions, intramural research programs, and the Office of Inspector General in the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS); Recommending research misconduct findings and administrative actions to the Assistant


id: list-of-science-centers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_centers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science centers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_centers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:02:58.034029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-centers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of science centers (spelt science centre in Commonwealth English) organized by continent. Science centers are a type of science museum that emphasizes an interactive, hands-on approach with its exhibitions. == Africa == == Asia == == Europe == == Middle East == == North America == == Oceania == == South America == == References ==


id: science-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Science museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:01.699867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-museum-20260505-0
summary:
A science museum is a museum devoted primarily to science. Older science museums tended to concentrate on static displays of objects related to natural history, paleontology, geology, industry and industrial machinery, etc. Modern trends in museology have broadened the range of subject matter and introduced many interactive exhibits. Modern science museums, increasingly referred to as "science centres" or "discovery centres", also feature technology. While the mission statements of science centres and modern museums may vary, they are commonly places that make science accessible and encourage the excitement of discovery. == History == As early as the Renaissance period, aristocrats collected curiosities for display. Universities, and in particular medical schools, also maintained study collections of specimens for their students. Scientists and collectors displayed their finds in private cabinets of curiosities. Such collections were the predecessors of modern natural history museums. In 1683, the first purpose-built museum covering natural philosophy, the original Ashmolean museum (now called the Museum of the History of Science) in Oxford, England, was opened, although its scope was mixed. This was followed in 1752 by the first dedicated science museum, the Museo de Ciencias Naturales, in Madrid, which almost did not survive Francoist Spain. Today, the museum works


id: science-museum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_museum-1.md
category: reference
title: Science museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:01.699867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-museum-20260505-0
summary:
Museums that brand themselves as science centres emphasise a hands-on approach, featuring interactive exhibits that encourage visitors to experiment and explore. Recently, there has been a push for science museums to be more involved in science communication and educating the public about the scientific process. Microbiologist and science communicator Natalia Pasternak Taschner stated, "I believe that science museums can promote critical thinking, especially in teenagers and young adults, by teaching them about the scientific method and the process of science, and how by using this to develop knowledge and technology, we can be less wrong." Urania was a science centre founded in Berlin in 1888. Most of its exhibits were destroyed during World War II, as were those of a range of German technical museums. The Academy of Science of Saint Louis (founded in 1856) created the Saint Louis Museum of Science and Natural History in 1959 (Saint Louis Science Center), but generally science centres are a product of the 1960s and later. In the United Kingdom, many were founded as Millennium projects, with funding from the National Lotteries Fund. The first "science centre" in the United States was the Science Center of Pinellas County, founded in 1959. The Pacific


id: ahhaa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHHAA-0.md
category: reference
title: AHHAA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHHAA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:04.145886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ahhaa-20260505-0
summary:
Science Centre AHHAA (Estonian: Teaduskeskus AHHAA) is a science centre located in Tartu, Estonia, and is currently the largest science centre in the Baltic states. AHHAA was established to promote science and technology using interactive exhibits. Since 7 May 2011, Science Centre AHHAA has been in the building located in the centre of Tartu. == History == AHHAA was established as a project of the University of Tartu on 1 September 1997. Since 12.03.2004, it has operated as a foundation constituted by the city of Tartu and the University of Tartu. The activities of the Science Centre AHHAA Foundation are coordinated by a committee composed of Katrin Pihor, Hannes Astok, Aune Valk, Reno Laidre, Jaanika Anderson and Sulev Valner. Additionally, the practical aspects of the activities of the foundation are appraised by a science committee composed of experts consisting of Jaan Kikas, Peeter Saari, Jaak Jaaniste, Mart Noorma, Arko Olesk, Toivo Maimets, Priit Põdra and Margit Timakov. AHHAA is governed by the board consisting of two members. Tiiu Sild was the head of the board until 2012. She was followed by Andres Juur (head of board since 2012). The second board member is Pilvi Kolk (member of board since 2005).


id: asia-pacific-network-of-science-and-technology-centres-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Pacific_Network_of_Science_and_Technology_Centres-0.md
category: reference
title: Asia Pacific Network of Science and Technology Centres
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Pacific_Network_of_Science_and_Technology_Centres
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:05.365866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asia-pacific-network-of-science-and-technology-centres-20260505-0
summary:
The Asia Pacific Network of Science & Technology Centres (ASPAC), is a not-for-profit association initiated in 1997. It was formed to facilitate communication and cooperation among Science Centres and Museums and other organisations that use interactive approaches for learning and public understanding of science and technology in the Asia-Pacific region. The network hosts annual conferences where members exchange the latest updates on science exhibitions, educational advancements, and upcoming events. ASPAC has over 50 members from 20 countries (2022). Members include different forms of organisations, like science centres, science museums, children’s museums, exhibit design and fabrication firms. == See also == List of science centers == References == == External links == ASPAC website


id: association-of-science-and-technology-centers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Science_and_Technology_Centers-0.md
category: reference
title: Association of Science and Technology Centers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Science_and_Technology_Centers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:06.510798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: association-of-science-and-technology-centers-20260505-0
summary:
The Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC) is a non-profit, global organization based in Washington, D.C., in the United States, that provides professional support for science centers, museums, and related institutions. ASTC's goal is to increase awareness of the contributions its members make to their communities and the field of informal STEM learning. Founded in 1973, ASTC represents nearly 700 members in almost 50 countries, including not only science centers and museums, but also nature centers, aquariums, planetariums, zoos, botanical gardens, and natural history and children's museums, as well as companies, consultants, and other organizations that share an interest in informal science education. == Member programs == === Passport Program === ASTC member institutions can participate in ASTC's Passport Program, allowing members of participating institutions to visit other participating institutions for free, provided the member is visiting an institution more than 90 miles from their home institution. More than 300 institutions in over a dozen countries participate in the Passport Program. === Annual conference === Each year, nearly 2,000 individuals representing science centers and museums from across the world, informal science educators, and companies collaborating with the museum field gather for ASTC's annual conference. === Professional development === ASTC


id: cape-town-science-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town_Science_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Cape Town Science Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town_Science_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:22.915270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cape-town-science-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The Cape Town Science Centre is a not-for-profit science centre in Cape Town, South Africa. It forms part of a wide range of non-classroom initiatives to improve the quality of science understanding and science literacy in South Africa. Until early 2010, the MTN Sciencentre was located in the Canal Walk shopping mall. It reopened in Observatory in 2011. The MTN Sciencentre's Ericsson cell phone is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's largest working cell phone. == References == == External links == Official website


id: clock-tower-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_Tower_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Clock Tower Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_Tower_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:24.232580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clock-tower-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Clock Tower Museum is a museum occupying the top four floors of the Mecca Royal Clock Tower in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The museum, located at the highest point in Makkah, is operated by the Misk Foundation, a non-profit organization established by Crown Prince Muhammad Bin Salman. == Departments == The museum opened to visitors in May 2019. It has four floors where each floor represents a unique topic. The first floor documents the Makkah tower, its architectural and foundational design and progresses through the production stages. The second floor exhibits time measurements used in ancient days. The third floor explains how the sun, the moon, and the Earth were used in the past to organize life and activities. The fourth floor depicts details of space and planets. There is also a balcony with a panoramic view of the Grand Mosque. == See also == List of museums in Saudi Arabia The Clock Towers Islamic Dinar Museum == References == == External links == Clock Tower Museum


id: european-network-of-science-centres-and-museums-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Network_of_Science_Centres_and_Museums-0.md
category: reference
title: European Network of Science Centres and Museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Network_of_Science_Centres_and_Museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:25.530724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-network-of-science-centres-and-museums-20260505-0
summary:
The European Network of Science Centres and Museums (ECSITE), is a not-for-profit organisation initiated in 1989. In 1991, it was formed under Belgian jurisdiction to facilitate communication and cooperation among Science Centres and Museums in Europe. ECSITE is linking science engagement professionals of over 400 institutions in 50 countries for projects, activities and to facilitates the exchange of ideas and best practice on current science issues. While many countries have national networks consistent of science centres, international networks like Ecsite, provide through their annual network conference science centre personnel to gather, share expertise, and discuss key issues. Sister networks focusing similarly on science engagement in different regional context and gather science engagement professionals are: Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC) Asia Pacific Network of Science and Technology Centres (ASPAC) Network for the Popularization of Science and Technology in Latin America and The Caribbean (RedPOP) North Africa and Middle East science centres (NAMES) Southern African Association of Science and Technology Centres (SAASTEC) == Projects == Ecsite coordinates and participates in collaborative projects with its member organisations with the goal of influencing the development of science engagement. These projects can be funded by the European Commission or run as initiatives organised


id: hainan-science-and-technology-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan_Science_and_Technology_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Hainan Science and Technology Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan_Science_and_Technology_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:26.865575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hainan-science-and-technology-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Hainan Science and Technology Museum (Chinese: 海南科技馆) is an under-construction building in Haikou's west coast area, Hainan, China. It is expected to be completed in 2025. It is located about 600 metres southeast of the Wuyuan River Stadium. == References == == External links == Media related to Hainan Science and Technology Museum at Wikimedia Commons


id: ice-age-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Age_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Ice Age Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Age_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:28.045053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The Ice Age Centre (Estonian: Jääaja Keskus) is a museum dedicated to the understanding of ice ages, located in Äksi village, Tartu County, Estonia. The museum popularises knowledge about the origins and dynamics of different ice ages, including their effect on the landscape, animal life, and humans, with a special focus on the impact of the latest ice age on the modern-day country Estonia. The centre was awarded the Best New Tourist Venue in Estonia in 2012. == About the Centre == === Location === The centre is in Aksi village, situated on the shores of Lake Saadjärv, in Tartu county, which is a two-hour drive from Tallinn, Estonia's capital. Located on the property is a lake, a small zoo and an amusement park. One of the National Geographic "Yellow Windows" is situated near the Ice Age Centre, emphasizing the importance of this region for tourists to discover Southern Estonia. The area is known for the ice age and Estonian Kalevipoeg legends. === Exhibitions === The Ice Age Centre is an interactive exhibition, exploiting three floors of educational entertainment. It's generally geared towards children, but there are activities for visitors of all ages. On the first floor, visitors will learn


id: little-einstein-science-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Einstein_Science_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Little Einstein Science Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Einstein_Science_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:29.277317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: little-einstein-science-museum-20260505-0
summary:
Little Einstein Science Museum is an interactive science museum in Yerevan which incorporates 25 exhibits of different scientific areas such as electricity, magnetism, optics, physics, mechanics, natural sciences, etc. == History == The museum is for children aging seven or higher. Since the time of its inauguration in 2016, the founders of the museum have organized interactive show programs and established science centers. Here the children have been able to learn about different sciences through games and experiments as well as write scientific pieces. == Exhibits == The museum has about 25 exhibits related to electricity, magnetism, optics, and mechanics which were brought from Russia and China. These exhibits have a practical use both in scientific areas and on a daily basis. They are envisaged for the children to be able to touch different physical phenomena while learning about them. == Working Hours == Monday – Friday 13:00-20:00 Saturdays and Sundays 12:00-21:00 == References ==


id: the-mind-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: The Mind Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:30.489670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mind-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Mind Museum is a science museum in Taguig, Metro Manila, Philippines. It is located on a 1.2-hectare (3.0-acre) lot in the J. Y. Campos Park in Bonifacio Global City, a business district of the city. The museum opened on March 16, 2012, although a pre-launch reception was held a year earlier on December 15 where Vice President Jejomar Binay delivered a speech on behalf of President Benigno Aquino III. The facility was developed by the Bonifacio Art Foundation Inc (BAFI). == Museum building == The museum was designed by architect Ed Calma from Lor Calma & Partners. The design of the structure was inspired from cellular structure and growth and had a solar reflective exterior, natural wind ventilation and rainwater flow drainage. == Exhibits == As of 2012, the museum has five main galleries occupying a 4,900-square-meter (53,000 sq ft) exhibit area and spanning two floors. The galleries each had its own theme namely, atom, life, earth, universe and technology which are linked by features called "Nature’s Webways". The atom, life, earth, and universe galleries are located on the ground floor, while the technology gallery are found on the first floor of the two-story museum. With assistance from a


id: moxi-the-wolf-museum-of-exploration-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOXI,_The_Wolf_Museum_of_Exploration_+_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: MOXI, The Wolf Museum of Exploration + Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOXI,_The_Wolf_Museum_of_Exploration_+_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:31.678406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moxi-the-wolf-museum-of-exploration-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
MOXI, The Wolf Museum of Exploration + Innovation is a non-profit science and children's museum in Santa Barbara, California. A 501(c)(3) non-profit, the museum opened on February 25, 2017. The 17,000 square feet (1,600 m2) of exhibits are primarily geared towards children with a particular emphasis placed on STEAM education. As of 2024 MOXI saw just over 167,000 visitors annually and in June 2024 celebrated its 1-millionth visitor. The Wolf in the museum's name comes from Dick Wolf who donated multiple millions of dollars to the museum and whose ex-wife Noelle sat on the board for over a decade. The museum is located between the historic Santa Barbara Train Station and Santa Barbara's Hotel Indigo. == History == The 25,000-square-foot (2,300 m2) building sits on land which was leased from the city at $1 a year. The exterior of the museum was designed by the late Santa Barbara architect Barry Berkus. The museum broke ground in October 2014 at a ceremony attended by then Santa Barbara mayor Helene Schneider and emceed by Andrew Firestone. As part of their $1 a year lease with the city, MOXI was tasked with removing all possible barriers to exploring the sciences. One such example


id: museum-des-kapitalismus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_des_Kapitalismus-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum des Kapitalismus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_des_Kapitalismus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:32.876560+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-des-kapitalismus-20260505-0
summary:
Museum des Kapitalismus (Museum of Capitalism) is a museum Berlin's Köpenicker Straße 172 in Berlin-Kreuzberg district which deals with different aspects of capitalism. == History == The first exhibition was opened on June 27, 2014. A second exhibition took place from July to November 2015. In 2017, the museum exhibited for a week in Hamburg-St. Pauli. The museum is run by the association Bildung und Partizipation e.V., which is funded by the Berlin-state's institution for political education. == Contents == The museum attempts to explain aspects of capitalism in its exhibitions. Five exhibition rooms deal with needs and mechanisms of exclusions, crisis, colonialism and the beyond of capitalism. The museum seeks to establish an open space that is accessible to everyone. Interactive exhibits are also intended to make the content easy to understand and therefore accessible to everyone. == References == == External links == Website of the Museums des Kapitalismus Video from 2015 openning Exhibition on expropriation: The bad word


id: museum-of-science-and-technology-accra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Technology_(Accra)-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Science and Technology (Accra)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Technology_(Accra)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:34.088483+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-science-and-technology-accra-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Science and Technology in Accra, Ghana was established in 1963 and first opened its doors in 1965. The museum is under the administration of the Ghana Museums and Monuments Board and the National Commission on Culture. == Background == The aim in establishing the museum was to create an awareness of past and present developments in science and technology in Ghana. Two lecturers from the University of Ghana presented a proposal to Kwame Nkrumah, who was the President of Ghana at the time. The original museum building has been shut down and the exhibits have migrated into its current building which experience enormous delays in its construction. == Location == The museum is located in the heart of Accra. It is located close to the intersection of Barnes Road to the east and Liberia Road to the south in Accra. West of the museum is the University of Ghana Accra City Campus and to the north are the offices of the National Service Scheme and the Regional Coordination Council. == Activities == In addition to displaying exhibits to the public, the museum contains a library. It also organises educational activities for school children. In 2019, there was


id: national-videogame-museum-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Videogame_Museum_(United_States)-0.md
category: reference
title: National Videogame Museum (United States)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Videogame_Museum_(United_States)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:35.336755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-videogame-museum-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
The National Videogame Museum is a video game museum about the history of video games and the video game industry, located in Frisco, Texas. Opened in 2016, the museum includes classic video game arcade machines in an arcade setting, games on different video game consoles in a living room setting, games on historic computers, exhibits on the history of the industry, artifacts and memorabilia about the video game industry. One of the museum's goals is to have visitors experience the games, so there are many interactive displays which feature playable games. == History == Beginning in 1999, John Hardie, Sean Kelly and Joe Santulli hosted the first Classic Gaming Expo in Las Vegas to organize "the world's first event paying tribute to the people, systems and games of yesteryear". The Video Game Museum was a traveling exhibition of classic games and systems that was shown at the Expo, as well as displayed at such trade conventions as E3 (Electronic Entertainment Expo) and GDC (Game Developers Conference). In 2011, the founders started a Kickstarter campaign in an effort to mobilize their archive as a first step towards finding a permanent location, to be known as the Videogame History Museum. On September


id: nikola-tesla-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Nikola Tesla Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:36.749749+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nikola-tesla-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Nikola Tesla Museum (Serbian: Музеј Николе Тесле, Muzej Nikole Tesle) is a science museum located in Belgrade, Serbia. It is dedicated to honoring and displaying the life and work of Nikola Tesla as well as the final resting place for Tesla. It holds more than 160,000 original documents, over 2,000 books and journals, over 1,200 historical technical exhibits, over 1,500 photographs and photo plates of original, technical objects, instruments and apparatus, and over 1,000 plans and drawings. Very little is on display in the small ground floor exhibition space. The Nikola Tesla Archive was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2003 due to its critical role regarding history of electrification of the world and future technological advancements in this area. == History == The Nikola Tesla Museum is housed in a residential villa built in 1927 for Đorđe Genčić, according to the designs of Dragiša Brašovan, a distinguished Serbian architect. Following its confiscation by the new communist authorities in 1945 the building was used for various purposes until December 5, 1952, when the Nikola Tesla Museum was founded in accordance with the decision of the Government of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. Certain items


id: nur-al-din-bimaristan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Bimaristan-0.md
category: reference
title: Nur al-Din Bimaristan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Bimaristan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:38.031958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nur-al-din-bimaristan-20260505-0
summary:
Nur al-Din Bimaristan (Arabic: البيمارستان النوري) is a large Muslim medieval bimaristan ("hospital") in Damascus, Syria. It is located in the al-Hariqa quarter in the old walled city, to the southwest of the Umayyad Mosque. It was built and named after the Zengid Sultan Nur ad-Din in 1154, and later on an extension was added to the main building in 1242 by a physician Badr al-Din. It was restored in 1975 and now houses the Museum of Medicine and Science in the Arab World. Constructed in two phases the first construction phase was commissioned by Nur al-Din in 1154 CE and the second phase was about 90 years later and was commissioned by a physician, Badr al-Din, circa 1242 CE. It was renovated in 1975 and a small museum was established here. == See also == Nur al-Din Madrasa == References == == External links == Nur al-Din Bimaristan, at archnet.org


id: oman-children-s-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman_Children's_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Oman Children's Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman_Children's_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:39.340773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oman-children-s-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Oman Children's Museum is a children's science museum, located near Qurum Nature Park off Sultan Qaboos Street in a white-domed building in Muscat, Oman. The museum was established by the Ministry of National Heritage and Culture and opened on November 17, 1990, by Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said on the 20th National Day celebration in Oman. The museum has 45 exhibits and two demonstrations and comprises 10,000 square feet (930 m2). It was the first science museum in Oman and is visited by around 50,000 visitors annually. The museum is currently run by a former school teacher, Samirah Ahmed al Raisi, who has run the museum for over six years. The museum addresses the scientific ways of human life and the exhibition section is divided into three parts; The Human life, Physics and observation which investigates the progression of science through the ages. The museum has many hands-on displays. These include experiences of a fake electric shock, trigger a lightning bolt, launching a hot air balloon, photographing your own shadow, and sending message through a whisper dish. == See also == List of museums in Oman == References ==


id: petrosains-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrosains-0.md
category: reference
title: Petrosains
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrosains
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:40.560682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: petrosains-20260505-0
summary:
Petrosains, also known as Petrosains, The Discovery Centre is a Malaysian science and technology museum located in the heart of Kuala Lumpur within Suria KLCC, Petronas Twin Towers. Petrosains was a brainchild of 4th Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad and established on 25 March 1999. It is owned and operated by Petrosains Sdn. Bhd., a wholly owned subsidiary of the Malaysian oil and gas conglomerate Petronas. Tengku Nasariah Tengku Syed Ibrahim is the CEO of Petrosains until 2018. The current CEO is Ezarisma Azni Mohamad. Petrosains also a principal organizer of the annual Petrosains Science Festival since its inauguration in 2013. Since its establishment in 1999, Petrosains' primary language has been always English, which was used in all of its daily operations and official matters instead of Malay. However, most of programs held in Petrosains are still conducted in Malay. == Galleries == Among galleries available at Petrosains are: Dark Ride Space Speed Molecule Nano World 3D Theatre == Operating Hours == Weekdays: 9:30 a.m. - 5:30 p.m. (Last admission 4:00 p.m.) Weekdays and Public Holidays: 9:30 a.m. - 6:30 p.m. (Last admission 5:00 p.m.) Closed On The First Monday of The Month == Admission Rates == === Optional Admissions ===


id: pusat-sains-negara-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusat_Sains_Negara-0.md
category: reference
title: Pusat Sains Negara
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusat_Sains_Negara
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:41.781889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pusat-sains-negara-20260505-0
summary:
Pusat Sains Negara or National Science Centre is a science centre in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Perched atop a hill on 8 hectares of landscaped grounds at Bukit Kiara on the northwestern fringes of the city, the centre was officially opened on 29 November 1996 by Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad. The main aim of the science centre is to promote greater understanding and interest in science and technology. The building resembles a truncated cone capped with a geodesic dome. Among the themes featured in the exhibition galleries are an environmental odyssey, pathways to discovery, future world and thinking machines. In addition, National Science Center also has a new branch in Mount Keriang, Kedah which opened on 1 March 2010. == History == The National Science Center open on 6 April 1986, at a temporary renovated bungalow located at Jalan Kelantan, Kuala Lumpur. Plans for a permanent national science centre began in 1978, as a contribution by the private sector to the national development. The concept was revived in the early 1980s. Council of Scientific Research and Development (NCSRD) has played an important role in their concept of the establishment of a National Science Centre with the objective of which is to


id: scientific-collection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_collection-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:43.025200+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-collection-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific collection is a collection of items that are preserved, catalogued, and managed for the purpose of scientific study. Scientific collections dealing specifically with organisms plants, fungi, animals, insects and their remains, may also be called natural history collections or biological collections. The latter may contain either living stocks or preserved repositories of biodiversity specimens and materials. Scientific collections hold a tangible portion of the cumulative evidence base in such fields as biology (especially taxonomy and evolutionary biology), geology, and archaeology. They may be stored and managed by governments, educational institutions (e.g. colleges and universities), private organizations (including museums), or individuals. Prominent uses of scientific collections include the systematic description and identification of biological species, the study and prediction of long-term historical trends (including impacts of climate change), the dating and analysis of historical objects (e.g. via wood samples and ice cores with annual rings), and the maintenance of teaching resources. == Indexing == The indexing of the collections was historically made by directories, catalogs, index cards, today supplemented by or replaced by databases with information such as e.g. scientific description, including picture, name, location, find circumstances, fund age, scientific analysis, phylogenetic relationships, DNA and isotope analysis results, analysis


id: scientific-collection-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_collection-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:43.025200+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-collection-20260505-0
summary:
in France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris contains 9,500,000 specimens; Université Montpellier contains 4,000,000 specimens; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 contains 4,000,000 specimens in Russia: Komarov Botanical Institute in St. Petersburg contains 7,160,000 specimens, in Great Britain: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew contains 7,000,000 specimens; British Museum of Natural History contains 80,000,000 specimens; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh contains 2,000,000 specimens; University of Cambridge contains 1,000,000 specimens; University of Manchester contains 1,000,000 specimens; in Switzerland: Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève contains 6,000,000 specimens; Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich contains 1,500,000 specimens, in Austria: Naturhistorisches Museum Wien contains 5,000,000 specimens; Universität Wien contains 1,400,000 specimens, in Sweden: Swedish Museum of Natural History (Naturhistoriska riksmuseet) contains 4,400,000 specimens; Uppsala University contains 3,000,000 specimens, Botanical Museum, Lund contains 2,500,000 specimens, University of Gothenburg contains 1,600,000 specimens, in Netherlands: National Herbarium of the Netherlands (Nationaal Herbarium Nederland) contains 4,000,000 specimens in Italy: Museo di Storia Naturale dell'Università, Florence contains 3,650,000 specimens; Università degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza, Rome contains 1,120,000 specimens; Università degli Studi di Torino contains 1,000,000 specimens, in Belgium: National Botanic Garden of Belgium contains 3,500,000 specimens, in Germany: Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Zentraleinrichtung der Freien Universität Berlin


