# kb

id: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry-2.md
category: reference
title: History of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:10.205887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
The modern era of providing care for the mentally ill began in the early 19th century with a large state-led effort. Public mental asylums were established in Britain after the passing of the 1808 County Asylums Act. This empowered magistrates to build rate-supported asylums in every county to house the many 'pauper lunatics'. Nine counties first applied, and the first public asylum opened in 1812 in Nottinghamshire. Parliamentary Committees were established to investigate abuses at private madhouses like Bethlem Hospital - its officers were eventually dismissed and national attention was focused on the routine use of bars, chains and handcuffs and the filthy conditions the inmates lived in. However, it was not until 1828 that the newly appointed Commissioners in Lunacy were empowered to license and supervise private asylums. The Lunacy Act 1845 was an important landmark in the treatment of the mentally ill, as it explicitly changed the status of mentally ill people to patients who required treatment. The Act created the Lunacy Commission, headed by Lord Shaftesbury, to focus on lunacy legislation reform. The commission was made up of eleven Metropolitan Commissioners who were required to carry out the provisions of the Act; the compulsory construction of asylums


id: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry-3.md
category: reference
title: History of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:10.205887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Biological psychiatry reemerged during this time. Psychopharmacology became an integral part of psychiatry starting with Otto Loewi's discovery of the neuromodulatory properties of acetylcholine; thus identifying it as the first-known neurotransmitter. Neuroimaging was first utilized as a tool for psychiatry in the 1980s. The discovery of chlorpromazine's effectiveness in treating schizophrenia in 1952 revolutionized treatment of the disorder, as did lithium carbonate's ability to stabilize mood highs and lows in bipolar disorder in 1948. Psychotherapy was still utilized, but as a treatment for psychosocial issues. In the 1920s and 1930s, most asylum and academic psychiatrists in Europe believed that manic depressive disorder and schizophrenia were inherited, but in the decades after World War II, the conflation of genetics with Nazi racist ideology thoroughly discredited genetics. Now, genetics are once again thought by some prominent researchers to play a large role in mental illness. The genetic and heritable proportion of the cause of five major psychiatric disorders found in family and twin studies is 81% for schizophrenia, 80% for autism spectrum disorder, 75% for bipolar disorder, 75% for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and 37% for major depressive disorder. Geneticist Müller-Hill is quoted as saying "Genes are not destiny, they may give


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Psychology is defined as "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes". Philosophical interest in the human mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India. Psychology as a field of experimental study began in 1854 in the German city of Leipzig, when Gustav Fechner created the first theory of how judgments about sensory experiences are made and how to experiment on them. Fechner's theory, recognized today as Signal Detection Theory, foreshadowed the development of statistical theories of comparative judgment and thousands of experiments based on his ideas (Link, S. W. Psychological Science, 1995). In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was also the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. A notable precursor to Wundt was Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752–1812), who designated himself Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic in 1783 and gave lectures on empirical psychology at the Old University of Münster, Germany. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning). Soon


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, heart, soul, spirit, brain, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (described in a medical/surgical context) and the descriptions could be related to Imhotep who was the first Egyptian physician who anatomized and discovered the body of the human being. Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only two contain incantations to ward off evil. Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) through even to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the psuchẽ (psyche) (from which the first half of "psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms – nous, thumos, logistikon, etc. Classical Greece (fifth century BC), philosophers taught "naturalism", the belief that laws of nature shape our world, as opposed to gods and demons determining human fate. Alcmaeon, for example, believed the brain, not the heart, was the "organ of thought. "He tracked the ascending sensory nerves


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Socrates of Athens (c. 470 – 399 BC). Emphasized virtue ethics. In epistemology, understood dialectic to be central to the pursuit of truth. As early as the 4th century BC, the Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes. Plato's tripartite theory of the soul, Chariot Allegory and concepts such as eros defined the subsequent Western Philosophy views of the psyche and anticipated modern psychological proposals. Alcmaeon theorizes the brain in the seat of the mind. In 387 BC, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place. Boethius and his work represented an imaginary psychological dialogue between himself and philosophy, with philosophy personified as a woman, arguing that despite the apparent inequality of the world. In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early psychological analysis experiment. It has been cited that this was the first psychology experiment. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, who developed al-‘ilaj al-nafs (sometimes translated as "psychotherapy"), Padmasambhava was the 8th-century medicine Buddha of Tibet, called from the then Buddhist India to tame the Tibetans, and was instrumental in developing Tibetan psychiatric medicine. Patanjali founded Yoga and the method of psychological balance and resilience through breathing


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-3.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Enlightenment psychological thought === Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term). The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes (1596–1650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his Passions of the Soul (1649) and Treatise on Man (completed in 1632 but, along with the rest of The World, withheld from publication after Descartes heard of the Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo; it was eventually published posthumously, in 1664). Although not educated as a physician, Descartes did extensive anatomical studies of bulls' hearts and was considered important enough that William Harvey responded to him. Descartes was one of the first to endorse Harvey's model of the circulation of the blood, but disagreed with his metaphysical framework to explain it. Descartes dissected animals and human cadavers and as a result was familiar with the research on the flow of blood leading to the conclusion that the body is a complex device that is capable of moving without


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-4.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transition to contemporary psychology === Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy of Mesmerism (a precursor to hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of "animal magnetism", to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to come under the scrutiny of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in Paris by King Louis XVI which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin, chemist Antoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (later the popularizer of the guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless. Abbé Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention in animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that the effect was 'generated from within the mind' by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the patient. Although disputed, the "magnetic" tradition continued among Mesmer's students and others, resurfacing in England in the 19th century in the work of the physician John Elliotson (1791–1868), and the surgeons James Esdaile (1808–1859), and James Braid (1795–1860) (who reconceptualized it as


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-5.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Emergence of German experimental psychology == Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. Whether it could become an independent scientific discipline was questioned already earlier on: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) declared in his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786) that psychology might perhaps never become a "proper" natural science because its phenomena cannot be quantified, among other reasons. Kant proposed an alternative conception of an empirical investigation of human thought, feeling, desire, and action, and lectured on these topics for over twenty years (1772/73–1795/96). His Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798), which resulted from these lectures, looks like an empirical psychology in many respects. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) took issue with what he viewed as Kant's conclusion and attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to empirically realize the terms of his psychological theory, his efforts did lead scientists such as Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) to attempt to measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the term psychophysics. Meanwhile,


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-6.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the German-speaking world at this time. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of his patients' "hysteria". He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalysis is particularly notable for the emphasis it places on the course of an individual's sexual development in pathogenesis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness – yet operative as part of the complete personality. Hidden agendas, a bad conscience, or a sense of guilt, are examples of the existence of mental processes in which the individual is not conscious, through choice or lack of understanding, of some aspects of their personality and subsequent behavior. Psychoanalysis examines mental processes which affect the ego. An understanding of these theoretically allows the individual greater choice and consciousness


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-7.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Early American == Around 1875 the Harvard physiology instructor (as he then was), William James, opened a small experimental psychology demonstration laboratory for use with his courses. The laboratory was never used, at that time, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be regarded as the "first" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled "The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to Thought" in which he argued, contra Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function, or it would not have been naturally selected in humans. The same year James was contracted by Henry Holt to write a textbook on the "new" experimental psychology. If he had written it quickly, it would have been the first English-language textbook on the topic. It was twelve years, however, before his two-volume The Principles of Psychology would be published. In the meantime textbooks were published by George Trumbull Ladd of Yale (1887) and James Mark Baldwin then of Lake Forest College (1889). William James was one of the founders of the American Society for Psychical Research in 1885,


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-8.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, was often regarded as a second (after Chicago) "school" of American Functionalism (see, e.g., Heidbredder, 1933), although they never used that term themselves, because their research focused on the applied areas of mental testing, learning, and education. Dewey was elected president of the APA in 1899, while Titchener dropped his membership in the association. (In 1904, Titchener formed his own group, eventually known as the Society of Experimental Psychologists.) Jastrow promoted the functionalist approach in his APA presidential address of 1900, and Angell adopted Titchener's label explicitly in his influential textbook of 1904 and his APA presidential address of 1906. In reality, Structuralism was, more or less, confined to Titchener and his students. (It was Titchener's former student E. G. Boring, writing A History of Experimental Psychology [1929/1950, the most influential textbook of the 20th century about the discipline], who launched the common idea that the structuralism/functionalism debate was the primary fault line in American psychology at the turn of the 20th century.) Functionalism, broadly speaking, with its more practical emphasis on action and application, better suited the American cultural "style" and, perhaps more important, was more appealing to pragmatic university trustees and private funding


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-9.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
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parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Early French == Jules Baillarger founded the Société Médico-Psychologique in 1847, one of the first associations of its kind and which published the Annales Medico-Psychologiques. France already had a pioneering tradition in psychological study, and it was relevant the publication of Précis d'un cours de psychologie ("Summary of a Psychology Course") in 1831 by Adolphe Garnier, who also published the Traité des facultés de l'âme, comprenant l'histoire des principales théories psychologiques ("Treatise of the Faculties of the Soul, comprising the history of major psychological theories") in 1852. Garnier was called "the best monument of psychological science of our time" by Revue des Deux Mondes in 1864. In no small measure because of the conservatism of the reign of Louis Napoléon (president, 1848–1852; emperor as "Napoléon III", 1852–1870), academic philosophy in France through the middle part of the 19th century was controlled by members of the eclectic and spiritualist schools, led by figures such as Victor Cousin (1792–1867), Thédodore Jouffroy (1796–1842), and Paul Janet (1823–1899). These were traditional metaphysical schools, opposed to regarding psychology as a natural science. With the ouster of Napoléon III after the débacle of the Franco-Prussian War, new paths, both political and intellectual, became possible. From


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-10.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Early British == Although the British had the first scholarly journal dedicated to the topic of psychology – Mind, founded in 1876 by Alexander Bain and edited by George Croom Robertson – it was quite a long while before experimental psychology developed there to challenge the strong tradition of "mental philosophy". The experimental reports that appeared in Mind in the first two decades of its existence were almost entirely authored by Americans, especially G. Stanley Hall and his students (notably Henry Herbert Donaldson) and James McKeen Cattell. Francis Galton's (1822–1911) anthropometric laboratory opened in 1884. There people were tested on a wide variety of physical (e.g., strength of blow) and perceptual (e.g., visual acuity) attributes. In 1886 Galton was visited by James McKeen Cattell who would later adapt Galton's techniques in developing his own mental testing research program in the United States. Galton was not primarily a psychologist, however. The data he accumulated in the anthropometric laboratory primarily went toward supporting his case for eugenics. To help interpret the mounds of data he accumulated, Galton developed a number of important statistical techniques, including the precursors to the scatterplot and the product-moment correlation coefficient (later perfected by Karl Pearson, 1857–1936).


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-11.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Würzburg School === In 1896, one of Wilhelm Wundt's former Leipzig laboratory assistants, Oswald Külpe (1862–1915), founded a new laboratory in Würzburg. Külpe soon surrounded himself with a number of younger psychologists, the so-called Würzburg School, most notably Narziß Ach (1871–1946), Karl Bühler (1879–1963), Ernst Dürr (1878–1913), Karl Marbe (1869–1953), and Henry Jackson Watt (1879–1925). Collectively, they developed a new approach to psychological experimentation that flew in the face of many of Wundt's restrictions. Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old philosophical style of self-observation (Selbstbeobachtung) in which one introspected for extended durations on higher thought processes, and inner perception (innere Wahrnehmung) in which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image (Vorstellung). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only humanistically through Völkerpsychologie (folk psychology). Only the latter was a proper subject for experimentation. The Würzburgers, by contrast, designed experiments in which the experimental subject was presented with a complex stimulus (for example a Nietzschean aphorism or a logical problem) and after processing it for a time (for example interpreting the aphorism or solving the problem), retrospectively


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-12.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Whereas the Würzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named Gestalt, a German term meaning approximately "form" or "configuration". It was led by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941). Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), who claimed that in addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded as an element in its own right. He called this extra element Gestalt-qualität or "form-quality". For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them which binds them together into a tune – the Gestalt-qualität. It is the presence of this Gestalt-qualität which, according to Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-13.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology. First among these was the increasing skepticism with which many viewed the concept of consciousness: although still considered to be the essential element separating psychology from physiology, its subjective nature and the unreliable introspective method it seemed to require, troubled many. William James' 1904 Journal of Philosophy.... article "Does Consciousness Exist?", laid out the worries explicitly. Second was the gradual rise of a rigorous animal psychology. In addition to Edward Lee Thorndike's work with cats in puzzle boxes in 1898, the start of research in which rats learn to navigate mazes was begun by Willard Small (1900, 1901 in American Journal of Psychology). Robert M. Yerkes's 1905 Journal of Philosophy... article "Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic" raised the general question of when one is entitled to attribute consciousness to an organism. The following few years saw the emergence of John Broadus Watson (1878–1959) as a major player, publishing his dissertation on the relation between neurological development and learning in the white rat (1907, Psychological Review Monograph Supplement; Carr & Watson, 1908,


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-14.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Soviet Marxist psychology == In the early twentieth century, Ivan Pavlov's behavioral and conditioning experiments became the most internationally recognized Russian achievements. With the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922, Marxism was introduced as an overall philosophical and methodological framework in scientific research. In 1920s, state ideology promoted a tendency to the psychology of Bekhterev's reflexologist reductionism in its Marxist interpretation and to historical materialism, while idealistic philosophers and psychologists were harshly criticized. Another variation of Marxist version of psychology that got popularity mostly in Moscow and centered in the local Institute of Psychology was Konstantin Kornilov's (the Director of this Institute) reactology that became the main view, besides a small group of the members of the Vygotsky-Luria Circle that, besides its namesakes Lev Vygotsky, and Alexander Luria, included Bluma Zeigarnik, Alexei Leontiev and others, and in 1920s embraced a deterministic "instrumental psychology" version of Cultural-historical psychology. Many works by Vygotsky were not published chronologically because of Soviet censorship but primarily because of Vygotsky's failure to build a consistent psychological theory of consciousness, A few attempts were made in 1920s at formulating the core of theoretical framework of the "genuinely Marxist" psychology, but all these failed and were


id: history-of-psychology-discipline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology_(discipline)-0.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology (discipline)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology_(discipline)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:12.826187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-discipline-20260505-0
summary:
History of psychology is the academic discipline concerned with studying the history of the study of psychology. Another term would be historiography of psychology. Postsecondary course titles and textbooks often combine history and systems of psychology; one chapter may address the history and tenets of structuralism, a subsequent chapter functionalism, a subsequent chapter behaviorism, etc. The discipline is related to the history of human science, the history of emotions, and the history of psychiatry. These must be considered separately, however, as they have their own disciplinary norms. == The new history of psychology == It is now common practice, when teaching advanced courses in the history of psychology, to follow Laurel Furumoto in making a distinction between old and new history. This label was intended to recognize a shift in disciplinary norms that first became apparent, in retrospect, in the 1970s. Before that, the history of psychology was harshly criticized by specialist historians of science for being celebratory and Whiggish. In other words, the contemporary history of psychology is broadly describable as post-Kuhnian. As a result, it shares traits with contemporary historiography of science, science and technology studies, and the sociology of scientific knowledge. Kurt Danziger's book, Constructing the Subject:


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-0.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Psychopathy, from psych (soul or mind) and pathy (suffering or disease), was coined by German psychiatrists in the 19th century and originally just meant what would today be called mental disorder, the study of which is still known as psychopathology. By the turn of the century 'psychopathic inferiority' referred to the type of mental disorder that might now be termed personality disorder, along with a wide variety of other conditions now otherwise classified. Through the early 20th century this and other terms such as 'constitutional (inborn) psychopaths' or 'psychopathic personalities', were used very broadly to cover anyone who violated legal or moral expectations or was considered inherently socially undesirable in some way. The term sociopathy was popularized from 1929/30 by the American psychologist George E. Partridge and was originally intended as an alternative term to indicate that the defining feature was a pervasive failure to adhere to societal norms in a way that could harm others. The term psychopathy also gradually narrowed to the latter sense, based on interpretations of the work of a Scottish psychiatrist and especially checklists popularized by an American psychiatrist and later a Canadian psychologist. Psychopathy became defined in these quarters as a constellation of personality


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-1.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== First uses of term == Initially physicians who specialised in mental disorders might be referred to as psychopaths (e.g. the American Journal of the Medical Sciences in 1864) and their hospitals as psychopathic institutions (compare to the etymologically similar use of the term homeopathic). Treatments of physical conditions by psychological or spiritualist methods might be referred to as psychopathic. Up until the 1840s, the term psychopathy was also used in a way consistent with its etymology to refer to any illness of the mind. German psychiatrist von Feuchtersleben's (1845) The Principles of Medical Psychology, which was translated into English, used it in this sense, as well as the roughly equivalent new term psychosis, now traced back to Karl Friedrich Canstatt's Handbuch der Medicinischen Klinik (1841). William Griesinger (1868) and Krafft-Ebing (1886) also notably employed the term in distinct ways. The use of the term in a criminological context was popularised by a high-profile legal case in Russia between 1883 and 1885, concerning the murder of a girl who had previously lived in Britain for some time, Sarah Becker (Sarra Bekker). The owner of the pawnbroker shop in which she worked and where her body was found, a retired military


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-2.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Early 20th century == Some writers would still use psychopathy in the general sense of mental illness, such as Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud in Psychopathic Characters on Stage. By contrast influential German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin, who had previously included a section on moral insanity in his psychiatric classification scheme, was by 1904 referring to specific psychopathic subtypes all involving antisocial, criminal or dissocial behaviour, including: born criminals (inborn delinquents), liars and swindlers, querulous persons, and driven persons (including vagabonds, spendthrifts, and dipsomaniacs). The influential Adolf Meyer (psychiatrist) spread the concept of constitutional psychopathy when he emigrated to the US, though unlike Koch he separated out cases of what was termed psychoneurosis. After World War I German psychiatrists dropped the term inferiors/defectives (Minderwertigkeiten) and used psychopathic (psychopathisch) and its derivatives instead, at that time a more neutral term covering a wide range of conditions. Emil Kraepelin, Kurt Schneider and Karl Birnbaum developed categorisation schemes under the heading 'psychopathic personality', only some subtypes of which were thought to have particular links to antisocial behaviour. Schneider in particular advanced the term and tried to formulate it in less judgemental terms than Kraepelin, though infamously defining it as ‘those abnormal personalities who suffer


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-3.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Mid-20th century == The Mask of Sanity by American psychiatrist Hervey M. Cleckley, first published in 1941 and with revised editions for several decades, is considered a seminal work which provided a vivid series of case studies of individuals described as psychopaths. Cleckley proposed 16 characteristics of psychopathy, derived mainly from his work with male psychiatric patients in a locked institution. The title refers to the "mask" of normal functioning that Cleckley thought concealed the disorganization, amorality and disorder of the psychopathic personality. This marked the start in America of the current clinical and popularist conception of psychopathy as a particular type of antisocial, emotionless and criminal character. Cleckley would produce five editions of the book over subsequent decades, including a substantial revision in 1950, expanding his case studies and theories to more non-prisoners and non-criminals. In Nazi Germany, especially during World War II, psychiatrists and others in programmes such as Action T4 and Action 14f13 systematically deported, sterilised, interned and euthanised patients and prisoners who could be classed as mentally ill, feebleminded, psychopathic, criminally insane or just asocial. In the aftermath of the war, therefore, concepts of antisocial psychopathic personalities fell out of favour in Europe to some


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-4.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Late 20th century == In 1968 the second edition of the DSM, in place of the antisocial subtype of sociopathic personality disturbance, listed "antisocial personality" as one of ten personality disorders. This was still described in similar terms as the DSM-I's category, for individuals who are "basically unsocialized", in repeated conflicts with society, incapable of significant loyalty, selfish, irresponsible, unable to feel guilt or learn from prior experiences, and tend to blame others and rationalise. It warned that a history of legal or social offenses was not by itself enough to justify the diagnosis and that a 'group delinquent reaction' of childhood or adolescence or 'social maladjustment without manifest psychiatric disorder' should be ruled out first. The dyssocial type from the DSM-I was relegated, though would resurface as the main diagnosis in the ICD manual of the World Health Organization. In 1974 (and republished in 1984) clinical psychologist Bobby E. Wright wrote about 'The Psychopathic Racial Personality', in which he suggested that negative aspects of the overall behavior of white peoples towards non-white peoples could be understood by seeing the former as displaying psychopathic traits – involving predatory behavior and senseless destruction combined with ability to persuade. There remained


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-5.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Overall trends == One exhaustive analysis by a Canadian psychologist describes the various lines of work as 'a psychopathy project' attempting to establish psychopathy as an object of science. Overall this was found to have suffered from 'a number of serious logical confusions and deliberate mischaracterizations of its scientific merits' - including its early basis in degeneration theory, tautological definitions and associated neuroscience findings, routinely unclarified assumptions and shifting levels of explanation about the core concept, and exaggerated statistical claims such as based on Hare's use of factor analysis. It was noted, however, that some of the limited research findings may prove useful in a better explanatory framework (i.e. not necessarily under the umbrella of 'psychopathy'). Swedish sociologist Roland Paulsen has further placed the more recent resurgence in popular coverage of psychopathy in the context of "the Enlightenment project" to use rationality and technology to deal with problems in human life and society. A Scottish sociologist of biomedical ethics has suggested that the DSM's attempt to develop different standards for Antisocial Personality Disorder have been limited and modified by path dependence on the concept of psychopathy/sociopathy, due to the latter being embedded in diverse sociotechnological networks and thereby demanded


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged, primarily out of Enlightenment thought, as a positivist science of society shortly after the French Revolution. Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science and the philosophy of knowledge, arising in reaction to such issues as modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization and imperialism. During its nascent stages, within the late 19th century, sociological deliberations took particular interest in the emergence of the modern nation state, including its constituent institutions, units of socialization, and its means of surveillance. As such, an emphasis on the concept of modernity, rather than the Enlightenment, often distinguishes sociological discourse from that of classical political philosophy. Likewise, social analysis in a broader sense has origins in the common stock of philosophy, therefore pre-dating the sociological field. Various quantitative social research techniques have become common tools for governments, businesses, and organizations, and have also found use in the other social sciences. Divorced from theoretical explanations of social dynamics, this has given social research a degree of autonomy from the discipline of sociology. Similarly, "social science" has come to be appropriated as an umbrella term to refer to various disciplines which study humans, interaction, society or culture.


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Henri de Saint-Simon ==== Henri de Saint-Simon published Physiologie sociale in 1813, devoting much of his time to the prospect that human society could be steered toward progress if scientists would form an international assembly to influence its course. He argued that scientists could distract groups from war and strife, by focusing their attention to generally improving their societies living conditions. In turn, this would bring multiple cultures and societies together and prevent conflict. Saint-Simon took the idea that everyone had encouraged from the Enlightenment, which was the belief in science, and spun it to be more practical and hands-on for the society. Saint-Simon's main idea was that industrialism would create a new launch in history. He saw that people had been seeing progress as an approach for science, but he wanted them to see it as an approach to all aspects of life. Society was making a crucial change at the time since it was growing out of a declining feudalism. This new path could provide the basis for solving all the old problems society had previously encountered. He was more concerned with the participation of man in the workforce instead of which workforce man choose. His slogan


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
To have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms to those theoretical questions which most occupied men's minds at the time, and to have deduced from them clear practical directives without creating obviously artificial links between the two, was the principal achievement of Marx's theory.… The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which Comte and after him, Spencer and Taine, had discussed and mapped, became a precise and concrete study only when the attack of militant Marxism made its conclusions a burning issue, and so made the search for evidence more zealous and the attention to method more intense. In the 1830s, Karl Marx was part of the Young Hegelians in Berlin, which discussed and wrote about the legacy of the philosopher, George W. F. Hegel (whose seminal tome, Science of Logic was published in 1816). Although, at first sympathetic with the group's strategy of attacking Christianity to undermine the Prussian establishment, he later formed divergent ideas and broke with the Young Hegelians, attacking their views in works such as The German Ideology. Witnessing the struggles of the laborers during the Industrial Revolution, Marx concluded that religion (or the "ideal") is not the basis of the establishment's


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-3.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Ferdinand Tönnies argued that Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft were the two normal types of human association. The former was the traditional kind of community with strong social bonds and shared beliefs, while the latter was the modern society in which individualism and rationality had become more dominant. He also drew a sharp line between the realm of conceptuality and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ('pure' sociology), whereas the second empirically and in an inductive way ('applied' sociology). His ideas were further developed by Max Weber, another early German sociologist. Weber argued for the study of social action through interpretive (rather than purely empiricist) means, based on understanding the purpose and meaning that individuals attach to their own actions. Unlike Durkheim, he did not believe in monocausal explanations and rather proposed that for any outcome there can be multiple causes. Weber's main intellectual concern was understanding the processes of rationalisation, secularisation, and "disenchantment", which he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. Weber is also known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion, elaborated in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-4.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the English philosopher, was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists, although his work has largely fallen out of favor in contemporary sociology. The early sociology of Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte and Marx; writing before and after the Darwinian revolution in biology, Spencer attempted to reformulate the discipline in socially Darwinistic terms. In fact, his early writings show a coherent theory of general evolution several years before Darwin published anything on the subject. Encouraged by his friend and follower Edward L. Youmans, Spencer published The Study of Sociology in 1874, which was the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th-century thinkers, including Émile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim's Division of Labour in Society is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology Durkheim borrowed extensively. Also a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest" as a basic mechanism by which more effective socio-cultural forms progressed. This means


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-5.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Europe ==== Formal institutionalization of sociology as an academic discipline began when Emile Durkheim founded the first French department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année Sociologique. A course entitled "sociology" was taught for the first time in the United States in 1875 by William Graham Sumner, drawing upon the thought of Comte and Herbert Spencer rather than the work of Durkheim. In 1890, the oldest continuing sociology course in the United States began at the University of Kansas, lectured by Frank Blackmar. The Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was established in 1891 and the first full-fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the University of Chicago by Albion W. Small (1854–1926), who in 1895 founded the American Journal of Sociology. American sociology arose on a broadly independent trajectory to European sociology. George Herbert Mead and Charles H. Cooley were influential in the development of symbolic interactionism and social psychology at the University of Chicago, while Lester Ward emphasized the central importance of the scientific method with the publication of Dynamic Sociology in 1883. The first sociology department in the United


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-6.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
In 1905 the American Sociological Association, the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was founded, and Lester F. Ward was selected to serve as the first President of the new society. The University of Chicago developed the major sociologists at the time. It brought them together, and even gave them a hub and a network to link all the leading sociologists. In 1925, a third of all sociology graduate students attended the University of Chicago. Chicago was very good at not isolating their students from other schools. They encouraged them to blend with other sociologists, and to not spend more time in the class room than studying the society around them. This would teach them real life application of the classroom teachings. The first teachings at the University of Chicago were focused on the social problems that the world had been dealt. At this time, academia was not concerned with theory; especially not to the point that academia is today. Many people were still hesitant of sociology at this time, especially with the recent controversial theories of Weber and Marx. The University of Chicago decided to go into an entirely different direction and their sociology department directed their attention to


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-7.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== 19th century: from positivism to anti-positivism == The methodological approach toward sociology by early theorists was to treat the discipline in broadly the same manner as natural science. An emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method was sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as philosophy. This perspective, termed positivism, was first developed by theorist Auguste Comte. Positivism was founded on the theory that the only true, factual knowledge is scientific knowledge. Comte had very vigorous guidelines for a theory to be considered positivism. He thought that this authentic knowledge can only be derived from positive confirmation of theories through strict continuously tested methods, that are not only scientifically but also quantitatively based. Émile Durkheim was a major proponent of theoretically grounded empirical research, seeking correlations to reveal structural laws, or "social facts". Durkheim proved that concepts that had been attributed to the individual were actually socially determined. These occurrences are things such as suicide, crime, moral outrage, a person's personality, time, space, and God. He brought to light that society had influence on all aspects of a person, far more than had been previously


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-8.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mid 20th century === In some countries, sociology was undermined by totalitarian governments for reasons of ostensible political control. After the Russian Revolution, sociology was gradually "politicized, Bolshevisized and eventually, Stalinized" until it virtually ceased to exist in the Soviet Union. In China, the discipline was banned with semiotics, comparative linguistics and cybernetics as "Bourgeois pseudoscience" in 1952, not to return until 1979. During the same period, however, sociology was also undermined by conservative universities in the West. This was due, in part, to perceptions of the subject as possessing an inherent tendency, through its own aims and remit, toward liberal or left wing thought. Given that the subject was founded by structural functionalists; concerned with organic cohesion and social solidarity, this view was somewhat groundless (though it was Parsons who had introduced Durkheim to American audiences, and his interpretation has been criticized for a latent conservatism). In the mid-20th century Robert K. Merton released his Social Theory and Social Structure (1949). Around the same time, C. Wright Mills continued Weber's work of understanding how modernity was undermining tradition, with a critique of the dehumanizing impact this had on people. Also using the Weberian notion of class, he found


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-9.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Dependency theory ==== In Latin America Dependency theory, a structuralist theory, emerged arguing that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system". This theory was officially developed in the late 1960s following World War II, as scholars searched for the root issue in the lack of development in Latin America. The theory was popular in the 1960s and 1970s as a criticism of modernization theory, which was falling increasingly out of favor because of continued widespread poverty in much of the world. At that time the assumptions of liberal theories of development were under attack. It was used to explain the causes of overurbanization, a theory that urbanization rates outpaced industrial growth in several developing countries. Influenced by Dependency theory, World-systems theory emerged as a macro-scale approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis. Immanuel Wallerstein has developed the best-known version of world-systems analysis, beginning in the 1970s. Wallerstein traces the rise of the capitalist world-economy from the "long" 16th century (c. 1450–1640). The rise of capitalism, in his view, was


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-10.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== 21st century sociology == The increase in the size of data sets produced by the new survey methods was followed by the invention of new statistical techniques for analyzing this data. Analysis of this sort is usually performed with statistical software packages such as R, SAS, Stata, or SPSS. Social network analysis is an example of a new paradigm in the positivist tradition. The influence of social network analysis is pervasive in many sociological sub fields such as economic sociology (see the work of J. Clyde Mitchell, Harrison White, or Mark Granovetter, for example), organizational behavior, historical sociology, political sociology, or the sociology of education. There is also a minor revival of a more independent, empirical sociology in the spirit of C. Wright Mills, and his studies of the Power Elite in the United States of America, according to Stanley Aronowitz. Critical realism is a philosophical approach to understanding science developed by Roy Bhaskar (1944–2014). It combines a general philosophy of science (transcendental realism) with a philosophy of social science (critical naturalism). It specifically opposes forms of empiricism and positivism by viewing science as concerned with identifying causal mechanisms. Also, in the context of social science it argues that


id: history-of-sport-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-0.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
The history of sports extends back to the Ancient world in 7000 BC. The physical activity that developed into sports had early links with warfare and entertainment. The study of the history of sport provides insights into social change and the evolution of sport itself, as sporting activities have often been linked to the development of basic human skills (see also play). However, the further one traces back into history, the scarcer the evidence becomes, making it increasingly difficult to support theories about the origins and purposes of sport. As far back as the beginnings of sport, it was related to military training. For example, competition was used as a mean to determine whether individuals were fit and useful for service. Team sports were used to train and to prove the capability to fight in the military and also to work together as a team (military unit). == Ancient era == === Sports in pre-history === Cave paintings found in the Lascaux caves in France appear to depict sprinting in the Upper Paleolithic around 15,300 years ago. Cave paintings in the Bayankhongor Province of Mongolia dating back to the Neolithic Age (c. 7000 BC) show a wrestling match surrounded by


id: history-of-sport-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-1.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
A polished bone implement found at Eva in Tennessee, United States and dated to around 5000 BCE has been construed as a possible sporting device used in a "ring and pin" game. There are artifacts and structures that suggest the Chinese engaged in sporting activities as early as 2000 BCE. Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China's ancient past. The Mesoamerican ballgame originated over three thousand years ago. The Mayan ballgame, known as Pitz, is believed to be the first ball sport, as it was played around 1200 BCE. Sports that are at least two and a half thousand years old include hurling in Ancient Ireland, shinty in Scotland, harpastum (similar to rugby) in Rome, cuju (similar to association football) in China, and polo in Persia. Ancient Persian sports include the traditional Iranian martial art of Zourkhaneh. Among other sports that originated in Persia are chovgan (polo) and jousting. Various traditional sports of India are believed to be thousands of years old, with kho-kho having been played since at least the fourth century BCE, aspects of kabaddi having potentially been mentioned in the Mahabharata, and atya-patya having been described in the Naṟṟiṇai, around 300 AD. == Middle


id: history-of-sport-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-2.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
After the late middle ages, early modern sports became less of a violent or military training activity and more of an activity done for recreational benefit in Europe. During the Renaissance, educators, and medical surgeons promoted playing sports because of their numerous physical and psychological benefits to the human body. During this era, there was also support for moderating sports, as it was viewed as more for leisure than a strict procedure. Open-air sporting events became an attraction for many and people of all different social hierarchies were involved in this new culture. These new radical ideas about sports made their way into books, and films, and eventually became part of the social culture during the Renaissance. As mentioned by Mike Huggins, Gargantua and Pantagruel written by François Rabelais was a well-known novel published in 1534 that mentioned sports and games as a unit, like many other renowned works of literature. All different types of sports became a functional unit in many people's routines and it brought refreshment into people's lives. As the popularity and involvement of sports increased, rules began to form and sports became more regulated so they could be fair. Sports clubs and associations which provided a


id: history-of-sport-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-3.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
Writing about cricket in particular, John Leach has explained the role of Puritan power, the English Civil War, and the Restoration of the monarchy in England. The Long Parliament in 1642 "banned theatres, which had met with Puritan disapproval. Although similar action would be taken against certain sports, it is not clear if cricket was in any way prohibited, except that players must not break the Sabbath". In 1660, "the Restoration of the monarchy in England was immediately followed by the reopening of the theaters and so any sanctions that had been imposed by the Puritans on cricket would also have been lifted." He goes on to make the key point that political, social and economic conditions in the aftermath of the Restoration encouraged excessive gambling, so much so that a Gambling Act was deemed necessary in 1664. It is certain that cricket, horse racing and boxing (i.e., prizefighting) were financed by gambling interests. Leech explains that it was the habit of cricket patrons, all of whom were gamblers, to form strong teams through the 18th century to represent their interests. He defines a strong team as one representative of more than one parish and he is certain that such


id: history-of-sport-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-4.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
Most sports in the United States evolved out of European practices. However, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, water skiing, and snowboarding are North American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries. However, lacrosse and surfing in particular arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact. During the colonial era, baseball (closely related to English rounders and French la soule, and less clearly connected to cricket) became established in the urban Northeastern United States, with the first rules being codified in the 1840s, while American football was very popular in the south-east, with baseball spreading to the south, and American football spreading to the north after the Civil War. There is documented evidence of baseball in England. An extract from an 18th-century diary containing the oldest known reference to baseball is among the items on display in a new exhibition in London exploring the English origins and cricketing connections of America's national sport. While baseball was once claimed to have been invented in the U.S. in the mid-19th century, recent findings suggest a sport of the same name may have evolved decades earlier alongside cricket, crossing the Atlantic with English settlers to the American colonies. One


id: history-of-sport-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-5.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == S. Battente, The idea of sport in western culture from antiquity to the contemporary era, Vernon press, 2020. Crawford Scott, A. G. M. Serious Aport: J. A. Mangan's Contribution to the History of Sport, Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass (2004) Guttmann, Allen. Women's Sports: A History, Columbia University Press (1992) Guttmann, Allen. Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism, Columbia University Press, 1996 Guttmann, Allen. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (2002) Holt, Richard. Sport and Society in Modern France (1981). Holt, Richard. Sport and the British: A Modern History (1990) excerpt Howell, Colin. Blood, Sweat, and Cheers: Sport and the Making of Modern Canada (2001) Mangan, J. A. (1996). Militarism, Sport, Europe: War Without Weapons. Routledge. Mann, Christian (2025). Griechische Athleten. Eine Sozialgeschichte [Greek athletes. A social history]. Stuttgart: Steiner, ISBN 978-3-515-13956-4. Maurer, Michael. "Vom Mutterland des Sports zum Kontinent: Der Transfer des englischen Sports im 19. Jahrhundert", Mainz: European History Online (2011), retrieved: 25 February 2012. Morrow, Don; Wamsley, Kevin B. Sport in Canada: A History (2009) Murray, Bill. The World's Game: A History of Soccer (1998) Polley, Martin. Sports History: A Practical Guide, Palgrave, 2007. Journals online article from The Sports


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Statistics, in the modern sense of the word, began evolving in the 18th century in response to the novel needs of industrializing sovereign states. In early times, the meaning was restricted to information about states, particularly demographics such as population. This was later extended to include all collections of information of all types, and later still it was extended to include the analysis and interpretation of such data. In modern terms, "statistics" means both sets of collected information, as in national accounts and temperature record, and analytical work which requires statistical inference. Statistical activities are often associated with models expressed using probabilities, hence the connection with probability theory. The large requirements of data processing have made statistics a key application of computing. A number of statistical concepts have an important impact on a wide range of sciences. These include the design of experiments and approaches to statistical inference such as Bayesian inference, each of which can be considered to have their own sequence in the development of the ideas underlying modern statistics. == Introduction == By the 18th century, the term "statistics" designated the systematic collection of demographic and economic data by states. For at least two millennia, these data


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-1.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Basic forms of statistics have been used since the beginning of civilization. Early empires often collated censuses of the population or recorded the trade in various commodities. The Han dynasty and the Roman Empire were some of the first states to extensively gather data on the size of the empire's population, geographical area and wealth. The use of statistical methods dates back to at least the 5th century BCE. The historian Thucydides in his History of the Peloponnesian War describes how the Athenians calculated the height of the wall of Platea by counting the number of bricks in an unplastered section of the wall sufficiently near them to be able to count them. The count was repeated several times by a number of soldiers. The most frequent value (in modern terminology – the mode) so determined was taken to be the most likely value of the number of bricks. Multiplying this value by the height of the bricks used in the wall allowed the Athenians to determine the height of the ladders necessary to scale the walls. The Trial of the Pyx is a test of the purity of the coinage of the Royal Mint which has been held on


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-2.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The term 'statistic' was introduced by the Italian scholar Girolamo Ghilini in 1589 with reference to this science. The birth of statistics is often dated to 1662, when John Graunt, along with William Petty, developed early human statistical and census methods that provided a framework for modern demography. He produced the first life table, giving probabilities of survival to each age. His book Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality used analysis of the mortality rolls to make the first statistically based estimation of the population of London. He knew that there were around 13,000 funerals per year in London and that three people died per eleven families per year. He estimated from the parish records that the average family size was 8 and calculated that the population of London was about 384,000; this is the first known use of a ratio estimator. Laplace in 1802 estimated the population of France with a similar method; see Ratio estimator § History for details. Although the original scope of statistics was limited to data useful for governance, the approach was extended to many fields of a scientific or commercial nature during the 19th century. The mathematical foundations for the


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-3.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1774) made the first attempt to deduce a rule for the combination of observations from the principles of the theory of probabilities. He represented the law of probability of errors by a curve and deduced a formula for the mean of three observations. Laplace in 1774 noted that the frequency of an error could be expressed as an exponential function of its magnitude once its sign was disregarded. This distribution is now known as the Laplace distribution. Lagrange proposed a parabolic fractal distribution of errors in 1776. Laplace in 1778 published his second law of errors wherein he noted that the frequency of an error was proportional to the exponential of the square of its magnitude. This was subsequently rediscovered by Gauss (possibly in 1795) and is now best known as the normal distribution which is of central importance in statistics. This distribution was first referred to as the normal distribution by C. S. Peirce in 1873 who was studying measurement errors when an object was dropped onto a wooden base. He chose the term normal because of its frequent occurrence in naturally occurring variables. Lagrange also suggested in 1781 two other distributions for errors – a raised


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-4.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The first statistical bodies were established in the early 19th century. The Royal Statistical Society was founded in 1834 and Florence Nightingale, its first female member, pioneered the application of statistical analysis to health problems for the furtherance of epidemiological understanding and public health practice. However, the methods then used would not be considered as modern statistics today. The Oxford scholar Francis Ysidro Edgeworth's book, Metretike: or The Method of Measuring Probability and Utility (1887) dealt with probability as the basis of inductive reasoning, and his later works focused on the 'philosophy of chance'. His first paper on statistics (1883) explored the law of error (normal distribution), and his Methods of Statistics (1885) introduced an early version of the t distribution, the Edgeworth expansion, the Edgeworth series, the method of variate transformation and the asymptotic theory of maximum likelihood estimates. The Norwegian Anders Nicolai Kiær introduced the concept of stratified sampling in 1895. Arthur Lyon Bowley introduced new methods of data sampling in 1906 when working on social statistics. Although statistical surveys of social conditions had started with Charles Booth's "Life and Labour of the People in London" (1889–1903) and Seebohm Rowntree's "Poverty, A Study of Town Life" (1901), Bowley's


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-5.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Galton's publication of Natural Inheritance in 1889 sparked the interest of a brilliant mathematician, Karl Pearson, then working at University College London, and he went on to found the discipline of mathematical statistics. He emphasised the statistical foundation of scientific laws and promoted its study and his laboratory attracted students from around the world attracted by his new methods of analysis, including Udny Yule. His work grew to encompass the fields of biology, epidemiology, anthropometry, medicine and social history. In 1901, with Walter Weldon, founder of biometry, and Galton, he founded the journal Biometrika as the first journal of mathematical statistics and biometry. His work, and that of Galton, underpins many of the 'classical' statistical methods which are in common use today, including the Correlation coefficient, defined as a product-moment; the method of moments for the fitting of distributions to samples; Pearson's system of continuous curves that forms the basis of the now conventional continuous probability distributions; Chi distance a precursor and special case of the Mahalanobis distance and P-value, defined as the probability measure of the complement of the ball with the hypothesized value as center point and chi distance as radius. He also introduced the term 'standard deviation'.