id: tudor-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Tudor Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:44.252289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tudor-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Tudor Museum (French: Musée Tudor), also known as Rosport Castle (French: Château de Rosport, Luxembourgish: Schlass vu Rouspert), is located in the little town of Rosport (Luxembourgish: Rouspert) in north-eastern Luxembourg. Built in 1892, it was the home of the Luxembourg inventor Henri Tudor. Since May 2009, the castle has housed the Tudor Museum. == Location == The building is located not far from the Irminenhof and is surrounded by magnificent gardens. Locally it is known as the neit Schlass or new castle. == History == During the German occupation of Luxembourg in the Second World War, the castle was used to accommodate girls assigned to the Reichsarbeitsdient who performed farming and house-keeping work. Around 1957, it became a guest house and, in 1964, the American firm Monsanto converted it into a hotel. However business was not very successful and in 1970, the Commune of Rosport bought the castle for its own administrative offices while continuing to rent out the first-floor apartments to vacationers. In 1972, these were replaced by a holiday home for old people. After restoration work was completed in 1999, serious consideration was given to opening a museum on the premises. In 1981, the celebrations for


id: unizulu-science-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unizulu_Science_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Unizulu Science Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unizulu_Science_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:45.535863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unizulu-science-centre-20260505-0
summary:
Unizulu Science Centre is an interactive learning centre located in Richards Bay, South Africa. The centre opened on November 6, 1986 and sees roughly 30,000 students annually. The centre has over 130 exhibits and regularly hosts workshops, teacher training, and other instructional activities aimed at improving the educational capacity in the communities it serves. The science center works in a region comprising over 500 High Schools, many of which remain virtually unchanged since Apartheid and suffer from a severe lack of infrastructure and resources, including lack of access to water and qualified educators. The Unizulu Science Centre is a non-profit organisation and is nationally and internationally recognised for its efforts to uplift science education in disadvantaged regions within Kwa-Zulu Natal. == See also == List of science centers == References ==


id: william-phelps-ornithological-collection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phelps_Ornithological_Collection-0.md
category: reference
title: William Phelps Ornithological Collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phelps_Ornithological_Collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:46.736437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: william-phelps-ornithological-collection-20260505-0
summary:
The William Phelps Ornithological Collection, also known as the Phelps Ornithological Museum, is a museum of natural sciences dedicated to the study, exhibition and preservation of the birds of Venezuela and the rest of Latin America. The collection is located east of Caracas and in the geographic center of Greater Caracas, in the heart of the Sabana Grande district. The William Phelps ornithological collection is the most important in Latin America and it is also the most important private collection in the world in its research area. In this private museum one will find important Phelps family study books, as well as 8000 scientific volumes in the library, more than 83,000 anatomical specimens, more than 80,000 skins, etc. For the year 1990, it was said that the William Phelps Ornithological Collection contained more than 76,300 skins and a small number of anatomical specimens, in the Gran Sabana Building of Sabana Grande. The Phelps library in 1990 already had 6,000 books, 800 journals and 5,500 reprints, mostly from natural sciences. == History == The ornithological collection was born in 1938, although it did not have its own headquarters on the Boulevard of Sabana Grande until 1949. At the beginning of 2018,


id: yersin-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yersin_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Yersin Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yersin_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:47.930358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yersin-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Alexandre Yersin Museum, or simply known as Yersin Museum, is a museum in Nha Trang, Vietnam. It is dedicated to Alexandre Yersin, the French-Swiss bacteriologist. It is located on 8–10 Trần Phú Boulevard, also the former home of Yersin and in the enclosure of the Pasteur Institute. The museum contains a large collection of Yersin's research pieces of equipment and letters as well as provides a description of his contributions to bacteriology, medicine, and science. The captions are in French with accompanied English and Vietnamese translations. It is open from 8 am until 11 am and 2 pm until 4:30 pm on weekdays and closed on Saturdays and Sundays. The entry fee is VND 26,000 for adults. == References == Bảo tàng Dr. A.Yersin


id: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md
category: reference
title: And yet it moves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:51.039940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
summary:
E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve] ('And yet it moves' or 'Although it does move') is an Italian phrase commonly attributed to the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). The Catholic Church persecuted Galileo for promoting the Copernican model of the Solar System in which the Earth moves around the Sun, which contradicted Catholic orthodoxy that the Earth remained fixed in the center of the universe. According to popular legend, Galileo muttered this in 1633 after the Roman Inquisition forced him to recant his claims, though this is likely apocryphal. == History == According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri. The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition. The event was first reported in English print in


id: antipositivism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipositivism-0.md
category: reference
title: Antipositivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipositivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:52.206399+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antipositivism-20260505-0
summary:
In social science, antipositivism (also interpretivism, negativism or antinaturalism) is a theoretical stance which proposes that the social realm cannot be studied with the methods of investigation utilized within the natural sciences, and that investigation of the social realm requires a different epistemology. Fundamental to that antipositivist epistemology is the belief that the concepts and language researchers use in their research shape their perceptions of the social world they are investigating and seeking to define. Interpretivism (anti-positivism) developed among researchers dissatisfied with post-positivism, the theories of which they considered too general and ill-suited to reflect the nuance and variability found in human interaction. Because the values and beliefs of researchers cannot fully be removed from their inquiry, interpretivists believe research on human beings by human beings cannot yield objective results. Thus, rather than seeking an objective perspective, interpretivists look for meaning in the subjective experiences of individuals engaging in social interaction. Many interpretivist researchers immerse themselves in the social context they are studying, seeking to understand and formulate theories about a community or group of individuals by observing them from the inside. Interpretivism is an inductive practice influenced by philosophical frameworks such as hermeneutics, phenomenology, and symbolic interactionism. Interpretive methods


id: big-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Big science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:53.498335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-science-20260505-0
summary:
Big science is a term used by scientists and historians of science to describe a series of changes in science which occurred in industrial nations during and after World War II, as scientific progress increasingly came to rely on large-scale projects usually funded by national governments or groups of governments. Individual or small group efforts, or small science, are still relevant today as theoretical results by individual authors may have a significant impact, but very often the empirical verification requires experiments using constructions, such as the Large Hadron Collider, costing between $5 and $10 billion. == Development == While science and technology have always been important to and driven by warfare, the increase in military funding of science following the second World War was on a scale wholly unprecedented. James Conant, in a 1941 letter to Chemical Engineering News, said that World War II "is a physicist's war rather than a chemist's," a phrase that was cemented in the vernacular in post-war discussion of the role that those scientists played in the development of new weapons and tools, notably the proximity fuse, radar, and the atomic bomb. The bulk of these last two activities took place in a new form


id: big-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Big science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:53.498335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-science-20260505-0
summary:
When history looks at the 20th century, she will see science and technology as its theme; she will find in the monuments of Big Science—the huge rockets, the high-energy accelerators, the high-flux research reactors—symbols of our time just as surely as she finds in Notre Dame a symbol of the Middle Ages. ... We build our monuments in the name of scientific truth, they built theirs in the name of religious truth; we use our Big Science to add to our country's prestige, they used their churches for their cities' prestige; we build to placate what ex-President Eisenhower suggested could become a dominant scientific caste, they built to please the priests of Isis and Osiris. Weinberg's article addressed criticisms of the way in which the era of Big Science could negatively affect science — such as astronomer Fred Hoyle's contention that excessive money for science would only make science fat and lazy — and encouraged, in the end, limiting Big Science only to the national laboratory system and preventing its incursion into the university system. Since Weinberg's article there have been many historical and sociological studies on the effects of Big Science both in and out of the laboratory. Soon


id: brain-initiative-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative-0.md
category: reference
title: BRAIN Initiative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:56.120632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brain-initiative-20260505-0
summary:
The White House BRAIN Initiative (Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies) is a collaborative, public-private research initiative announced by the second Obama administration on April 2, 2013, with its primary goal being to support the development and application of innovative technologies that can create a dynamic understanding of brain function. This activity is a Grand Challenge focused on revolutionizing our understanding of the human brain, and was developed by the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) as part of a broader White House Neuroscience Initiative. Inspired by the Human Genome Project, BRAIN aims to help researchers uncover the mysteries of brain disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, depression, and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Participants and affiliates of the BRAIN project include DARPA, IARPA, as well as numerous private companies, universities, and other organizations in the United States, Australia, Canada, and Denmark. == Background == The BRAIN Initiative reflects several influences, that stem back over a decade. Some of these include: planning meetings at the National Institutes of Health that led to the NIH's Blueprint for Neuroscience Research; workshops at the National Science Foundation (NSF) on cognition, neuroscience, and convergent science, including a 2006 report on "Grand


id: brain-initiative-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative-1.md
category: reference
title: BRAIN Initiative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:56.120632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brain-initiative-20260505-0
summary:
According to news reports, the research intends to map the dynamics of neuron activity in mice and other animals and eventually the tens of billions of neurons in the human brain. In a 2012 scientific commentary outlining experimental plans for a more limited project, Alivisatos et al. outlined a variety of specific experimental techniques that might be used to achieve what they termed a "functional connectome", as well as new technologies that will have to be developed in the course of the project. Among others, they indicated that initial studies might be performed in Caenorhabditis elegans, followed by Drosophila, because of their comparatively simple neural circuits. Additionally, mid-term studies could be performed in zebrafish, mice, and the Etruscan shrew, with subsequent studies ultimately to be conducted in primates and humans. They proposed the development of nanoparticles that could serve as voltage sensors to detect individual action potentials, as well as nanoprobes that could function as electrophysiological multielectrode arrays. In particular, they called for the use of wireless, non-invasive methods of detecting neuronal activity, either utilizing microelectronic very-large-scale integration or based on synthetic biology rather than microelectronics. In one such proposed method, enzymatically produced DNA would serve as a "ticker tape


id: british-society-for-social-responsibility-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Society_for_Social_Responsibility_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: British Society for Social Responsibility in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Society_for_Social_Responsibility_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:58.688794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: british-society-for-social-responsibility-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
The British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (BSSRS) was a science movement most active in the 1970s. The main aims of the BSSRS was to raise awareness of the social responsibilities of scientists, the political aspects of science and technology, and to create an informed public. The organisation was concerned with the misuse of science and technological innovation and the impact on the environment, both for the health of workers and wider society. == Creation == BSSRS was formed in 1968 in opposition to university research on chemical and biological weapons, and supported by 83 distinguished scientists, including William Bragg, Francis Crick, Julian Huxley and Bertrand Russell. The Society was inaugurated at a meeting, sponsored by 64 Fellows of the Royal Society, and held in the Society on 19 April 1969. It was attended by more than 300, mostly UK, scientists and engineers. Nobel Laureate Professor Maurice Wilkins was the founding President. A provisional committee was elected at the April 1969 meeting, ahead of the first general meeting in November 1969. At the November meeting, the Society's Secretary Dr R L Smith, reported on the activities of the new Society, including the creation of a regular newsletter by the


id: british-society-for-social-responsibility-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Society_for_Social_Responsibility_in_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: British Society for Social Responsibility in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Society_for_Social_Responsibility_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:58.688794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: british-society-for-social-responsibility-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Fuller, Watson, British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (ed.) (1971). The Social impact of modern biology: International Conference held in London on 26–28 November 1970. London,: Routledge and K. Paul. 1971. ISBN 0-7100-6676-7. OCLC 227435. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (1972). The environment - a radical agenda. [London]: B.S.S.R.S. ISBN 0-9502541-0-X. OCLC 596458. Dalton, Alan J. P. (1975). Oil : a workers' guide to the health hazards and how to fight them. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science: London. ISBN 0-9502541-4-2. OCLC 16489307. Fletcher, Tony (1975). Noise : fighting the most widespread industrial disease. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science. London. ISBN 0-9502541-1-8. OCLC 16486197. British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (1977). Ecology : a critical reading guide. BSSRS/SCANUS. OCLC 499245068 Dalton, Alan J. P. (1977) Vibration : a workers' guide to the health hazards of vibration and their prevention. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science. London. OCLC 81763804 McMorrow, John, British Society for Social Responsibility in Science (1977). Killer dust on the tube [the health hazard of asbestos]. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science. London. OCLC 24709743. British Society for Social Responsibility and Science (1978) Our daily bread : who makes


id: canadian-house-of-commons-standing-committee-on-industry-science-and-technology-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Industry, Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:03:59.914841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: canadian-house-of-commons-standing-committee-on-industry-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_House_of_Commons_Standing_Committee_on_Industry,_Science_and_Technology-0.md

summary:
The House of Commons Standing Committee on Industry and Technology (INDU) is a standing committee of the House of Commons of Canada. == Mandate == The mandate and management of Department of Industry and its subsidiary agencies: Any government policies having to do with: Industry and technology capability Scientific research and development Telecommunications policy Investment, trade, small business and tourism Rules and services supporting the effective operation of the market Fluctuation of gas prices The Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics The e-commerce market in Canada The committee was formerly called the Standing Committee on Industry, Science and Technology. The word "Science" was removed upon the creation of a separate Standing Committee on Science and Research at the beginning of the 44th Canadian Parliament == Membership == As of the 45th Canadian Parliament: == Subcommittees == Subcommittee on Agenda and Procedure (SIND) == External links == Standing Committee on Industry, Science and Technology (INDU)

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_House_of_Commons_Standing_Committee_on_Industry,_Science_and_Technology


id: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Creation and evolution in public education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:01.195767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-0
summary:
The status of creation and evolution in public education has been the subject of substantial debate and conflict in legal, political, and religious circles. Globally, there are a wide variety of views on the topic. Most western countries have legislation that mandates only evolutionary biology is to be taught in the appropriate scientific syllabuses. == Overview == While many Christian denominations do not raise theological objections to the modern evolutionary synthesis as an explanation for the present forms of life on planet Earth, various socially conservative, traditionalist, and fundamentalist religious sects and political groups within Christianity and Islam have objected vehemently to the study and teaching of biological evolution. Some adherents of these Christian and Islamic religious sects or political groups are passionately opposed to the consensus view of the scientific community. Literal interpretations of religious texts are the greatest cause of conflict with evolutionary and cosmological investigations and conclusions. Internationally, biological evolution is taught in science courses with limited controversy, with the exception of a few areas of the United States and several Muslim-majority countries, primarily Turkey. In the United States, the Supreme Court has ruled the teaching of creationism as science in public schools to be unconstitutional, irrespective


id: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Creation and evolution in public education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:01.195767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Iran === Iranian scientific development, especially the health-related aspects of biology, has been a goal of the Islamic government since the Iranian Revolution of 1979. Since Iranian traditional practice of Shi'a religion isn't preoccupied with Qur'anic literalism as in case of fundamentalist Wahhabism but ijtihad, many influential Iranian Shi'ite scholars, including several who were closely involved in the Iranian Revolution, are not opposed to evolutionary ideas in general, disagreeing that evolution necessarily conflicts with the Muslim mainstream. Evolution is incorporated in the science curriculum starting from the 5th grade. An emphasis is placed on empirical evidence, such as the study of fossils, rather than Islamic scripture, thus portraying geologists and other types of scientists as the authoritative voices of scientific knowledge. === Israel === In Israel, compulsory education is separate for secular Jews, ultra-Orthodox Jews and Arabs. In the ultra-Orthodox education system, theory of evolution is not being taught. It has been taught regularly in the secular education system. However, following the rise of religious right-wing parties, evolution has been gradually removed from the school curriculum. === Japan === The theory of evolution is taught in Japan as part of the education policy. The teaching of evolution began already


id: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Creation and evolution in public education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:01.195767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Saudi Arabia === As a religious state, Saudi Arabia has denied the theory of evolution in their science education. Science textbooks approved by the Saudi Ministry of Education have associated Darwin with Western philosophy which they reject and perceive to be "problematic". Saudi's denial of evolution originated from the lack of secularization in the nation, the continuing development of its education system, and its homogenic religious population. King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, the only co-ed university in the state, received criticism for its co-ed establishment and was called for further scrutiny in its science curriculum. Sheikh Saad al-Shithri, a religious scholar, stated that "the recommendation is to set up sharia committees at this university to oversee these studies and look into what violates the sharia (Islamic law)". He further states, "We are looking at some of the sciences that have included some irregular and alien ideologies, like evolution and such other ideologies". According to a poll by Reuters News, Saudi Arabia was ranked the highest in the list of countries that favor creationist views. As an Islamist state, Saudi education policies are centered around an Islamic worldview. This is referenced in various science textbooks, such a 6th


id: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-3.md
category: reference
title: Creation and evolution in public education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:01.195767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Turkey === In Turkey, a country where the majority of population is Muslim, evolution is often a controversial subject. Evolution was added to the school curriculum shortly after the Turkish Revolution of the 1920s and 30s. There was some resistance to this, such as that of Said Nursî and his followers, but opposition was not particularly powerful. In fact, some prominent Turkish scholars during the first decades of the new-born Turkish republic, such as Ahmet Hamdi Akseki (d. 1951), who once served as the President of Religious Affairs of Turkey, and İzmirli İsmail Hakkı (d. 1946) thought that the theory of evolution cannot be seen as contrary to Islam because it was already to be found in the classical works of Muslim theology. In the 1980s, conservatives came into power, and used the ideas of scientific creationists in the US as a method of discrediting evolution (notwithstanding material on the age of the Earth, which Islamic creationism is less specific about). One anti-evolutionist group in Turkey is the Istanbul based Bilim Araştırma Vakfı (BAV), or "Science Research Foundation," which was founded by Adnan Oktar in 1990. Its activities include campaigns against the teaching of evolution. It has been described


id: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education-4.md
category: reference
title: Creation and evolution in public education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:01.195767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creation-and-evolution-in-public-education-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, creationists and proponents of evolution are engaged in a long-standing battle over the legal status of creation and evolution in the public school science classroom. The Edwards v. Aguillard ruling of the Supreme Court set a Lemon test that limits teaching of creationism in government run schools. However, as of 2014 at least 13 US states allow pro-creationist content to be taught either in charter schools or private schools that are at least partially supported by government funding. The 2022 Supreme Court ruling of Carson v. Makin necessitating that a school voucher program must not exclude religious private schools may prevent any state with a voucher program from preventing voucher money being provided to schools that teach creationism. == See also == Creation–evolution controversy Evolution and the Catholic Church Flying Spaghetti Monster Hindu views on evolution Intelligent design in politics Islamic views on evolution Jewish views on evolution Level of support for evolution "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution" Religion and children == References == == External links == Simpson, George Gaylord (1961). "One Hundred Years without Darwin are Enough". Teachers College Record. 60: 617–626. ISSN 0161-4681. Retrieved 2014-06-24. Creation education


id: deutsche-mathematik-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mathematik-0.md
category: reference
title: Deutsche Mathematik
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mathematik
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:02.369833+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deutsche-mathematik-20260505-0
summary:
Deutsche Mathematik (German Mathematics) is a mathematics journal that was founded in 1936 by Ludwig Bieberbach and Theodor Vahlen. Vahlen was publisher on behalf of the German Research Foundation (DFG), and Bieberbach was chief editor. Other editors were Fritz Kubach, Erich Schönhardt, Werner Weber (all volumes), Ernst August Weiß (volumes 1–6), Karl Dörge, Wilhelm Süss (volumes 1–5), Günther Schulz (de), Erhard Tornier (volumes 1–4), Georg Feigl, Gerhard Kowalewski (volumes 2–6), Maximilian Krafft, Willi Rinow, Max Zacharias (volumes 2–5), and Oswald Teichmüller (volumes 3–7). In February 1936, the journal was declared the official organ of the German Student Union (DSt) by its Reichsführer, and all local DSt mathematics departments were requested to subscribe and actively contribute. In the 1940s, issues appeared increasingly delayed and bunched; the journal ended with a triple issue (due Dec 1942) in June 1944. Deutsche Mathematik is also the name of a movement closely associated with the journal whose aim was to promote "German mathematics" and eliminate "Jewish influence" in mathematics, similar to the Deutsche Physik movement. As well as articles on mathematics, the journal published propaganda articles giving the Nazi viewpoint on the relation between mathematics and race (though these political articles mostly disappeared after the


id: fire-in-the-blood-2013-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Fire in the Blood (2013 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:04.780849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-in-the-blood-2013-film-20260505-0
summary:
Fire in the Blood is a 2013 documentary film by Dylan Mohan Gray depicting what it claims is the intentional obstruction of access to low-cost antiretroviral drugs used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS to people in Africa and other parts of the global south, driven by multinational pharmaceutical companies holding patent monopolies and various Western governments (above all those of the United States, European Union and Switzerland) consistently supporting these companies. The film claims that the battle against what it refers to as a "genocidal blockade," which it estimates to have resulted in no less than ten to twelve million completely unnecessary deaths, was fought and (at least temporarily) won. Fire in the Blood features contributions from former US President Bill Clinton, intellectual property activist James Love, global health reporter Donald McNeil, Jr. of The New York Times, HIV/AIDS treatment activist Zackie Achmat, pioneering generic drug maker Yusuf Hamied, former Pfizer executive-turned-whistleblower Peter Rost, Ugandan AIDS physician Peter Mugyenyi, and Nobel Prize-laureates Desmond Tutu and Joseph Stiglitz. The film is narrated by Academy Award-winning actor William Hurt, who lent his voice to the film on a pro bono basis because he felt the story and subject matter were so important.