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-6.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
In 1747, while serving as surgeon on HM Bark Salisbury, James Lind carried out a controlled experiment to develop a cure for scurvy. In this study his subjects' cases "were as similar as I could have them", that is he provided strict entry requirements to reduce extraneous variation. The men were paired, which provided blocking. From a modern perspective, the main thing that is missing is randomized allocation of subjects to treatments. Lind is today often described as a one-factor-at-a-time experimenter. Similar one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experimentation was performed at the Rothamsted Research Station in the 1840s by Sir John Lawes to determine the optimal inorganic fertilizer for use on wheat. A theory of statistical inference was developed by Charles S. Peirce in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics. In another study, Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights. Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s. Peirce also contributed the first English-language publication on an optimal


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-7.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The term Bayesian refers to Thomas Bayes (1702–1761), who proved that probabilistic limits could be placed on an unknown event. However it was Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who introduced (as principle VI) what is now called Bayes' theorem and applied it to celestial mechanics, medical statistics, reliability, and jurisprudence. When insufficient knowledge was available to specify an informed prior, Laplace used uniform priors, according to his "principle of insufficient reason". Laplace assumed uniform priors for mathematical simplicity rather than for philosophical reasons. Laplace also introduced primitive versions of conjugate priors and the theorem of von Mises and Bernstein, according to which the posteriors corresponding to initially differing priors ultimately agree, as the number of observations increases. This early Bayesian inference, which used uniform priors following Laplace's principle of insufficient reason, was called "inverse probability" (because it infers backwards from observations to parameters, or from effects to causes). After the 1920s, inverse probability was largely supplanted by a collection of methods that were developed by Ronald A. Fisher, Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson. Their methods came to be called frequentist statistics. Fisher rejected the Bayesian view, writing that "the theory of inverse probability is founded upon an error, and must be wholly


id: history-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The history of technology is the history of human invention of tools and techniques. Technology includes methods ranging from simple stone tools to the complex genetic engineering and information technology that has emerged since the 1980s. The term technology comes from the Greek words techne, meaning art and craft, and logos, meaning word and speech. It was first used to describe applied arts, but it is now used to describe advancements and changes that affect the environment around us. New knowledge has enabled people to create new tools. Conversely, many scientific endeavors are made possible by new technologies, such as scientific instruments that allow us to study nature in greater detail than our natural senses can. Since much of technology is applied science, technical history is connected to the history of science. Since technology uses resources, technical history is tightly connected to economic history. From those resources, technology produces other resources, including technological artifacts used in everyday life. Technological change affects, and is affected by, a society's cultural traditions. It is a force for economic growth and a means of developing and projecting economic, political, and military power and wealth. == Measuring technological progress == Many sociologists and anthropologists have


id: history-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
During most of the Paleolithic – the bulk of the Stone Age – all humans lived with limited tools and few permanent settlements. The first major technologies were tied to survival, hunting, and food preparation. Stone tools and weapons, fire, and clothing were major technological developments during this period. Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of Homo sapiens approximately 300,000 years ago. The earliest direct evidence of tool usage was found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years ago. The earliest methods of stone tool making, known as the Oldowan "industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago. This era of stone tool use is called the Paleolithic, or "Old stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of agriculture approximately 12,000 years ago. To make a stone tool, a "core" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. This flaking produced sharp edges which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers. These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to perform a variety


id: history-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Before iron smelting was developed, the only iron obtained was from meteorites, which are usually identified by having nickel content. Meteoric iron was rare and valuable, but was sometimes used to make tools and other implements, such as fish hooks. The Iron Age involved the adoption of iron smelting technology. It generally replaced bronze and enabled the production of tools that were stronger, lighter, and cheaper to make than their bronze equivalents. The raw materials to make iron, such as ore and limestone, are far more abundant than copper and especially tin ores. Consequently, iron was produced in many areas. It was not possible to mass-manufacture steel or pure iron because of the high temperatures required. Furnaces could reach melting temperature, but the crucibles and molds needed for melting and casting had not been developed. Steel could be produced by forging bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a somewhat controllable way, but steel produced by this method was not homogeneous. In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of writing, though this was not universally the case. In Europe, large hill forts were built either as refuges in times of war


id: history-of-technology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-3.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Egypt ==== The Egyptians, known for building pyramids centuries before the advent of modern tools, invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp, to aid construction. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the pyramids were built using three of the Six Simple Machines, from which all machines are based. These machines are the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is 481 feet (147 meters) high. They also made writing medium similar to paper from papyrus, which Joshua Mark states is the foundation for modern paper. Papyrus is a plant (Cyperus papyrus) that grew in plentiful amounts in the Egyptian Delta and throughout the Nile River Valley during ancient times. The papyrus was harvested by field workers and brought to processing centers, where it was cut into thin strips. The strips were then laid out side by side and covered in plant resin. The second layer of strips was laid perpendicular to the first, then both were pressed together until the sheet was dry. The


id: history-of-technology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-4.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Hellenistic Mediterranean ==== The Hellenistic period of Mediterranean history began in the 4th century BC with Alexander's conquests, which led to the emergence of a Hellenistic civilization representing a synthesis of Greek and Near-Eastern cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean region, including the Balkans, Levant and Egypt. With Ptolemaic Egypt as its intellectual center and Greek as the lingua franca, the Hellenistic civilization included Greek, Egyptian, Jewish, Persian, and Phoenician scholars and engineers who wrote in Greek. Hellenistic engineers of the Eastern Mediterranean were responsible for several inventions and improvements to existing technology. The Hellenistic period saw a sharp increase in technological advancement, fostered by a climate of openness to new ideas, the blossoming of a mechanistic philosophy, and the establishment of the Library of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt and its close association with the adjacent museion. In contrast to the typically anonymous inventors of earlier ages, ingenious minds such as Archimedes, Philo of Byzantium, Heron, Ctesibius, and Archytas remain known by name to posterity. Ancient agriculture, as in any period before the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence, and its irrigation methods, were considerably advanced by the invention and widespread application of several previously unknown water-lifting


id: history-of-technology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-5.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== East Asia ==== ==== Indian subcontinent ==== ==== Islamic world ==== The Muslim caliphates united large areas that had previously traded little with one another, including the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, the Iberian Peninsula, and parts of the Indian subcontinent. The science and technology of earlier empires in the region, including the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman empires, were inherited by the Muslim world, where Arabic replaced Syriac, Persian, and Greek as the region's lingua franca. Significant advances were made in the region during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–16th centuries). The Arab Agricultural Revolution occurred during this period. It was a transformation in agriculture from the 8th to the 13th century in the Islamic region of the Old World. The economy established by Arab and other Muslim traders across the Old World enabled the diffusion of many crops and farming techniques throughout the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops and techniques from and to regions outside it. Advances were made in animal husbandry, irrigation, and farming, with the help of new technology such as the windmill. These changes made agriculture much more productive, supporting population growth, urbanisation, and greater social stratification. Muslim engineers


id: history-of-technology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-6.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights, clock makers, instrument makers, and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology. A standard reference for the state of the mechanical arts during the Renaissance is the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years. Among the water-powered mechanical devices in use were ore stamping mills, forge hammers, blast bellows, and suction pumps. Due to the casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid-15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC. The invention of the movable cast metal type printing press, whose pressing mechanism was adapted from an olive screw press, (c. 1441) lead to a tremendous increase in the number of books and the number of titles published. Movable ceramic type had been used in China for a few centuries and woodblock printing dated back even further. The era is marked by such profound technical advancements as linear


id: history-of-technology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-7.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The steam engine helped drain the mines, allowing access to more coal reserves and increasing coal output. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible; a transport revolution followed. The steam engine which had existed since the early 18th century, was practically applied to both steamboat and railway transportation. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first purpose-built railway line, opened in 1830, with the Rocket locomotive of Robert Stephenson among its first working locomotives. Manufacture of ships' pulley blocks by all-metal machines at the Portsmouth Block Mills in 1803 instigated the age of sustained mass production. Machine tools used by engineers to manufacture parts began in the first decade of the century, notably by Richard Roberts and Joseph Whitworth. The development of interchangeable parts through what is now called the American system of manufacturing began in the firearms industry at the U.S. Federal arsenals in the early 19th century; it became widely used by the end of the century. Until the Enlightenment era, little progress was made in water supply and sanitation, and the engineering skills of the Romans were largely neglected throughout Europe. The first documented use of sand filters to purify the water supply dates to


id: history-of-technology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-8.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Mass production brought automobiles and other high-tech goods to the masses of consumers. Military research and development sped advances including electronic computing and jet engines. Radio and telephony greatly improved and expanded their reach to larger user populations. However, near-universal access would not be possible until mobile phones became affordable to residents of the developing world in the late 2000s and early 2010s. Energy and engine technology improvements included nuclear power, developed after the Manhattan Project, which heralded the new Atomic Age. Rocket development led to long range missiles and the first space age that lasted from the 1950s with the launch of Sputnik to the mid-1980s. Electrification spread rapidly in the 20th century. At the beginning of the century, electric power was, for the most part, only available to wealthy people in a few major cities. By 2019, an estimated 87 percent of the world's population had access to electricity. Birth control also became widespread during the 20th century. Electron microscopes were very powerful by the late 1970s, and genetic theory and knowledge were expanding, leading to developments in genetic engineering. The first "test tube baby" Louise Brown was born in 1978, which led to the first successful gestational


id: history-of-technology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-9.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Biotechnology === Timeline of agriculture and food technology Timeline of biotechnology === Civil engineering === Civil engineering Architecture and building construction Bridges, harbors, tunnels, dams Surveying, instruments and maps, cartography, urban engineering, water supply and sewerage === Communication === === Computing === === Consumer technology === === Electrical engineering === Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering === Energy === === Materials science === Timeline of materials technology Metallurgy === Measurement === History of time in the United States History of timekeeping devices === Medicine === === Military === Military history#Technological evolution Category:Military history – articles on history of specific technologies === Nuclear === Manhattan Project Atomic Age Nuclear testing Nuclear arms race === Science and technology === === Transport === == See also == === Related history === === Related disciplines === === Related subjects === == References == == Further reading == == External links == Electropaedia on the History of Technology Archived 2011-05-12 at the Wayback Machine MIT 6.933J – The Structure of Engineering Revolutions. From MIT OpenCourseWare, course materials (graduate level) for a course on the history of technology through a Thomas Kuhn-ian lens. Concept of Civilization Events. From Jaroslaw Kessler, a chronology of "civilizing events".


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-0.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
The history of telecommunication began with the use of smoke signals and drums in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. In the 1790s, the first fixed semaphore systems emerged in Europe. However, it was not until the 1830s that electrical telecommunication systems started to appear. This article details the history of telecommunication and the individuals who helped make telecommunication systems what they are today. The history of telecommunication is an important part of the larger history of communication. == Ancient systems and optical telegraphy == Early telecommunications included smoke signals and drums. Talking drums were used by natives in Africa, and smoke signals in North America and China. These systems were often used to do more than announce the presence of a military camp. In Rabbinical Judaism a signal was given by means of kerchiefs or flags at intervals along the way back to the high priest to indicate the goat "for Azazel" had been pushed from the cliff. Homing pigeons have occasionally been used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post had Persian roots, and was later used by the Romans to aid their military. Greek hydraulic semaphore systems were used as early as the 4th century BC. The hydraulic


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-1.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
Experiments on communication with electricity, initially unsuccessful, started in about 1726. Scientists including Laplace, Ampère, and Gauss were involved. An early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an 'electrochemical' telegraph created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring in 1809, based on an earlier, less robust design of 1804 by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) in order to visually represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmerring's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. An electric current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each digit of a message; at the recipient's end the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver's operator would visually observe the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message, albeit at a very low baud rate. The principal disadvantage to the system was its prohibitive cost, due to having to manufacture and string-up the multiple wire circuits it


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-2.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
Over several years starting in 1894, the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi worked on adapting the newly discovered phenomenon of radio waves to telecommunication, building the first wireless telegraphy system using them. In December 1901, he established wireless communication between St. John's, Newfoundland and Poldhu, Cornwall (England), earning him a Nobel Prize in Physics (which he shared with Karl Braun) in 1909. In 1900, Reginald Fessenden was able to wirelessly transmit a human voice. Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Bengali physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60 GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901. In 1924, Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi began a research program on electronic television. In 1925, he demonstrated a cathode-ray tube (CRT) television with thermal electron emission. In 1926, he demonstrated a CRT television with 40-line resolution, the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. In 1927, he increased the television resolution to 100 lines, which was unrivaled until 1931. In 1928, he was the first to transmit human faces in half-tones on television, influencing the


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-3.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
The first U.S. satellite to relay communications was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower. In 1960 NASA launched an Echo satellite; the 100-foot (30 m) aluminized PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio communications. Courier 1B, built by Philco, also launched in 1960, was the world's first active repeater satellite. Satellites these days are used for many applications such as GPS, television, internet and telephone. Telstar was the first active, direct relay commercial communications satellite. Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first privately sponsored space launch. Relay 1 was launched on December 13, 1962, and became the first satellite to broadcast across the Pacific on November 22, 1963. The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long-distance telephony. The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-4.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
MOS technology was initially overlooked by Bell because they did not find it practical for analog telephone applications. MOS technology eventually became practical for telephone applications with the MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit, which combines analog and digital signal processing on a single chip, developed by former Bell engineer David A. Hodges with Paul R. Gray at UC Berkeley in the early 1970s. In 1974, Hodges and Gray worked with R.E. Suarez to develop MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit technology, which they used to develop the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip, using MOSFETs and MOS capacitors for data conversion. This was followed by the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) chip, developed by Gray and J. McCreary in 1975. MOS SC circuits led to the development of PCM codec-filter chips in the late 1970s. The silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) PCM codec-filter chip, developed by Hodges and W.C. Black in 1980, has since been the industry standard for digital telephony. By the 1990s, telecommunication networks such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN) had been largely digitized with very-large-scale integration (VLSI) CMOS PCM codec-filters, widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges and data transmission applications. === Wireless revolution === The wireless revolution began in


id: philosophy-of-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:22.311748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
The philosophy of archaeology seeks to investigate the foundations, methods and implications of the discipline of archaeology in order to further understand the human past and present. Core questions address the definition of archaeology, its theoretical foundations, and the ways in which the discipline conceptualizes time. They also examine the purposes of archaeology, including why it is conducted and for whose benefit, as well as the nature and reality of the materials and processes that constitute archaeological inquiry. Analytic philosophy of archaeology explores the conceptual structure underlying terms such as artefact, site, archaeological record, and archaeological culture. These issues represent part of the broader metaphysical, aesthetic, epistemological, ethical, and theoretical concerns central to archaeological practice. In addition to these general questions, the philosophy of archaeology is also concerned with fieldwork methodology, integration of theory and collaboration with other disciplines, theories of measurement and data representation. Philosophy of archaeology can also denote a certain approach or attitude applied to the discipline, such as feminist, Marxist, humanist or processual for example. These approaches are generally referred to as "theory" by archaeologists and are sometimes conflated with, but are not the same as, analytic philosophy of archaeology. See Archeological theory for a full


id: philosophy-of-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:22.311748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
== Ontology == The ontology of archaeology is concerned with what archaeological entities exist, can be said to exist, and what their relations to each other might be. For example, what is an artefact, a site or a culture and do they exist as separate entities? If entities are agreed to exist how should they be categorised or recorded. A branch of research in archaeological ontology is known as typology which attempts to sort objects into classes based on physical characteristics. The existence and nature of time is also of concern in archaeological ontology. For example, what effect does periodisation, e.g. the three age model, have on archaeological theory and practice. Questions of the ontological nature of both time and objects are of great importance in the design of archaeological databases and are of increasing importance as the computerisation of archaeological processes and data increases. == Theory == The philosophy of archaeology is also concerned with the construction of theories within the discipline. Archaeology is a theoretically fragmented field with no generally applied interpretative theory underpinning the discipline. A multitude of different theoretical approaches have developed over the last 50 years and exist in parallel across the discipline. These range


id: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:23.548532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy of ecology is a concept under the philosophy of science, which is a subfield of philosophy. Its main concerns centre on the practice and application of ecology, its moral issues, and the intersectionality between the position of humans and other entities. This topic also overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, as it attempts to answer metaphysical, epistemic and moral issues surrounding environmental ethics and public policy. The aim of the philosophy of ecology is to clarify and critique the 'first principles’, which are the fundamental assumptions present in science and the natural sciences. Although there has yet to be a consensus about what presupposes philosophy of ecology, and the definition for ecology is up for debate, there are some central issues that philosophers of ecology consider when examining the role and purpose of what ecologists practice. For example, this field considers the 'nature of nature', the methodological and conceptual issues surrounding ecological research, and the problems associated with these studies within its contextual environment. Philosophy addresses the questions that make up ecological studies, and presents a different perspective into the history of ecology, environmental ethics in ecological science, and the application of mathematical models. == Background ==


id: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:23.548532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Contemporary ecology === Defining contemporary ecology requires looking at certain fundamental principles, namely principles of system and evolution. System entails understanding the processes, of which interconnected sections establish a holistic identity, not separated or predictable from their components. Evolution results from the ‘generation of variety’ as a means to produce change. Certain entities that interact with their environments create evolution through survival, and it is the production of changes that shape ecological systems. This evolutionary process is central to ecology and biology. There are three main concerns that ecologists generally concur with: naturalism, scientific realism, and the comprehensive scope of ecology. Philosopher Frederick Ferre defines two different primary meanings for nature in Being and Value: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Metaphysics (1996). The first definition does not consider nature as 'artifacts of human manipulation’, and nature, in this sense, comprises those not of artificial origins. The second definition establishes natures as those not of supernatural conceptions, which includes artefacts of human manipulation in this case. However, there is confusion of meaning as both connotations are used interchangeably in its application in different contexts by different ecologists. ==== Naturalism ==== There is yet to be a defined explanation of naturalism within


id: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology-2.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:23.548532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
== Mathematical models == Mathematical models play a role in questioning the issues presented in ecology and conservation biology. There are mainly two types of models used to explore the relationship between applications of mathematics and practice within ecology. The first are descriptive models, which details single-species population growth, for example, and multi-species models like Lotka-Volterra predator-prey models or Nicholson-Baily host-parasitoid model. These models explain behavioural activity through the idealisation of the intended target. The second type are normative models, which describe the current state of variables and how certain variables should behave. In ecology, complicated biological interactions require explanation, which is where the models are used to investigate hypotheses. For example, identification and explanations of certain organisms and population abundance is essential for understanding the role of ecology and biodiversity. Applications of equations provide an inclination towards a prediction, or a model to suggest an answer for these questions that come up. Mathematical model in particular also provide contextual supporting information regarding factors on a wider, more global scale as well. The purpose of these models and the differences in normative models and scientific models is that the differences in their standards entail different applications. These models aid in


id: philosophy-and-economics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy and economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:24.877786+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-and-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy and economics studies topics such as public economics, behavioural economics, rationality, justice, history of economic thought, rational choice, the appraisal of economic outcomes, institutions and processes, the status of highly idealized economic models, the ontology of economic phenomena and the possibilities of acquiring knowledge of them. It is useful to divide philosophy of economics in this way into three subject matters which can be regarded respectively as branches of action theory, ethics (or normative social and political philosophy), and philosophy of science. Economic theories of rationality, welfare, and social choice defend substantive philosophical theses often informed by relevant philosophical literature and of evident interest to those interested in action theory, philosophical psychology, and social and political philosophy. Economics is of special interest to those interested in epistemology and philosophy of science both because of its detailed peculiarities and because it has many of the overt features of the natural sciences, while its object consists of social phenomena. In any empirical setting, the epistemic assumptions of financial economics (and related applied financial disciplines) are relevant, and are further discussed under the Epistemology of finance. == Scope == === Definition and ontology of economics === The question usually addressed in any