id: fire-in-the-blood-2013-film-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)-1.md
category: reference
title: Fire in the Blood (2013 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_in_the_Blood_(2013_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:04.780849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fire-in-the-blood-2013-film-20260505-0
summary:
== Other reactions == Author John le Carré (who became involved with the issue of pharmaceutical company abuses while researching his landmark 2001 novel The Constant Gardener) called Fire in the Blood "a blessing... full of conviction, passion and unanswerable argument". Australian-British journalist and documentary film maker, John Pilger wrote "Fire in the Blood is one of the most powerful, important and humane documentaries I have ever seen. It's the story of ordinary people standing up to unaccountable power. The struggle to save millions from the ravages of untreated HIV is revealed as a struggle against the new lords of the world, transnational corporations, their greed and lies. Genuine hope is rare these days -- you'll find it in this film." Former (2001–06) United Nations Special Envoy for HIV/AIDS in Africa Stephen Lewis said "I was enraged as I watched, thinking of those years I spent as the Envoy, watching people die...I rarely watch 'AIDS documentaries'; they're remarkably repetitive as a rule, largely uninspired and yielding almost nothing new. [Fire in the Blood] is in a wholly different category; a terrific, riveting documentary...dramatic, compelling, but most of all, wonderfully humane. [Gray is] a remarkably gifted documentary film-maker." == Special screenings


id: history-of-military-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of military technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:06.056194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-military-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The history of military technology, including the military funding of science, has had a powerful transformative effect on the practice and products of scientific research since the early 20th century. Particularly since World War I, advanced science-based technologies have been viewed as essential elements of a successful military. World War I is often called "the chemists' war", both for the extensive use of poison gas and the importance of nitrates and advanced high explosives. Poison gas, beginning in 1915 with chlorine from the powerful German dye industry, was used extensively by the Germans and the British; over the course of the war, scientists on both sides raced to develop more and more potent chemicals and devise countermeasures against the newest enemy gases. Physicists also contributed to the war effort, developing wireless communication technologies and sound-based methods of detecting U-boats, resulting in the first tenuous long-term connections between academic science and the military. World War II marked a massive increase in the military funding of science, particularly physics. In addition to the Manhattan Project and the resulting atomic bomb, British and American work on radar was widespread and ultimately highly influential in the course of the war; radar enabled detection of


id: history-of-military-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of military technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:06.056194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-military-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Even craft-based military technologies were not generally produced by military funding. Instead, craftsmen and inventors developed weapons and military tools independently and actively sought the interest of military patrons afterward. Following the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, governments and military leaders did try to harness the methods of both science and engineering for more specific ends, but frequently without success. In the decades leading up to the French Revolution, French artillery officers were often trained as engineers, and military leaders from this mathematical tradition attempted to transform the process of weapons manufacture from a craft-based enterprise to an organized and standardized system based on engineering principles and interchangeable parts (pre-dating the work of Eli Whitney in the U.S.). During the Revolution, even natural scientists participated directly, attempting to create “weapons more powerful than any we possess” to aid the cause of the new French Republic, though there were no means for the revolutionary army to fund such work. Each of these efforts, however, was ultimately unsuccessful in producing militarily useful results. A slightly different outcome came from the longitude prize of the 18th century, offered by the British government for an accurate method of determining


id: history-of-military-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of military technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:06.056194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-military-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Following the first chlorine attack by the Germans in May 1915, the British quickly moved to recruit scientists for developing their own gas weapons. Gas research escalated on both sides, with chlorine followed by phosgene, a variety of tear gases, and mustard gas. A wide array of research was conducted on the physiological effects of other gases, such and hydrogen cyanide, arsenic compounds, and a host of complex organic chemicals. The British built from scratch what became an expansive research facility at Porton Down, which remains a significant military research institution into the 21st century. Unlike many earlier military-funded scientific ventures, the research at Porton Down did not stop when the war ended or an immediate goal was achieved. In fact, every effort was made to create an attractive research environment for top scientists, and chemical weapons development continued apace—though in secret—through the interwar years and into World War II. German military-backed gas warfare research did not resume until the Nazi era, following the 1936 discovery of tabun, the first nerve agent, through industrial insecticide research. In the United States, the established tradition of engineering was explicitly competing with the rising discipline of physics for World War I military largess.


id: history-of-military-technology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-3.md
category: reference
title: History of military technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:06.056194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-military-technology-20260505-0
summary:
If World War I was the chemists' war, World War II was the physicists' war. As with other total wars, it is difficult to draw a line between military funding and more spontaneous military-scientific collaboration during World War II. Well before the Invasion of Poland, nationalism was a powerful force in the German physics community (see Deutsche Physik); the military mobilization of physicists was all but irresistible after the rise of National Socialism. German and Allied investigations of the possibility of a nuclear bomb began in 1939 at the initiative of civilian scientists, but by 1942 the respective militaries were heavily involved. The German nuclear energy project had two independent teams, a civilian-controlled team under Werner Heisenberg and a military-controlled led by Kurt Diebner; the latter was more explicitly aimed at producing a bomb (as opposed to a power reactor) and received much more funding from the Nazis, though neither was ultimately successful. In the U.S., the Manhattan Project and other projects of the Office of Scientific Research and Development resulted in a much more extensive military-scientific venture, the scale of which dwarfed previous military-funded research projects. Theoretical work by a number of British and American scientists resulted in significant


id: history-of-military-technology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-4.md
category: reference
title: History of military technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:06.056194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-military-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Computing === The complex histories of computer science and computer engineering were shaped, in the first decades of digital computing, almost entirely by military funding. Most of the basic component technologies for digital computing were developed through the course of the long-running Whirlwind-SAGE program to develop an automated radar shield. Virtually unlimited funds enabled two decades of research that only began producing useful technologies by the end of the 50s; even the final version of the SAGE command and control system had only marginal military utility. More so than with previously established disciplines receiving military funding, the culture of computer science was permeated with a Cold War military perspective. Indirectly, the ideas of computer science also had a profound effect on psychology, cognitive science and neuroscience through the mind-computer analogy. === Geosciences and astrophysics === The history of earth science and the history of astrophysics were also closely tied to military purposes and funding throughout the Cold War. American geodesy, oceanography, and seismology grew from small sub-disciplines in into full-fledged independent disciplines as for several decades, virtually all funding in these fields came from the Department of Defense. A central goal that tied these disciplines together (even while providing


id: history-of-military-technology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology-5.md
category: reference
title: History of military technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:06.056194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-military-technology-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == History of weapons Big Science Funding of science Historiography of science History of radar History of science and technology History of technology Military-industrial complex Military science Military technology Military medicine Military Wireless Museum in the Midlands == External links == == Notes and references == == Further reading == Andrade, Tonio. The gunpowder age: China, military innovation, and the rise of the West in world history (Princeton University Press, 2017). Barrett, Ann H., and Armand Vincent Cardello. Military food engineering and ration technology (DEStech Publications, 2012) online Bolia, Robert, et al. "A history lesson on the use of technology to support military decision making and command and control." in Decision making in complex environments (CRC Press, 2017) pp. 191–200. online Bousquet, Antoine. "A revolution in military affairs?: Changing technologies and changing practices of warfare." in Technology and World Politics (Routledge, 2017) pp. 165–181. [1] Burmaoglu, Serhat, and Ozcan Sarıtas. "Changing characteristics of warfare and the future of Military R&D." Technological Forecasting and Social Change 116 (2017): 151–161. online Chin, Warren. "Technology, war and the state: past, present and future." International Affairs 95.4 (2019): 765–783. online DeVries, Kelly Robert, Kelly DeVries, and Robert Douglas Smith. Medieval military


id: indigenous-peoples-council-on-biocolonialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:07.320056+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indigenous-peoples-council-on-biocolonialism-20260505-0
summary:
The Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) is a non-profit organization based in Nixon, Nevada, for the purpose of political activism against the emergent field of population genetics for human migration research. The term "biocolonialism" is a neologism—a portmanteau of "bio-" and "colonialism"—used by the IPCB to pejoratively characterize population genetics research as part of invasive and destructive assimilation against indigenous peoples. The group claims to advocate for the interests of indigenous peoples, to assist "in the protection of their genetic resources, indigenous knowledge, cultural and human rights from the negative effects of biotechnology." In particular, the IPCB's protests were based on a rejection of participating in scientific research that would negate or otherwise contradict traditional Native American accounts and narratives about their ancestral origins, and lend support to other alternate views. IPCB was a signatory of the Indigenous Peoples' Seattle Declaration in 1999. == History == The IPCB was founded in 1999 by the current Executive Director Debra Harry, following her growing concerns over a perceived impact of genetic colonialism on the lives of indigenous peoples. The organization objects to genetic variation research on isolated populations, as well as its prospective commercial exploration; claiming it as a global threat,


id: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-0.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design in politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:08.589845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-0
summary:
The intelligent design movement has conducted an organized campaign largely in the United States that promotes a pseudoscientific, neo-creationist religious agenda calling for broad social, academic and political changes centering on intelligent design. == International context == Though creationism and intelligent design are not supported by many mainstream scientists, there are significant minorities in the general public in most developed countries that say they doubt or reject the theory of evolution, likely because of their religious beliefs. In underdeveloped countries where rates of religious belief are much higher, support of evolution is consequently lower. == Europe == In Europe, religion generally has much less influence on politics than in the United States or the developing world. Despite this, there are pockets of creationist and intelligent design activity. === Council of Europe === The Council of Europe's Committee on Culture, Science and Education released a report in June 2007 entitled "The Dangers of Creationism in Education". One of the council members, Anne Brasseur said that the aim of the report was to anchor evolution in school curricula, and warned that there was still resistance in many European countries. She provided the following examples in an interview with German newspaper Der Spiegel:


id: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-1.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design in politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:08.589845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-0
summary:
In 1999 the Kansas Board of Education voted to delete references to evolution from Kansas science standards. This had the net effect of removing the teaching of evolution from the state's science curriculum. The move angered the mainstream science community which predicted a resulting loss of rigor and quality in science education. The Board's decision was in part influenced by the presence of recently elected conservative Christians to the board and heavy lobbying by the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture, then known as the "Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture" (CRSC). Subsequent elections altered the membership of the school board and led to renewed backing for evolution instruction in 2001. Elections in 2004 gave religious conservatives a contentious 6-4 majority. The board in 2005 was finalizing new science standards which would have guided teachers about how and what to teach students. A proposal advanced by conservatives and intelligent design proponents, with support from the Center for Science and Culture, was similar to the Critical Analysis of Evolution plan for which the Center lobbied the Ohio Board of Education in 2002. It would not have eliminated evolution entirely from instruction, nor would it require intelligent design to


id: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-2.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design in politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:08.589845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-0
summary:
===== 2001 Louisiana, House Bill 1286 ===== This bill directs that the state shall not print or distribute any material containing claims known to be false or fraudulent. It also specifically provides for any citizen to be able to sue the state using the provisions of this bill. ===== 2001 Michigan, House Bill 4382 ===== A bill proposed by Rep. Gosselin (House Bill 4382) which sought to amend 1976 PA 451, "The revised school code". The bill directed that In the science standards, all references to "evolution" and "how species change through time" would be modified to indicate that this is an unproven theory, by adding the phrase "all students will explain the competing theories of evolution and natural selection based on random mutation and the theory that life is the result of the purposeful, intelligent design of a creator." The bill also directed that in the science standards for middle and high school, all references to "evolution" and "natural selection" would be modified to indicate that these are unproven theories, by adding the phrase "describe how life may be the result of the purposeful, intelligent design of a creator." And in the science standards for middle and high school,


id: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-3.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design in politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:08.589845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-0
summary:
In 2002 the Cobb County school board required stickers placed in a science textbook. Stating that evolution was "a theory, not a fact," the sticker was placed in the ninth-grade biology text after parents complained to the Cobb County school board that alternative ideas about the origin of life were not presented. A group of parents represented by the American Civil Liberties Union sued the school board, claiming the stickers violate the separation of church and state. The trial was resolved in January 2005 when U.S. District Judge Clarence Cooper ruled the sticker was unconstitutional. In the verdict he wrote, "By denigrating evolution, the school board appears to be endorsing the well-known prevailing alternative theory, creationism or variations thereof, even though the sticker does not specifically reference any alternative theories." In December 2005 the federal appeal court panel made comments sharply criticising the lower court ruling in advance of releasing their decision. Judge Ed Carnes said that the words on the sticker are "technically accurate," and that "From nonlife to life is the greatest gap in scientific theory. There is less evidence supporting it than there is for other theories. It sounds to me like evolution is more vulnerable and


id: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-4.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design in politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:08.589845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-0
summary:
A series of hearings instigated by the Discovery Institute held in Topeka, Kansas May 2005 by the Kansas State Board of Education to review changes how the origin of life would be taught in the state's public high school science classes. The hearings were boycotted by the scientific community, and views expressed represented largely those of intelligent design advocates. The result of the hearings was the adoption of new science standards by the fundamentalist-dominated board in defiance of the State Board Science Hearing Committee that relied upon the institute's Critical Analysis of Evolution lesson plan and adopted the institute's Teach the Controversy approach. In August 2006 conservative Republicans lost their majority on the board in a primary election. The moderate Republican and Democrats gaining seats vowed to overturn the 2005 school science standards and adopt those recommended by a State Board Science Hearing Committee that were rejected by the previous board. On the 13th of February, 2007, the Kansas State Board of Education approved a new curriculum which removed any reference to Intelligent Design as part of science. In the words of Dr Bill Wagnon, the board chairman, "Today the Kansas Board of Education returned its curriculum standards to mainstream


id: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-5.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design in politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:08.589845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-0
summary:
===== 2006 Ohio - Proposed Template for Ohio Teachers ===== A 2006 proposal before the Ohio Board of Education drafted by Conservative Board member Colleen Grady, would create a "template" based on the Discovery Institute's Critical Analysis of Evolution lesson plan for use by 10th-grade science teachers for classroom discussions evolution, global warming, stem-cell research and cloning. Grady's proposal was widely regarded as an attempt to circumvent the board's February 2006 vote to retract a controversial model lesson plan and to remove the indicator on which it was based from the standards; the indicator, which called for students to be able to "describe how scientists continue to investigate and critically analyze aspects of evolutionary theory," was generally criticized as providing a pretext for instilling scientifically unwarranted doubts about evolution. Critics have noted that Grady's proposal will allow for the introduction of intelligent design in public schools, although the executive director of the Intelligent Design Network of Ohio, Roddy Bullock, says that the template would merely permit criticism of evolution, via a Teach the Controversy approach. However, in noting that the purpose of the template is to "open up these topics to different points of view, to different lines of evidence,


id: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics-6.md
category: reference
title: Intelligent design in politics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_design_in_politics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:08.589845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligent-design-in-politics-20260505-0
summary:
===== 2005 University of California at Berkeley suit ===== In October 2005, the National Science Foundation and the University of California, Berkeley’s Museum of Paleontology were sued by intelligent design proponents for running a website for school teachers called 'Understanding Evolution'. The lawsuit was brought by Jeanne Caldwell and Larry Caldwell, the husband and wife founders of the anti-evolution, pro-intelligent design group Quality Science Education for All. The Caldwells argued that University of California was "taking a position on evolution and attempting to persuade minor students to accept that position." Michael R. Smith, the assistant chancellor for legal affairs at Berkeley, said that the university would defend the lawsuit "with vigor and enthusiasm." The suit alleged that a university-maintained webpage that contains statements from 17 religious organizations endorsing the teaching of evolution and in so doing violated the separation of church and state. The Caldwells objected specifically to one web page that says it's a misconception that science and religion are incompatible. "Basically, what we have is a page that deals with the misconceptions and challenges to the teaching of evolution, and we provided resources to teachers to answer them," said Roy Caldwell. "One of those questions is, 'Aren't religion


id: list-of-climate-change-controversies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_controversies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate change controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:10.956550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-change-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
There are past and present public debates over certain aspects of climate change: how much has occurred in modern times, what causes it, what its effects will be, and what action should be taken to curb it now or later, and so forth. In the scientific literature, there is a very strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. The controversies are now primarily political rather than scientific, as there is a scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and is driven by human activities. Public debates that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases (climate sensitivity). Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature, where such issues are treated as resolved, and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States and Australia than globally. == Debates around details in the science == There have been many debates around the details of climate change science. Climate change deniers and "skeptics" tend to cherry-pick data or studies, and then


id: list-of-open-letters-by-academics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open_letters_by_academics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of open letters by academics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open_letters_by_academics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:12.191587+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-open-letters-by-academics-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists notable open letters that were initiated by scientists or other academics or have a substantial share of academic signees. Open letters that are not open for signing by other academics or the public in general and have not received both a large number of signatures – in specific no less than 10 before 2000 and no less than 40 after 2010 – and substantial media attention are not included, nor are petitions. With the advent of the Internet and World Wide Web, such open letters may have become far more frequent. Open letters targeting or defending individual academics or small groups of scholars as well as letters calling for retractions of specific studies are not included. == See also == Collective action Collective intelligence Scientific consensus Scientific controversy Policy 2026 in the environment#Open policy proposals Timeline of computing 2020–present#Open policy proposals Policy § Induction of policies In the media and public awareness Reality § Media Science communication Science journalism Solutions journalism Similar documents Letter of three hundred, only made public retrospectively World Scientists' Warning to Humanity == References ==


id: pavlovian-session-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovian_session-0.md
category: reference
title: Pavlovian session
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovian_session
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:14.700574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pavlovian-session-20260505-0
summary:
The Pavlovian session (Russian: Павловская сессия) was the joint session of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences held on June 28 to July 4, 1950. The session was organized by the Soviet Government headed by Joseph Stalin in order to fight Western influences in Russian physiological sciences. During the session, a number of Ivan Pavlov's former students attacked another group of his students (Leon Orbeli, Pyotr Anokhin, Aleksey Speransky, Ivan Beritashvili) whom they accused of deviating from Pavlov's teaching. As the result of this session, Soviet physiology excluded itself from the international scientific community for many years. == Preceding events == The Pavlovian session followed a sequence of Stalin's interferences in academic affairs during the post-war time: In 1947, Georgy Aleksandrov asked Stalin to review his textbook for university students entitled "History of West European Philosophy". Stalin criticized the book as an attempt to analyze philosophy from a pro-Western position rather than using the principles of Marxism–Leninism. In 1948, Stalin strongly supported Lysenko's work on the inheritance of acquired characteristics in plants which has now been discredited. Lysenko's research was thought to hold the promise of strengthening the Soviet Union's agriculture. In 1949, Stalin


id: pavlovian-session-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovian_session-1.md
category: reference
title: Pavlovian session
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovian_session
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:14.700574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pavlovian-session-20260505-0
summary:
=== Razenkov's speech === Ivan Razenkov spoke after Vavilov. He emphasized the importance of opposing the "reactionary idealist trend" in physiology following the example of Trofim Lysenko who contributed to a "decisive victory" of Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin's teachings over Weismannism-Morganism. Razenkov praised Pavlov's contribution to practical medicine and criticized Pavlov's students for not applying the progressive ideas of Pavlov and Ivan Sechenov to theoretical and practical medicine. He blamed Pavlov's immediate disciples and successors: L.N. Fydorov, the former director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine, Leon Orbeli, the director of the Pavlov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology, Pyotr Anokhin, the head of the Moscow Institute of Physiology, and Aleksey Speransky, the head of the Institute of General and Experimental Pathology. According to Razenkov, these scientists did not fight hard enough to defend Pavlov's materialist theory against the assaults of Western idealist physiologists, such as Sherrington, Lashley and Fulton, and Pavlov's opponents in Russia, such as Beritov. Razenkov also expressed some self-criticism for not conforming with the Party and the Government's expectation of the Academy of Medical Sciences. He informed that the Government had created a new scientific institution, the Institute of Physiology of the Higher Nervous System, to advance Pavlov's teachings,


id: pavlovian-session-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovian_session-2.md
category: reference
title: Pavlovian session
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovian_session
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:14.700574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pavlovian-session-20260505-0
summary:
In 1982, M.G. Yaroshevsky, criticizing the Pavlovian session, wrote that, in fact, Ivanov-Smolenskiy and his disciples did nothing but pervert the kernel of Pavlovian teaching, substituting for it a mechanistic view of the brain activity. These so-called scholars of Pavlov emasculated the ground of his theory and extremely damaged the prospects of Soviet science. A precursor of later abuses in psychiatry in the Soviet Union and the most somber event in the history of Russian-Soviet psychiatry was the so-called 'Joint Session' of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences and the Board of the All-Union Neurologic and Psychiatric Association, held in the name of Ivan Pavlov in October 1951, considered the matter of several leading neuroscientists and psychiatrists of the time (for example, Grunya Sukhareva, Vasily Gilyarovsky, Raisa Golant, Aleksandr Shmaryan, Mikhail Gurevich) who were charged with practicing 'anti-Pavlovian, anti-Marxist, idealistic, reactionary' science damaging to Soviet psychiatry. These talented psychiatrists had to admit publicly to their wrong beliefs and mistakes and promise to profess only Pavlov's teaching. During the Joint Session, scientists falsely acknowledged their 'wrongdoings' and gave up their beliefs, out of fear. But in the closing speech, the lead author of the policy report Andrei Snezhnevsky stated that they


id: science-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: Science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:15.915635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
Science policy is concerned with the allocation of resources for the conduct of science towards the goal of best serving the public interest. Topics include the funding of science, the careers of scientists, and the translation of scientific discoveries into technological innovation to promote commercial product development, competitiveness, economic growth and economic development. Science policy focuses on knowledge production and role of knowledge networks, collaborations, and the complex distributions of expertise, equipment, and know-how. Understanding the processes and organizational context of generating novel and innovative science and engineering ideas is a core concern of science policy. Science policy topics include weapons development, health care and environmental monitoring. Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve science. A large and complex web of factors influences the development of science and engineering that includes government science policymakers, private firms (including both national and multi-national firms), social movements, media, non-governmental organizations, universities, and other research institutions. In addition, science policy is increasingly international as defined by the global operations of firms and research institutions as well as by the collaborative networks of non-governmental organizations and of the nature of scientific inquiry itself. == History == State policy has influenced


id: science-policy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy-1.md
category: reference
title: Science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:15.915635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Basic versus applied research === The programs that are funded are often divided into four basic categories: basic research, applied research, development, and facilities and equipment. Translational research is a newer concept that seeks to bridge the gap between basic science and practical applications. Basic science attempts to stimulate breakthroughs. Breakthroughs often lead to an explosion of new technologies and approaches. Once the basic result is developed, it is widely published; however conversion into a practical product is left for the free market. However, many governments have developed risk-taking research and development organizations to take basic theoretical research over the edge into practical engineering. In the US, this function is performed by DARPA. In contrast, technology development is a policy in which engineering, the application of science, is supported rather than basic science. The emphasis is usually given to projects that increase important strategic or commercial engineering knowledge. One example is the Manhattan Project that developed nuclear weapons. Another example is the "X-vehicle" studies that gave the US a lasting lead in aerospace technologies. These exemplify two disparate approaches: The Manhattan Project was huge, and spent freely on the most risky alternative approaches. The project members believed that failure


id: science-policy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy-2.md
category: reference
title: Science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:15.915635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Brazil === In Brazil, two important research agencies are the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, Portuguese: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico), an organization of the Brazilian federal government under the Ministry of Science and Technology, and São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP, Portuguese: Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo), a public foundation located in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. === European Union === The science policy of the European Union is carried out through the European Research Area, a system which integrates the scientific resources of member nations and acts as a "common market" for research and innovation. The European Union's executive body, the European Commission, has a Directorate-General for Research, which is responsible for the Union's science policy. In addition, the Joint Research Centre provides independent scientific and technical advice to the European Commission and Member States of the European Union (EU) in support of EU policies. There is also the recently established European Research Council, the first European Union funding body set up to support investigator-driven research. There are also European science agencies that operate independently of the European Union, such as the European Space Agency, and the


id: science-policy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy-3.md
category: reference
title: Science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:15.915635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Big science Evidence-based policy Funding bias Funding of science History of military science History of science policy Intellectual property policy List of books about the politics of science List of funding opportunity databases Metascience Open access Operations research Office of Science and Technology Policy Patent Politicization of science Right to science and culture Science of science policy == References == == Further reading == === Books === Bush, Vannevar (1960). Science, the endless frontier: a report to the President on a Program for Postwar Scientific Research (Repr ed.). Washington: National Science Foundation. ISBN 978-1-59740-026-8. OCLC 635336648. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Stokes, Donald E. (1997). Pasteur's quadrant: basic science and technological innovation. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. ISBN 0-8157-8178-4. OCLC 36656380. Neal, Homer A. (2008). Smith, Tobin L.; McCormick, Jennifer B. (eds.). Beyond Sputnik: U.S. science policy in the twenty-first century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-02745-3. OCLC 671654179. Pielke, Roger A. Jr. (2007). The honest broker: making sense of science in policy and politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-27948-5. OCLC 162145073. Stephan, Paula E. (2012). How economics shapes science. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04971-0. OCLC 709670355. Sarewitz, Daniel R.