id: philosophy-and-economics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy and economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:24.877786+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-and-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Praxeology: a deductive theory of human action based on premises presumed to be philosophically true (following the analytic–synthetic distinction of Immanuel Kant). Developed by Ludwig von Mises within the Austrian School, is a self-conscious opposition to the mathematical modeling and hypothesis-testing to validate neoclassical economics. Cross-cultural perspectives on economics, and economic anthropology: an example is the Buddhist-inspired Bhutanese "Gross National Happiness" concept (suggested as a better development measure than GNI/GDP). Amartya Sen is a renowned advocate for the integration of cross-cultural phenomena into economic thinking. Feminist perspectives on economics, or feminist economics. == Scholars cited in the literature == == Related disciplines == The ethics of economic systems is an area of overlap between business ethics and the philosophy of economics. People who write on the ethics of economic systems are more likely to call themselves political philosophers than business ethicists or economic philosophers. There is significant overlap between theoretical issues in economics and the philosophy of economics. As economics is generally accepted to have its origins in philosophy, the history of economics overlaps with the philosophy of economics. == Degrees == Some universities offer joint degrees that combine philosophy, politics and economics. These degrees cover many of the problems


id: web-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Web science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:27.676574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: web-science-20260505-0
summary:
Web science is an emerging interdisciplinary field concerned with the study of large-scale socio-technical systems, particularly the World Wide Web. It considers the relationship between people and technology, the ways that society and technology co-constitute one another and the impact of this co-constitution on broader society. Web Science combines research from disciplines as diverse as sociology, computer science, economics, and mathematics. An earlier definition was given by American computer scientist Ben Shneiderman: "Web Science" is processing the information available on the web in similar terms to those applied to natural environment. The Web Science Institute describes Web Science as focusing "the analytical power of researchers from disciplines as diverse as mathematics, sociology, economics, psychology, law and computer science to understand and explain the Web. It is necessarily interdisciplinary – as much about social and organizational behaviour as about the underpinning technology." A central pillar of Web science development is Artificial Intelligence or "AI". The current artificial intelligence that in development at the moment is Human-Centered, with goals to further professional development courses as well as influencing public policy. Artificial intelligence developers are focused on the most impactful uses of this technology, while also hoping to expedite the growth and development


id: digital-enterprise-research-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Enterprise_Research_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Digital Enterprise Research Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Enterprise_Research_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:30.092999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: digital-enterprise-research-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Digital Enterprise Research Institute (DERI) is a former research institute at NUI Galway. It is now part of the Insight Centre for Data Analytics. Insight was established in 2013 by Science Foundation Ireland with funding of €75m. DERI's focus is research into the Semantic Web and linked data. It was originally established as a Centre for Science, Engineering and Technology (CSET) in 2003 with funding from Science Foundation Ireland. Additional funding sources were EU Framework Programs, Enterprise Ireland, IRCSET, and industry. == History == DERI was opened in 2003 with funding from Science Foundation Ireland. In addition projects from the European Commission and Enterprise Ireland extended the research program. As scientific director Dieter Fensel was hired from the University of Innsbruck. As executive director Christoph Bussler was hired from Oracle. Additional leadership was provided by Stefan Decker (Information Sciences Institute, University of Southern California) and David O'Sullivan (National University of Ireland). In 2006 Stefan Decker took over the Director position, and Michael Turley took over the Chief Executive Position. Manfred Hauswirth became deputy director. DERI grew rapidly from 2 persons in 2003 to about 40 in 2006, and then to about 100 in 2008. In 2008 DERI secured a


id: web-science-trust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Science_Trust-0.md
category: reference
title: Web Science Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Science_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:31.359736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: web-science-trust-20260505-0
summary:
The Web Science Trust (WST) is a UK Charitable Trust with the aim of supporting the global development of Web science. It was originally started in 2006 as a joint effort between MIT and University of Southampton to formalise the social and technical aspects of the World Wide Web. The trust coordinates a set of international "WSTNet Laboratories" that include academic research groups in the emerging area of Web science. It was first announced at MIT on 2 November 2006 as the Web Science Research Initiative (WSRI), changing its name in 2009 to the Web Science Trust. Tim Berners-Lee originally led this program, now run by a Board of Trustees, which aims to attract government and private funds to support their many activities. The Web Science Trust supports curriculum development in universities and research institutions to train future generations of Web Scientists. Given the similarities between Web Science and Information Science, Web Science overlaps with the interests of the ISchool movement, particularly in the United States, but focuses more specifically on the Web itself. The annual Web Science conference brings together participants from many fields including those studying both the social and the computational aspects of the World Wide Web.


id: list-of-people-considered-father-or-mother-of-a-scientific-field-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field-0.md
category: reference
title: List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:35.599783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-considered-father-or-mother-of-a-scientific-field-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of people who are considered a "father" or "mother" (or "founding father" or "founding mother") of a scientific field. Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and/or delineation of that field; they may also be seen as "a" rather than "the" father or mother of the field. Debate over who merits the title can be perennial. == Science as a whole == == Natural sciences == === Biology === === Chemistry === === Earth sciences === === Medicine and physiology === === Physics and astronomy === == Formal sciences == === Mathematics === === Systems theory === == Social sciences == === Economics === ==== Schools of thought ==== ==== Theories ==== == See also == Founders of statistics == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-the-72-names-on-the-eiffel-tower-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_72_names_on_the_Eiffel_Tower-0.md
category: reference
title: List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_72_names_on_the_Eiffel_Tower
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:36.823770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-the-72-names-on-the-eiffel-tower-20260505-0
summary:
On the Eiffel Tower, 72 names of French male scientists, engineers, and mathematicians are engraved in recognition of their contributions. Gustave Eiffel chose this "invocation of science" because of his concern over the protests against the tower, and chose names of those who had distinguished themselves since 1789. The engravings are found on the sides of the tower under the first balcony, in letters about 60 cm (24 in) tall, and were originally painted in gold. The engraving was painted over at the beginning of the 20th century and restored in 1986–87 by Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, the company that the city of Paris contracts to operate the Tower. The repainting of 2010–11 restored the letters to their original gold colour. There are also names of the engineers who helped build the Tower and design its architecture on a plaque on the top of the Tower, where a laboratory was built as well. It has been proposed to add the names of 72 leading women to the tower and a list for agreement with the Mayor of Paris was presented in 2026. == List == === Location === The list is split in four parts (one for


id: list-of-chemical-elements-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical elements named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:37.997013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-elements-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This list of chemical elements named after people includes elements named for people both directly and indirectly. Of the 118 elements, 19 are connected with the names of 20 people. 15 elements were named to honor 16 scientists (as curium honours both Marie and Pierre Curie). Four others have indirect connection to the names of non-scientists. Only gadolinium and samarium occur in nature; the rest are man-made. == List == These 19 elements are connected to the names of people. Seaborg and Oganessian were the only living persons honored by having elements named after them; Oganessian is the only one still alive. Names were proposed to honor Einstein and Fermi while they were still alive, but they had both died by the time those names became official. The four elements associated with non-scientists were not named in their honor but named for something else bearing their name: samarium for the mineral samarskite from which it was isolated; and americium, berkelium and livermorium after places named for them. The cities of Berkeley, California and Livermore, California are the locations of the University of California Radiation Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, respectively. Six elements have only an indirect namesake: samarium, gadolinium,


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computer scientists, people who do work in computer science, in particular researchers and authors. Some persons notable as programmers are included here because they work in research as well as program. A few of these people pre-date the invention of the digital computer; they are now regarded as computer scientists because their work can be seen as leading to the invention of the computer. Others are mathematicians whose work falls within what would now be called theoretical computer science, such as complexity theory and algorithmic information theory. == A == Wil van der Aalst – business process management, process mining, Petri nets Scott Aaronson – quantum computing and complexity theory Rediet Abebe – algorithms, artificial intelligence Hal Abelson – intersection of computing and teaching Serge Abiteboul – database theory Samson Abramsky – game semantics Leonard Adleman – RSA, DNA computing Manindra Agrawal – polynomial-time primality testing Luis von Ahn – human-based computation Alfred Aho – compilers book, the 'a' in AWK Frances E. Allen – compiler optimization Gene Amdahl – supercomputer developer, Amdahl Corporation founder David P. Anderson – volunteer computing Lisa Anthony – natural user interfaces Andrew Appel – compiler of text books Cecilia


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Pino Caballero Gil – cryptography Tracy Camp – wireless computing Martin Campbell-Kelly – history of computing Rosemary Candlin Rod Canion – cofounder of Compaq Computer Corporation Bryan Cantrill – invented DTrace Luca Cardelli John Carmack – codeveloped Doom Michael Caspersen – programming methodology, education in OO programming, leadership in developing informatics education Edwin Catmull – computer graphics Vint Cerf – Internet, TCP/IP Gregory Chaitin Robert Cailliau – Belgian computer scientist Zhou Chaochen – duration calculus Peter Chen – entity-relationship model, data modeling, conceptual model Leonardo Chiariglione – founder of MPEG Tracy Chou – computer scientist and activist Alonzo Church – mathematics of combinators, lambda calculus Alberto Ciaramella – speech recognition, patent informatics Edmund M. Clarke – model checking John Cocke – reduced instruction set computer (RISC) Edgar F. Codd (1923–2003) – formulated the database relational model Jacques Cohen – computer science professor Ian Coldwater – computer security Simon Colton – computational creativity Alain Colmerauer – Prolog Douglas Comer – Xinu Paul Justin Compton – Ripple-down rules Richard W. Conway – CORC, CUPL, and PL/C languages and dialects; programming textbooks Stephen Cook – NP-completeness James Cooley – Fast Fourier transform (FFT) Steven Anson Coons – conic section analyses,


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Richard P. Gabriel – Maclisp, Common Lisp, Worse is Better, League for Programming Freedom, Lucid Inc., XEmacs Zvi Galil Bernard Galler – MAD (programming language) Hector Garcia-Molina Michael Garey – NP-completeness Hugo de Garis Bill Gates – cofounder of Microsoft David Gelernter Lisa Gelobter – was the Chief Digital Service Officer for the U.S. Department of Education, founder of teQuitable Charles Geschke Zoubin Ghahramani Sanjay Ghemawat Jeremy Gibbons – generic programming, functional programming, formal methods, computational biology, bioinformatics Juan E. Gilbert – human-centered computing Lee Giles – CiteSeer Seymour Ginsburg – formal languages, automata theory, AFL theory, database theory Robert L. Glass Kurt Gödel – computability; not a computer scientist per se, but his work was invaluable in the field Ashok Goel Joseph Goguen E. Mark Gold – Language identification in the limit Adele Goldberg – Smalltalk Andrew V. Goldberg – algorithms, algorithm engineering Ian Goldberg – cryptographer, off-the-record messaging Judy Goldsmith – computational complexity theory, decision theory, and computer ethics Oded Goldreich – cryptography, computational complexity theory Shafi Goldwasser – cryptography, computational complexity theory Gene Golub – Matrix computation Martin Charles Golumbic – algorithmic graph theory Gastón Gonnet – cofounder of Waterloo Maple Inc. Ian Goodfellow


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== K == William Kahan – numerical analysis Robert E. Kahn – TCP/IP Avinash Kak – digital image processing Poul-Henning Kamp – invented GBDE, FreeBSD Jails, Varnish cache David Karger Richard Karp – NP-completeness Narendra Karmarkar – Karmarkar's algorithm Marek Karpinski – NP optimization problems Ted Kaehler – Smalltalk, Squeak, HyperCard Alan Kay – Dynabook, Smalltalk, overlapping windows Neeraj Kayal – AKS primality test Manolis Kellis – computational biology John George Kemeny – the language BASIC Ken Kennedy – compiling for parallel and vector machines Brian Kernighan (born 1942) – Unix, the 'k' in AWK Carl Kesselman – grid computing Gregor Kiczales – CLOS, reflective programming, aspect-oriented programming Logan Kilpatrick Peter T. Kirstein – Internet Stephen Cole Kleene – Kleene closure, recursion theory Dan Klein – Natural language processing, Machine translation Leonard Kleinrock – ARPANET, queueing theory, packet switching, hierarchical routing Donald Knuth – The Art of Computer Programming, MIX/MMIX, TeX, literate programming Andrew Koenig – C++ Daphne Koller – Artificial intelligence, bayesian network Michael Kölling – BlueJ Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov – algorithmic complexity theory Janet L. Kolodner – case-based reasoning David Korn – KornShell Kees Koster – ALGOL 68 Robert Kowalski – logic programming John Koza – genetic programming


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
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parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Mihai Nadin – anticipation research Makoto Nagao – machine translation, natural language processing, digital library Frieder Nake – pioneered computer arts Bonnie Nardi – human–computer interaction Peter Naur (1928–2016) – Backus–Naur form (BNF), ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member Roger Needham – computer security James G. Nell – Generalised Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology (GERAM) Greg Nelson (1953–2015) – satisfiability modulo theories, extended static checking, program verification, Modula-3 committee, Simplify theorem prover in ESC/Java Bernard de Neumann – massively parallel autonomous cellular processor, software engineering research Klara Dan von Neumann (1911–1963) – early computers, ENIAC programmer and control designer John von Neumann (1903–1957) – early computers, von Neumann machine, set theory, functional analysis, mathematics pioneer, linear programming, quantum mechanics Allen Newell – artificial intelligence, Computer Structures Max Newman – Colossus computer, MADM Andrew Ng – artificial intelligence, machine learning, robotics Nils John Nilsson (1933–2019) – artificial intelligence G.M. Nijssen – Nijssen's Information Analysis Methodology (NIAM) object–role modeling Tobias Nipkow – proof assistance Maurice Nivat – theoretical computer science, Theoretical Computer Science journal, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Jerre Noe – computerized banking Peter Nordin – artificial intelligence, genetic programming, evolutionary robotics Donald Norman – user interfaces, usability


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == George Sadowsky Mehrnoosh Sadrzadeh – compositional models of meaning, machine learning Umar Saif Gerard Salton – information retrieval Jean E. Sammet – programming languages Claude Sammut – artificial intelligence researcher Carl Sassenrath – operating systems, programming languages, Amiga, REBOL Mahadev Satyanarayanan – file systems, distributed systems, mobile computing, pervasive computing Walter Savitch – discovery of complexity class NL, Savitch's theorem, natural language processing, mathematical linguistics Nitin Saxena – AKS Primality test for polynomial time primality testing, computational complexity theory Jonathan Schaeffer Heidi Schelhowe Wilhelm Schickard – one of the first calculating machines Jürgen Schmidhuber – artificial intelligence, deep learning, artificial neural networks, recurrent neural networks, Gödel machine, artificial curiosity, meta-learning Steve Schneider – formal methods, security Bruce Schneier – cryptography, security Fred B. Schneider – concurrent and distributed computing Sarita Schoenebeck – human–computer interaction Glenda Schroeder – command-line shell, e-mail Bernhard Schölkopf – machine learning, artificial intelligence Dana Scott – domain theory Michael L. Scott – programming languages, algorithms, distributed computing Robert Sedgewick – algorithms, data structures Ravi Sethi – compilers, 2nd Dragon Book Nigel Shadbolt Adi Shamir – RSA, cryptanalysis Claude Shannon – information theory David E. Shaw – computational finance, computational biochemistry, parallel architectures Cliff


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== W == Eiiti Wada – ALGOL N, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) X 0208, 0212, Happy Hacking Keyboard David Wagner – security, cryptography David Waltz James Z. Wang Steve Ward Manfred K. Warmuth – computational learning theory David H. D. Warren – AI, logic programming, Prolog, Warren Abstract Machine (WAM) Kevin Warwick – artificial intelligence Jan Weglarz Philip Wadler – functional programming, Haskell, Monad, Java, logic Peter Wegner – object-oriented programming, interaction (computer science) Joseph Henry Wegstein – ALGOL 58, ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member, data processing technical standards, fingerprint analysis Peter J. Weinberger – programming language design, the 'w' in AWK Mark Weiser – ubiquitous computing Joseph Weizenbaum – artificial intelligence, ELIZA David Wheeler – EDSAC, subroutines Franklin H. Westervelt – use of computers in engineering education, conversational use of computers, Michigan Terminal System (MTS), ARPANET, distance learning Steve Whittaker – human computer interaction, computer support for cooperative work, social media Jennifer Widom – nontraditional data management Gio Wiederhold – database management systems Norbert Wiener – Cybernetics Adriaan van Wijngaarden – Dutch pioneer; ARRA, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Mary Allen Wilkes – LINC developer, assembler-linker designer Maurice Vincent Wilkes – microprogramming, EDSAC Yorick


id: german-zoological-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Zoological_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: German Zoological Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Zoological_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:42.809985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: german-zoological-society-20260505-0
summary:
The German Zoological Society (German: Deutsche Zoologische Gesellschaft; abbr. DZG) is a learned society in Germany, founded in 1890 at Frankfurt am Main. It is registered as a non-profit organisation (German: eingetragene Verein) based in Munich. == Activities == The DZG represents German-speaking zoologists and corresponds with other regional and national zoological societies. It represents the interests of zoology among the scientific learned societies and can be consulted by politicians for advice. Membership is open to any zoologist or student of zoology; the DZG currently has about 1500 members. It organises an annual meeting, which until 2004 was held during the week of Pentecost. However, as many universities no longer have a recess during that period, since 2005 the date of the meeting has been decided by the host university. The DZG publishes its own scientific journal, Frontiers in Zoology, founded in 2004. It is published in cooperation with the online publisher BioMed Central. The DZG formerly published the Zoologische Anzeiger and Zoologische Jahrbücher, since discontinued. The DZG awards several prizes to support or recognise scientific work. == Karl Ritter von Frisch Medal == The Karl Ritter von Frisch Medal is a scientific prize of the DZG. The Medal has


id: list-of-network-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_network_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of network scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_network_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:44.011015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-network-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable individuals who research complex networks, including social networks, biological networks, and semantic networks, among others. Individuals are categorized based on their background and training, or their area of focus. == Social and behavioral sciences == Peter Bearman Ulrik Brandes Ronald S. Burt Noshir Contractor James Fowler Mark Granovetter Dirk Helbing Matthew O. Jackson Helen Hall Jennings Frigyes Karinthy David Lazer Zeev Maoz John Levi Martin James D. Montgomery Anna Nagurney Kim Rossmo Tom Snijders Duncan Watts Barry Wellman Douglas R. White Harrison White == Computer and information sciences == Lada Adamic Vladimir Batagelj Randy Bush Aaron Clauset Anuška Ferligoj Jon Kleinberg Jure Leskovec Filippo Menczer Cristopher Moore Aleš Žiberna == Physics == Réka Albert Luís A. N. Amaral Albert-László Barabási Kevin E. Bassler Dirk Brockmann Kim Christensen Raissa D'Souza Ernesto Estrada Michelle Girvan Shlomo Havlin César Hidalgo Vito Latora José Fernando Ferreira Mendes Yamir Moreno Adilson E. Motter Mark Newman H. Eugene Stanley Alessandro Vespignani Lenka Zdeborová == Biology == Uri Alon Danielle Bassett Caroline Buckee Paulien Hogeweg Trey Ideker Jukka-Pekka Onnela Bernhard Palsson John Quackenbush Olaf Sporns == Mathematics == Vincent Blondel Béla Bollobás Chris Danforth Peter Sheridan Dodds Pául Erdős Frank Harary


id: list-of-nominees-for-the-nobel-prize-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:45.392419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nominees-for-the-nobel-prize-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Swedish: Nobelpriset i kemi) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists who have made outstanding contributions in chemistry. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes which were established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895. Every year, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences sends out forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, to about three thousand selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the Prize. Nomination records are strictly sealed for fifty years. Currently, the nominations for the years 1901 to 1974 are publicly available. Despite the annual sending of invitations, the prize was not awarded in eight years (1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940–42) and was delayed for a year nine times (1914, 1918, 1920, 1921, 1925, 1927, 1938, 1943, 1944). From 1901 to 1974, there were 760 scientists nominated for the prize, 87 of whom were awarded the prize either jointly or individually. 14 more scientists from these nominees were awarded the prize after 1974, and Frederick Sanger received a second award in


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable political scientists. Political science is the scientific study of politics, a social science dealing with systems of governance and power. == A == Robert Abelson – Yale University psychologist and political scientist with special interests in statistics and logic Henry J. Abraham – American scholar on the judiciary and constitutional law and James Hart Professor of Government Emeritus at the University of Virginia Alan Abramowitz – expert in American politics, political parties, ideological realignment, elections, and voting behavior; professor at Emory University Paul R. Abramson – American political scientist known for his research and writing on American, European, and Israeli elections and professor of political science at Michigan State University Ibrahim Abu-Lughod – Palestinian-American academic and professor for political science at Northwestern University for 34 years As'ad AbuKhalil – Lebanese-American professor of political science at California State University, Stanislaus Martha Ackelsberg – American political scientist and women's studies scholar at Smith College Brooke Ackerly – expert on grounded normative theory, feminist theory, feminist international relations, and scholar activism, professor at Vanderbilt University David Adamany – public law specialist and president of Temple University Charles R. Adrian – American professor of political science who