id: robert-n-proctor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_N._Proctor-0.md
category: reference
title: Robert N. Proctor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_N._Proctor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:17.085212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robert-n-proctor-20260505-0
summary:
Robert Neel Proctor (born 1954) is an American historian of science and Professor of the History of Science at Stanford University, where he is also Professor by courtesy of Pulmonary Medicine. While a professor of the history of science at Pennsylvania State University in 1999, he became the first historian to testify against the tobacco industry. == Career == Robert N. Proctor graduated from Indiana University Bloomington in 1976 with a Bachelor of Science in biology. He then took up studies at Harvard University, earning master's and doctoral degrees in History of Science in 1977 and 1984, respectively. At Pennsylvania State University, he and his wife, Londa Schiebinger, co-directed the Science, Medicine and Technology in Culture Program for nine years. Proctor has worked on human origins and the history of evolution, including changing interpretations of the oldest tools. His 2003 Three Roots of Human Recency won the 2004/2005 Award for Exemplary Interdisciplinary Anthropological Research from the American Anthropological Association. In his Three Roots article he exposed the racism implicit in celebrating "leaving Africa" as a fundamental stage in human evolution (which he mocks as “out of Africa, thank God”); one of the points of this article was to show that


id: racial-hygiene-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_hygiene-0.md
category: reference
title: Racial hygiene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_hygiene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:18.348289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: racial-hygiene-20260505-0
summary:
The term racial hygiene was used to describe an approach to eugenics in the early 20th century, which found its most extensive implementation in Nazi Germany (Nazi eugenics). It was marked by efforts to avoid miscegenation, analogous to an animal breeder seeking purebred animals. This was often motivated by the pseudoscientific belief in the existence of a racial hierarchy and the related fear that "lower races" would "contaminate" a "higher" one. As with most eugenicists at the time, racial hygienists believed that the lack of eugenics would lead to rapid social degeneration, the decline of civilization by the spread of inferior characteristics. Like eugenics, racial hygiene was largely discredited and abandoned following World War II. == Development == The German eugenicist Alfred Ploetz introduced the term "racial hygiene" (Rassenhygiene) in 1895 in his Racial Hygiene Basics (Grundlinien einer Rassenhygiene). He discussed the importance of avoiding "counterselective forces" such as war, inbreeding, free healthcare for the poor, alcohol and venereal disease. In its earliest incarnation it was more concerned by the declining birthrate of the German state and the increasing number of mentally-ill and disabled people in state-run institutions (and their costs to the state) than it was by the "Jewish


id: racial-hygiene-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_hygiene-1.md
category: reference
title: Racial hygiene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_hygiene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:18.348289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: racial-hygiene-20260505-0
summary:
The doctors who carried out experiments on the prisoners in concentration camps specialised in racial hygiene and used the supposed science to back their medical experiments. Some of the experiments were used for general medical research, for example by injecting prisoners with known diseases to test vaccines or possible cures. Other experiments were used to further the Germans' war strategy by putting prisoners in vacuum chambers to see what could happen to pilots' bodies if they were ejected at a high altitude or immerse prisoners in ice water to see how long they would survive and what materials could be used to prolong life if worn by German pilots shot down over the English Channel. The precursors of this notion were earlier medical experiments which German doctors performed on African prisoners of war in concentration camps in Namibia during the Herero and Nama genocide. A key aspect of National Socialism was the concept of racial hygiene and it was elevated to the primary philosophy of the German medical community, first by activist physicians within the medical profession, particularly amongst psychiatrists. That was later codified and institutionalized during and after the Nazis' rise to power in 1933, during the process of


id: regulation-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Regulation of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:19.556535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regulation-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The regulation of science refers to use of law, or other ruling, by academic or governmental bodies to allow or restrict science from performing certain practices, or researching certain scientific areas. Science could be regulated by legislation if areas are seen as harmful, immoral, or dangerous. For these reasons science regulation may be closely related to religion, culture and society. Science regulation is often a bioethical issue related to practices such as abortion and euthanasia, and areas of research such as stem-cell research and cloning synthetic biology. == United States == === Biomedical research === Unjust events such as the St. Louis tragedy or the Tuskegee syphilis experiment have prompted regulations in biomedical research. Over the years, regulations have been extended to encompass animal welfare and research misconduct. The federal government also monitors the production and sale of the results of biomedical research such as drugs and biopharmaceuticals. The FDA and the Department of Health and Human Services oversee the implementation of these regulations. The Dickey–Wicker Amendment prohibits the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) from using appropriated funds for the creation of human embryos for research purposes or for research in which human embryos are destroyed. ==== Human


id: repression-of-science-in-the-soviet-union-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union-0.md
category: reference
title: Repression of science in the Soviet Union
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:20.731681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: repression-of-science-in-the-soviet-union-20260505-0
summary:
Many fields of scientific research in the Soviet Union were banned or suppressed with various justifications. All humanities and social sciences were tested for strict accordance with dialectical materialism. These tests served as a cover for political suppression of scientists who engaged in research labeled as "idealistic" or "bourgeois". Many scientists were fired, others were arrested and sent to Gulags. The suppression of scientific research began during the Stalin era and continued after his death. The ideologically motivated persecution damaged many fields of Soviet science. == Examples == === Biology === In the mid-1930s, the agronomist Trofim Lysenko started a campaign against genetics and was supported by Stalin. If the field of genetics' connection to Nazis wasn't enough, Mendelian genetics was also suppressed due to beliefs that it was "bourgeoisie science" and its association with the priest Gregor Mendel due to hostility to religion because of the Soviet policy of state atheism. In 1950, the Soviet government organized the Joint Scientific Session of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the "Pavlovian session". Several prominent Soviet physiologists (L.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhin, Aleksey Speransky, Ivane Beritashvili) were accused of deviating from Pavlov's teaching. As a consequence


id: repression-of-science-in-the-soviet-union-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union-1.md
category: reference
title: Repression of science in the Soviet Union
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:20.731681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: repression-of-science-in-the-soviet-union-20260505-0
summary:
=== Physics === In the late 1940s, some areas of physics, were also criticized on grounds of "idealism". In quantum mechanics Soviet physicists Dmitry Blokhintsev, Yaakov Terletsky and K. V. Nikolsky developed a version of the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics, which was seen as more adhering to the principles of dialectical materialism. Special and general relativity were a matter of controversy among the Soviet scientists since 1920. Some of them argued that this theory is grounded in Machism (acutely criticized by Vladimir Lenin in his Materialism and Empiriocriticism), others were a group of so-called "mechanists" (see Mechanists and dialecticians controversy), later "Young Stalinists" joined the ranks of the relativity theory. At the same time a considerable number of prominent Soviet physicists defended the relativity theory. The attacks on the relativity theory intensified in 1949 under the auspices of the struggle against the "physical idealism" in the work of Leonid Mandelstam. Initially Sergey Vavilov, President of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, managed to defend Mandelstam, but in 1952 the political attacks on "reactionary Einsteinianism" intensified further. This pseudoscientific campaign sizzled after the death of Stalin. Although initially planned, the process of "ideological cleansing" in physics did not


id: science-for-the-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_for_the_People-0.md
category: reference
title: Science for the People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_for_the_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:21.956294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-for-the-people-20260505-0
summary:
Science for the People (SftP) is a left-wing organization that emerged from the antiwar culture of the United States in the late 1960s. Since 2014 it has experienced a revival focusing primarily on the dual nature of science. The organization advocates for a scientific establishment that is not isolated from society, rather one that uses scientific discoveries to advocate for and advance social justice and critically approach science as a social endeavor. == History == The original group was composed of professors, students, workers, and other concerned citizens who sought to end potential oppression brought on by pseudoscience, or by what it considered the misuse of science. SftP generated much controversy in the 1970s for the radical tactics of some of its members. Over the initial few years there was an emergence of multiple differing opinions about the nature and mission of SftP should be. A faction wanted SftP to pay special attention to scientific issues that support class struggle. Another wanted to develop "a science for the people." The majority, however, wanted to be the scientific community's critical conscience and expose, from within, the dangers of the misuse of science. After a bitter internal struggle and departure of many,


id: science-for-the-people-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_for_the_People-1.md
category: reference
title: Science for the People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_for_the_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:21.956294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-for-the-people-20260505-0
summary:
=== Position on science education === One of the core tenets of the SftP was that science and particularly biology and medicine cannot remain neutral. The organization not only believed that these disciplines should focus on correcting societal ills they also actively participated in educating people on work place hazards such as asbestos and other chemical and environmental exposures. In the early 1970s a Boston several SftP members known as the Boston Science Teaching Group, published and distributed series of pamphlets on topics such as genetics and ecology. Other members who were professional educators volunteered to teach biology in Boston’s underserved school districts. In 1971 two university professors, Rita Arditti and Tom Strunk, in an attempt to reform college biology curriculum, created a socially conscious first year college course called "Objecting to Objectivity: A Course in Biology". The course covered genetic engineering, physical and social limitations and implications of human gene maps, polygenic inheritance and prenatal diagnosis. It also discussed reproduction, birth control and abortion including the contemporary research and public policies about reproductive health. Other topics included population growth and Malthusian and Marxist theories and ethics of human research. === Positions on race and gender === Advocating for racial


id: science-for-the-people-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_for_the_People-2.md
category: reference
title: Science for the People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_for_the_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:21.956294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-for-the-people-20260505-0
summary:
=== International relations === From its inception SftP condemned the use of technology and science to oppress and colonize other countries. The organization gave the examples of both Vietnam and Cuba where, it stated, the US technological and scientific superiority was being used to both militarily and economically repress the smaller nations. In response to the US policy, in 1971, a group of SftP members in Cambridge, Massachusetts collected and shipped large amounts of scientific books and journals to Vietnam and Cuba to aid in science education there. The same year, molecular biologist Dr. Mark Ptashne and zoologist Dr. Bert Pfeiffer went to Hanoi and lectured to Vietnamese scientists and physicians. There were also successful efforts of networking with scientists in China, and, in the 1980s, with the scientific and technological community in Nicaragua. == 2014 revitalization == Since the fall of 2014, an effort to revive and reorganize SftP has been underway. The SftP revitalization efforts emerged from the convention held April 11–13, 2014, at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. At the 2014 conference various topics including the history of the SftP, health care, climate change, social justice, science education, gender and racial bias and militarization of science were


id: science-of-science-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_science_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: Science of science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:23.169358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-of-science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
Science of science policy (SoSP) is an emerging interdisciplinary research area that seeks to develop theoretical and empirical models of the scientific enterprise. This scientific basis can be used to help government, and society in general, make better R&D management decisions by establishing a scientifically rigorous, quantitative basis from which policy makers and researchers may assess the impacts of the nation's scientific and engineering enterprise, improve their understanding of its dynamics, and assess the likely outcomes. Examples of research in the science of science policy include models to understand the production of science, qualitative, quantitative and computational methods to estimate the impact of science, and processes for choosing from alternative science portfolios. == Federal effort == The federal government of the United States has long been a supporter of SoSP. In 2006, in response to Office of Science and Technology Policy Director John H. Marburger's challenge for a new "science of science policy", the National Science and Technology Council's Subcommittee on Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences (SBE) established an Interagency Task Group on Science of Science Policy (ITG) to serve as part of the internal deliberative process of the Subcommittee. In 2008, the SoSP ITG developed and published "The Science


id: sciencedebate-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceDebate.org-0.md
category: reference
title: ScienceDebate.org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceDebate.org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:26.926104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sciencedebate-org-20260505-0
summary:
Science Debate is a nonpartisan American nonprofit organization working to elevate the importance of science and technology in the national public dialogue. They ask candidates running of office to share their science policy perspectives before Election Day so that every politician arrives in office prepared to meet the 21st centuries greatest challenges on day one. Driven by the vital role that science and technology play in the health, environmental, and economic well-being of society, Science Debate strives to provide voters with sufficient and meaningful information on these key issues when electing people to serve in public office. The organization has the support of 24 Nobel laureates; 172 leaders of scientific institutions; 108 university presidents and provosts; and 55 current and former business leaders (such as company presidents, CEOs, and chairpersons). Well-known signatories include: actors Johnny Depp and Mark Ruffalo, presidential science adviser John Holdren, former energy secretary Steven Chu, inventor Elon Musk, actor/producer David Schwimmer, and educator Bill Nye. == History == === Founding of Science Debate === In the run-up to the 2008 presidential election, the lack of discussion about science and technology issues caught the attention of film director and screenwriter Matthew Chapman. Together with science journalist Chris


id: sociobiology-study-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology_Study_Group-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociobiology Study Group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology_Study_Group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:28.103200+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociobiology-study-group-20260505-0
summary:
The Sociobiology Study Group was an academic organization formed to specifically counter sociobiological explanations of human behavior, particularly those expounded by the Harvard entomologist E. O. Wilson in Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975). The group formed in Boston, Massachusetts and consisted of both professors and students, predominantly left-wing and Marxist. Members of the Sociobiology Study Group included Richard C. Lewontin (geneticist, Harvard University), Stephen Jay Gould (paleontologist, Harvard University), Jon Beckwith (Harvard Medical School), Stephan Chorover (psychologist, MIT), David Culver (biologist, Northwestern University), Ruth Hubbard (biologist, Harvard University), Anthony Leeds (anthropologist, Boston University), Margaret Duncan (research assistant, Harvard Medical School), Hiroshi Inouye (resident fellow, Harvard Medical School), Chuck Madansky (graduate student, Harvard Medical School), Lawrence G. Miller (medical student, Harvard Medical School) Miriam Rosenthal (research associate, Harvard School of Public Health), Reed Pyeritz (doctor, Peter Bent Brigham Hospital), and Herb Schreier (psychiatrist, Massachusetts General Hospital). The Sociobiology Study Group later associated itself with the Boston chapter of Science for the People, thereby forming a larger coalition "The Sociobiology Study Group of Science for the People." The group met monthly, and often held meetings at Harvard lecture halls and in the homes of its members. The meetings often included guests such


id: space-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: Space policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:29.280773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-policy-20260505-0
summary:
Space policy is the political decision-making process for, and application of, public policy of a state (or association of states) regarding spaceflight and uses of outer space, both for civilian (scientific and commercial) and military purposes. International treaties, such as the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, attempt to maximize the peaceful uses of space and restrict the militarization of space. Space policy intersects with science policy, since national space programs often perform or fund research in space science, and also with defense policy, for applications such as spy satellites and anti-satellite weapons. It also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial communications satellites and private spaceflight. Space policy also encompasses the creation and application of space law, and space advocacy organizations exist to support the cause of space exploration. == Space law == Space law is an area of the law that encompasses national and international law governing activities in outer space. There are currently six treaties that make up the body of international space law. The inception of the field of space law began with the launch of the world's first artificial satellite by the Soviet Union in October 1957. Named Sputnik 1, the satellite was launched as


id: space-policy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy-1.md
category: reference
title: Space policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:29.280773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-policy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Liability Convention ==== The Liability Convention was ratified on September 1, 1972. The treaty expands on the liability rules created in the Outer Space Treaty. Its provisions state that a state bears international responsibility for all space objects that are launched within their territory. This means that regardless of who launches the space object, if it was launched from State A's territory, or from State A's facility, or if State A caused the launch to happen, then State A is fully liable for damages that result from that space object. In 1978, the crash of the nuclear-powered Soviet satellite Kosmos 954 in Canadian territory led to the only claim filed under the convention. More recently, in July and October 2021, China's Tiangong space station, with three astronauts aboard, performed "evasive maneuver(s)" to avoid collision with SpaceX's Starlink satellites. The Liability Convention does not introduce legal penalties for leaving space debris in Earth's orbit. ==== Registration Convention ==== The Registration Convention was ratified on September 15, 1976. The convention's provisions require states to provide details such as date and location of launch, as well as basic orbital parameters to the United Nations for each space object. ==== Moon Agreement ====


id: space-policy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy-2.md
category: reference
title: Space policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:29.280773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-policy-20260505-0
summary:
The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s. The National Aeronautics and Space Act creating NASA was passed in 1958, after the launch of the Soviet Sputnik 1 satellite. Thereafter, in response to the flight of Yuri Gagarin as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. Although the costs of the Vietnam War and the programs of the Great Society forced cuts to NASA's budget as early as 1965, the first Moon landing occurred in 1969, early in Richard Nixon's presidency. Under the Nixon administration NASA's budget continued to decline and three of the planned Apollo Moon landings were cancelled. The Nixon administration approved the beginning of the Space Shuttle program in 1972, but did not support funding of other projects such as a Mars landing, colonization of the Moon, or a permanent space station. The Space Shuttle first launched in 1981, during Ronald Reagan's administration. Reagan in 1982 announced a renewed active space effort, which included initiatives such the construction of Space Station Freedom, and the military Strategic Defense Initiative, and,


id: space-policy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy-3.md
category: reference
title: Space policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:29.280773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-policy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Russia and Ukraine === Russia inherited its space programs in 1991 from its predecessor state, the Soviet Union. Russia's civilian space agency is the Russian Federal Space Agency and its military counterpart is the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. Ukraine's agency is the State Space Agency of Ukraine, which handles both civilian and military programs. The Soviet Union became the world's first spacefaring state by launching its first satellite, Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957. The Soviet space program was active from 1955 until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. In the 1980s the Soviet Union was considered to be technologically behind the United States, but it outspent the United States in its space budget, and its cosmonauts had spent three times as many days in space as American astronauts. The Soviet Union had also been more willing than the United States to embark on long-term programs, such as the Salyut and Mir space station programs, and increased their investment in space programs throughout the 1970s and 1980s. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the 1990s saw serious financial problems because of the decreased cash flow, which encouraged Roskosmos to improvise and seek other ways to keep


id: united-states-house-committee-on-science-space-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Science,_Space,_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Science,_Space,_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:30.512652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: united-states-house-committee-on-science-space-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The Committee on Science, Space, and Technology is a committee of the United States House of Representatives. It has jurisdiction over non-defense federal scientific research and development. More specifically, the committee has complete jurisdiction over the following federal agencies: NASA, NSF, NIST, and the OSTP. The committee also has authority over R&D activities at the Department of Energy, the EPA, FAA, NOAA, the DOT, the NWS, the DHS and the U.S. Fire Administration. == History == In the wake of the Soviet Sputnik program in the late 1950s, Congress created the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration on 5 March 1958, chaired by majority leader John William McCormack, on the advice of National Defense Analyst Eilene Galloway. This select committee drafted the National Aeronautics and Space Act that created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). A staff report of the committee, the Space Handbook: Astronautics and its Applications, provided non-technical information about spaceflight to U.S. policy makers. The committee also chartered the permanent House Committee on Science and Astronautics, which officially began on January 3, 1959, and was the first new standing committee established in the House since 1946. The name was changed in 1974 to the House


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between science and religion involves discussions that interconnect the study of the natural world, history, philosophy, and theology. Even though the ancient and medieval worlds did not have conceptions resembling the modern understandings of "science" or of "religion", certain elements of modern ideas on the subject recur throughout history. The pair-structured phrases "religion and science" and "science and religion" first emerged in the literature during the 19th century. This coincided with the refining of "science" (from the studies of "natural philosophy") and of "religion" as distinct concepts in the preceding few centuries—partly due to professionalization of the sciences, the Protestant Reformation, colonization, and globalization. Since then the relationship between science and religion has been characterized in terms of "conflict", "harmony", "complexity", and "mutual independence", among others. Both science and religion are complex social and cultural endeavors that may vary across cultures and change over time. Most scientific and technical innovations until the scientific revolution were achieved by societies organized by religious traditions. Ancient pagan, Islamic, and Christian scholars pioneered individual elements of the scientific method. Roger Bacon, often credited with formalizing the scientific method, was a Franciscan friar, and medieval Christians who studied nature emphasized natural explanations. Confucian


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-1.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Concepts of science and religion === The concepts of "science" and "religion" are a recent invention: "religion" emerged in the 17th century in the midst of colonization, globalization and as a consequence of the Protestant reformation. "Science" emerged in the 19th century in the midst of attempts to narrowly define those who studied nature. Originally what is now known as "science" was pioneered as "natural philosophy". It was in the 19th century that the terms "Buddhism", "Hinduism", "Taoism", "Confucianism" and "World Religions" first emerged. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin roots of both science (scientia) and religion (religio) were understood as inner qualities of the individual or virtues, never as doctrines, practices, or actual sources of knowledge. The 19th century also experienced the concept of "science" receiving its modern shape with new titles emerging such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics", and "physicist", among other technical fields and titles; institutions and communities were founded, and unprecedented applications to and interactions with other aspects of society and culture occurred. The term scientist was coined by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell in 1834 and it was applied to those who sought knowledge and understanding of nature. From the ancient world,


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-2.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
"In matters that are obscure and far beyond our vision, even in such as we may find treated in Holy Scripture, different interpretations are sometimes possible without prejudice to the faith we have received. In such a case, we should not rush in headlong and so firmly take our stand on one side that, if further progress in the search of truth justly undermines this position, we too fall with it. That would be to battle not for the teaching of Holy Scripture but for our own, wishing its teaching to conform to ours, whereas we ought to wish ours to conform to that of Sacred Scripture." (Gen. ad lit. i, 18) In medieval universities, the faculty for natural philosophy and theology were separate, and discussions pertaining to theological issues were often not allowed to be undertaken by the faculty of philosophy. Natural philosophy, as taught in the arts faculties of the universities, was seen as an essential area of study in its own right and was considered necessary for almost every area of study. It was an independent field, separated from theology, and enjoyed a good deal of intellectual freedom as long as it was restricted to the natural


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-3.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
According to Guillermo Paz-y-Miño-C and Avelina Espinosa, the historical conflict between evolution and religion is intrinsic to the incompatibility between scientific rationalism/empiricism and the belief in supernatural causation/faith. According to evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne, views on evolution and levels of religiosity in some countries, along with the existence of books explaining reconciliation between evolution and religion, indicate that people have trouble in believing both at the same time, thus implying incompatibility. According to physical chemist Peter Atkins, "whereas religion scorns the power of human comprehension, science respects it." Planetary scientist Carolyn Porco describes a hope that "the confrontation between science and formal religion will come to an end when the role played by science in the lives of all people is the same played by religion today." Geologist and paleontologist Donald Prothero has stated that religion is the reason "questions about evolution, the age of the earth, cosmology, and human evolution nearly always cause Americans to flunk science literacy tests compared to other nations." However, Jon Miller, who studies science literacy across nations, states that Americans in general are slightly more scientifically literate than Europeans and the Japanese. According to cosmologist and astrophysicist Lawrence Krauss, compatibility or incompatibility is a


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-4.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
The conflict thesis, which holds that religion and science have been in conflict continuously throughout history, was popularized in the 19th century by John William Draper's and Andrew Dickson White's accounts. It was in the 19th century that relationship between science and religion became an actual formal topic of discourse, while before this no one had pitted science against religion or vice versa, though occasional complex interactions had been expressed before the 19th century. Most contemporary historians of science now reject the conflict thesis in its original form and no longer support it. Instead, it has been superseded by subsequent historical research which has resulted in a more nuanced understanding. Historian of science, Gary Ferngren, has stated: "Although popular images of controversy continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times the two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule." Most historians today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-5.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
Science and religion are based on different aspects of human experience. In science, explanations must be based on evidence drawn from examining the natural world. Scientifically based observations or experiments that conflict with an explanation eventually must lead to modification or even abandonment of that explanation. Religious faith, in contrast, does not depend on empirical evidence, is not necessarily modified in the face of conflicting evidence, and typically involves supernatural forces or entities. Because they are not a part of nature, supernatural entities cannot be investigated by science. In this sense, science and religion are separate and address aspects of human understanding in different ways. Attempts to put science and religion against each other create controversy where none needs to exist. According to Archbishop John Habgood, both science and religion represent distinct ways of approaching experience and these differences are sources of debate. He views science as descriptive and religion as prescriptive. He stated that if science and mathematics concentrate on what the world ought to be, in the way that religion does, it may lead to improperly ascribing properties to the natural world as happened among the followers of Pythagoras in the sixth century B.C. In contrast, proponents of


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-6.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Integration === As a general view, this holds that while interactions are complex between influences of science, theology, politics, social, and economic concerns, the productive engagements between science and religion throughout history should be duly stressed as the norm. Scientific and theological perspectives often coexist peacefully. Christian and non-Christian religions have historically integrated well with scientific ideas, as in the ancient Egyptian technological mastery applied to monotheistic ends, the scientific advances made by Muslim scholars during the Ottoman Empire and mathematics under Hinduism and Buddhism. Even many 19th-century Christian communities welcomed scientists who claimed that science was not at all concerned with discovering the ultimate nature of reality. According to Lawrence M. Principe, the Johns Hopkins University Drew Professor of the Humanities, from a historical perspective this points out that much of the current-day clashes occur between limited extremists—both religious and scientistic fundamentalists—over a very few topics, and that the movement of ideas back and forth between scientific and theological thought has been more usual. To Principe, this perspective would point to the fundamentally common respect for written learning in religious traditions of rabbinical literature, Christian theology, and the Islamic Golden Age, including a Transmission of the Classics from