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Andrew Bacevich – American historian specializing in international relations, security studies, American foreign policy, and American diplomatic and military history Gawdat Bahgat – professor of political science at the National Defense University Kathleen Cordelia Bailey Fatih Baja – Gar Yunis University teacher and member of the National Transitional Council in charge of political affairs Susan Baker – Irish scholar of environmental governance in the European Union and ecofeminism, gender and the environment at Cardiff University Lisa Baldez – American political scientist and scholar of Latin American Studies Michel Balinski – American and French applied mathematician, economist, operations research analyst and political scientist Tijjani Muhammad Bande – Nigerian political scientist permanent representative of Nigeria to the UN and former president of UNGA Moniz Bandeira – Brazilian writer, professor, political scientist, historian and poet Mary Jo Bane – Thornton Bradshaw Professor at Harvard Kennedy School; former the Malcolm Wiener Professor of Social Policy and director of the Malcolm Wiener Center for Social Policy Edward C. Banfield Benjamin Barber – proponent of participatory democracy and local governance teaching at the University of Maryland School of Public Policy James David Barber – developed a classification system of the personality types of


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
Betts – prize-winning author in a number of political science areas Mark Bevir – professor of political science and director of the Center for British Studies at the University of California, Berkeley Seweryn Bialer (1926–2019) – political scientist specializing in Soviet and Russian studies; professor at Columbia University; published seminal works on Soviet political elites, including Stalin's Successors (1980) and The Soviet Paradox (1986) Thomas J. Biersteker – professor at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Biersteker is known for his work on international political economy, particularly regarding the impact of international sanctions on state behavior Leonard Binder – professor at the University of Chicago; known for his studies on Middle Eastern politics, especially in Egypt, and his influential work The Ideology of Arab Politics Sarah Binder – professor at George Washington University; recognized for her research on legislative politics, including U.S. Congress; has published on political parties, policymaking, and gridlock Sarah Birch – professor in comparative politics at King's College London Thomas A. Birkland – professor at North Carolina State University; known for his work on public policy, mainly the study of disaster policy and how crises affect policy decisions; author of Lessons of Disaster


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== C == William A. Callahan Melani Cammett – Clarence Dillon Professor of International Affairs and director of the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University Linda Cardinal – University Professor, Canada Research Chair in Canadian Francophonie and Public Policies at the University of Ottawa Ira Carmen – co-founder of the social science subdiscipline of genetics and politics Edward Hallett Carr – international relations theorist Niambi Carter – political scientist and author Alfredo Castillero Hoyos – democracy and human rights; former member of the United Nations's Human Rights Committee George Catlin (1896–1979) – English political scientist and philosopher; strong proponent of Anglo-America cooperation; worked for many years as a professor at Cornell University Jocelyne Cesari – French political scientist Pamela Chasek – international environmental policy expert Partha Chatterjee – Indian postcolonial critic, political and social scientist Rumman Chowdhury – Bengali-American political scientist and data scientist at Accenture Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri – international relations, Indology at Institute of Commonwealth Studies Walter C. Clemens – associate at Harvard Davis Center for Russian and European Studies and professor emeritus of Political Science, Boston University, author of books on US relations with Russia, China and North Korea, and science and world affairs Cathryn Clüver


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== F == C. Christine Fair – American political scientist who studies counter-terrorism and South Asian topics James D. Fearon – American political scientist focusing on theory of civil wars, international bargaining, war's inefficiency puzzle and audience costs Peter D. Feaver – international security expert Dafydd Fell – British political scientist David Fellman – Constitutional scholar Richard Fenno – Congress scholar, author of Home Style: House Members in their Districts Thomas Ferguson – politics and economics Joel S. Fetzer – comparative politics specialist; distinguished professor at Pepperdine University Samuel Finer – academic and author on political science and history of government Norman Finkelstein – author on political science, notable for The Holocaust Industry Martha Finnemore – international relations and international organizations scholar Morris P. Fiorina – American politics; proposed retrospective vote theory Peter Fishburn – operations analysis and probability theory expert Keith Fitzgerald – immigration politics expert Naika Foroutan – German political scientist studying immigration and integration James H. Fowler – expert on political participation, the evolution of cooperation, and social network theory (UCSD) Annette Baker Fox – international relations scholar William T. R. Fox – international relations theorist, coiner of the term "superpower" Ernst Fraenkel – German political scientist


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Michael Haas – emeritus professor of Political Science, University of Hawai'i Jacob Hacker – professor of Political Science at Yale University Henrike Hahn – German political scientist and politician; member of the European Parliament Paul Y. Hammond – American foreign policy and national security specialist at University of Pittsburgh and elsewhere Roger D. Hansen – American political scientist and professor Harry Harding – China specialist Thomas Hare – devised single transferable vote (also known as Hare's method) Jeremy Harris – American politics specialist Michael Hart – British twentieth-century politics specialist Louis Hartz – American author of The Liberal Tradition in America Mary Hawkesworth – American political scientist and Distinguished Professor of Political Science and Women's and Gender Studies at Rutgers University Colin Hay – influential British political scientist Katharine Hayhoe – atmospheric scientist and professor of political science at Texas Tech University and director of the Climate Science Center Clarissa Rile Hayward – professor at Washington University in St. Louis studying the theory of political power and political identities Susan Hekman – professor of political science and director of the graduate humanities program at the University of Texas at Arlington Marc Hetherington – author of Why Trust


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== L == Guy Laforest – liberalism (John Locke) scholar; Quebec and Canadian politics specialist Celinda Lake – American survey methodologist, pollster, and political strategist Enid Lakeman – British political reformer, writer and politician, noted for her long-standing championship of the single transferable vote system of elections Laura Langbein – American quantitative methodologist and professor of public administration and policy at American University Harold Lasswell – political communications, pioneered early efforts to establish the policy sciences and influential contributor to the stages heuristic Adria Lawrence – American political scientist and the Aronson Associate Professor of International Studies and Political Science at Johns Hopkins University Jack Layton – former leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada, Ph.D. in Political Science Richard Ned Lebow – constructivist, Cold War expert, author of Tragic Vision of Politics Noémi Lefebvre – French political scientist at the Instituts d'études politiques of Grenoble II Michael Leifer – international relations, South Asian Studies, London School of Economics Amy E. Lerman – scholar of public opinion, race, and political behaviour; Michelle Schwartz Professor of Public Policy at the University of California Berkeley Margaret Levi – scholar of comparative political economy, labor politics, democratic theory, former American Political Science


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-7.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Brigitte L. Nacos – professor in political science at Columbia University Arthur Naftalin – specialist in American politics and former mayor of Minneapolis, Minnesota Amrita Narlikar – president of the German Institute of Global and Area Studies and former director of the University of Cambridge Centre for Rising Powers Antonio Negri Franz Leopold Neumann – known for analysis of National Socialism Kalypso Nicolaïdis – professor of International Relations and director of the Center for International Studies at Oxford University David Nolan – founder of the United States Libertarian Party Farish A. Noor – Malaysian historian and political scientist Pippa Norris – Harvard comparative political scientist Douglass North – Nobel laureate Philip Norton – British politics expert Julie Novkov – American political scientist at SUNY Albany studying the history of American law, American political development, and subordinated identities Joseph Nye – "soft power" international security specialist; Kennedy School dean == O == Karen O'Conner – political science professor at American University in Washington, D.C.; founder and director emerita of the Women & Politics Institute Guillermo O'Donnell – democracy specialist Aloysius-Michaels Nnabugwu Okolie – professor at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka Brendan O'Leary – ethnic conflict specialist Cornelius O'Leary


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-8.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Larry Sabato – University of Virginia professor, director of the University of Virginia Center for Politics, and popular political analyst Scott Sagan – Stanford professor and notable critic of deterrence theory Slobodan Samardžić – research includes political ideas and institutions, federalism, constitutionalism, and European Union David Samuels – comparativist scholar of Brazilian politics and political institutions Eliz Sanasarian – professor of political science at the University of Southern California Emanuele Santi – Italian development economist, political scientist and author Virginia Sapiro – American political psychologist Austin Sarat – public law specialist Giovanni Sartori – comparativist, expert on constitutional theory and party systems E.E. Schattschneider – early political parties expert, author of Party Government and The Semisovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America Steven Schier – specialist in American politics Warner R. Schilling – specialist in international relations and military technology Kay Lehman Schlozman – J. Joseph Moakley Professor of political science at Boston College; expert in American political participation and gender and politics Vivien A. Schmidt – Jean Monnet Chair of European Integration Professor of International Relations in the Pardee School of Global Studies and professor of political science at Boston University Carsten Q. Schneider


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-9.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== V == Stephen Van Evera – MIT international relations expert, known for proposing the offense-defense theory Tatu Vanhanen – democratization and ethnic nepotism Sarojini Varadappan – Indian social worker who earned her PhD at the age of 80 Sidney Verba – American political scientist, librarian and library administrator Mieke Verloo – professor of comparative politics and inequality issues at Radboud University Eric Voegelin – in his major work, Order and History in five volumes, he rejected the notion that political science should become a positivistic social science Margaret Vogt – Nigerian diplomat and political scientist who served as special representative and head of the United Nations Integrated Peace-building Office in the Central African Republic Leah Vosko – professor at York University == W == Helen Wallace – international relations specialist Denise Walsh – studies the relationship between women's rights and political inclusion and level of democracy Stephen Walt – international relations specialist Kenneth N. Waltz – founder of the neorealist international relations school Michael Walzer – international relations, just war theory John Wanna – Sir John Bunting Chair of Public Administration at the Australia and New Zealand School of Government Georgina Waylen – comparative politics, political economy, and gender


id: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-in-physical-constants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:49.143096+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-in-physical-constants-20260505-0
summary:
Some of the constants used in science are named after scientists. Below is the list of the scientists whose names are used in physical constants. == List of the scientists and the physical constants == == See also == List of scientists whose names are used as units List of chemical elements named after people Unit of measurement == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-things-named-after-max-born-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Born-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Max Born
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Born
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:50.815292+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-max-born-20260505-0
summary:
Max Born was a scientist who worked in many fields. Below is a list of things named in his honour. == Chemistry == Born–Haber cycle Born–Landé equation Born–Mayer equation Born equation == Physics == BBGKY hierarchy (Bogoliubov–Born–Green–Kirkwood–Yvon hierarchy) Born–Oppenheimer approximation Born–Huang approximation Born–Infeld model Born–von Karman boundary condition Born approximation, see Born series Born coordinates Born equation Born law, see Born rule Born probability Born reciprocity Born rigidity Born rule Born series Born square Cauchy-Born rule == Astronomical objects == Born (crater) 13954 Born, asteroid == Others == Max Born Medal and Prize of the German Physical Society and the British Institute of Physics, created in 1972. Max Born Award, given by The Optical Society. Max-Born Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie im Forschungsverbund Berlin e.V. - Institute named in his honour. == Citations ==


id: list-of-things-named-after-charles-darwin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Charles_Darwin-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Charles Darwin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Charles_Darwin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:52.071960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-charles-darwin-20260505-0
summary:
Several places, concepts, institutions, and things are namesakes of the English biologist Charles Darwin: == Places == Charles Darwin National Park Charles Darwin Foundation Charles Darwin Research Station Charles Darwin School Charles Darwin University Darwin College, Cambridge Darwin, Falkland Islands Darwin, Northern Territory Darwin Glacier (California) Darwin Guyot, a seamount in the Pacific Ocean Darwin Island, Galapagos Islands Darwin Island (Antarctica) Darwin Nature Reserve Darwin Sound (Canada) Darwin's Arch Mount Darwin (Antarctica) Mount Darwin (California) Mount Darwin (Tasmania) Mount Darwin (Zimbabwe) == Things named after Darwin in relation to his Beagle voyage == Cordillera Darwin Darwin's finches Darwin's frog Darwin's rhea Darwin Sound Mount Darwin (Andes) == Scientific names of organisms == Some 250 species and several higher groups bear Darwin's name; most are insects. Darwinilus, a rove beetle Darwinius, an extinct primate Darwinopterus, a genus of pterosaur Darwinula, a genus of seed shrimp Darwinivelia, a water treader genus Darwinysius, a seed bug Darwinomya, a genus of flies Darwinella, a sponge genus Darwinsaurus, a dinosaur Darwinhydrus, a diving beetle darwini (multiple species) darwinii (multiple species) Minervarya charlesdarwini, a frog Ramalina darwiniana, lichen == Philosophies == Darwinism Social Darwinism == Other == Darwin, a unit of evolutionary change Darwin, an operating


id: list-of-things-named-after-peter-debye-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Peter_Debye-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Peter Debye
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Peter_Debye
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:53.343840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-peter-debye-20260505-0
summary:
The article is a list of things named after the Dutchman P. J. W. Debye. Debye – a unit of electric dipole moment Debye–Falkenhagen effect Debye–Hückel equation Debye–Hückel limiting law, see Debye–Hückel equation Debye–Hückel theory, see Debye–Hückel equation Debye scattering equation Debye–Scherrer method, see Powder diffraction Debye–Scherrer rings, see Debye–Scherrer method Debye–Sears method Debye–Waller factor Debye force Debye frequency, see also Debye model Debye function, see also Debye model Debye length Debye model Debye relaxation Debye sheath Debye shielding Debye temperature, see also Debye model Lorenz–Mie–Debye theory Rayleigh–Gans–Debye approximation == Astronomical objects == 30852 Debye Debye (crater) == Others == Debye Institute for Nanomaterial(s) Science, at the University of Utrecht Debye Street and Debye Square, in Maastricht. Peter Debye Award == See also == Debye (disambiguation) All pages with titles containing Debye


id: list-of-things-named-after-ren-descartes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_René_Descartes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after René Descartes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_René_Descartes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:54.559195+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-ren-descartes-20260505-0
summary:
This is the list of things named after René Descartes (1596–1650), a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. == Computer science == Cartesian genetic programming Cartesian tree == Mathematics == Cartesian closed category Cartesian geometry Cartesian coordinate system Cartesian equations Cartesian plane Cartesian tensor Cartesian monoid Cartesian monoidal category Cartesian closed category Cartesian oval Cartesian product Cartesian product of graphs Cartesian square Cartesian morphisms Descartes number Descartes' rule of signs Descartes snark Descartes' theorem Descartes' theorem on total angular defect Folium of Descartes == Physics == Cartesian diver Cartesian vortex theory Snell–Descartes law == Philosophy == Cartesian anxiety Cartesian circle Cartesian doubt Cartesian dualism Cartesian materialism Cartesian theater Cartesian Method Descartes' demon == Robotics == Cartesian coordinate robot Cartesian parallel manipulators == Other == Blanche Descartes Cartesian linguistics Cartesian Meditations Cartesian Reflections Descartes (crater) Descartes-class cruiser Descartes' Error Descartes-Huygens Prize Descartes Island (Antarctica) Descartes on Polyhedra Descartes Prize Lycée René Descartes (Champs-sur-Marne)


id: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of forms of electricity named after scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:55.752632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of forms of electricity named after scientists. The terms in this list are mostly archaic usages but are found in many 19th and early 20th-century publications. == Adjectives == faradic Of electricity that is alternating, especially when obtained from an induction coil. Named after Michael Faraday who built the first electromagnetic generator. galvanic Of electricity that is not alternating. Named after Luigi Galvani. voltaic Of electricity derived from an electrochemical cell or battery. Named after Alessandro Volta who built the first battery, the voltaic pile. In most contexts it can be considered a synonym of galvanic. == Nouns (applications) == Faradization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with faradic electricity. Coined by Duchenne de Boulogne and named after Michael Faraday. Franklinization Electrotherapy by charging a person to high voltage with static electricity. Named after Benjamin Franklin. d'Arsonvalization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with high frequency electricity. Named after Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval. == Nouns (forms) == Faradism Faradic electricity Franklinism High voltage static electricity as used in Franklinization Galvanism Originally, voltaic electricity, but can also be used to distinguish Galvani's animal electricity from Volta's chemical/metal contact electricity == References == == Bibliography == Borck, Cornelius, Brainwaves: A Cultural History


id: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific equations named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:56.967484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific equations named after people (eponymous equations). == See also == Eponym List of eponymous laws List of laws in science List of equations Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Scientific laws named after people == References ==


id: list-of-things-named-after-michael-faraday-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Michael_Faraday-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Michael Faraday
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Michael_Faraday
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:58.167229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-michael-faraday-20260505-0
summary:
Here is a list of things named in honour of scientist Michael Faraday: == Science == Faraday (unit), or just faraday – An obsolete unit of charge that has been superseded by the coulomb farad, SI unit of capacitance Faraday balance – Device for measuring magnetism of an object Faraday cage – Enclosure of conductive mesh used to block electric fields Faraday constant – The amount of electric charge per mole of electrons Faraday cup – Charged particle catcher Faraday cup electrometer – Form of an electrical aerosol instrument used in aerosol studies Faraday dark space – The dark area in front of a cathode in a vacuum tube Homopolar generator, aka Faraday disc or Faraday wheel Faraday effect – Physical magneto-optical phenomenon Faraday filter, aka atomic line filter – Optical band-pass filter used in the physical sciences Inverse Faraday effect – Magnetization by polarized light Faraday rotation (see Faraday effect) Faraday efficiency – Efficiency of charge transfer in an electrochemical reaction Faraday-efficiency effect – Cause of data interpretation errors in electrochemistry Faraday flashlight, aka mechanically powered flashlight Faraday's ice pail experiment Faraday Institute for Science and Religion – Research institute in the UK The Faraday Institution – Nonprofit organization


id: list-of-things-named-after-hermann-von-helmholtz-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Hermann_von_Helmholtz-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Hermann von Helmholtz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Hermann_von_Helmholtz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:59.418698+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-hermann-von-helmholtz-20260505-0
summary:
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821 – 1894), German physician and physicist who made significant contributions to several widely varied areas of modern science, is the eponym of the topics listed below. == Astronomy == 11573 Helmholtz Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism Helmholtz (lunar crater) == Mathematics, physics and chemistry == Gibbs–Helmholtz equation Helmholtz coil Helmholtz condition Helmholtz decomposition Helmholtz–Hodge decomposition Helmholtz–Leray decomposition Helmholtz equation Kirchhoff–Helmholtz integral Helmholtz flow Helmholtz free energy Helmholtz free entropy Kelvin–Helmholtz instability Helmholtz layer Helmholtz minimum dissipation theorem Helmholtz motion Helmholtz reciprocity Helmholtz resonance Helmholtz theorem (classical mechanics) Generalized Helmholtz theorem Helmholtz's theorems Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equation Smith-Helmholtz invariant == Music == Helmholtz pitch notation Helmholtz temperament Helmholtz-Ellis notation == Other == Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres Helmholtz machine Helmholtz–Thévenin theorem Helmholtz Watson, a character in Brave New World == Physiology == Young–Helmholtz theory


id: list-of-things-named-after-irving-langmuir-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Irving_Langmuir-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Irving Langmuir
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Irving_Langmuir
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:00.728052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-irving-langmuir-20260505-0
summary:
Irving Langmuir (1881–1957), American chemist and physicist who made significant contributions to several widely varied areas of modern science, is the eponym of the topics listed below. == Science == Child–Langmuir law Hill–Langmuir equation Langmuir adsorption model Langmuir–Blodgett film Langmuir wave Langmuir–Blodgett trough Langmuir's examples Langmuir–Hinshelwood kinetics Langmuir isotherm Langmuir lattice Langmuir–McLean theory Langmuir monolayer Langmuir probe Dual segmented Langmuir probe Langmuir–Taylor detector Langmuir torch Langmuir turbulence Langmuir circulation Langmuir equation Langmuir wave Langmuir states Lewis–Langmuir theory Knudsen-Langmuir equation Saha–Langmuir equation == Other == Irving Langmuir House Langmuir (journal) Langmuir (crater) Langmuir (unit) Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research Irving Langmuir Award Langmuir Cove Langmuir Hall, Stony Brook University


id: list-of-things-named-after-leonardo-da-vinci-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Leonardo_da_Vinci-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Leonardo da Vinci
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Leonardo_da_Vinci
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:01.943371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-leonardo-da-vinci-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named after Leonardo da Vinci. == Places == Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport, Rome, Italy Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci", Milan, Italy Da Vinci, a crater on the Moon Da Vinci-Broen (Da Vinci Bridge), a small-scale replica of the bridge Leonardo designed to span the Golden Horn, in Ås, Viken, Norway Da Vinci, a Michelin-starred restaurant in Maasbracht, Netherlands Da Vinci Tower, a proposed 420-metre (1,378 ft), 80-floor tower in Dubai, United Arab Emirates === Schools and colleges === Colégio Anglo Leonardo da Vinci, São Paulo, Brazil DaVinci Academy of Science and the Arts, a charter high school in Ogden, Utah Leonardo da Vinci Art Institute, Cairo, Egypt Leonardo da Vinci Art School, formerly in New York City Leonardo da Vinci Gymnasium, Neckargemünd, Germany Leonardo da Vinci High School, Davis, California Leonardo da Vinci High School, Buffalo, New York da Vinci Arts Middle School, Portland, Oregon == Ships == Leonardo da Vinci, a Conte di Cavour class battleship of the Italian navy. (1910–1923) Italian submarine Leonardo da Vinci (1939), a Marconi-class submarine launched in 1939 and sunk in 1943. Italian submarine Leonardo da Vinci (S 510), a Gato-class submarine launched in


id: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific laws named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:03.214440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific laws named after people (eponymous laws). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == See also == Eponym Fields of science List of eponymous laws (overlaps with this list but includes non-scientific laws such as Murphy's law) List of legislation named for a person List of laws in science Lists of etymologies Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Stigler's law of eponymy == Further reading == Ballentyne, D. W. G.; Lovett, D. R. (1980). A dictionary of named effects and laws in chemistry, physics, and mathematics (4th ed.). Chapman and Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-22380-8.


id: list-of-things-named-after-john-von-neumann-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_John_von_Neumann-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after John von Neumann
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_John_von_Neumann
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:04.537828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-john-von-neumann-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named after John von Neumann. John von Neumann (1903–1957), a mathematician, is the eponym of all of the things (and topics) listed below. Birkhoff–von Neumann algorithm Birkhoff–von Neumann theorem Birkhoff–von Neumann decomposition Dirac–von Neumann axioms Jordan–von Neumann theorems Koopman–von Neumann classical mechanics Schatten–von Neumann norm Stone–von Neumann theorem Taylor–von Neumann–Sedov blast wave von Neumann algebra Abelian von Neumann algebra Enveloping von Neumann algebra Finite-dimensional von Neumann algebra von Neumann architecture von Neumann bicommutant theorem von Neumann bounded set Von Neumann bottleneck von Neumann cardinal assignment von Neumann cellular automaton von Neumann conjecture Murray–von Neumann coupling constant Jordan–von Neumann constant Von Neumann–Richtmyer method von Neumann's elephant von Neumann entropy von Neumann entanglement entropy von Neumann equation von Neumann extractor von Neumann-Wigner interpretation von Neumann–Wigner theorem von Neumann measurement scheme von Neumann mutual information von Neumann machines Von Neumann's mean ergodic theorem von Neumann neighborhood Von Neumann's no hidden variables proof von Neumann ordinal von Neumann paradox von Neumann probe von Neumann programming languages von Neumann regular ring von Neumann spectral theorem von Neumann stability analysis von Neumann universal constructor von Neumann universe von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory von Neumann’s minimax theorem von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem von


id: list-of-things-named-after-isaac-newton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:05.803776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-isaac-newton-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named after Sir Isaac Newton. == Science and mathematics == Newtonianism, the philosophical principle of applying Newton's methods in a variety of fields === Mathematics === === Physics === == Places == == Schools == == Artwork == == Other == == See also == Newtonian (disambiguation)


id: list-of-things-named-after-louis-pasteur-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Louis_Pasteur-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Louis Pasteur
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Louis_Pasteur
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:07.005429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-louis-pasteur-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a list of things named after the French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). == Science == Pasteurization Pasteur effect Pasteur point Pasteur pipette Pasteur–Chamberland filter == Institut Pasteur == Institut Pasteur Institut Pasteur in Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam) Institut Pasteur de Dalat (Vietnam) Institut Pasteur Korea Pasteur Institute of Lille (France) Pasteur Institute of Iran Pasteur Institute of Algiers (Algeria) UNESCO/Institut Pasteur Medal Musée Pasteur == Others == === Astronomical features === Pasteur (lunar crater) Pasteur (Martian crater) 4804 Pasteur, asteroid === Educational === ==== Elementary schools ==== Louis Pasteur Elementary School in Detroit, Michigan (United States) Louis Pasteur Elementary School in Chicago, Illinois (United States) ==== Middle school ==== ==== High schools ==== Lycée Pasteur in Neuilly-sur-Seine (France) Lycée Pasteur de São Paulo (Brazil) Lycée français Louis-Pasteur de Bogotá (Colombia) Lycée Français Louis Pasteur de Lagos (Nigeria) Lycée Louis Pasteur in Calgary (Canada) ==== Universities ==== Louis Pasteur University, Strasbourg (France) Louis Pasteur University Hospital in Košice (Slovakia) === Hospitals === Centre hospitalier Louis Pasteur, Dole (France). Louis Pasteur Private Hospital in Pretoria (South Africa). Life Louis Pasteur Private Hospital, Bloemfontein (South Africa). === Stations === Pasteur (Milan Metro) (Italy) Pasteur station (Paris Metro) (France) Pasteur


id: list-of-things-named-after-roger-penrose-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Roger_Penrose-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Roger Penrose
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Roger_Penrose
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:08.221998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-roger-penrose-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named for the British scientist Roger Penrose: == Mathematics == Moore–Penrose inverse, the most widely known generalization of the inverse matrix in particular linear algebra Penrose graphical notation, a visual depiction of multilinear functions or tensors Penrose stairs, impossible object (co-created with his father Lionel Penrose) Penrose tiling, an example of an aperiodic tiling Penrose triangle, impossible object (co-created with his father Lionel Penrose) Penrose unilluminable room, first solution to the illumination problem == Physics == Diósi–Penrose model, possible solution to the measurement problem Geroch–Held–Penrose formalism Newman–Penrose formalism, a set of notation for general relativity Penrose diagram, a two-dimensional diagram capturing the causal relations between different points in spacetime Penrose inequality, estimation of the mass of a spacetime Penrose conjecture Penrose interpretation, speculation about the relationship between quantum mechanics and general relativity Penrose process, or Penrose mechanism, a theoretical means whereby energy can be extracted from a rotating black hole Penrose singularity theorem in general relativity Penrose transform, a complex analogue of the Radon transform in theoretical physics Penrose–Terrell effect, visual distortion according to the special theory of relativity Penrose–Ward correspondence Rietdijk–Putnam–Penrose argument, version of Rietdijk–Putnam argument == Other == Penrose–Lucas argument, a logical


id: list-of-things-named-after-max-planck-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Planck-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Max Planck
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Planck
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:09.572654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-max-planck-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named for the German scientist Max Planck: == Physics == Boltzmann–Planck equation Fokker–Planck equation Nernst–Planck equation Kelvin–Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics Massieu–Planck potentials Planck potential Planck proposition, Planck statement, Planck's principle; see Kelvin–Planck statement Planckian locus === Quantum mechanics === Planck constant Planck postulate Planck's law of black body radiation Planck-taper window Planck–Bessel window Planck–Einstein relation === Cosmology === Planck units Planck energy Planck length Planck mass Planck time Planck temperature Planck epoch Planck postulate Planck scale Planck star Trans-Planckian problem == Other == 1069 Planckia, asteroid Max Planck Society Planck's principle Planck (crater) on the Moon Planck (spacecraft), space observatory Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, see Max Planck Society Colegio Max Planck, in Trujillo, Peru.


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific phenomena and concepts named after people (eponymous phenomena). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == A == Abderhalden–Fauser reaction – Emil Abderhalden and August Fauser (1856–1938) Abney effect – William de Wiveleslie Abney Abrikosov lattice – Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov Aharonov–Bohm effect – Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm Alfvén wave – Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén Alhazen's problem – Alhazen Allais effect – Maurice Allais Allee effect – Warder Clyde Allee Amdahl's law, a.k.a. Amdahl's argument – Gene Amdahl Ampère's law – André-Marie Ampère Anderson–Higgs mechanism (a.k.a. Higgs mechanism) – Peter Higgs and Philip Warren Anderson Anderson–Darling test – Theodore Wilbur Anderson and Donald A. Darling Andreev reflection – Alexander F. Andreev Apgar score – Virginia Apgar Arago spot – Dominique François Jean Arago Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction – Aleksandr Erminingeldovich Arbuzov and August Karl Arnold Michaelis Archimedean spiral, Archimedes number – Archimedes Argand diagram – Jean Robert Argand Aristotle's lantern – Aristotle Armstrong limit or Armstrong's line – Harry George Armstrong Armstrong oscillator – Edwin Armstrong Arndt–Eistert synthesis – Fritz Arndt and Bernd Eistert Arndt–Schulz law/principle/rule – Rudolf Arndt and Hugo Paul Friedrich Schulz Arrhenius equation – Svante August Arrhenius Ashkin–Teller model (a.k.a. Potts model) –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis – Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer and Viggo Drewsen Baeyer–Villiger oxidation and Baeyer–Villiger rearrangement – Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer and Victor Villiger Babinet's principle – Jacques Babinet Babler–Dauben oxidation – James Babler and William Garfield Dauben Bagnold number – Ralph Alger Bagnold Baily's beads – Francis Baily Baker–Nathan effect – John William Baker and Wilfred S. Nathan Bakerian mimicry – Herbert G. Baker Baldwin effect (astronomy) – Jack Allen Baldwin Baldwin effect (Baldwinian evolution, Ontogenic evolution) – James Mark Baldwin Baldwin's rules – Jack Edward Baldwin Balmer line, series – Johann Jakob Balmer Bamberger rearrangement – Eugen Bamberger Bamford–Stevens reaction – William Randall Bamford and Thomas Stevens Stevens Barkhausen effect – Heinrich Barkhausen Barnett effect – Samuel Jackson Barnett Barnum effect (a.k.a. Forer effect) – Phineas Taylor Barnum (and Bertram R. Forer) Barton reaction – Derek Harold Richard Barton Barton–McCombie deoxygenation – Derek Harold Richard Barton and Stuart W. McCombie Baskerville effect – the fictional Charles Baskerville of the novel The Hound of the Baskervilles Batesian mimicry – Henry Walter Bates Bauschinger effect – Johann Bauschinger Bayes's theorem – Thomas Bayes Baylis–Hillman reaction – Anthony B. Baylis and Melville E. D.


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Cabannes–Daure effect – Jean Cabannes and Pierre Daure Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling, reaction – Paul Cadiot and Wladyslav Chodkiewicz Callendar effect – Guy Stewart Callendar Callippic cycle – Callippus of Cyzicus Calvin cycle (a.k.a. Calvin–Benson cycle) – Melvin Calvin (and Andy Benson) Cannizzaro reaction – Stanislao Cannizzaro Cardan angles (a.k.a. Tait–Bryan angles) – Gerolamo Cardano Carnot cycle, number – Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot Carpenter effect (a.k.a. Ideomotor effect) – William Benjamin Carpenter Cartan–Kähler theorem – Élie Cartan, Erich Kähler Casimir effect – Hendrik Casimir Catalan's conjecture (a.k.a. Mihăilescu's theorem), Catalan numbers – Eugène Charles Catalan Cauchy number (a.k.a. Hooke number) – Augustin-Louis Cauchy Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem – Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Sofia Kovalevskaya Cauer filter – Wilhelm Cauer Chandler wobble – Seth Carlo Chandler Chandrasekhar limit, number – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Chang–Refsdal lens – Kyongae Chang and Sjur Refsdal Chaplygin gas – Sergey Alexeyevich Chaplygin Charles's law – Jacques Charles Chebyshev distance, equation, filter, linkage, polynomials – Pafnuty Chebyshev Chebyshev's inequality (a.k.a. Bienaymé–Chebyshev inequality) – Pafnuty Chebyshev (and Irénée-Jules Bienaymé) Cherenkov radiation (a.k.a. Cherenkov–Vavilov radiation) – Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (and Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov) Chichibabin reaction – Alexei Yevgenievich Chichibabin Christiansen effect – Christian Christiansen Christoffel symbol – Elwin Bruno Christoffel Christofilos effect –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== E == Early effect – James M. Early Eddington limit – Arthur Eddington Edgeworth–Bowley box – Francis Ysidro Edgeworth and Arthur Lyon Bowley Edison effect – Thomas Edison Edman degradation – Pehr Victor Edman Edward–Lemieux effect (a.k.a. Anomeric effect) – John Thomas Edward and Raymond U. Lemieux Eglinton reaction – Geoffrey Eglinton Ehrenfest paradox – Paul Ehrenfest Eimer's organ – Gustav Heinrich Theodor Eimer Einstein Cross, effect, radius, ring, shift – Albert Einstein Einstein–Chwolson ring or Chwolson ring – Albert Einstein and Orest Khvolson Einstein–de Haas effect – Albert Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox (a.k.a. EPR paradox, Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen–Bohm paradox) – Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, Nathan Rosen (and David Bohm) Ekman layer – Walfrid Ekman Elbs reaction – Karl Elbs Elliott–Halberstam conjecture – Peter D. T. A. Elliott and Heini Halberstam Elman network – Jeff Elman Elsasser number – Walter M. Elsasser Engel curve – Ernst Engel Engelbart's law – Douglas Engelbart Epimenides paradox – Epimenides of Knossos Erlenmeyer flask, rule, synthesis – Richard August Carl Emil Erlenmeyer Eschenmoser fragmentation – Albert Eschenmoser Eschweiler–Clarke reaction – Wilhelm Eschweiler and Hans Thacher Clarke Eshelby's inclusion – John D. Eshelby Étard reaction – Alexandre Léon Étard Ettingshausen effect –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Gabriel synthesis – Siegmund Gabriel Gardner transition – Elizabeth Gardner Garman limit – Elspeth Garman Gattermann reaction – Ludwig Gattermann Gattermann–Koch reaction – Ludwig Gattermann and Julius Arnold Koch Gaunt factor (or Kramers–Gaunt factor) – John Arthur Gaunt (and Hendrik Anthony Kramers) Gause's principle – Georgii Gause Gauss's law – Carl Friedrich Gauss Gauss–Bonnet gravity, theorem – Carl Friedrich Gauss and Pierre Ossian Bonnet Geib–Spevack process (a.k.a. Girdler sulfide (GS) process) – Karl-Hermann Geib and Jerome S. Spevack (and the Girdler company, which built the first American plant using the process) Geiger counter (a.k.a. Geiger–Müller counter) – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger (and Walther Müller) Geiger–Marsden experiment (a.k.a. Rutherford experiment) – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and Ernest Marsden Geiger–Müller tube – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and Walther Müller Geiger–Nuttall law/rule – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and John Mitchell Nuttall Geissler tube – Heinrich Geissler Gibbs entropy, free energy, paradox, Gibbs's phase rule, Gibbs phenomenon – Josiah Willard Gibbs Gibbs–Donnan effect (a.k.a. Donnan effect) – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Frederick G. Donnan Gibbs–Marangoni effect (a.k.a. Marangoni effect) – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Carlo Marangoni Gibbs–Helmholtz equation – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Hermann von Helmholtz Gibbs–Thomson effect – Josiah Willard


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Jaccard index, similarity coefficient, distance – Paul Jaccard Jaffe profile (or model) – Walter Jaffe Jahn–Teller effect – Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller Jaro–Winkler distance – Matthew A. Jaro and William E. Winkler Jarque–Bera test – Carlos M. Jarque and Anil K. Bera Jeans's theorem – James Hopwood Jeans Johnson–Nyquist noise – John B. Johnson and Harry Nyquist Jordan's rule/law – David Starr Jordan Josephson constant, effect, junction – Brian David Josephson Joule's law (a.k.a. Joule–Lenz law) – James Prescott Joule and Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz Joule–Thomson effect (a.k.a. Joule–Kelvin effect) – James Prescott Joule and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin == K == K3 surface – Ernst Kummer, Erich Kähler, Kunihiko Kodaira Kähler differential, manifold, metric – Erich Kähler Kakutani's problem – see Collatz conjecture, above Kármán vortex street – Theodore von Kármán Karnaugh map (a.k.a. Karnaugh–Veitch map, Veitch diagram) – Maurice Karnaugh (and Edward W. Veitch) Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions (a.k.a. Kuhn–Tucker conditions) – William Karush, Harold W. Kuhn and Albert W. Tucker Kasha's rule – Michael Kasha Kater's pendulum – Captain Henry Kater Kaye effect – Alan Kaye Keeling Curve – Charles David Keeling Kelvin wave – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism, instability


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Mach band/effect, number, principle – Ernst Mach Mach–Zehnder interferometer – Ludwig Mach and Ludwig Zehnder Madelung constant, rule, energy – Erwin Madelung Maggi–Righi–Leduc effect (Thermal Hall effect) – Gian Antonio Maggi, Augusto Righi and Sylvestre Anatole Leduc Magnus effect – Heinrich Gustav Magnus Magorrian relation – John Magorrian Mahalanobis distance – Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (প্রশান্ত চন্দ্র মহলানবিস) Mahler measure, Mahler's theorem – Kurt Mahler Maillard reaction Malmquist bias, effect – Karl Gunnar Malmquist Malus's law – Étienne-Louis Malus Malthusian parameter – named by Ronald Fisher as a criticism of Thomas Robert Malthus Malthusian catastrophe, growth model – Thomas Robert Malthus Marangoni cell/convection (a.k.a. Bénard–Marangoni convection) – see Bénard–Marangoni cell/convection, above Marangoni effect (a.k.a. Gibbs–Marangoni effect) – see Gibbs–Marangoni effect, above Markov's inequality, chain, partition, Markovian process – Andrey Markov Mathieu functions – Émile Léonard Mathieu Matilda effect – Matilda Joslyn Gage Matthew effect – Matthew the Evangelist Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution – James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann McCollough effect – Celeste McCollough McCulloch–Pitts neuron – Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts McGurk effect (a.k.a. McGurk–MacDonald effect) – Harry McGurk (and John MacDonald) Mealy machine – George H. Mealy Meissner effect (a.k.a. Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect) – Walther Meissner (and Robert Ochsenfeld)


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-7.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Rabi oscillations – Isidor Isaac Rabi Rademacher distribution, function, series, sum – Hans Adolph Rademacher Rademacher–Menchov theorem – Hans Adolph Rademacher and Dmitrii Menshov Radon transform – Johann Karl August Radon Raman scattering – Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Ramsauer–Townsend effect (a.k.a. Ramsauer effect, Townsend effect) – Carl Ramsauer and John Sealy Townsend Ramsden circle/disc/eyepoint, eyepiece – Jesse Ramsden Ramsey theory – Frank Plumpton Ramsey Rapoport's rule – Eduardo H. Rapoport Raychaudhuri's equation – Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri (অমল কুমার রায়চৌধুরী) Raygor Estimate Graph – Alton L. Raygor Rayleigh criterion, distribution, fading, number, quotient, scattering, waves – Lord Rayleigh Rayleigh–Bénard cell/convection – Lord Rayleigh and Henri Bénard Rayleigh–Jeans law – Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans Rayleigh–Taylor instability – Lord Rayleigh and G. I. Taylor Rees–Sciama effect – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama Reidemeister moves – Kurt Reidemeister Résal effect – Louis-Jean Résal Rescorla–Wagner rule – Robert A. Rescorla and Allan R. Wagner Reynolds number, Reynolds analogy – Osborne Reynolds Ribot's law (of Retrograde Amnesia) – Théodule-Armand Ribot Ricardian equivalence (a.k.a. Barro–Ricardo equivalence, or Ricardo–de Viti–Barro equivalence) – Robert Barro, David Ricardo, and Antonio de Viti de Marco Richards controller – Charles L. Richards Richardson's constant, equation, law – Owen Willans


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-8.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabatier or Sabattier effect – Sabat[t]ier, first name unknown Sachs–Wolfe effect – Rainer K. Sachs and Arthur M. Wolfe Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale – Herbert S. Saffir and Robert ("Bob") Simpson Sagnac effect – Georges Sagnac Saha ionization equation (a.k.a. Saha–Langmuir equation) – Megh Nad Saha (মেঘনাদ সাহা) (and Irving Langmuir) Salem number – Raphaël Salem Sapir–Whorf hypothesis – Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf Sasakian manifold, metric – Shigeo Sasaki Say's law – Jean-Baptiste Say Scheerer's phenomenon (Blue field entoptic phenomenon) – Richard Scheerer Schering Bridge – Harald Schering Schild plot, regression analysis – Heinz Otto Schild Schmidt law, Schmidt–Kennicutt law – see Kennicutt–Schmidt law, above Schottky effect – Walter H. Schottky Schröter effect – Johann Hieronymus Schröter Schülen–Wilson effect – see Wilson effect, below Schuler period, tuning – Maximilian Schuler Schultz's rule – Adolph Hans Schultz Schumann–Runge bands – Victor Schumann and Carle David Tolmé Runge Schwabe solar cycle – Samuel Heinrich Schwabe Schwarzschild effect, metric, radius – Karl Schwarzschild Scott effect – Elizabeth L. Scott Secchi (stellar) class, depth, disk – Pietro Angelo Secchi Seebeck effect – Thomas Johann Seebeck Seiberg–Witten gauge theory – Nathan Seiberg and Edward Witten Seiberg–Witten invariant – Nathan Seiberg and