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-7.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
Among early Christian teachers, Tertullian (c. 160–220) held a generally negative opinion of Greek philosophy, while Origen (c. 185–254) regarded it much more favorably and required his students to read nearly every work available to them. Earlier attempts at reconciliation of Christianity with Newtonian mechanics appear quite different from later attempts at reconciliation with the newer scientific ideas of evolution or relativity. Many early interpretations of evolution polarized themselves around a struggle for existence. These ideas were significantly countered by later findings of universal patterns of biological cooperation. According to John Habgood, the universe seems to be a mix of good and evil, beauty and pain, and that suffering may somehow be part of the process of creation. Habgood holds that Christians should not be surprised that suffering may be used creatively by God, given their faith in the symbol of the Cross. Robert John Russell has examined consonance and dissonance between modern physics, evolutionary biology, and Christian theology. Christian philosophers Augustine of Hippo (354–430) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) held that scriptures can have multiple interpretations on certain areas where the matters were far beyond their reach, therefore one should leave room for future findings to shed light on the


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-8.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
==== Perspectives on evolution ==== In recent history, the theory of evolution has been at the center of some controversy between Christianity and science. Christians who accept a literal interpretation of the biblical account of creation find incompatibility between Darwinian evolution and their interpretation of the Christian faith. Creation science or scientific creationism is a branch of creationism that attempts to provide scientific support for a literal reading of the Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis and attempts to disprove generally accepted scientific facts, theories and scientific paradigms about the geological history of the Earth, cosmology of the early universe, the chemical origins of life and biological evolution. It began in the 1960s as a fundamentalist Christian effort in the United States to prove Biblical inerrancy and falsify the scientific evidence for evolution. It has since developed a sizable religious following in the United States, with creation science ministries branching worldwide. In 1925, The State of Tennessee passed the Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of the theory of evolution in all schools in the state. Later that year, a similar law was passed in Mississippi, and likewise, Arkansas in 1927. In 1968, these "anti-monkey" laws were struck


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-9.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
According to Andrew Dickson White's 1896 book A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, a biblical world view affected negatively the progress of science through time. Dickinson also argues that immediately following the Reformation matters were even worse. The interpretations of Scripture by Luther and Calvin became as sacred to their followers as the Scripture itself. For instance, when Georg Calixtus ventured, in interpreting the Psalms, to question the accepted belief that "the waters above the heavens" were contained in a vast receptacle upheld by a solid vault, he was bitterly denounced as heretical. Today, much of the scholarship in which the conflict thesis was originally based is considered to be inaccurate. For instance, the claim that early Christians rejected scientific findings by the Greco-Romans is false, since the "handmaiden" view of secular studies was seen to shed light on theology. This view was widely adapted throughout the early medieval period and afterwards by theologians (such as Augustine) and ultimately resulted in fostering interest in knowledge about nature through time. Also, the claim that people of the Middle Ages widely believed that the Earth was flat was first propagated in the same period that originated the


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-10.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
==== Reconciliation in Britain in the early 20th century ==== In Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-twentieth-century Britain, historian of biology Peter J. Bowler argues that in contrast to the conflicts between science and religion in the U.S. in the 1920s (most famously the Scopes Trial), during this period Great Britain experienced a concerted effort at reconciliation, championed by intellectually conservative scientists, supported by liberal theologians but opposed by younger scientists and secularists and conservative Christians. These attempts at reconciliation fell apart in the 1930s due to increased social tensions, moves towards neo-orthodox theology and the acceptance of the modern evolutionary synthesis. In the 20th century, several ecumenical organizations promoting a harmony between science and Christianity were founded, most notably the American Scientific Affiliation, The Biologos Foundation, Christians in Science, The Society of Ordained Scientists, and The Veritas Forum. === Confucianism and traditional Chinese religion === The historical process of Confucianism has largely been antipathic towards scientific discovery. However the religio-philosophical system itself is more neutral on the subject than such an analysis might suggest. In his writings On Heaven, Xunzi espoused a proto-scientific world view. However, during the Han Synthesis the more anti-empirical Mencius was favored and


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-11.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam – direct sense perception, Anumāna – logical inference and Śabda or Āptavacana – verbal testimony. Nyaya, the Hindu school of logic, accepts all these 3 means and in addition accepts one more – Upamāna (comparison). The accounts of the emergence of life within the universe vary in description, but classically the deity called Brahma, from a Trimurti of three deities also including Vishnu and Shiva, is described as performing the act of 'creation', or more specifically of 'propagating life within the universe' with the other two deities being responsible for 'preservation' and 'destruction' (of the universe) respectively. In this respect some Hindu schools do not treat the scriptural creation myth literally and often the creation stories themselves do not go into specific detail, thus leaving open the possibility of incorporating at least some theories in support of evolution. Some Hindus find support for, or foreshadowing of evolutionary ideas in scriptures, namely the Vedas. The incarnations of Vishnu (Dashavatara) is almost identical to the scientific explanation of the sequence of biological evolution of man and animals. The sequence of avatars starts from an aquatic organism (Matsya), to an amphibian (Kurma), to a land-animal (Varaha), to a humanoid (Narasimha),


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-12.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
The Ahmadiyya movement emphasize that "there is no contradiction between Islam and science". For example, Ahmadi Muslims universally accept in principle the process of evolution, albeit divinely guided, and actively promote it. Over the course of several decades the movement has issued various publications in support of the scientific concepts behind the process of evolution, and frequently engages in promoting how religious scriptures, such as the Qur'an, supports the concept. For general purposes, the second Khalifa of the community, Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad says: The Holy Quran directs attention towards science, time and again, rather than evoking prejudice against it. The Quran has never advised against studying science, lest the reader should become a non-believer; because it has no such fear or concern. The Holy Quran is not worried that if people will learn the laws of nature its spell will break. The Quran has not prevented people from science, rather it states, "Say, 'Reflect on what is happening in the heavens and the earth.'" (Al Younus) === Jainism === ==== Biology ==== Jainism classifies life into two main divisions those who are static by nature (sthavar) and those who are mobile (trasa). Jain texts describes life in plant long


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-13.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== In 1916, 1,000 leading American scientists were randomly chosen from American Men of Science and 42% believed God existed, 42% disbelieved, and 17% had doubts/did not know; however, when the study was replicated 80 years later using American Men and Women of Science in 1996, the results were very much the same with 39% believing God exists, 45% disbelieved, and 15% had doubts/did not know. In the same 1996 survey, for scientists in the fields of biology, mathematics, and physics/astronomy, belief in a god that is "in intellectual and affective communication with humankind" was most popular among mathematicians (about 45%) and least popular among physicists (about 22%). In terms of belief in God among elite scientists, such as "great scientists" in the "American Men of Science" or members of the National Academies of Science; 53% disbelieved, 21% were agnostic, and 28% believed in 1914; 68% disbelieved, 17% were agnostic, and 15% believed in 1933; and 72% disbelieved, 21% were agnostic, and 7% believed in 1998. However Eugenie Scott argued that there are methodological issues in the study, including ambiguity in the questions such using a personal definition of God instead of broader definitions of God. A


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-14.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
==== Other or multiple countries ==== According to the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture's report on 1,100 scientists in India: 66% are Hindu, 14% did not report a religion, 10% are atheist/no religion, 3% are Muslim, 3% are Christian, 4% are Buddhist, Sikh or other. 39% have a belief in a god, 6% have belief in a god sometimes, 30% do not believe in a god but believe in a higher power, 13% do not know if there is a god, and 12% do not believe in a god. 49% believe in the efficacy of prayer, 90% strongly agree or somewhat agree with approving degrees in Ayurvedic medicine. Furthermore, the term "secularism" is understood to have diverse and simultaneous meanings among Indian scientists: 93% believe it to be tolerance of religions and philosophies, 83% see it as involving separation of church and state, 53% see it as not identifying with religious traditions, 40% see it as absence of religious beliefs, and 20% see it as atheism. Accordingly, 75% of Indian scientists had a "secular" outlook in terms of being tolerant of other religions. According to the Religion Among Scientists in International Context (RASIC) study on 1,581 scientists from


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-15.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:32.242604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== According to a 2015 Pew Research Center Study on the public perceptions on science, people's perceptions on conflict with science have more to do with their perceptions of other people's beliefs than their own personal beliefs. For instance, the majority of people with a religious affiliation (68%) saw no conflict between their own personal religious beliefs and science while the majority of those without a religious affiliation (76%) perceived science and religion to be in conflict. The study noted that people who are not affiliated with any religion, also known as "religiously unaffiliated", often have supernatural beliefs and spiritual practices despite them not being affiliated with any religion and also that "just one-in-six religiously unaffiliated adults (16%) say their own religious beliefs conflict with science." Furthermore, the study observed, "The share of all adults who perceive a conflict between science and their own religious beliefs has declined somewhat in recent years, from 36% in 2009 to 30% in 2014. Among those who are affiliated with a religion, the share of people who say there is a conflict between science and their personal religious beliefs dropped from 41% to 34% during this period." In a 2024 Pew


id: bah-views-on-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Baháʼí views on science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:33.477017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bah-views-on-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Bahá'í Faith teaches that there is a harmony or unity between science and religion, and that true science and true religion can never conflict. This principle is rooted in various statements in the Bahá'í scriptures. Some scholars have argued that ideas in the philosophy of science resonate with the Bahá'í approach. In addition, scholars have noted the Bahá'í view of interpreting religious scriptures symbolically rather than literally as conducive to harmony with scientific findings. The Bahá'í community and leadership have also applied their teachings on science and religion with the goal of the betterment of society, for instance by providing education and technology. == The principle of the harmony of science and religion == The principle of the harmony of science (or reason) and religion (or faith) has been a verbalized principle of the religion since ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's journeys to the West from 1910 to 1913 as an extension of the view of the singularness of reality to be explored through independent investigations by reasoned and spiritual methods. It had been discussed without the specific wording a decade earlier via a compilation Anton Haddad put together with Mírzá Abu'l-Faḍl along with their own perspective - a subject that was subsequently


id: bah-views-on-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Baháʼí views on science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:33.477017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bah-views-on-science-20260505-0
summary:
For the vast majority of the world’s population, the idea that human nature has a spiritual dimension—indeed that its fundamental identity is spiritual—is a truth requiring no demonstration. It is a perception of reality that can be discovered in the earliest records of civilization and that has been cultivated for several millennia by every one of the great religious traditions of humanity’s past. Its enduring achievements in law, the fine arts, and the civilizing of human intercourse are what give substance and meaning to history. In one form or another its promptings are a daily influence in the lives of most people on earth and, as events around the world today dramatically show, the longings it awakens are both inextinguishable and incalculably potent. and further: Future generations … will find almost incomprehensible the circumstance that, in an age paying tribute to an egalitarian philosophy and related democratic principles, development planning should view the masses of humanity as essentially recipients of benefits from aid and training. Despite acknowledgment of participation as a principle, the scope of the decision making left to most of the world’s population is at best secondary, limited to a range of choices formulated by agencies inaccessible to


id: bah-views-on-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Baháʼí views on science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:33.477017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bah-views-on-science-20260505-0
summary:
that ultimate reality is ineffable that humility about what can be understood and applied is itself "the highest degree of human attainment" that religious scripture is metaphorical, not literal. Farzam Arbab, project developer and Bahá'í administrator, also states that religious literalism is a problem. Ian Kluge, independent scholar, observed a relationship between the Bahá'í stance of science and reason and the Bahá'í teaching on independent investigation for the individual where without reason and faith together, quoting `Abdu'l-Bahá, "...the heart finds no rest in it, and real faith is impossible..." and beyond the individual to societal progress which would be "...trapped in traditional worldviews or paradigms, be they religious, cultural, intellectual, or scientific..." and appealed to Aristotle’s four-fold causality which to him "...suggests that science deals with material and efficient causality whereas religion deals with issues related to formal and final causality." Scholars have also drawn parallels between Bahá'í views of science and the views of various philosophers. Karlberg and Smith underscore and summarize the work of Alan Chalmers and Peter Godfrey-Smith who had published university press texts, in relation to the Bahá'í Faith on a number of points. Arbab appealed to Thomas Nagel's thoughts on "sophisticated secularism." Roland Faber elaborated


id: bah-views-on-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Baháʼí views on science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:33.477017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bah-views-on-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Applications == Others have addressed the work of a relationship between science and religion in practical expressions of development. Matthew Weinberg and Arbab, Boicu and Zabihi-Maghaddam, reviewed cases of a social engagement in locally meaningful progress that included a cooperative engagement between religion and science in particular processes. The influence of the Bahá'í teaching on science and religion was visible in the practice of the religion dating back to the 1870s in the face of a perception of a lot of superstition of Iranian society and taking a stance towards education, science, and technology. Scholars Filip Boicu and Siyamak Zabihi-Maghaddam underscored the Bahá'í view on education directly related to this teaching of the religion which led to some early Bahá'í schools in Iran. Boicu and Zabihi-Maghaddam, recalling the Bahá'í experience in Iran on early schooling which had been extended about education of girls, followed developments of three models of education - Anisa, FUNDAEC, and the Core Curriculum - all of which had direct applications of the teaching and only being distinguished on the application between the individual alone, the individual in a society, and the last one being of all people in the whole of society and a global


id: bah-views-on-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Baháʼí views on science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_views_on_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:33.477017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bah-views-on-science-20260505-0
summary:
...from the beginning of man's existence on this planet until he assumed his present shape, form, and condition, a long time must have elapsed, and he must have traversed many stages before reaching his present condition. But from the beginning of his existence man has been a distinct species. His teachings were widely interpreted as a kind of parallel evolution, in which humans had a separate line of descent to some primitive form, separate from animals. But the emphasis on the harmony of science and religion and the success of the modern evolutionary paradigm resulted in at least 19 books and articles from 16 authors over the period of 1990 to 2009 trying to address how Bahá'ís should view evolution in light of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's statements, the majority of which took universal common ancestry as fact and attempted to reconcile with a new interpretation of the statements. Two articles by Keven Brown and Eberhard von Kitzing, jointly published under the title Evolution and Bahá'í Belief (2001), stand out as the only book-length review of the issue by Bahá'ís during the period, and has been well received. The new understanding viewed the apparent meaning of parallel evolution as an unfortunate misunderstanding that


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
In cosmology and philosophy of science, the anthropic principle, also known as the observation selection effect, is the proposition that the range of possible observations that could be made about the universe is limited by the fact that observations are only possible in the type of universe that is capable of developing observers in the first place. Proponents of the anthropic principle argue that it explains why the universe has the age and the fundamental physical constants necessary to accommodate intelligent life. If either had been significantly different, no one would have been around to make observations. Anthropic reasoning has been used to address the question as to why certain measured physical constants take the values that they do, rather than some other arbitrary values, and to explain a perception that the universe appears to be finely tuned for the existence of life. There are many different formulations of the anthropic principle. Philosopher Nick Bostrom counts thirty, but the underlying principles can be divided into "weak" and "strong" forms, depending on the types of cosmological claims they entail. == Definition and basis == The principle was formulated as a response to a series of observations that the laws of nature


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-1.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
== Origin == The phrase "anthropic principle" first appeared in Brandon Carter's contribution to a 1973 Kraków symposium. Carter, a theoretical astrophysicist, articulated the anthropic principle in reaction to the Copernican principle, which states that humans do not occupy a privileged position in the Universe. Carter said: "Although our situation is not necessarily central, it is inevitably privileged to some extent." Specifically, Carter disagreed with using the Copernican principle to justify the Perfect Cosmological Principle, which states that all large regions and times in the universe must be statistically identical. The latter principle underlies the steady-state theory, which had recently been falsified by the 1965 discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation. This discovery was unequivocal evidence that the universe has changed radically over time (for example, via the Big Bang). Carter defined two forms of the anthropic principle, a "weak" one that referred only to anthropic selection of privileged spacetime locations in the universe, and a more controversial "strong" form that addressed the values of the fundamental constants of physics. Since Carter's 1973 paper, the term anthropic principle has been extended to cover a number of ideas that differ in important ways from his. Particular confusion was caused by


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-2.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
The observed values of all physical and cosmological quantities are not equally probable but they take on values restricted by the requirement that there exist sites where carbon-based life can evolve and by the requirements that the universe be old enough for it to have already done so. Unlike Carter, they restrict the principle to "carbon-based life" rather than just "observers". A more important difference is that they apply the WAP to the fundamental physical constants, such as the fine-structure constant, the number of spacetime dimensions, and the cosmological constant—topics that fall under Carter's SAP. According to Barrow and Tipler, the SAP states that "the Universe must have those properties which allow life to develop within it at some stage in its history." While this looks very similar to Carter's SAP, the "must" is an imperative, as shown by the following three possible elaborations of the SAP, each proposed by Barrow and Tipler: "There exists one possible Universe 'designed' with the goal of generating and sustaining 'observers'." This can be seen as simply the classic design argument restated in the garb of contemporary cosmology. It implies that the purpose of the universe is to give rise to intelligent life, with


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-3.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
== Character of anthropic reasoning == Carter chose to focus on a tautological aspect of his ideas, which has resulted in much confusion. In fact, anthropic reasoning interests scientists because of something that is only implicit in the above formal definitions, namely that humans should give serious consideration to there being other universes with different values of the "fundamental parameters"—that is, the dimensionless physical constants and initial conditions for the Big Bang. Carter and others have argued that life would not be possible in most such universes. In other words, the universe humans live in is fine tuned to permit life. Collins & Hawking (1973) characterized Carter's then-unpublished big idea as the postulate that "there is not one universe but a whole infinite ensemble of universes with all possible initial conditions". If this is granted, the anthropic principle provides a plausible explanation for the fine tuning of our universe: the "typical" universe is not fine-tuned, but given enough universes, a small fraction will be capable of supporting intelligent life. Ours must be one of these, and so the observed fine tuning should be no cause for wonder. Although philosophers have discussed related concepts for centuries, in the early 1970s the


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-4.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
Some have argued that fine-tuning is not astonishing at all in itself, but only from our situated point of view, which must be factored out of the question. This argument was given in 2021 by David Chauvet in his writings on natural law, which is linked to the question of God and therefore to cosmology: the universe is only astonishing to those who value life, such as the humans who arose from it. In the same way, the number on a lottery ticket is nothing special, unless it is associated with a sum of money, which is itself valued. Without this valorization of life, fostered by the fact that observers spontaneously value it, the universe's parameters are no more astonishing than a winning lottery ticket would be to an observer for whom money holds no interest. As Chauvet argues: It is arguably not surprising that those who have emerged from and are part of a life-supporting universe value a life-supporting universe over one that does not support life, just as someone who has emerged from and is part of a society where money is important values drawing a winning lottery number rather than drawing a losing number. If we consider


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-5.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
Don Page criticized the entire theory of cosmic inflation as follows. He emphasized that initial conditions that made possible a thermodynamic arrow of time in a universe with a Big Bang origin, must include the assumption that at the initial singularity, the entropy of the universe was low and therefore extremely improbable. Paul Davies rebutted this criticism by invoking an inflationary version of the anthropic principle. While Davies accepted the premise that the initial state of the visible universe (which filled a microscopic amount of space before inflating) had to possess a very low entropy value—due to random quantum fluctuations—to account for the observed thermodynamic arrow of time, he deemed this fact an advantage for the theory. That the tiny patch of space from which our observable universe grew had to be extremely orderly, to allow the post-inflation universe to have an arrow of time, makes it unnecessary to adopt any "ad hoc" hypotheses about the initial entropy state, hypotheses other Big Bang theories require. === String theory === String theory predicts a large number of possible universes, called the "backgrounds" or "vacua". The set of these vacua is often called the "multiverse" or "anthropic landscape" or "string landscape". Leonard


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-6.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
There are two kinds of dimensions: spatial (bidirectional) and temporal (unidirectional). Let the number of spatial dimensions be N and the number of temporal dimensions be T. That N = 3 and T = 1, setting aside the compactified dimensions invoked by string theory and undetectable to date, can be explained by appealing to the physical consequences of letting N differ from 3 and T differ from 1. The argument is often of an anthropic character and possibly the first of its kind, albeit before the complete concept came into vogue. The implicit notion that the dimensionality of the universe is special is first attributed to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who in the Discourse on Metaphysics suggested that the world is "the one which is at the same time the simplest in hypothesis and the richest in phenomena". Immanuel Kant argued that 3-dimensional space was a consequence of the inverse square law of universal gravitation. While Kant's argument is historically important, John D. Barrow said that it "gets the punch-line back to front: it is the three-dimensionality of space that explains why we see inverse-square force laws in Nature, not vice-versa" (Barrow 2002:204). In 1920, Paul Ehrenfest showed that if there


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-7.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Anthropic Cosmological Principle === A thorough extant study of the anthropic principle is the book The Anthropic Cosmological Principle by John D. Barrow, a cosmologist, and Frank J. Tipler, a cosmologist and mathematical physicist. This book sets out in detail the many known anthropic coincidences and constraints, including many found by its authors. While the book is primarily a work of theoretical astrophysics, it also touches on quantum physics, chemistry, and earth science. An entire chapter argues that Homo sapiens is, with high probability, the only intelligent species in the Milky Way. The book begins with an extensive review of many topics in the history of ideas the authors deem relevant to the anthropic principle, because the authors believe that principle has important antecedents in the notions of teleology and intelligent design. They discuss the writings of Fichte, Hegel, Bergson, and Alfred North Whitehead, and the Omega Point cosmology of Teilhard de Chardin. Barrow and Tipler carefully distinguish teleological reasoning from eutaxiological reasoning; the former asserts that order must have a consequent purpose; the latter asserts more modestly that order must have a planned cause. They attribute this important but nearly always overlooked distinction to an obscure 1883


id: anthropic-principle-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle-8.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:34.679097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-principle-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception and controversies == Carter has frequently expressed regret for his own choice of the word "anthropic", because it conveys the misleading impression that the principle involves humans in particular, to the exclusion of non-human intelligence more broadly. Others have criticised the word "principle" as being too grandiose to describe straightforward applications of selection effects. A common criticism of Carter's SAP is that it is an easy deus ex machina that discourages searches for physical explanations. To quote Penrose again: "It tends to be invoked by theorists whenever they do not have a good enough theory to explain the observed facts." Carter's SAP and Barrow and Tipler's WAP have been dismissed as truisms or trivial tautologies—that is, statements true solely by virtue of their logical form and not because a substantive claim is made and supported by observation of reality. As such, they are criticized as an elaborate way of saying, "If things were different, they would be different", which is a valid statement, but does not make a claim of some factual alternative over another. Critics of the Barrow and Tipler SAP claim that it is neither testable nor falsifiable, and thus is not a scientific statement but


id: astronomy-and-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_and_religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronomy and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:35.954431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomy-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
Astronomy has been a favorite and significant component of mythology and religion throughout history. Astronomy and cosmology are parts of the myths of many cultures and religion around the world. Astronomy and religion have long been closely intertwined, particularly during the early history of astronomy. Archaeological evidence of many ancient cultures demonstrates that celestial bodies were the subject of worship during the Stone and Bronze Ages. Amulets and stone walls in northern Europe depict arrangements of stars in constellations that match their historical positions, particularly circumpolar constellations. These date back as much as 30,000–40,000 years. In many ancient religions, the northern circumpolar stars were associated with darkness, death and the underworld of the dead. For the Aztecs, the northern stars were associated with Tezcatlipoca. In Peking, China, was a shrine devoted to the North Star deity. Such worship of the northern stars may have been associated with time keeping, as the positions of the stars could identify the annual seasons. Likewise, as agriculture developed, the need to keep accurate time led to more careful tracking of the positions of the sun, moon and planets; resulting with their deification when they became inextricably linked with the means of survival. In the


id: beyond-belief-science-religion-reason-and-survival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Belief:_Science,_Religion,_Reason_and_Survival-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Belief:_Science,_Religion,_Reason_and_Survival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:37.409805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beyond-belief-science-religion-reason-and-survival-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival was the first gathering of The Science Network's annual Beyond Belief symposia, held from November 5–7, 2006, at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. It was described by The New York Times, as "a free-for-all on science and religion", which seemed at times like "the founding convention for a political party built on a single plank: in a world dangerously charged with ideology, science needs to take on an evangelical role, vying with religion as teller of the greatest story ever told." == Conference goals and topics == The event was conceived to challenge the efforts of the Templeton Foundation to reconcile science with religion, according to its underwriter Robert Zeps, who told an interviewer:I am not anti-Templeton in the sense of funding scientists to say mean things about religion. I simply believe that all study should be free of any particular agenda besides learning... Most take the position that the religious right are just nuts who are loud but frankly undeserving of a response... I believe that Bill Gates and Steve Jobs and pretty much all of the tech age wealth is firmly on the side of science


id: black-cat-analogy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_cat_analogy-0.md
category: reference
title: Black cat analogy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_cat_analogy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:38.750729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-cat-analogy-20260505-0
summary:
The black cat analogy is an analogy accounting for the differences between science and religion, or in some versions also between other disciplines such as philosophy and metaphysics. == Description == The analogy can be described like this: Philosophy is like being in a dark room and looking for a black cat. Metaphysics is like being in a dark room and looking for a black cat that isn't there. Theology is like being in a dark room and looking for a black cat that isn't there, and shouting "I found it!" Science is like being in a dark room looking for a black cat while using a flashlight. Social Science is like being in a dark room suspecting from the beginning that there is a black cat somewhere, and emerging from the room with scratches on the forearm as vindication. It can also be applied to other bodies of knowledge or learning, for example by Ernest Gellner to Marxism. == Explanation == Vincent Barry explains the difference between philosophy and theology as lying in the fact that philosophy is scientific and open-minded, concerned with proof, while theologians "have found their final truth" before they begin the search. == Origin ==


id: book-of-nature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature-0.md
category: reference
title: Book of Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:39.973281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-nature-20260505-0
summary:
The Book of Nature (Lat. liber naturae/liber mundi, Ar. kitāb takwīnī) is a religious and philosophical cosmological metaphor known from Antiquity in various cultures, and prominent in the Latin and Romance literature of the European Middle Ages. The idea of a cosmos formed by letters is already found in the fragments of Heraclitus, where it relates to the Greek concept of logos, in Plato’s Timaeus, and in Lucretius’ De rerum natura. The metaphor of the Book of Nature straddles the divide between religion and science, viewing nature as a readable text open to knowledge and understanding. Early theologians, such as St. Paul, believed the Book of Nature was a source of God's revelation to humankind. He believed that when read alongside sacred scripture, the "book" and the study of God's creations would lead to a knowledge of God himself. This type of revelation is often referred to as a general revelation. The concept corresponds to the early Greek philosophical concept of logos, which implies that humans, as part of a coherent universe, are capable of understanding the design of the natural world through reason. The phrase liber naturae was famously used by Galileo when writing about how "the book of


id: book-of-nature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature-1.md
category: reference
title: Book of Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:39.973281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-nature-20260505-0
summary:
== Christianity and Greek culture == The Greeks constructed a view of the natural world in which all references to mythological origins and causes were removed. Greek philosophers inadvertently left the upper world vacant by abandoning ancient ties to free-acting, conspiring gods of nature. The new philosophy of nature made unseen mythological forces irrelevant. While some philosophers drifted toward atheism, others worked within the new philosophy to reconstitute the concept of a divine being. Consequently, the new outlook toward the natural world inspired the belief in one supreme force compatible with the new philosophy—in other words, monotheistic. However, the path from nature to rediscovering a divine being was uncertain. The belief in causality in nature implied an endless, interconnected chain of causation acting upon the natural world. It is presumed, however, that Greek thought denied the existence of a natural world where causality was infinite, which gave rise to the notion of "first cause", upon which the order of other causes must rely. The first contact between Christianity and Greek culture occurred in Athens in the first century CE. The Christian Scriptures note that within a few years of Christ’s crucifixion, Paul and Silas were debating with Epicureans and Stoics


id: book-of-nature-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature-2.md
category: reference
title: Book of Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:39.973281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-nature-20260505-0
summary:
From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany around 1440, the movable type printing-press had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe and had already produced more than 20 million volumes by the end of the 15th century. At the same time, the number of universities had grown to more than 60. By revealing a "New World" unknown to the ancients, the European encounter with the Americas specifically undermined the authority of Claudius Ptolemy, the 2nd-century scholar whose geographic and astronomical models had long been considered infallible. Tycho Brahe's unprecedentedly accurate astronomical observations in the late 16th century and Galileo Galilei’s early 17th-century telescopic observations combined to turn astronomy into the first modern science. Galileo's observations ended a millenium of pre-modern astronomical orthodoxy. Johannes Kepler used Brahe's data to discover that planets have elliptical, not circular, orbits and develop the laws of planetary motion. Because of Kepler, astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws, a kind of clockwork. Ancient texts and doctrines were disputed, knowledge of the natural world was incomplete, interpretation of Christian Scripture was challenged, and Greek philosophy—which helped draft the Book of Nature—and Christian Scripture


id: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises-0.md
category: reference
title: Bridgewater Treatises
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:41.294844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-0
summary:
The Bridgewater Treatises (1833–36) are a series of eight works that were written by leading scientific figures appointed by the President of the Royal Society in fulfilment of a bequest of £8000, made by Francis Henry Egerton, 8th Earl of Bridgewater, for work on "the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation." Despite being voluminous and costly, the series was very widely read and discussed, becoming one of the most important contributions to Victorian literature on the relationship between religion and science. They made such an impact that Charles Darwin began On the Origin of Species with a quotation from the Bridgewater Treatise of William Whewell. == The Bridgewater Bequest == Before unexpectedly becoming the 8th Earl of Bridgewater in 1823, Francis Henry Egerton spent most of his life as an absentee parson. He published works of classical scholarship and issued others praising the historical achievements of his family, including those of his father's cousin, Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, the "father of British inland navigation." In 1781, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; after 1802 he lived mostly in Paris, where he amassed a collection of manuscripts later donated to the


id: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises-1.md
category: reference
title: Bridgewater Treatises
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:41.294844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medical practitioners: Kidd and Bell, Roget and Prout === The two medical professors John Kidd and Charles Bell wrote shorter and theologically lightweight contributions. Kidd's work, on the "physical constitution of man," was claimed to be "but a moderate thousand pounds worth," Like Bell, whose limited subject was "the hand," Kidd set out to show that modern developments in anatomy did not support either materialism or the transmutation of species, instead confirming belief in the reality of divine design. The two other medical authors, Peter Mark Roget and William Prout, wrote lengthier contributions considering how the emergence of physiological laws enhanced the belief in divine design, rather than diminishing it. In his treatise on "animal and vegetable physiology," Roget argued that the laws of "philosophical anatomy" provided a grander vision of divine action. Prout's rag-bag treatise on "chemistry, meteorology, and the function of digestion" was more ambivalent, arguing that God's action was strikingly evident in the laws of chemical action, but also that many phenomena seemed to subvert the general laws. === The Bible and science: Kirby and Buckland === The final two treatises, those of William Kirby and William Buckland, both addressed the relationship of the Bible to


id: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises-2.md
category: reference
title: Bridgewater Treatises
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:41.294844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Addinall, Peter (1991). Philosophy and Biblical Interpretation: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Alexander, Denis R.; Numbers, Ronald L. (2010). Biology and Ideology from Descartes to Dawkins. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-60842-6. "Authors of the Bridgewater Treatises (act. c. 1833–1836)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/96360. Retrieved 2022-09-12. Brock, W. H. (1966). "The Selection of the Authors of the Bridgewater Treatises". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 21 (2): 162–179. ISSN 0035-9149. Clark, John F. M. (2009). Bugs and the Victorians. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15091-9. Desmond, Adrian. The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in Radical London. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-14453-5. Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1996). Genesis and Geology: A Study in the Relations of Scientific Thought, Natural Theology, and Social Opinion in Great Britain, 1790-1850. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-34481-5. Hilton, Boyd (1988). The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795-1865. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820107-6. Rehbock, Philip F. (1983). The Philosophical Naturalists: Themes in Early Nineteenth-century British Biology. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-09430-0. Robson, John M. "The Fiat and Finger of God: The Bridgewater Treatises". In Helmstadter, Richard


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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This is a list of Christians in science and technology. People in this list should have their Christianity as relevant to their notable activities or public life, and who have publicly identified themselves as Christians or as of a Christian denomination. == Before the 18th century == Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179): also known as Saint Hildegard and Sibyl of the Rhine, was a German Benedictine abbess. She is considered to be the founder of scientific natural history in Germany Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175–1253): Bishop of Lincoln, he was the central character of the English intellectual movement in the first half of the 13th century and is considered the founder of scientific thought in Oxford. He had a great interest in the natural world and wrote texts on the mathematical sciences of optics, astronomy and geometry. He affirmed that experiments should be used in order to verify a theory, testing its consequences and added greatly to the development of the scientific method. Albertus Magnus (c. 1193–1280): patron saint of scientists in Catholicism who may have been the first to isolate arsenic. He wrote that: "Natural science does not consist in ratifying what others have said, but in seeking the causes of


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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== 18th century (1701–1800) == John Ray (1627–1705): English botanist who wrote The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691) and was among the first to attempt a biological definition for the concept of species. The John Ray Initiative of Environment and Christianity is also named for him. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723): Dutch Reformed Calvinist who is remembered as the "father of microbiology". Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716): He was a philosopher who developed the philosophical theory of the Pre-established harmony; he is also most noted for his optimism, e.g., his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created. He also made major contributions to mathematics, physics, and technology. He created the Stepped Reckoner and his Protogaea concerns geology and natural history. He was a Lutheran who worked with convert to Catholicism John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg in hopes of a reunification between Catholicism and Lutheranism. Pierre Varignon (1654–1722): French mathematician and Catholic priest known for his contributions to statics and mechanics. Guido Grandi (1671–1742): Italian monk, priest, philosopher, theologian, mathematician, and engineer. Stephen Hales (1677–1761): Copley Medal winning scientist significant to the study of plant physiology. As


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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Joseph Priestley (1733–1804): Nontrinitarian clergyman who wrote the controversial work History of the Corruptions of Christianity. He is credited with discovering oxygen. Luigi Galvani (1737–1798): Italian physician, physicist, biologist and philosopher who studied animal electricity. Jean-Louis-Marc Alibert said of Galvani that he never ended his lessons “without exhorting his hearers and leading them back to the idea of that eternal Providence, which develops, conserves, and circulates life among so many diverse beings.” John Robison (1739–1805): Scottish physicist and mathematician, professor of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh. He was the first general secretary to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Robison invented the siren and also worked with James Watt on an early steam car. He was a devout Christian, and vehemently opposed radical secular currents in the Enlightenment as a threat to the moral fabric of society. John Playfair (1748–1819): Church of Scotland minister, scientist, mathematician, professor of natural philosophy. He was a co-founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and served as General Secretary to the society. Alessandro Volta (1745–1827): Italian physicist who invented the first electric battery. The unit Volt was named after him. Samuel Vince (1749–1821): Cambridge astronomer and clergyman. He wrote Observations on the Theory


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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John Bachman (1790–1874): wrote numerous scientific articles and named several species of animals. He also was a founder of the Lutheran Theological Southern Seminary and wrote works on Lutheranism. Robert Stirling (1790–1878): Scottish clergyman and engineer, minister in the Church of Scotland, best known for inventing the Stirling engine. Temple Chevallier (1794–1873): priest and astronomer who did Of the proofs of the divine power and wisdom derived from the study of astronomy. He also founded the Durham University Observatory, hence the Durham Shield is pictured. John Blissard (1803–1875): Church of England vicar, educator, and mathematician who invented what came to be known as the umbral calculus. Robert Main (1808–1878): Anglican priest who won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1858. Robert Main also preached at the British Association of Bristol. James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879): Although Clerk as a boy was taken to Presbyterian services by his father and to Anglican services by his aunt, while still a young student at Cambridge he underwent an Evangelical conversion that he described as having given him a new perception of the Love of God. Maxwell's evangelicalism "committed him to an anti-positivist position." He is known for his contributions in establishing


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John Hall Gladstone (1827–1902): served as president of the Physical Society between 1874 and 1876 and during 1877–1879 was president of the Chemical Society. He also belonged to the Christian Evidence Society. George Stokes (1819–1903): minister's son, he wrote a book on Natural Theology. He was also one of the Presidents of the Royal Society and made contributions to Fluid dynamics. Henry Baker Tristram (1822–1906): founding member of the British Ornithologists' Union. His publications included The Natural History of the Bible (1867) and The Fauna and Flora of Palestine (1884). Enoch Fitch Burr (1818–1907): astronomer and Congregational Church pastor who lectured extensively on the relationship between science and religion. He also wrote Ecce Coelum: or Parish Astronomy in 1867. He once stated that "an undevout astronomer is mad" and held a strong belief in extraterrestrial life. Lord Kelvin (1824–1907): At the University of Glasgow he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second laws of thermodynamics. He gave a famous address to the Christian Evidence Society. In science he won the Copley Medal and the Royal Medal. William Dallinger (1839–1909): British minister in the Wesleyan Methodist Church and an accomplished scientist who


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Robert Millikan (1868–1953): second son of Reverend Silas Franklin Millikan, he wrote about the reconciliation of science and religion in books like Evolution in Science and Religion. He won the 1923 Nobel Prize in Physics. Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943): Austrian biologist, physician, and immunologist. In 1930, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Landsteiner converted from Judaism to Roman Catholicism in 1890. Dmitri Egorov (1869–1931): Russian and Soviet mathematician known for his contributions to differential geometry and mathematical analysis. Defended the Church after the Russian Revolution, and was persecuted by the Soviet government for his Christian beliefs with arrest and imprisonment. Charles Stine (1882–1954): son of a minister who was VP of DuPont. In religion he wrote A Chemist and His Bible and as a chemist he won the Perkin Medal. E. T. Whittaker (1873–1956): converted to Catholicism in 1930 and member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. His 1946 Donnellan Lecture was entitled on Space and Spirit. Theories of the Universe and the Arguments for the Existence of God. He also received the Copley Medal and had written on Mathematical physics before conversion. Walter C. Alvarez (1884–1978): was an American medical doctor and a Congregationalist deacon. He authored


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Ernest Walton (1903–1995): Irish physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1951 for his work with John Cockcroft with "atom-smashing" experiments done at Cambridge University in the early 1930s, and so became the first person in history to artificially split the atom, thus ushering the nuclear age. He spoke on science and faith topics. Nevill Francis Mott (1905–1996): Anglican, was a Nobel Prize-winning physicist known for explaining the effect of light on a photographic emulsion. He was baptized at 80 and edited Can Scientists Believe?. Mary Celine Fasenmyer (1906–1996): member of the Sisters of Mercy known for Sister Celine's polynomials. Her work was also important to WZ Theory. Antoinette Rodez Schiesler (1934–1996): American chemist and Director of Research at Villanova University. A former nun, she was ordained as an Episcopal deacon and served as associate to the dean at the Cathedral of St. John in Wilmington, Delaware, until her death. She also served on the executive board of the Episcopal Women's Caucus and on the executive council of the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware. John Eccles (1903–1997): Australian neuropsychologist who won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his work on synapse. Arthur Leonard Schawlow (1921–1999): American


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== 21st century (2001–2100) == Sir Robert Boyd (1922–2004): pioneer in British space science who was vice president of the Royal Astronomical Society. He lectured on faith being a founder of the "Research Scientists' Christian Fellowship" and an important member of its predecessor Christians in Science. Richard Smalley (1943–2005): Nobel laureate in Chemistry known for buckyballs. In his last years he renewed an interest in Christianity and supported Old Earth Creationism Mariano Artigas (1938–2006): had doctorates in both physics and philosophy. He belonged to the European Association for the Study of Science and Theology and also received a grant from the Templeton Foundation for his work in the area of science and religion. J. Laurence Kulp (1921–2006): Plymouth Brethren member who led major studies on the effects of nuclear fallout and acid rain. He was a prominent advocate in American Scientific Affiliation circles in favor of an Old Earth and against flood geology. Arthur Peacocke (1924–2006): Anglican priest and biochemist, his ideas may have influenced Anglican and Lutheran views of evolution. Winner of the 2001 Templeton Prize John Billings (1918–2007): Australian physician who developed the Billings ovulation method of Natural family planning. In 1969, Billings was made a Knight Commander


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Hewish also wrote in his introduction to John Polkinghorne's 2009 Questions of Truth, "The ghostly presence of virtual particles defies rational common sense and is non-intuitive for those unacquainted with physics. Religious belief in God, and Christian belief ... may seem strange to common-sense thinking. But when the most elementary physical things behave in this way, we should be prepared to accept that the deepest aspects of our existence go beyond our common-sense understanding." Paul Farmer (1959–2022): American medical anthropologist, physician and proponent of liberation theology. He was co-founder of Partners In Health, the Kolokotrones University Professor at Harvard University and Chief of the Division of Global Health Equity at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. Lindon Eaves (1944–2022): British behavioral geneticist who published on topics as diverse as the heritability of religion and psychopathology. In 1996, he and Kenneth Kendler founded the Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics at Virginia Commonwealth University, where he was professor emeritus and engaged in research and training. Andrew Wyllie (1944–2022): Scottish pathologist who discovered the significance of natural cell death, later naming the process apoptosis. Prior to retirement, he was head of the Department of Pathology at the University of Cambridge.


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=== Biological and biomedical sciences === Nii Addy: American neuroscientist who is an associate professor of Psychiatry and of Cellular and Molecular Physiology at the Yale School of Medicine. His research considers the neurobiological basis of substance abuse, depression and anxiety. He has worked on various initiatives to mitigate tobacco use and addiction. Denis Alexander (born 1945): Emeritus Director of the Faraday Institute at the University of Cambridge and author of Rebuilding the Matrix – Science and Faith in the 21st Century. He also supervised a research group in cancer and immunology at the Babraham Institute. Werner Arber (born 1929): Swiss microbiologist and geneticist. Along with American researchers Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans, he shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of restriction endonucleases. In 2011, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Arber as president of the Pontifical Academy—the first Protestant to hold that position. Robert T. Bakker (born 1945): paleontologist who was a leading figure in the "dinosaur renaissance" and known for the theory some dinosaurs were warm-blooded. He is also a Pentecostal preacher who advocates theistic evolution and has written on religion. Dan Blazer (born 1944): American psychiatrist and medical researcher who is Professor of


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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He is also known for the research he has done related to the Isthmus of Panama and its historical significance on the evolution of South American species. Raina MacIntyre (born 1964): Sri Lankan epidemiologist and Professor of Global Biosecurity and NHMRC Principal Research Fellow at the University of New South Wales, where she leads a research program on the prevention and control of infectious diseases. She is an expert media advisor and commentator on Australia's response to COVID-19. Noella Marcellino (born 1951): American Benedictine nun with a doctorate in microbiology. Her field of interests include fungi and the effects of decay and putrefaction. Joel W. Martin (born 1955): American marine biologist and invertebrate zoologist who is currently Chief of the Division of Invertebrate Studies and Curator of Crustacea at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (NHMLAC). His main area of research is the morphology and systematics of marine decapod crustaceans. Paul R. McHugh (born 1931): American psychiatrist whose research has focused on the neuroscientific foundations of motivated behaviors, psychiatric genetics, epidemiology, and neuropsychiatry. He is Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and former psychiatrist-in-chief at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Kenneth


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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=== Chemistry === Peter Agre (born 1949): American physician, Bloomberg Distinguished Professor, and molecular biologist at Johns Hopkins University who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (which he shared with Roderick MacKinnon) for his discovery of aquaporins. Agre is a Lutheran. Peter Budd (born 1957): British chemist and a professor in the Department of Chemistry at The University of Manchester. His research in general is based on polymer chemistry, energy and industrial separation processes, specifically on the areas of Polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs), energy storage, polyelectrolytes and separation membranes. Andrew B. Bocarsly (born 1954): American chemist known for his research in electrochemistry, photochemistry, solids state chemistry, and fuel cells. He is a professor of chemistry at Princeton University. Gerhard Ertl (born 1936): 2007 Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry. He has said in an interview that "I believe in God. (...) I am a Christian and I try to live as a Christian (...) I read the Bible very often and I try to understand it." Brian Kobilka (born 1955): American Nobel Prize winner of Chemistry in 2012, and is professor in the departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology at Stanford University School of Medicine. Kobilka attends the


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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=== Physics and astronomy === Edgar Andrews (born 1932): British physicist, founder and former head of the Department of Materials and emeritus Professor of Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London; author of "Who made God? Searching for a theory of everything" and "What is Man? Adam, alien or ape?" Preacher and author of the podcast and former president of the Biblical Creation Society, UK. Stephen Barr (born 1953): physicist who worked at Brookhaven National Laboratory and contributed papers to Physical Review as well as Physics Today. He also is a Catholic who writes for First Things and wrote Modern Physics and Ancient Faith. He teaches at the University of Delaware. Jocelyn Bell Burnell (born 1943): astrophysicist from Northern Ireland who discovered the first radio pulsars in 1967. She is currently visiting professor of astrophysics at the University of Oxford. Arnold O. Benz (born 1945): Swiss astrophysicist, currently professor emeritus at ETH Zurich. He is known for his research in plasma astrophysics, in particular heliophysics, and received honorary doctoral degrees from the University of Zurich and The University of the South for his contributions to the dialog with theology. Katherine Blundell: British astrophysicist who is a professor of astrophysics at


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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He is the former Goldsmiths' Professor of Materials Science and a current director of research at the University of Cambridge, professor of experimental physics at the Royal Institution in London and a Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge. Humphreys also "studies the Bible when not pursuing his day-job as a materials scientist." Ian Hutchinson (scientist): physicist and nuclear engineer. He is currently Professor of Nuclear Science and Engineering at the Plasma Science and Fusion Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Christopher Isham (born 1944): theoretical physicist who developed HPO formalism. He teaches at Imperial College London. In addition to being a physicist, he is a philosopher and theologian. Stephen R. Kane (born 1973): Australian astrophysicist who specializes in exoplanetary science. He is a professor of Astronomy and Planetary Astrophysics at the University of California, Riverside and a leading expert on the topic of planetary habitability and the habitable zone of planetary systems. Ard Louis: professor in theoretical physics at the University of Oxford. Prior to his post at Oxford he taught theoretical chemistry at the University of Cambridge where he was also director of studies in Natural Sciences at Hughes Hall. He has written for The BioLogos Forum. Jonathan Lunine (born 1959):


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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An aerial of the center is shown. In addition she is a co-discoverer of 114P/Wiseman-Skiff. In religion is a Fellow of the American Scientific Affiliation and on June 16, 2010, became the new director for the American Association for the Advancement of Science's Dialogue on Science, Ethics, and Religion. Antonino Zichichi (born 1929): Italian nuclear physicist and former president of the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare. He has worked with the Vatican on relations between the Church and Science.