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-9.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:10.933183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== V == Vackář oscillator – Jirí Vackář Van Allen radiation belt – James Van Allen Van de Graaff generator – Dr. Robert Jemison Van de Graaff Van der Pol equation, oscillator – Balthasar van der Pol Van der Waals force – Johannes Diderik van der Waals Van Hove singularity – Léon Van Hove Vavilovian mimicry – Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov Veblen effect – Thorstein Veblen Veitch diagram – see Karnaugh map, above Venturi effect – Giovanni Battista Venturi Venn diagram – John Venn Vieille's law (a.k.a. St. Robert's law, often misspelled as Vielle's law) – Paul Marie Eugène Vieille Vierordt's law – Karl von Vierordt Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann equation – Hans Vogel, Gordon Scott Fulcher, and Gustav Tammann Vogt–Russell theorem – Heinrich Vogt and Henry Norris Russell Voigt effect, notation, profile – Woldemar Voigt Voigt material – see Kelvin–Voigt material, above Von Klitzing constant – Klaus von Klitzing Von Neumann ordinal, von Neumann architecture – John von Neumann Von Restorff effect – Hedwig von Restorff Von Zeipel theorem – Edvard Hugo von Zeipel == W == Wadati–Benioff zone (a.k.a. Benioff zone) – Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff Wahlund effect – Sten Gösta William Wahlund Wallace's line – Alfred Russel Wallace Walras's law


id: list-of-things-named-after-glenn-t-seaborg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Glenn_T._Seaborg-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Glenn T. Seaborg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Glenn_T._Seaborg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:12.229363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-glenn-t-seaborg-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named after the Nobel Prize-winning American chemist Glenn T. Seaborg (1912–1999). Known for his considerable legacy, Seaborg was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records for having the longest entry in Marquis Who's Who. His legacy was cemented with the naming of element 106 as seaborgium in his honor. He is the first of two individuals (the other being Yuri Oganessian) to have had an element named after them during their lifetime (the names einsteinium and fermium were proposed when Einstein and Fermi were alive, but were not approved until after their deaths). == List == The following list of things named after Glenn T. Seaborg supplements his biographical entry: Seaborgium, a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Sg and atomic number 106 Glenn T. Seaborg Center, Northern Michigan University Seaborg is an IBM RS/6000 SP supercomputer at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Local Lodge Glenn T. Seaborg #719, Vasa Order of America. The Seaborg Lodge also offers the Seaborg Scholarship. The Glenn T. Seaborg Medal has been awarded by the UCLA Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry since 1987 to honor significant contributions to chemistry. The American Nuclear Society (ANS) Seaborg Medal is


id: list-of-things-named-after-alan-turing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Alan_Turing-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Alan Turing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Alan_Turing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:13.396187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-alan-turing-20260505-0
summary:
Alan Turing (1912–1954), a pioneer computer scientist, mathematician, and philosopher, is the eponym of all of the things listed below. Alan Turing Building, Manchester, England The Turing School, Eastbourne, England Alan Turing Centenary Conference, Manchester, England Alan Turing Institute, London, England Alan Turing law Alan Turing Memorial, Manchester, England Alan Turing sculpture, Eugene, Oregon, United States Statue of Alan Turing, Bletchley Park, England Alan Turing: The Enigma Alan Turing Year The Annotated Turing Church–Turing thesis Church–Turing–Deutsch principle Good–Turing frequency estimation Object-Oriented Turing (programming language) Super-Turing computation Turing-acceptable language Turing Award Turing (cipher) Turing College, Kent, England Turing completeness Turing computability Turing degree Turing Foundation, Amsterdam, Netherlands Turing Gateway to Mathematics, Cambridge, England The Turing Guide Turing House School Turing Institute, Glasgow, Scotland Turing jump Turing Lecture Turing machine Alternating Turing machine Multi-track Turing machine Multitape Turing machine Neural Turing machine Non-deterministic Turing machine Post–Turing machine Probabilistic Turing machine Quantum Turing machine Read-only right moving Turing machines Read-only Turing machine Symmetric Turing machine Unambiguous Turing machine Universal Turing machine Wolfram's 2-state 3-symbol Turing machine Turing Machine (band) Turing (microarchitecture) Turing OS Turing pattern Turing Pharmaceuticals Turing (programming language) Turing reduction Turing Robot, China Turing scheme Turing table Turing tarpit Turing test


id: list-of-scientific-units-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_units_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific units named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_units_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:14.664435+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-units-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific units named after people. For other lists of eponyms (names derived from people) see eponym. By convention, the name of the unit is properly written starting with a lowercase letter (except where any word would be capitalized), but the first letter of its symbol is a capital letter if it is derived from a proper name. == SI units == ampere (A), electric current – André-Marie Ampère becquerel (Bq), radioactivity – Henri Becquerel degree Celsius (°C), temperature – Anders Celsius coulomb (C), electric charge – Charles-Augustin de Coulomb farad (F), capacitance – Michael Faraday gray (Gy), absorbed dose of radiation – Louis Harold Gray henry (H), inductance – Joseph Henry hertz (Hz), frequency – Heinrich Rudolf Hertz joule (J), energy, work, heat – James Prescott Joule kelvin (K), thermodynamic temperature – Lord Kelvin newton (N), force – Isaac Newton ohm (Ω), electrical resistance – Georg Ohm pascal (Pa), pressure – Blaise Pascal siemens (S), electrical conductance – Werner von Siemens sievert (Sv), radiation dose equivalent – Rolf Sievert tesla (T), magnetic flux density – Nikola Tesla volt (V), electric potential, electromotive force – Alessandro Volta watt (W), power, radiant flux – James Watt weber


id: list-of-things-named-after-hermann-weyl-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Hermann_Weyl-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Hermann Weyl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Hermann_Weyl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:15.851041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-hermann-weyl-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics named after Hermann Weyl, the influential German mathematician from the 20th century. == Mathematics and physics == == Other == Weyl (crater) == References ==


id: ada-twist-scientist-tv-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Twist,_Scientist_(TV_series)-0.md
category: reference
title: Ada Twist, Scientist (TV series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Twist,_Scientist_(TV_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:17.385829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ada-twist-scientist-tv-series-20260505-0
summary:
Ada Twist, Scientist is an animated preschool television series, based on the eponymous book series by Andrea Beaty and David Roberts. Developed and executive produced by Chris Nee for Netflix, the series premiered on September 28, 2021. A second season was released on January 25, 2022, followed by a third season on September 12, 2022, and a fourth season on April 22, 2023. == Characters == === Main === Ada Twist (voiced by Amanda Christine in Seasons 1-3 and Kaya Jackson in Season 4) is an intellectual 9-year-old girl, and a scientist. She's smart, kindhearted, sensitive, and always sweet. Her catchphrases are "Loading the Lab!", "Wasn't that cool? Science is the best.", and "We don't quit, we got grit!" She has her own magic lab and her big book of discoveries and inventions. Her favorite animal is a ladybug. Iggy Peck (voiced by Nicholas Crovetti) is a fearful 8-year-old boy, and an architect. He's caring, extremely nervous, shy, quiet, and easygoing. His favorite animal is a whale shark. Rosie Revere (voiced by Candace Kozak) is an energetic 7-year-old girl, and an engineer. She's funny, a bit bossy, positive, and confident. She is also tomboyish which is what makes her always


id: bio-hunter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio_Hunter-0.md
category: reference
title: Bio Hunter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio_Hunter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:18.590311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bio-hunter-20260505-0
summary:
Bio Hunter (バイオ・ハンター, Baio Hantā) is a Japanese manga series authored by Fujihiko Hosono. It tells the story about two molecular biologists, Koshigaya and Komada who take on humans with strange viruses that make them less human and more demonic. It was serialized in the Scola manga magazine Comic Burger. The manga was also adapted into an hour-long single-episode anime OVA, produced by Madhouse Studios and Toei Video, directed by Yuzo Sato and scripted by Yoshiaki Kawajiri. It was distributed throughout the United States and Canada by Urban Vision. The English dub is distributed by MVM Films in the United Kingdom and Madman Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand. The movie has similar animation and dark urban fantasy themes that Kawajiri worked on before and after Bio Hunter, such as Ninja Scroll, Devilman OVA, X/1999 anime TV series, and Gungrave. Kawajiri, Yamamoto and Maruyama worked again as a team between 1997 and 2000 in making the Madhouse's Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust. == Plot == Two scientists are attempting to distribute the cure for a demon virus that is affecting people all over Japan, however, things have become complicated. One of them has become infected. So begins his battle with himself,


id: edison-poem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_(poem)-0.md
category: reference
title: Edison (poem)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_(poem)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:19.782054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edison-poem-20260505-0
summary:
Edison is an epic poem by Czech poet Vítězslav Nezval. It was written in 1927. Later it was included in the poetic book Básně noci (Poems of the Night) which was published in 1930. The main hero of the poem is American inventor Thomas Alva Edison, considered by the author to be a modern genius. Nezval's work is a praise of human activity, technology, and science, but also an expression of anxiety about civilisation. Nezval compares the inventor's work to writing poetry. He points out that every creative work demands much toil and courage. After Edison's death in 1931 Nezval wrote Signál času (Signal of time) which is an elegy. Both poems are written in the same measure, trochaic hexameter. Nezval uses long enumerations, building sophisticated poetical imagery. Nezval's Edison was probably influenced by Guillaume Apollinaire's work, especially the poem Zone, which was translated into Czech by Karel Čapek. == Translations == The poem was translated into English by Ewald Osers. François Kérel, helped by Nezval himself, translated the poem into French. It was also twice translated into Polish, by Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Józef Waczków. == Notes == == Bibliography == Vítězslav Nezval, Edison. Báseň o pěti zpěvech. Translated


id: the-man-and-the-challenge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_and_the_Challenge-0.md
category: reference
title: The Man and the Challenge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_and_the_Challenge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:21.040913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-man-and-the-challenge-20260505-0
summary:
The Man and the Challenge is an American adventure fiction television series about a scientist who tests problems of human survival. It stars George Nader and aired on NBC during the 1959–60 television season. == Synopsis == Dr. Glenn Barton is an athlete, explorer, adventurer, and former United States Marine who has become a physician and a research scientist for the Institute of Human Factors, a U.S. government agency that designs and conducts experiments to study human endurance and its limits. His wide-ranging curiosity and interests suit him well for his assignments, which involve him testing equipment and personnel under conditions of extreme stress in a variety of research areas. He frequently subjects himself to the tests before allowing others to participate. Emergencies often arise which force Barton or his test subjects to go past the limits of previous tests in an attempt to save the situation. Lynn Allen is his assistant. == Cast == George Nader as Dr. Glenn Barton Joyce Meadows as Lynn Allen == Production == The Man and the Challenge was an Ivan Tors-Ziv Television Programs production, and Ivan Tors produced the series. Episodes were filmed at Ziv Studios in Hollywood. Each episode tells its story


id: who-novel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who-0.md
category: reference
title: Who? (novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who?_(novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:22.305894+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: who-novel-20260505-0
summary:
Who? is a 1958 science fiction novel by American writer Algis Budrys, set during the Cold War. It was originally a short story, inspired, as its author claimed, by a Kelly Freas painting he had seen in the offices of the magazine Fantastic Universe, and published in that magazine in April 1955. The novel was adapted into a 1974 film of the same name, starring Elliott Gould. == Plot == The book assumes that the Cold War will culminate in the East and West bloc uniting into two super-states, all smaller allies or satellites of the United States and Soviet Union being annexed and losing their individual identity. This development, which did not happen in actual history, has various implications for the book's plot. During the Cold War period, an explosion from an experiment in an Allied research facility near the border with the Soviet Bloc, allows a Soviet team, under the pretense of offering help, to abduct Lucas Martino, a leading Allied physicist in charge of a secret, high-priority project called K-88. Several months later, under American pressure, the Soviet officials finally hand over an individual. The Soviets state and the individual claims that he is Martino. The man


id: gijs-van-aardenne-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gijs_van_Aardenne-0.md
category: reference
title: Gijs van Aardenne
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gijs_van_Aardenne
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:25.462753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gijs-van-aardenne-20260505-0
summary:
Gijsbert Michiel Vredenrijk "Gijs" van Aardenne (18 March 1930 – 10 August 1995) was a Dutch politician of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) and businessperson. Van Aardenne studied Physics and Mathematics at the Leiden University simultaneously obtaining a Master of Physics and Mathematics degree. Van Aardenne worked for a corporate director for an iron manufacturer company in Dordrecht from September 1957 until December 1970 and as CEO from February 1968. Van Aardenne became a Member of the House of Representatives on 18 February 1971 serving until 10 May 1971 and shortly after the election of 1971 returned to the House of Representatives on 3 August 1971 and served as a frontbencher chairing the House Committee for Patent Act Reforms and as spokesperson for Social Affairs and Welfare. After the election of 1977 Van Aardenne was appointed as Minister of Economic Affairs in the Cabinet Van Agt-Wiegel taking office on 19 December 1977. After the election of 1981 Van Aardenne returned to the House of Representatives on 25 August 1981 and served as a frontbencher and spokesperson for Finance. After the election of 1982 Van Aardenne was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Economic Affairs in


id: ilan-amit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilan_Amit-0.md
category: reference
title: Ilan Amit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilan_Amit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:26.768764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ilan-amit-20260505-0
summary:
Ilan Amit (Hebrew: אִילָן עָמִית; (1935-01-19)January 19, 1935 – (2013-03-11)March 11, 2013) was an Israeli mathematician, spiritual philosopher, and defence consultant. He worked as a strategist and senior advisor to Israel's defence establishment, including the Mossad. == Biography == Ilan Kroch (later Amit) was born in Haifa. His father, a mathematics teacher, was deputy principal of the Hebrew Reali School and a founder of the Hebrew Scouts Movement in Israel. Amit studied at the Reali School, where he was a student of Josef Schächter. In 1960, Amit was one of the founders of the moshav shitufi Yodfat, where he became a proponent of the teachings of mystic George Gurdjieff. After completing his undergraduate studies in mathematics at the Technion, Amit worked at Mekorot, soon becoming head of the company's operations research department. He completed his Ph.D. in mathematics from the Technion in 1967, under the supervision of Elisha Netanyahu. Amit joined the military research department at Rafael in the late 1970s, not long after which he became blind as the result of illness. In the late 1980s Amit joined a team in Mossad's intelligence division that aimed to engage in intelligence estimates and formulate recommendations in the area of policy


id: chieko-asakawa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chieko_Asakawa-0.md
category: reference
title: Chieko Asakawa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chieko_Asakawa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:28.012393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chieko-asakawa-20260505-0
summary:
Chieko Asakawa (浅川 智恵子, Asakawa Chieko) is a blind Japanese computer scientist, known for her work at IBM Research – Tokyo in accessibility. A Netscape browser plug-in she developed, the IBM Home Page Reader, became the most widely used web-to-speech system available. She is the recipient of numerous industry and government awards. == Education and career == Asakawa was born with normal sight. When she was eleven years old, while swimming, she struck her left eye on the side of the pool, injuring her optic nerve. She began losing her sight, and by the age of fourteen was completely blind. She earned a bachelor's degree in English literature at Otemon Gakuin University in Osaka in 1982, followed by a two-year computer programming course designed for the visually impaired; students used Optacons to translate print to tactile sensation. She joined IBM Research in a temporary position in 1984, and became a permanent staff researcher one year later. In 2004 she earned a Ph.D. in engineering from the University of Tokyo. == Contributions == Asakawa's research projects have included developing a word processor for Braille documents, developing a digital library for Braille documents, developing an application to improve accessibility of streaming services,


id: peggy-assinck-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Assinck-0.md
category: reference
title: Peggy Assinck
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Assinck
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:29.338397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peggy-assinck-20260505-0
summary:
Peggy Assinck (born May 8, 1983) is a Canadian ice sledge hockey athlete and neuroscientist. She competed in the inaugural IPC Ice Sledge Hockey Women's International Cup in 2014. == Early life and education == Assinck was born with spina bifida and became paralyzed at the age of 11, following a non-traumatic spinal injury. Prior to this, she was involved in various sports. Assinck completed her PhD in neuroscience at the University of British Columbia in 2017. Her doctoral research was conducted at the International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD) spinal cord injury Research Centre. == Research areas and interests == Assinck's main interest is in spinal cord injuries (SCI), with a focus on how the central nervous system functions and the biological changes that may occur after a spinal cord injury. Her two areas of focus are to determine how the host cells contribute to repair after the injury, and the use of cell transplantation as a potential therapy for spinal cord injury. Her passion for this area of research stemmed from her time spent in the hospital during her first diagnosis. == Sledge hockey == === Canada women's national sledge hockey team === Assinck has played sledge hockey


id: ann-ballin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Ballin-0.md
category: reference
title: Ann Ballin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Ballin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:30.615104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ann-ballin-20260505-0
summary:
Dame Reubina Ann Ballin (20 February 1932 – 2 September 2003) was a New Zealand psychologist and victims' rights advocate. In 2002, she was accorded New Zealand's highest civilian honour, membership of the Order of New Zealand. == Biography == Born in Hamilton in 1932, Ballin was educated at St Hilda's Collegiate School in Dunedin and Waikato Diocesan School in Hamilton. In her mid-teens, she developed a neurological condition that attacked her spinal column, that made her reliant on a wheelchair for the remainder of her life. Ballin attended Auckland University College and the University of Canterbury, graduating BA in 1961 and MA in 1964. Her master's thesis was on learning in patients receiving electro-convulsive therapy. A qualified psychologist, she worked as a student counsellor at the University of Canterbury from 1974 to 1986, and served as president of the New Zealand Psychological Society from 1979 to 1980. She was the society's first female president. She chaired the Victims' Task Force from 1988 to 1993 and pioneered changes in the criminal justice system to improve justice for victims of crime. Between 1987 and 1995, she chaired the New Zealand Council for Recreation and served on the Hillary Commission on Recreation


id: farida-bedwei-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farida_Bedwei-0.md
category: reference
title: Farida Bedwei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farida_Bedwei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:31.930757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: farida-bedwei-20260505-0
summary:
Farida Nana Efua Bedwei (born 6 April 1979) is a Ghanaian software engineer and co-founder of Logiciel, a fin-tech company in Ghana. Farida Bedwei has built mobile and enterprise applications, and is also known for her knowledge of software architecture, and deploying mobile services, particularly for banking applications. == Early life == Farida was born in Lagos, Nigeria and spent her early childhood living in three different countries (Dominica, Grenada and UK) due to the nature of her fathers job with the United Nations Development Programme. She was diagnosed with cerebral palsy at the age of one. Her family moved to Ghana when she was 9 years old and was home schooled until 12 years. == Education == She was home schooled until the age of 12 when she was first sent to a government school in Ghana. When she was 15, Farida's parents noticed her passion for computers and decided to enroll her in a one-year computer course at the St. Michael information technology centre, making her one of the youngest in the class and also enabled her to skip high school. She later obtained a one-year degree in Computer Science from the University of Hertfordshire in the United


id: orna-berry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orna_Berry-0.md
category: reference
title: Orna Berry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orna_Berry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:33.300586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orna-berry-20260505-0
summary:
Orna Berry (Hebrew: ארנה ברי; born December 19, 1949), is an Israeli computer scientist, high-tech entrepreneur, and senior executive in the Israeli science and technology industries. In 1996, Berry became the first woman to serve as chief scientist and head of the industrial R&D operation of the Israeli Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labour. She was awarded the "Yekirat Hanegev" award from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in 2012. Since 2021 Berry serves as Director of Technology in the office of the CTO at Google Cloud. == Early life and education == Orna Berry was born in Jerusalem to Raissa and Yoash Tsiddon (Chatto) and was raised and educated in Tel Aviv. In 1967, she drafted into the Israeli Air Force, where she served as an officer for the flying school until 1970, terminating her military service as a lieutenant. Berry received a BA from Haifa University in statistics and mathematics in 1975 and an MA in statistics and operations research from Tel Aviv University. She then enrolled at the University of Southern California (USC), where she received a PhD in computer science in 1986. During this time, she obtained a fellowship from the RAND Corporation. Berry's academic research illustrated


id: orna-berry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orna_Berry-1.md
category: reference
title: Orna Berry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orna_Berry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:33.300586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orna-berry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Voluntary === Berry's involvement in the academic, public and business sectors are intertwined with volunteer activities which are based on her stated goal to harness information technology (IT) for empowering knowledge and other research areas, and to create social progress and economic growth among the local Israeli community and the international community in the U.S. and Europe. Among her voluntary activities, Berry served as a member of the board of directors of the Kav Mashve Association, a non-profit organization for promoting Arab Academics employment based on their academic background and skills, a member of the board of directors of BG Negev Technologies, a member of the patents and intellectual property policy committees at the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, and she still serves as member of the executive committee of Ben Gurion University and board member of Ramot, the technology transfer company of Tel Aviv University, and TAU Ventures. Berry was a member of the WIR (Women in Industrial Research) expert group which presented findings to The European Commission. She was also a member of the EURAB Research Council, where she replaced Professor Ruth Arnon as a member and contributed to studies on the expansion of competitiveness and


id: chen-yinke-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Yinke-0.md
category: reference
title: Chen Yinke
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Yinke
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:34.635298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chen-yinke-20260505-0
summary:
Chen Yinke, or Chen Yinque (3 July 1890 – 7 October 1969), was a Chinese historian. One of the most original and respected scholars in twentieth-century China, Chen was elected to the first cohort of Academia Sinica academicians in 1948 and as an inaugural academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1955. A polyglot with command of more than twenty languages, he was especially versed in classical scripts including Sanskrit, Old Turkic, and Tangut. His scholarship ranged broadly across literature, history, philosophy, and religious studies, distinguished by rigorous textual criticism. His notable works are Draft Essays on the Origins of Sui and Tang Institutions (隋唐制度淵源略論稿), Draft Outline of Tang Political History (唐代政治史述論稿), and An Alternative Biography of Liu Rushi (柳如是別傳). == Biography == === Early life === Chen Yinke was born in Changsha, Hunan in 1890, and his ancestral home was Yining, Jiangxi (now Xiushui County, Jiujiang). Yinke's father Chen Sanli was a famous poet, one of the "Four Gentlemen" of the Hundred Days' Reform. His grandfather was Chen Baozhen, the governor of Hunan between 1895 and 1898. As a boy, Chen Yinke attended a private school in Nanjing, and was once a student of Wang Bohang, a sinologist.