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=== Earth sciences === Katey Walter Anthony (born 1976): American aquatic ecologist and biogeochemist researching carbon and nutrient cycling between terrestrial and aquatic systems, and the cryosphere and atmosphere. She is a professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Lorence G. Collins (born 1931): American petrologist, best known for his extensive research on metasomatism. He is known for his opposition to creationism and has written several articles presenting his Christian philosophy. Katharine Hayhoe (born 1972): atmospheric scientist and professor of political science at Texas Tech University, where she is director of the Climate Science Center. Mike Hulme (born 1960): professor of human geography in the department of geography at the University of Cambridge. He was formerly professor of Climate and Culture at King's College London (2013–2017) and is the author of Why We Disagree About Climate Change. He has said of his Christian faith, "I believe because I have not discovered a better explanation of beauty, truth and love than that they emerge in a world created – willed into being – by a God who personifies beauty, truth and love." John Suppe (born 1942): professor of geology at National Taiwan University, Geosciences Emeritus at Princeton University. He has written


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title: List of Christians in science and technology
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=== Others === Justin L. Barrett (born 1971): American experimental psychologist and director of the Thrive Center for Human Development and Professor of Psychology at Fuller Graduate School of Psychology after being a researcher at the University of Oxford, Barrett is a cognitive scientist specializing in the cognitive science of religion. He has published "Cognitive Science, Religion, and Theology" (Templeton Press, 2011). Barrett has been described by the New York Times as "an observant Christian who believes in 'an all-knowing, all-powerful, perfectly good God who brought the universe into being,' as he wrote in an e-mail message. 'I believe that the purpose for people is to love God and love each other.'" David A. Booth (born 1938): British applied psychologist whose research and teaching centre on the processes in the mind that situate actions and reactions by people, members of other species, and socially intelligent engineered systems. He is an honorary professor in the School of Psychology at the University of Sussex. John Lennox (born 1943): Northern Irish mathematician (Emeritus Professor of Mathematics at the University of Oxford), bioethicist, and Christian apologist. He has written many books on religion, ethics, the relationship between science and God. Robert A. Emmons (born


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title: Clergy Letter Project
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parent: clergy-letter-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Clergy Letter Project is a project that maintains statements in support of the teaching of evolution and collects signatures in support of letters from American Christian, Jewish, Unitarian Universalist, Buddhist, and Humanist clergy. The letters make reference to points raised by intelligent design proponents. There are five separate letters: A Christian Clergy Letter, a Rabbi Letter, a Unitarian Universalist Clergy Letter, a Buddhist Clergy Letter, and a Humanist Clergy Letter. As of October, 2022, there were 15,679 signatures from Christian clergy, 839 signatures from Jewish rabbis, 688 signatures from Unitarian Universalist clergy, 75 signatures from Buddhist clergy, and 58 signatures from Humanist clergy. This effort was initiated in 2004 by the biologist Michael Zimmerman, past vice president for academic affairs and provost at Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington. The letter was written by John McFadden, pastor of the First Congregational United Church of Christ in Appleton, Wisconsin. The project also encourages congregations to participate in Religion and Science Weekend by sponsoring events in which clergy and congregations are encouraged to learn about and discuss the positive intersections of religion and science. The weekend chosen is the closest Sunday to Charles Darwin's birthday, February 12. Evolution Sunday events first


id: clergy-letter-project-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy_Letter_Project-1.md
category: reference
title: Clergy Letter Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy_Letter_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:45.182222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clergy-letter-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Clergy Letter - from Unitarian Universalist Clergy – An Open Letter Concerning Religion and Science As Unitarian Universalists, we draw from many sources, including "Wisdom from the world's religions which inspires us in our ethical and spiritual life," and "Humanist teachings which counsel us to heed the guidance of reason and the results of science, and warn us against idolatries of the mind and spirit." While most Unitarian Universalists believe that many sacred scriptures convey timeless truths about humans and our relationship to the sacred, we stand in solidarity with our Christian and Jewish brothers and sisters who do not read the Bible literally, as they would a science textbook. We believe that religious truth is of a different order from scientific truth. Its purpose is not to convey scientific information but to transform hearts. Fundamentalists of various traditions, who perceive the science of evolution to be in conflict with their personal religious beliefs, are seeking to influence public school boards to authorize the teaching of creationism. We see this as a breach in the separation of church and state. Those who believe in a literal interpretation of the Biblical account of creation are free to teach their perspective


id: clergy-letter-project-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy_Letter_Project-2.md
category: reference
title: Clergy Letter Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy_Letter_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:45.182222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clergy-letter-project-20260505-0
summary:
We believe that evolution is a foundational scientific truth, one that has stood up to rigorous scrutiny and upon which much of human knowledge and achievement rests. Omitting evolution from science teaching, or treating it dismissively as “only a theory,” miscommunicates its centrality in modern biology and threatens students’ understanding of the very nature of science. Along with our religious allies of other traditions, we ask that science remain science and that religion remain religion. We urge public education authorities to preserve the integrity of the science curriculum by affirming the teaching of evolutionary theory as a core component of human knowledge. == History == The project was organized in 2004 by Michael Zimmerman, then a biology professor and dean of the College of Science and Letters at University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh. He was motivated to create a petition by the actions of the school board in Grantsburg, Wisconsin, which had passed some anti-evolution policies in the summer of 2004. Zimmerman was a veteran of similar disputes in Ohio, when he was a professor at Oberlin College. After Zimmerman watched Christian fundamentalist clergy from Dover, Pennsylvania, on the television program Nightline insisting that decisions about teaching evolution in schools was equivalent


id: clergy-letter-project-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy_Letter_Project-3.md
category: reference
title: Clergy Letter Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy_Letter_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:45.182222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clergy-letter-project-20260505-0
summary:
== Reaction from creationists == The creationist Discovery Institute, which arranged its own anti-evolution petition called A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism in 2001 criticized the project. Discovery Institute communications director Rob Crowther asserted that the disputes about evolution was "purely a scientific debate" and that clergy petitions are irrelevant, stating that clergy "don't make any difference," since "We don't think there is anything religious at all to the theory of intelligent design." Zimmerman described this argument as part of the problem, as intelligent design tried to undermine science by changing it from a study of the natural world to include supernatural explanations, and it was important for clergy to defend science against these attacks. Ken Ham and Mark Looy of the creationist organization Answers in Genesis have repeatedly condemned Evolution Sunday/Evolution Weekend activities as a "Darwin praise service" and expressing dismay that "over 10,200 clergy had signed this awful letter." Ham and Looy also criticized Zimmerman's fundraising efforts through the Christian Alliance for Progress. Answers in Genesis published a list of "modern scientists who have accepted the biblical account of creation." The majority are not biologists. The group has also organized "Creation Sunday" in response to Evolution Weekend, and has


id: cognitive-science-of-new-religious-movements-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_new_religious_movements-0.md
category: reference
title: Cognitive science of new religious movements
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_new_religious_movements
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:46.474634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cognitive-science-of-new-religious-movements-20260505-0
summary:
Cognitive science of new religious movements is the study of new religious movements (NRMs) from the perspective of cognitive science. The field employs methods and theories from a variety of disciplines, including cognitive science of religion, sociology of religion, scientific study of religion, anthropology, and artificial life. Scholars in the field seek to explain the origin and evolution of new religious movements in terms of ordinary universal cognitive processes. == History == The field traces its roots to the beginnings of the field of cognitive science of religion in the 1990s, especially in Harvey Whitehouse's work on 'cargo cults' in Papua New Guinea and cognitivist work by sociologists of religion William Sims Bainbridge and Rodney Stark. In a 2005 article titled "Towards a Cognitive Science of New Religious Movements", Afzal Upal conceptualized the field and proposed agent-based social simulation as a good complement for Whitehouse's anthropological approach to investigate the origin of new religious movements. Upal developed an information entrepreneurship model-based social simulation to study the origin and evolution of new religious movements. In 2008, Kimmo Ketola used an anthropological case study of Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupāda (1896–1977), the founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, the Hare Krishna


id: cognitive-science-of-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Cognitive science of religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:47.768163+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cognitive-science-of-religion-20260505-0
summary:
Cognitive science of religion is the study of religious thought, theory, and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive sciences. Scholars in this field seek to explain how human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious thoughts, practices, and schemas by means of ordinary cognitive capacities. == History == Although religion has been the subject of serious scientific study since at least the late nineteenth century, the study of religion as a cognitive phenomenon is relatively recent. While it often relies upon earlier research within anthropology of religion and sociology of religion, cognitive science of religion considers the results of that work within the context of evolutionary and cognitive theories. As such, cognitive science of religion was only made possible by the cognitive revolution of the 1950s and the development, starting in the 1970s, of sociobiology and other approaches explaining human behaviour in evolutionary terms, especially evolutionary psychology. While Dan Sperber foreshadowed cognitive science of religion in his 1975 book Rethinking Symbolism, the earliest research to fall within the scope of the discipline was published during the 1980s. Stewart E. Guthrie's "A cognitive theory of religion" was significant for examining anthropomorphism in religion. This work ultimately led to the development of


id: cognitive-science-of-religion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion-1.md
category: reference
title: Cognitive science of religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:47.768163+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cognitive-science-of-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pro-social adaptation === According to the prosocial adaptation account of religion, religious beliefs and practices should be understood as having the function of eliciting adaptive prosocial behaviour and avoiding the free rider problem. Within the cognitive science of religion this approach is primarily pursued by Richard Sosis. David Sloan Wilson is another major proponent of this approach and interprets religion as a group-level adaptation, but his work is generally seen as falling outside the cognitive science of religion. === Costly signaling === Practices that, due to their inherent cost, can be relied upon to provide an honest signal regarding the intentions of the agent. Richard Sosis has suggested that religious practices can be explained as costly signals of the willingness to cooperate. A similar line of argument has been pursued by Lyle Steadman and Craig Palmer. Alternatively, D. Jason Slone has argued that religiosity may be a costly signal used as a mating strategy insofar as religiosity serves as a proxy for "family values". === Dual inheritance === In the context of cognitive science of religion, dual inheritance theory can be understood as attempting to combine the cognitive byproduct and prosocial adaptation accounts using the theoretical approach developed by


id: conflict-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Conflict thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:49.089600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
The conflict thesis is a historiographical approach in the history of science that originated in the 19th century with John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White. It maintains that there is an intrinsic intellectual conflict between religion and science, and that it inevitably leads to hostility. The consensus among historians of science is that the thesis has long been discredited, which explains the rejection of the thesis by contemporary scholars. Into the 21st century, historians of science widely accept a complexity thesis. The lack of engagement with the advancements in the history of science perpetuates belief in the thesis. Global studies on scientists show that most scientists do not see religion and science in conflict and studies on the views of the general public indicate that the conflict perspective is not prevalent either. == Historical conflict thesis == Before the 19th century, no one had pitted "science" against "religion" or vice versa in writing. The relationship between religion and science became an actual formal topic of discourse in the 19th century. More specifically, it was around the mid-19th century that discussion of "science and religion" first emerged because before this time, the term science still included moral and metaphysical dimensions,


id: conflict-thesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Conflict thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:49.089600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
[T]he story of the supposed opposition of the Church and the Popes and the ecclesiastical authorities to science in any of its branches, is founded entirely on mistaken notions. Most of it is quite imaginary. Much of it is due to the exaggeration of the significance of the Galileo incident. Only those who know nothing about the history of medicine and of science continue to harbor it. That Dr. White's book, contradicted as it is so directly by all serious histories of medicine and of science, should have been read by so many thousands in this country, and should have been taken seriously by educated men, physicians, teachers, and even professors of science who want to know the history of their own sciences, only shows how easily even supposedly educated men may be led to follow their prejudices rather than their mental faculties, and emphasizes the fact that the tradition that there is no good that can possibly come out of the Nazareth of the times before the reformation, still dominates the intellects of many educated people who think that they are far from prejudice and have minds perfectly open to conviction. In God and Nature (1986), David Lindberg and


id: conflict-thesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Conflict thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:49.089600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Academic === Historians of science today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes (those involving Galileo and Darwin) in favor of a "complexity" model, because religious figures took positions on both sides of each dispute and there was no overall aim by any party involved in discrediting religion. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould said: "White's and Draper's accounts of the actual interaction between science and religion in Western history do not differ greatly. Both tell a tale of bright progress continually sparked by science. And both develop and use the same myths to support their narrative, the flat-earth legend prominently among them". In a summary of the historiography of the conflict thesis, Colin A. Russell, the former President of Christians in Science, said that "Draper takes such liberty with history, perpetuating legends as fact that he is rightly avoided today in serious historical study. The same is nearly as true of White, though his prominent apparatus of prolific footnotes may create a misleading impression of meticulous scholarship". In Science & Religion, Gary Ferngren proposes a complex relationship between religion and science: While some historians had always regarded the Draper-White thesis as oversimplifying


id: conflict-thesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Conflict thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:49.089600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
In 1559, Pope Paul IV promulgated the Pauline Index which is also known as Index Librorum Prohibitorum. While it has been described by some as "the turning-point for the freedom of enquiry in the Catholic world", the effects of the Index were actually minimal and it was largely ignored. After less than a year, it was replaced by the Tridentine Index which relaxed aspects of the Pauline Index that had been criticized and had prevented its acceptance. It is inaccurate to describe the Index as being an enduring and definitive statement of Catholic censorship. It contained a list of "heretical" or "amoral" publications that were forbidden for Catholics to read or print and included not just heretics but anti-clerical authors and Protestant Christians. === Scientists and public perceptions === The conflict thesis is still held to be true in whole or in part by some scientists, including the theoretical physicist and cosmologist Stephen Hawking, who said "There is a fundamental difference between religion, which is based on authority, [and] science, which is based on observation and reason. Science will win because it works." Others, such as Steven Weinberg, grant that it is possible for science and religion to be compatible


id: conflict-thesis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis-4.md
category: reference
title: Conflict thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:49.089600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
Antireligion – Opposition to religion Antitheism – Opposition to theism, and usually to religion Boundary object – Sociology of information science Boundary-work – Study of boundaries between disciplines Continuity thesis – Hypothesis regarding European intellectual history Faith and rationality – Two approaches that exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility Fideism – Epistemological theory that faith is independent of reason Flat Earth – Archaic conception of Earth's shape Non-overlapping magisteria – Concept created by Stephen Jay Gould Relationship between religion and science Religious intolerance – Intolerance of another's religious beliefs or practices Trading zones (metaphor) – Metaphor applied to collaborations in science == References == == Further reading == Barbour, Ian G. When Science Meets Religion. HarperSanFrancisco, 2000. Brooke, John H., Margaret Osler, and Jitse M. van der Meer, (editors). "Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions," Osiris, 2nd ser., vol. 16 (2001), ISBN 0-226-07565-6 Mahner, M., Bunge, M. Is religious education compatible with science education?. Sci Educ 5, 101–123 (1996) Ferngren, Gary (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0 Jones, Richard H., For the Glory of God: The Role of Christianity in the Rise and Development of Modern Science. Lanham, Maryland:


id: continuity-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Continuity thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:50.355903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continuity-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
In the history of ideas, the continuity thesis is the hypothesis that there was no radical discontinuity between the intellectual development of the Middle Ages and the developments in the Renaissance and early modern period. Thus the idea of an intellectual or scientific revolution following the Renaissance is, according to the continuity thesis, a myth. Some continuity theorists point to earlier intellectual revolutions occurring in the Middle Ages, usually referring to the European Renaissance of the 12th century as a sign of continuity. The continuity thesis has been seen by Paul Freedman and Gabrielle M. Spiegel as characteristic of Medieval studies in North America in the twentieth century. Despite the many points that have been brought up by proponents of the continuity thesis, however, a majority of scholars still support the traditional view of the Scientific Revolution occurring in the 16th and 17th centuries. == Duhem == The idea of a continuity, rather than contrast between medieval and modern thought, begins with Pierre Duhem, the French physicist and philosopher of science. It is set out in his ten-volume work on the history of science, Le système du monde: histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic. Unlike many former historians


id: continuity-thesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Continuity thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:50.355903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continuity-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
There was a sudden dawning of a new outlook on the world after 1000 years of darkness. Ancient learning was rediscovered. New ideas about intellectual inquiry and freedom replaced reliance on authority. Scientific investigation replaced the sterile disputes of the schools. He claims that the Renaissance was in fact a period when thought declined significantly and brought to an end a period of advance in the Late Middle Ages and that the twelfth century was the "real, true, and unqualified renaissance". For example, the rediscovery of ancient knowledge, which the later Italian humanists claimed for themselves, was actually accomplished in the 12th century. Franklin cites many examples of scientific advances in the medieval period that predate or anticipate later 'discoveries'. For example, the first advances in geometrical optics and mechanics were in the 12th century. The first steps in understanding motion, and continuous variation in general, occurred in the 14th century with the work of the scientists of the Merton School, at Oxford in the 1330s and 1340s. (Franklin notes that there is no phrase in ancient Greek or Latin equivalent to "kilometres per hour"). Nicole Oresme, who wrote on theology and money, devoted much of his effort to science


id: continuity-thesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Continuity thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:50.355903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continuity-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Hatfield == Gary Hatfield, in his "Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution of Science?", argues that while the "Scientific Revolution" of the 17th century did have several individual "revolutions", he does not consider the period to be a "scientific" revolution. Some of his reasons include science still being tied to metaphysics at the time, experimental physics not being separated from natural philosophy until the end of the 18th century, and comparable individual "revolutions" in different sciences continued occurring before and after the 17th century, such as the optical revolution of Faraday and Maxwell. == Bala == Another contrary view has been recently proposed by Arun Bala in his dialogical history of the birth of modern science. Bala proposes that the changes involved in the Scientific Revolution — the mathematical realist turn, the mechanical philosophy, the atomism, the central role assigned to the Sun in Copernican heliocentrism — have to be seen as rooted in multicultural influences on Europe. He sees specific influences in Alhazen's physical optical theory, Chinese mechanical technologies leading to the perception of the world as a machine, the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, which carried implicitly a new mode of mathematical atomic thinking, and the heliocentrism rooted


id: conversion-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Conversion therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:51.595146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversion-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Conversion therapy is the pseudoscientific practice of attempting to change an individual's sexual orientation, romantic orientation, gender identity, or gender expression to align with heterosexual and cisgender norms. Conversion therapy is ineffective at changing a person's sexual orientation or gender identity and frequently causes significant long-term psychological harm. The position of evidence-based medicine and clinical guidance is that sexualities like homosexuality and bisexuality as well as gender variance are natural and healthy aspects of human sexuality and gender identity. When performed, conversion therapy may constitute fraud; when performed on minors it is considered to be a form of child abuse. It has been described by experts as torture; cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment; and contrary to human rights. Laws on conversion therapy vary, ranging from constitutional protection to a criminal offense. Conversion therapy often consists of methods that involve, but are not limited to: talk therapy, aversion therapy, brain surgery, chemical castration, surgical castration, hypnosis, psychoanalysis, corrective rape, and various religious practices, including prayer and exorcism. == Terminology == Medical professionals and activists consider "conversion therapy" a misnomer, as it does not constitute a legitimate form of therapy. Alternative terms include "sexual orientation change efforts" (SOCE) and "gender identity change


id: conversion-therapy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy-1.md
category: reference
title: Conversion therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:51.595146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversion-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE) === The term homosexual was coined by German-speaking Hungarian writer Karl Maria Kertbeny and was in circulation by the 1880s. Into the middle of the twentieth century, competing views of homosexuality were advanced by psychoanalysis versus academic sexology. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, viewed homosexuality as a form of arrested development. Later psychoanalysts followed Sandor Rado, who argued that homosexuality was a "phobic avoidance of heterosexuality caused by inadequate early parenting". This line of thinking was popular in psychiatric models of homosexuality based on the prison population or homosexuals seeking treatment. In contrast, sexology researchers such as Alfred Kinsey argued that homosexuality was a normal variation in human development. In 1970, gay activists confronted the American Psychiatric Association, persuading the association to reconsider whether homosexuality should be listed as a disorder. The APA delisted homosexuality in 1973, which contributed to shifts in public opinion on homosexuality. Despite their lack of scientific backing, some socially or religiously conservative activists continued to argue that if one person's sexuality could be changed, homosexuality was not a fixed class such as race. Borrowing from discredited psychoanalytic ideas about the cause of homosexuality, some of these individuals offered


id: conversion-therapy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy-2.md
category: reference
title: Conversion therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:51.595146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversion-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Aversion therapy used on homosexuals and bisexuals included electric shock and nausea-inducing drugs during presentation of same-sex erotic images. Cessation of the aversive stimuli was typically accompanied by the presentation of opposite-sex erotic images, with the objective of strengthening heterosexual feelings. Another method used is the covert sensitization method, which involves instructing recipients to imagine vomiting or receiving electric shocks. Proponents often write that only single-case studies have been conducted to support their methods and that their results cannot be generalized. For example, Haldeman writes that behavioral conditioning studies tend to decrease homosexual feelings but do not increase heterosexual feelings, citing Rangaswami's "Difficulties in arousing and increasing heterosexual responsiveness in a homosexual: A case report", published in 1982, as typical in this respect. Other methods of aversion therapy, in addition to electric shock, included ice baths, freezing, burning via metal coils, and hard labor. The intent was for the subject to associate homosexual feelings with pain and thus result in them being reduced. These methods have been concluded to be ineffective. Aversion therapy was developed in Czechoslovakia between 1950 and 1962 and in the British Commonwealth from 1961 into the mid-1970s. In the context of the Cold War, Western psychologists


id: conversion-therapy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy-3.md
category: reference
title: Conversion therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:51.595146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversion-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Haldeman writes that psychoanalytic treatment of homosexuality is exemplified by the work of Irving Bieber and colleagues in Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals. They advocated long-term therapy aimed at resolving the unconscious childhood conflicts that they considered responsible for homosexuality. Haldeman notes that Bieber's methodology has been criticized because it relied upon a clinical sample, the description of the outcomes was based upon subjective therapist impression, and follow-up data were poorly presented. Bieber reported a 27% success frequency from long-term therapy, but only 18% of those deemed successful were exclusively homosexual initially, while 50% had been bisexual. In Haldeman's view, this makes even Bieber's unimpressive claims of success misleading. Haldeman discusses other psychoanalytic studies of attempts to change homosexuality. Curran and Parr's "Homosexuality: An analysis of 100 male cases", published in 1957, reported no significant increase in heterosexual behavior. Mayerson and Lief's "Psychotherapy of homosexuals: A follow-up study of nineteen cases", published in 1965, reported that half of the 19 subjects included were exclusively heterosexual in behavior four and a half years after treatment; its outcomes were based on patient self-report and had no external validation. In Haldeman's view, those participants in the study who reported change were


id: conversion-therapy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy-4.md
category: reference
title: Conversion therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:51.595146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversion-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
== Effects and evaluation == There is a scientific consensus that conversion therapy is ineffective at changing a person's sexual orientation. Conversion therapy can cause significant, long-term psychological harm. This includes significantly higher rates of depression, substance abuse, and other mental health issues in individuals who have undergone conversion therapy than their peers who did not, including a suicide attempt rate nearly twice that of those who did not. After conversion therapy has failed to change someone's sexual orientation or gender identity, participants often feel increased shame that they already felt over their sexual orientation or gender identity. Modern-day practitioners of conversion therapy—primarily from a conservative religious viewpoint—disagree with evidence-based medicine and clinical guidance that does not view homosexuality and gender variance as unnatural or unhealthy. Advocates of conversion therapy rely heavily on testimonials and retrospective self-reports as evidence of effectiveness. Studies purporting to validate the effectiveness of efforts to change sexual orientation or gender identity have been criticized for methodological flaws. According to Bailey et al., claims of successful conversion therapy rely upon self reports of success, however these are unreliable and lack objective evidence, and participants in conversion therapy "may be especially susceptible to believing and reporting that


id: conversion-therapy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy-5.md
category: reference
title: Conversion therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:51.595146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversion-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
National health organizations around the world have uniformly denounced and criticized sexual orientation and gender identity change efforts. They state that there has been no scientific demonstration of "conversion therapy's" efficacy. They find that conversion therapy is ineffective, risky and can be harmful. Anecdotal claims of cures are counterbalanced by assertions of harm, and the American Psychiatric Association, for example, cautions ethical practitioners under the Hippocratic oath to do no harm and to refrain from attempts at conversion therapy. Furthermore, they state that conversion therapy is harmful and that it often exploits individuals' guilt and anxiety, thereby damaging self-esteem and leading to depression and even suicide. A 2025 study completed by the American Medical Association found that 42% of those subjected to conversion therapy attempted suicide, compared to 5% of those not subjected to these practices. For transgender individuals in particular, exposure to conversion therapy before age 10 is associated with a fourfold increase in the risk of lifetime suicide attempts compared to peers who received other forms of therapy. There is also concern in the mental health community that the advancement of conversion therapy can cause social harm by disseminating inaccurate views about gender identity, sexual orientation, and the


id: dei-filius-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dei_Filius-0.md
category: reference
title: Dei Filius
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dei_Filius
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:52.757407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dei-filius-20260505-0
summary:
Dei Filius is the incipit of the dogmatic constitution of the First Vatican Council on the Catholic faith, which was adopted unanimously, and issued by Pope Pius IX on 24 April 1870. The constitution set forth the teaching of "the holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church" on God, revelation and faith. == Content == The dogmatic constitution "deals with faith, reason, and their interrelations". The document begins by observing that "God, the principle and end of all things, can be known with certainty by the natural light of human reason from created things". However, it then explains that, through divine revelation, this knowledge can more easily be attained "with firm assurance, and with no admixture of error". Faith and reason are seen as complementary. Following Thomas Aquinas, whose guiding thought Philip Egan paraphrases as that "it is the same God who grounds all truth, whether secular or divine, and the truth is ultimately one", Dei Filius saidthere can never be any real discrepancy between faith and reason, since the same God who reveals mysteries and infuses faith has bestowed the light of reason on the human mind; and God can not deny himself, nor can truth ever contradict truth. The false


id: efficacy-of-prayer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy_of_prayer-0.md
category: reference
title: Efficacy of prayer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy_of_prayer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:55.150689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: efficacy-of-prayer-20260505-0
summary:
The efficacy of prayer has been studied since at least 1872, generally through experiments to determine whether prayer or intercessory prayer has a measurable effect on the health of the person for whom prayer is offered. First-person studies suggest that praying can affect the person praying—sometimes improving physiological measures (like cardiovascular responses) and mental health, though results are mixed and often limited by self-report bias. Third-party studies on intercessory prayer (praying for others) have produced inconsistent results, with the largest and most rigorous trials generally finding no significant effect. While some religious groups argue that the power of prayer is obvious, others question whether it is possible to measure its effect. Dr. Fred Rosner, an authority on Jewish medical ethics, has expressed doubt that prayer could ever be subject to empirical analysis. Basic philosophical questions bear upon the question of the efficacy of prayer – for example, whether statistical inference and falsifiability are sufficient to "prove" or to "disprove" anything, and whether the topic is even within the realm of science. According to The Washington Post, "...prayer is the most common complement to mainstream medicine, far outpacing acupuncture, herbs, vitamins and other alternative remedies." In comparison to other fields that


id: efficacy-of-prayer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy_of_prayer-1.md
category: reference
title: Efficacy of prayer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy_of_prayer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:55.150689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: efficacy-of-prayer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medical views === Most scientists dismiss "faith healing" practitioners. Believers assert that faith healing makes no scientific claims and thus should be treated as a matter of faith that is not testable by science. Critics reply that claims of medical cures should be tested scientifically because, although faith in the supernatural is not in itself usually considered to be the purview of science, claims of reproducible effects are nevertheless subject to scientific investigation. Scientists and doctors generally find that faith healing lacks biological plausibility or epistemic warrant, which is one of the criteria used to judge whether clinical research is ethical and financially justified. A Cochrane review of intercessory prayer found "although some of the results of individual studies suggest a positive effect of intercessory prayer, the majority do not". The authors concluded: "We are not convinced that further trials of this intervention should be undertaken and would prefer to see any resources available for such a trial used to investigate other questions in health care". An article in the Medical Journal of Australia says that "One common criticism of prayer research is that prayer has become a popular therapeutic method for which there is no known plausible mechanism."


id: european-society-for-the-study-of-science-and-theology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Society_for_the_Study_of_Science_and_Theology-0.md
category: reference
title: European Society for the Study of Science and Theology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Society_for_the_Study_of_Science_and_Theology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:56.290536+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-society-for-the-study-of-science-and-theology-20260505-0
summary:
ESSSAT is a scholarly, non-confessional organization, based in Europe, which aims to promote the study of relationships between the natural sciences and theological views. ESSSAT has members from almost every European country as well as members from other continents. They have different confessional backgrounds, and may include believers as well as non-believers and atheists. Every two years, ESSSAT organizes an international conference, each time on a different venue in Europe. Two prizes for outstanding research are awarded on these conferences: the ESSSAT Student Prize and the ESSSAT Research Prize. ESSSAT publishes three series: Issues in Science and Theology (IST), Studies in Science and Theology (SSTh), and ESSSAT-News (a quarterly newsletter). The organization was founded in the mid-1980s. Its current president is Dirk Evers, who succeeded Antje Jackelén, leading ESSSAT from 2008 to 2014. ESSSAT's president from 2002 to 2008 was Dutch theologian Willem B. Drees. == See also == Institute on Religion in an Age of Science (A similar American organization) Zygon Center for Religion and Science (Chicago) (A similar American organization) Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences (Berkeley) (A similar American organization) Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science (a related journal) Theology and Science (a related journal) Issues


id: fact-value-distinction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact–value_distinction-0.md
category: reference
title: Fact–value distinction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact–value_distinction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:57.518776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fact-value-distinction-20260505-0
summary:
The fact–value distinction is a fundamental epistemological distinction between: Statements of fact (positive or descriptive statements), which are based upon reason and observation, and examined via the empirical method. Statements of value (normative or prescriptive statements), such as good and bad, beauty and ugliness, encompass ethics and aesthetics, and are studied via axiology. This barrier between fact and value, as construed in epistemology, implies it is impossible to derive ethical claims from factual arguments, or to defend the former using the latter. The fact–value distinction is closely related to, and derived from, the is–ought problem in moral philosophy, characterized by David Hume. The terms are often used interchangeably, though philosophical discourse concerning the is–ought problem does not usually encompass aesthetics. == History == === David Hume's skepticism === In A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), David Hume discusses the problems in grounding normative statements in positive statements; that is, in deriving ought from is. It is generally regarded that Hume considered such derivations untenable, and his 'is–ought' problem is considered a principal question of moral philosophy. Hume shared a political viewpoint with early Enlightenment philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and John Locke (1632–1704). Specifically, Hume, at least to some


id: fact-value-distinction-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact–value_distinction-1.md
category: reference
title: Fact–value distinction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact–value_distinction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:57.518776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fact-value-distinction-20260505-0
summary:
=== Moralistic fallacy === The fact–value distinction is also closely related to the moralistic fallacy, an invalid inference of factual conclusions from purely evaluative premises. For example, the invalid inference "Unfaithfulness is immoral, and so it is unnatural to feel desire for others when in a monogamous relationship" is an instance of the moralistic fallacy. Where the naturalistic fallacy attempts to move from an "is" to an "ought" statement, the moralistic fallacy attempts to move from an "ought" to an "is" statement. == Criticisms == Virtually all modern philosophers affirm some sort of fact–value distinction, insofar as they distinguish between science and "valued" disciplines such as ethics, aesthetics, or the fine arts. However, philosophers such as Hilary Putnam argue that the distinction between fact and value is not as absolute as Hume envisioned. Philosophical pragmatists, for instance, believe that true propositions are those that are useful or effective in predicting future (empirical) states of affairs. Far from being value-free, the pragmatists' conception of truth or facts directly relates to an end (namely, empirical predictability) that human beings regard as normatively desirable. Other thinkers, such as N. R. Hanson among others, talk of theory-ladenness, and reject an absolutist fact–value distinction by


id: faith-and-rationality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_and_rationality-0.md
category: reference
title: Faith and rationality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_and_rationality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:58.781500+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: faith-and-rationality-20260505-0
summary:
Faith and rationality exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility. Rationality is based on reason or facts. Faith is belief in inspiration, revelation, or authority. The word faith sometimes refers to a belief that is held independently or in spite of reason or empirical evidence, or it can refer to belief based upon a degree of evidential warrant. == Relationship between faith and reason == Rationalists point out that many people hold irrational beliefs, for many reasons. There may be evolutionary causes for irrational beliefs—irrational beliefs may increase our ability to survive and reproduce. One more reason for irrational beliefs can perhaps be explained by operant conditioning. For example, in one study by B. F. Skinner in 1948, pigeons were awarded grain at regular time intervals regardless of their behaviour. The result was that each of the pigeons developed their own idiosyncratic response which had become associated with the consequence of receiving grain. Believers in the value of faith—for example those who believe salvation is possible through faith alone—frequently suggest that everyone holds beliefs arrived at by faith, not reason. One form of belief held "by faith" may be seen existing in a faith as based on warrant. In


id: faraday-institute-for-science-and-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_Institute_for_Science_and_Religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Faraday Institute for Science and Religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_Institute_for_Science_and_Religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:04:59.991622+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: faraday-institute-for-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion is an interdisciplinary academic research institute based in Cambridge, England. It is named after the 19th-century English scientist Michael Faraday, the pioneer of electromagnetic induction. It was established in 2006 by a $2,000,000 grant from the John Templeton Foundation to carry out academic research, to foster understanding of the interaction between science and religion, and to engage public understanding in both these subject areas. The institute also leads debate on wider issues such as sustainability and education. == Senior staff == The institute's Executive Director is Graham Budd, and its Associate Director is Sarah Perrett. The emeritus directors are Denis Alexander and Robert (Bob) White. == Activities == The institute organises a wide range of activities, including: Free, regular lectures and seminars on a range of science and religion topics. Providing access to resources such as downloadable audio and video recordings of over 350 Faraday Institute courses, lectures and seminars. The website also includes a wide range of written material, and an online shop featuring heavily discounted books. Short, intensive weekend, and midweek courses. These are open to graduates or undergraduates from any university in the world, of any faith or none. Discounts


id: steve-fuller-sociologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Steve Fuller (sociologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:01.437839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steve-fuller-sociologist-20260505-0
summary:
Steve William Fuller (born July 12, 1959) is an American social philosopher and philosopher of science in the field of science and technology studies. He is the Auguste Comte Chair in Social Epistemology at the University of Warwick. He served as the president of the British Science Association's sociology division from 2008 to 2009. He has published in the areas of social epistemology, academic freedom, and in support of intelligent design and transhumanism. == Early life and education == Fuller was born on July 12, 1959, in New York City. He attended Regis High School in Manhattan. After high school, Fuller graduated summa cum laude from Columbia University with a B.A. in history and sociology in 1979. As an undergraduate at Columbia College, he was a John Jay Scholar. After graduation, Fuller was awarded a Kellett Fellowship to complete graduate studies in England at the University of Cambridge, where he earned an M.Phil. in the history of science and philosophy of science in 1981. He then earned his Ph.D. in the history and philosophy of science from the University of Pittsburgh in 1985, where he was an Andrew Mellon Pre-Doctoral Fellow. Fuller's doctoral dissertation, "Bounded Rationality in Law and Science",


id: steve-fuller-sociologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)-1.md
category: reference
title: Steve Fuller (sociologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:01.437839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steve-fuller-sociologist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Intelligent design === Fuller has made many statements about his support for the teaching of intelligent design (ID) and authored two books on the subject. In 2005, in the case of Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, he testified on behalf of a local school system in the United States that required the teaching of intelligent design. The decision of the U.S. District Court held that intelligent design was a form of creationism and that its inclusion in the curriculum violated the U.S. Constitution's prohibition on the establishment of religion. The decision repeatedly cited Fuller's testimony to undermine the school system's position. Some of Fuller's critics within the Science and Technology Studies community described his participation in the trial as "naïve" and suggested that the field needs further development before it can constructively engage the legal community on the nature of science. Fuller has said that he does not support intelligent design "but feels that it should have a 'fair run for its money'". In his book Dissent over Descent, he says he sees religion in general as a motivating influence in scientific pursuits and believes that the difference between science and religion is more institutional than intellectual. Critics


id: steve-fuller-sociologist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)-2.md
category: reference
title: Steve Fuller (sociologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:01.437839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steve-fuller-sociologist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dissent Over Descent === In 2008, Fuller's book on the intelligent design controversy, Dissent Over Descent: Intelligent Design's Challenge to Darwinism was published. Steven Poole of The Guardian wrote: "book is an epoch-hopping parade of straw men, incompetent reasoning and outright gibberish, as when evolution is argued to share with astrology a commitment to "action at a distance", except that the distance is in time rather than space. It's intellectual quackery like this that gives philosophy of science a bad name." Michael Ruse, Philosopher of Science at Florida State University wrote in the journal Science that Fuller's book "is completely wrong and is backed by no sound scholarship whatsoever. In at least one case, Fuller makes his case by an egregious misreading—of something I wrote about the role of genetic drift in Sewall Wright's shifting balance theory. For the record, Charles Darwin set out to provide a cause, what he called—following his mentors like William Whewell (who in turn referred back to Newton)—a true cause or vera causa. Darwin felt, and historians and philosophers of science as well as practicing evolutionary biologists still feel, that he succeeded…" In a "book of the week" review by retired Divinity Professor Keith


id: steve-fuller-sociologist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)-3.md
category: reference
title: Steve Fuller (sociologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:01.437839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steve-fuller-sociologist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Journal articles === Fuller, Steve (November 1990). "They shoot dead horses, don't they?: Philosophical fear and sociological loathing in St Louis". Social Studies of Science. 20 (4): 664–681. doi:10.1177/030631290020004005. S2CID 146531717. Fuller, Steve (2005). "Kuhnenstein: or, the importance of being read". Philosophy of the Social Sciences. 35 (4): 480–498. doi:10.1177/0048393105280868. S2CID 54546035. Fuller, Steve; Haworth, Alan (2007). "Academic freedom". The Philosophers' Magazine. 38 (2): 72–77. doi:10.5840/tpm20073864. Debating the "statement of academic freedom" made by Academics for Academic Freedom (AFAF). == References == == Further reading == Two essays written as part of a debate on the Sokal hoax and published in The Independent on 28 June 1998: Who's Afraid of Science Studies by Steve Fuller, defending science studies. an annotated bibliography of nonsense Archived 23 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Kenan Malik, takes a contrary view to Fuller's (but does not refer to him), criticizing what he considers to be the unrealistically excessive relativism of science studies. Special Issue of Social Epistemology (2003) on Fuller's Kuhn thesis. Remedios, F. (2003). Legitimizing Scientific Knowledge: An Introduction to Steve Fuller's Social Epistemology, Lexington Books, Lanham, MD, USA. Fuller, Steve (2004). "The case of Fuller vs Kuhn". Social Epistemology: A


id: god-gene-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_gene-0.md
category: reference
title: God gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:02.617290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: god-gene-20260505-0
summary:
The God gene hypothesis proposes that human spirituality is influenced by heredity and that a specific gene, called vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), predisposes humans towards spiritual or mystic experiences. The idea has been proposed by geneticist Dean Hamer in the 2004 book called The God Gene: How Faith is Hardwired into our Genes. The God gene hypothesis is based on a combination of behavioral genetic, neurobiological and psychological studies. The major arguments of the hypothesis are: (1) spirituality can be quantified by psychometric measurements; (2) the underlying tendency to spirituality is partially heritable; (3) part of this heritability can be attributed to the gene VMAT2; (4) this gene acts by altering monoamine levels; and (5) spirituality provides an evolutionary advantage by providing individuals with an innate sense of optimism. == Proposal == According to the God Gene hypothesis, spirituality has a genetic component, of which (VMAT2) comprises one component by contributing to sensations associated with mystic experiences, including the presence of God and feelings of connection to a larger universe. The research uses the self-transcendence scale developed by psychologist Robert Cloninger to quantify spirituality using three sub-scales: "self-forgetfulness" (as in the tendency to become totally absorbed in some activity,


id: god-of-the-gaps-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_the_gaps-0.md
category: reference
title: God of the gaps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_the_gaps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:03.890881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: god-of-the-gaps-20260505-0
summary:
"God of the gaps" is a theological concept that emerged in the 19th century, and revolves around the idea that gaps in scientific understanding are regarded as indications of the existence of God. This perspective has its origins in the observation that some individuals, often with religious inclinations, point to areas where science falls short in explaining natural phenomena as opportunities to insert the presence of a divine creator. The term itself was coined in response to this tendency. This theological view suggests that God fills in the gaps left by scientific knowledge, and that these gaps represent moments of divine intervention or influence. This concept has been met with criticism and debate from various quarters. Detractors argue that this perspective is problematic as it seems to rely on gaps in human understanding and ignorance to make its case for the existence of God. As scientific knowledge continues to advance, these gaps tend to shrink, potentially weakening the argument for God's existence. Critics contend that such an approach can undermine religious beliefs by suggesting that God only operates in the unexplained areas of our understanding, leaving little room for divine involvement in a comprehensive and coherent worldview. The "God of


id: god-of-the-gaps-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_the_gaps-1.md
category: reference
title: God of the gaps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_the_gaps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:03.890881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: god-of-the-gaps-20260505-0
summary:
== General usage == The term "God of the gaps" is sometimes used in describing the incremental retreat of religious explanations of physical phenomena in the face of increasingly comprehensive scientific explanations for those phenomena. Dorothy Dinnerstein includes psychological explanations for developmental distortions leading to a person believing in a deity, particularly a male deity. R. Laird Harris writes of the physical science aspect of this: The expression, "God of the Gaps," contains a real truth. It is erroneous if it is taken to mean that God is not immanent in natural law but is only to be observed in mysteries unexplained by law. No significant Christian group has believed this view. It is true, however, if it be taken to emphasize that God is not only immanent in natural law but also is active in the numerous phenomena associated with the supernatural and the spiritual. There are gaps in a physical-chemical explanation of this world, and there always will be. Because science has learned many marvelous secrets of nature, it cannot be concluded that it can explain all phenomena. Meaning, soul, spirits, and life are subjects incapable of physical-chemical explanation or formation. == Usage in referring to a type


id: heart-of-the-matter-tv-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_the_Matter_(TV_series)-0.md
category: reference
title: Heart of the Matter (TV series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_the_Matter_(TV_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:15.358462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heart-of-the-matter-tv-series-20260505-0
summary:
Heart of the Matter is a British television debate series that aired on BBC One from 1979 to 2000. Presented variously by Joan Bakewell, Helena Kennedy QC and David Jessel, its subject matter was often concerned with religious or ethical issues. Topics covered include subjects as diverse as substance abuse, the effects of anti-personnel landmines, and homosexuality. Bakewell would usually chair an in-studio debate in which invited guests would discuss the edition's chosen topic. An edition from 1996 hosted by Joan Bakewell, The Heart of the Matter: God Under the Microscope, featured a debate on science and religion and included as guests David Starkey, Mary Warnock, Wentzel van Huyssteen, Richard Dawkins, Polish Roman Catholic priest and 2008 Templeton Prize winner cosmologist Prof. Michael Heller, and James Watson. Heart of the Matter was broadcast late on Sunday evenings, usually alternating with the similarly themed Everyman, though the latter tended to have more of a religious focus. Both programmes were cancelled in the 2000s following a revamp of BBC output. == References == == External links == Heart of the Matter at IMDb Heart of the Matter at the British Film Institute


id: history-of-the-extraterrestrial-life-debate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_extraterrestrial_life_debate-0.md
category: reference
title: History of the extraterrestrial life debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_extraterrestrial_life_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:16.653203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-the-extraterrestrial-life-debate-20260505-0
summary:
The existence of extraterrestrial life is a scientific idea that has been debated for centuries. Initially, the question was purely speculative; in modern times a limited amount of scientific evidence provides some answers. The idea was first proposed in Ancient Greece, where it was supported by atomists and rejected by Aristotelians. The debate continued during the Middle Ages, when the discussion centered upon whether the notion of extraterrestrial life was compatible with the doctrines of Christianity. The Copernican Revolution radically altered mankind's image of the architecture of the cosmos by removing Earth from the center of the universe, which made the concept of extraterrestrial life more plausible. Today we have no conclusive evidence of extraterrestrial life, but experts in many different disciplines gather to study the idea under the scientific umbrella of astrobiology. == Ancient Greece == During the early days of the history of astronomy the things seen in the night sky were explained as the actions of mythological deities. However, it soon became evident that celestial objects move and behave in regular and predictable patterns, which helped in keeping track of time, tides, and seasons, crucial for ancient agriculture. Most ancient civilizations had great knowledge of astronomy but


id: history-of-the-extraterrestrial-life-debate-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_extraterrestrial_life_debate-1.md
category: reference
title: History of the extraterrestrial life debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_extraterrestrial_life_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:16.653203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-the-extraterrestrial-life-debate-20260505-0
summary:
The Greeks discussed as well the possible existence of other worlds, but did not consider the planets as such. In their view, the celestial sphere was a part of Earth and other potential worlds would have their own ones. There was consensus that the world was made of the four classical elements, earth, water, fire and air. From there, they had two opposite ideas: Atomists thought that all existence was composed by atoms, small and indivisible pieces of the four elements, and Aristotelians thought that the four elements were exclusive to Earth and that the universe was made of a fifth one, the Aether. The atomist view would allow the existence of other worlds, as the processes that created Earth may happen elsewhere as well. Although very few of their writings were preserved, it is known that early atomists Leucippus and Democritus thought that atoms should create other worlds the same way Earth was created. Epicurus said in his "Letter to Herodotus" that "There are infinite worlds both like and unlike this world of ours... we must believe that in all worlds there are living creatures and plants and other things we see in this world". Aristotle and Plato opposed


id: history-of-the-extraterrestrial-life-debate-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_extraterrestrial_life_debate-2.md
category: reference
title: History of the extraterrestrial life debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_extraterrestrial_life_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:16.653203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-the-extraterrestrial-life-debate-20260505-0
summary:
Nicolaus Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543, kickstarting the Copernican Revolution. This book restored and updated the old idea of Aristarchus that Earth spins around the sun. The new version was written with so much mathematical detail that it could contest the Ptolemaic model. By this time, scientists noticed several inaccuracies in the Ptolemaic model. They were more open to revising it, but largely kept using it because of the huge work involved in changing the tables. Copernicus thought that Earth spinning around the sun could provide a simpler explanation for the retrograde motion of the planets, and calculated the distance of the planets to the Sun. However, he kept the idea of circular orbits, and added several composite orbits to explain the errors caused by it. Although he correctly displaced the center of the Solar System, this first model turned out to be as inaccurate and as complex as the Ptolematic one, and did not get much supporters in the first decades. A recurring problem for both models was the lack of quality data, as the telescope had not been invented yet and naked eye observations are highly inaccurate. The Danish Tycho Brahe sought to gather such


id: history-of-the-extraterrestrial-life-debate-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_extraterrestrial_life_debate-3.md
category: reference
title: History of the extraterrestrial life debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_extraterrestrial_life_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:05:16.653203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-the-extraterrestrial-life-debate-20260505-0
summary:
However, some scientists had concerns over the new model. Aristotle had once stated that Earth could not move because, if it did so, birds, clouds, and falling objects would be left behind. Orbits had to be circular because the heavens had to be perfect and unchanging. And if Earth moved, the stars should leave a stellar parallax. Those concerns were addressed by Galileo Galilei. First, he explained that an object in motion stays in motion unless a force stops it; a principle nowadays included in the first of Newton's laws of motion. The idea of heavenly perfection was already being challenged by Tycho's observations. Tycho had observed a supernova, which proved that sometimes the heavens do change. The newly invented telescope also revealed "imperfections" in celestial bodies: the sun was shown with sunspots, and the Moon has many features such as craters and mountain ranges. If the heavens were not as perfect as originally considered, then the idea that orbits are not perfect circles was not so questionable. Galileo also discovered the Galilean moons of Jupiter, celestial bodies orbiting another planet, and the phases of Venus. The existence of the Galilean moons refuted the common argument that the Moon would