id: chen-yinke-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Yinke-1.md
category: reference
title: Chen Yinke
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Yinke
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:34.635298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chen-yinke-20260505-0
summary:
Chen was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution due to his previous connection with the out-of-favor Tao Zhu. He and his wife's salaries were frozen by the Red Guards. Several times he was forced to write statements to clarify his political standings: "I have never done anything harmful to Chinese people in my life. I have been a teacher for 40 years, only doing teaching and writing, but nothing practical (for Kuomintang)". Many of his book collections and manuscripts were stolen. Red Guards surrounded his home with loudspeakers, to force Chen, whom they viewed as a "reactionary academic" to listen to the revolutionary masses. He died in Guangzhou on 7 October 1969 for heart failure and sudden bowel obstruction. 11 days later his obituary was published by the Southern Daily. The bone ashes of Chen and his wife was at first stored at Yinhe Revolutionary Cemetery, but moved to Lushan Botanical Garden in 2003. They are now buried near the "Tomb of the Three Elders"(Hu Xiansu, Ren-Chang Ching and Chen Fenghuai). == Ideology == In 1952, Chen composed two poems, "The Female Impersonator" (男旦) and "Impromptu Verses on Watching the New Play of the Thirteenth Sister" (偶觀十三妹新劇戲作), in which he compared


id: charles-chilton-zoologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Chilton_(zoologist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Charles Chilton (zoologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Chilton_(zoologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:35.920727+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: charles-chilton-zoologist-20260505-0
summary:
Charles Chilton (27 September 1860 – 25 October 1929) was a New Zealand zoologist, the first rector to be appointed in Australasia, and the first person to be awarded a D.Sc. degree in New Zealand. == Biography == Chilton was born on 27 September 1860 at Little Marstone, Pencombe, son of Thomas Chilton, (near Leominster, Herefordshire, England) but emigrated with his family to New Zealand in 1862. They settled on a farm at East Eyreton, North Canterbury. He was troubled by his hips from an early age, and had his left leg amputated, using an artificial leg and a crutch thereafter. He entered Canterbury College in 1875 as an unmatriculated student, and matriculated three years later. In 1881, he gained a Master of Art with first class honours, having been taught by Frederick Hutton, who inspired him to take up biology, especially the study of crustaceans, which had been little studied in New Zealand up to that time. Chilton's first scientific publication followed that same year, when he described three new species of crustacean (two crabs and one isopod) from Lyttelton Harbour and Lake Pupuke. He surprised the scientific world later that year by describing four species of amphipod and


id: harold-basil-christian-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Basil_Christian-0.md
category: reference
title: Harold Basil Christian
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Basil_Christian
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:37.091232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harold-basil-christian-20260505-0
summary:
Harold Basil Christian (28 October 1871 – 12 May 1950) was a Cape Colony-born Rhodesian farmer, horticulturist, and botanist. Christian attended Eton College in the United Kingdom, where he was a distinguished athlete. He served in the Imperial Light Horse of the British Army during the Second Boer War, during which he fought in the Siege of Ladysmith. In the decade after the war, he worked in what is now South Africa for De Beers and later as an engineer for a mining company. In 1911, Christian moved to Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe). There, he purchased a sizable farm, which he named Ewanrigg. He was best known for his study and cultivation of aloe on his extensive estate, which was donated to the state upon his death and became a national park. Christian initially attempted to grow imported European plants on his farm, but these tree species, which tend to be conifers, were not well-suited to the region's heat, dryness, and low altitude. In 1916, after it proved impossible to remove an unsightly rock from a spacious lawn in front of the house, Christian took an Aloe cameronii from a nearby hill and planted it in front of the stone. He


id: harold-basil-christian-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Basil_Christian-1.md
category: reference
title: Harold Basil Christian
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Basil_Christian
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:37.091232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harold-basil-christian-20260505-0
summary:
After purchasing his farm, Christian constructed a house on a kopje and added a croquet lawn in front. He constructed a water garden, including a waterfall, which was popular with visitors. While the water feature appeared to flow continuously with a pump, in reality, water was brought up from a nearby stream in an ox-drawn cart and poured into a tank behind the waterfall, and the tap was opened just before visitors arrived. Spacious lawns were cleared in front of the house where Christian planned to develop a garden. He originally planted imported European alpines, inspired by the designs of the English gardeners he knew growing up on his father's farm in South Africa. However, the imported plants, which thrive in high altitudes, cooler temperatures, and generous amounts of water, were not suited to the hot, dry climate of Southern Africa. In the center of the lawn, a large rock protruded above the ground and was unable to be removed despite much digging. In 1916, Christian's farm surveyor went to a hill close by, uprooted an Aloe cameronii, and planted it "to hide the stark appearance of this unsightly rock". When the plant flowered the next year despite no watering,


id: harold-basil-christian-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Basil_Christian-2.md
category: reference
title: Harold Basil Christian
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Basil_Christian
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:37.091232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harold-basil-christian-20260505-0
summary:
One variety of aloe, recorded by Gilbert Reynolds as a species which Christian first collected at his farm, was named Aloe christianii in his honor, and a plant was donated to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In 1948, he subdivided his estate, selling some portions and retaining 707 acres. On 5 June 1948, with William Daniel Gale and J. B. Richards serving as witnesses, Christian signed a codicil to his will in which he granted part of his farm, including his garden, to the state. Christian's decision to leave his garden to the state was appreciatively received by The Rhodesia Herald, which published an article on 8 June 1948 that read, "If the offer of the owner Mr. Basil Christian is accepted by the Rhodesian Government, the finest and most complete collection of aloes and cycads in the world will become the property of the Colony for all time." Christian said in an interview his work could not have been achieved and his collection could not have been expanded such were it not for the botanists at Kew and the South African government's Division of Botany, who frequently sent him new specimens. In the interview, he noted that while other


id: jairo-clopatofsky-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jairo_Clopatofsky-0.md
category: reference
title: Jairo Clopatofsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jairo_Clopatofsky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:38.363116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jairo-clopatofsky-20260505-0
summary:
Jairo Raúl Clopatofsky Ghisays (born 20 October 1961) is a Colombian politician. A Party of the U politician, Clopatofsky had served in the Congress of Colombia, as Senator and as Representative for the Capital District, and most recently as the 17th general director of Coldeportes from 2010 to 2012. In 1982 he experienced an automotive accident that left him paraplegic and reliant on a wheelchair. In 2005 he went through an experimental stem cell transplant surgery procedure, using olfactory adult stem cells into the spinal cord. After 22 years of paraplegia, and loss of sensation from the waist down, Clopatofsky was able to regain sensation in his legs and successfully took his first steps thanks to physical therapy and the operation. == Career == Clopatofsky studied at the Liceo de La Salle until 10th grade when he enrolled in the Cadet Naval Academy in Cartagena. He graduated from University of La Sabana with a Bachelor of Business Administration, and received a scholarship to study at Harvard University where he received a Master of Public Administration. He also did specializations in Political Science from the Pontifical Xavierian University, and in Public Administration from the Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies at the


id: gustaf-dal-n-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustaf_Dalén-0.md
category: reference
title: Gustaf Dalén
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustaf_Dalén
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:39.672731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gustaf-dal-n-20260505-0
summary:
Nils Gustaf Dalén (Swedish: [ˈɡɵ̂sːtav daˈleːn] ; 30 November 1869 – 9 December 1937) was a Swedish engineer and inventor who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1912 "for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys". == Early years == Dalén was born in Stenstorp, a small village in Falköping Municipality, Västra Götaland County. He managed the family farm, which he expanded to include a market garden, a seed merchants and a dairy. In 1892 he invented a milk-fat tester to check milk quality of the milk delivered and went to Stockholm to show his new invention for Gustaf de Laval. de Laval was impressed by the self-taught Dalén and the invention and encouraged him to get a basic technical education. He was admitted to the Chalmers University of Technology where he earned his Master's degree and a Doctorate on leaving in 1896. Dalén was much the same type of inventor as Gustaf de Laval, not afraid of testing "impossible" ideas, but Dalén was much more careful with the company economy. The products should have a solid market place before he introduced a new product. == Career with AGA


id: bertha-gyndykes-dkhar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertha_Gyndykes_Dkhar-0.md
category: reference
title: Bertha Gyndykes Dkhar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertha_Gyndykes_Dkhar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:40.866234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bertha-gyndykes-dkhar-20260505-0
summary:
Bertha Gyndykes Dkhar is a visually impaired Indian educationist, best known as the inventor of the braille code in Khasi. In 2010, the Government of India awarded her with the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian award. == Early life == Bertha Gyndykes Dkhar was born in Shillong, Meghalaya as a visually-impaired child with retinitis pigmentosa, a disease which causes degeneration of the retina, and lost the eyesight completely while she was in college due to which she had to abandon her studies. Without means to support herself, she sold fruits in the market for a living. Continuing with efforts to overcome the disability, Dkhar researched in Braille code and designed the code in Khasi, the local language in Meghalaya. == Work and recognition == Bertha Dkhar is the headmistress of the Jyoti Sroat School, a school run by the Bethany Society for the visually impaired children. She received the fourth highest Indian civilian award of Padma Shri, when she featured in the 2010 Indian Republic Day honours list. She is also a recipient of the national award for Child Welfare from the Government of India in 2000. == See also == Braille code == References == == External links


id: pablo-echenique-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Echenique-0.md
category: reference
title: Pablo Echenique
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Echenique
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:42.093317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pablo-echenique-20260505-0
summary:
Pablo Echenique Robba (born 28 August 1978) is an Argentine-born Spanish physicist and politician. As a scientist, he holds a position at the Spanish National Research Council in Zaragoza (CSIC). He came to Spain aged 13 to live in Zaragoza. He had Spinal muscular atrophy. Echenique was elected a member of the Congress of Deputies in the April 2019 Spanish general election along with the left-wing political party Podemos. Previously, Echenique was one of the five MEPs elected by Podemos in the 2014 European Parliament election, and was a member of the Aragonese Corts between 2015 and 2017. In October 2020, he was fined €11,040 for the irregular employment of his assistant. In November 2020, he was fined €80,000 for saying that a man who was murdered in 1985 was a rapist. The Supreme Court subsequently annulled this conviction after concluding that he did not make a direct accusation against the plaintiff's brother, but rather expressed a show of solidarity with his political colleague. == References == == External links == Pablo Echenique on Facebook Pablo Echenique on X De retrones y hombres (in Spanish) Pablo Echenique Robba at the European Parliament


id: anders-gustaf-ekeberg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Gustaf_Ekeberg-0.md
category: reference
title: Anders Gustaf Ekeberg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Gustaf_Ekeberg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:43.287731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anders-gustaf-ekeberg-20260505-0
summary:
Anders Gustaf Ekeberg (16 January 1767 in Stockholm, Sweden – 11 February 1813 in Uppsala, Sweden) was a Swedish analytical chemist who discovered tantalum in 1802. Notably, he was deaf. == Education == Anders Gustav Ekeberg was a Swedish scientist, mathematician and expert in Greek literature. His father, Joseph Erik Ekeberg, was a shipbuilder. His uncle was Carl Gustaf Ekeberg. Anders Gustav Ekeberg attended school at Kalmar, Söderåkra, Vestervik, and Karlskrona. He was a gifted student and enrolled at Uppsala University in 1784, graduating in 1788. His thesis addressed the extraction of oils from seeds. In 1789 and 1790, he traveled and studied in Germany, hearing Martin Heinrich Klaproth lecture in Berlin as well as Christian Ehrenfried Weigel in Greifswald. == Career == In 1794, Anders Gustav Ekeberg began teaching at Uppsala. He was a supporter of Antoine Lavoisier's proposals for systematizing chemical nomenclature. In 1795 he and Pehr von Afzelius published the first article to introduce the modern names for chemical elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen into the Swedish language, "On the Present State of Chemical Sciences". He was made docent in chemistry in 1794 and experimentator (laborator) in 1799, working as a demonstrator in the laboratory


id: alejandra-forl-n-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandra_Forlán-0.md
category: reference
title: Alejandra Forlán
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandra_Forlán
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:44.621408+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alejandra-forl-n-20260505-0
summary:
Alejandra Forlán Corazo (born March 1974) is a Uruguayan psychologist, lecturer, and activist. == Biography == The daughter of Pilar Corazo and Pablo Forlán, and sister of footballer Diego Forlán, Alejandra studied psychology at the Catholic University of Uruguay. She earned a master's degree in consulting and human resources from the University of the Balearic Islands, working with adolescents. She obtained her diploma as the first female FIFA agent of Uruguay. On 14 September 1991, at age 17, Alejandra Forlán and her boyfriend Gonzalo were in an automobile accident on a rainy morning. The young man was killed instantly in the collision; neither of them had a seatbelt on. After the impact, Forlán realized that she could not move her body. Her injuries caused irreversible damage, and after months of rehabilitation she remained paraplegic. On 24 March 2009 she created the Alejandra Forlán Foundation, a nonprofit organization based in Montevideo, whose main objective is to promote and equalize the rights of people with different abilities, work on the prevention of traffic accidents, and create support networks for people with limitations. It has organized publicity campaigns promoting non-alcoholic drinks, charity golf tournaments, and The Road Show, an event featuring testimonies of


id: peter-freuchen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Freuchen-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter Freuchen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Freuchen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:45.863962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-freuchen-20260505-0
summary:
Lorenz Peter Elfred Freuchen (20 February 1886 – 2 September 1957) was a Danish explorer, author, journalist and anthropologist. He is notable for his role in Arctic exploration, namely the Thule Expeditions. == Early life, family and education == Freuchen was born in Nykøbing Falster, Denmark, the son of Anne Petrine Frederikke (née Rasmussen; 1862–1945) and Lorentz Benzon Freuchen (1859–1927), a businessman. Freuchen was baptized in the local church. He attended the University of Copenhagen where for a time he studied medicine. == Career == In 1906, he went on his first expedition to Greenland as a member of the Denmark expedition. Between 1910 and 1924, he undertook several expeditions, often with the noted Polar explorer Knud Rasmussen. He worked with Rasmussen in crossing the Greenland ice sheet. He spent many years in North Star Bay, Greenland, living with the Polar Inuit. In 1935, Freuchen visited South Africa, and by the end of the decade, he had travelled to Siberia. In 1910, Rasmussen and Freuchen established the Thule Trading Station at North Star Bay in the Cape York district of Greenland, as a trading base. The name Thule was chosen because it was the most northerly trading post in the


id: vladimir-fyodorov-actor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Fyodorov_(actor)-0.md
category: reference
title: Vladimir Fyodorov (actor)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Fyodorov_(actor)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:47.032647+00:00
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Vladimir Anatolyevich Fyodorov (Russian: Влади́мир Анато́льевич Фёдоров; 19 February 1939 — 18 May 2021) was a Soviet and Russian actor and physicist. == Biography == In 1964, Fyodorov graduated from the National Research Nuclear University MEPhI and he joined the Institute of Biophysics, USSR Ministry of Health. Vladimir Fyodorov's profession was nuclear physicist and he was the author of more than 50 scientific works and inventions. Many of his works have been translated into English. He was a student of Igor Kurchatov. == Career == Fyodorov first appeared on the screen at the age of 32, when film director Aleksandr Ptushko invited the young scientist to play the role of the villain Chernomor in the film Ruslan and Lyudmila. Since then, Vladimir Fyodorov portrayed many characters with dwarfism, thanks to his small stature 130 cm (4 ft 3¼ inch) . The best-known film works include the aforementioned Chernomor and the villain and oligarch Turanchoks of the sci-fi movie Per Aspera Ad Astra. In the late 1980s, Vladimir Fyodorov came on the professional scene and played in the productions of the Vakhtangov Theater. Since 1993, he has been an actor at Nikitsky Gate. From 1997 to 1998 Fyodorov was a co-presenter


id: mara-gabrilli-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mara_Gabrilli-0.md
category: reference
title: Mara Gabrilli
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mara_Gabrilli
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:48.505989+00:00
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parent: mara-gabrilli-20260505-0
summary:
Mara Cristina Gabrilli (born 28 September 1967) is a Brazilian psychologist, advertiser and politician affiliated with the Social Democratic Party. She was elected as a federal deputy representing the state of São Paulo in the 2010 election, being reelected four years later. After becoming quadriplegic in 1994 due to a car crash, Gabrilli became an activist for people with disabilities, founding the Instituto Mara Gabrilli in 1997, advocating for their rights. Before being elected for the Brazilian Congress, Gabrilli was vereadora (councilwoman) for the city of São Paulo and the Municipal Secretary for People with disabilities. In 2018, Gabrilli was elected to the Brazilian Senate. In 2023, she left the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB) due to personal disagreements with recent party decisions and decided to join the Social Democratic Party (PSD). == References == == External links == Official site (in Portuguese) Profile in the Chamber of Deputies' website


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-0.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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parent: galileo-galilei-20260505-0
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Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as Galileo Galilei, was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath. He was born in the city of Pisa, then part of the Duchy of Florence. Galileo has been called the father of observational astronomy, modern-era classical physics, the scientific method, and modern science. Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion, and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of the pendulum and "hydrostatic balances". He was one of the earliest developers of the thermoscope and the inventor of various military compasses. With an improved telescope he built, he observed the stars of the Milky Way, the phases of Venus, the four largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters, and sunspots. He also built an early microscope. Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that his opinions contradicted accepted Biblical interpretations. Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-1.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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== Career and first scientific contributions == Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a medical degree. He was influenced by the lectures of Girolamo Borro, Domingo de Soto and Francesco Buonamici of Florence. In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, almost one hundred years later, that the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece. Up to this point, Galileo had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-2.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
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summary:
==== Jupiter's moons ==== On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it. Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January, Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days, on 15 January he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: he had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest moons. This discovery provided evidence in favour of Copernicus' heliocentric model. Galileo named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers. Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by Simon Marius on 8 January 1610 and are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, the names given by Marius in his Mundus Iovialis published in 1614. Galileo's observations


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-3.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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parent: galileo-galilei-20260505-0
summary:
==== Milky Way and stars ==== Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to be clouds. He located many other stars too distant to be visible to the naked eye. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617. In the Starry Messenger, Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his Letters on Sunspots, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward, he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter. He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-4.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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summary:
In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider controversy over the very nature of science itself. The title page of the book describes Galileo as a philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto. Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth, and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the Moon, it must be farther away than the Moon. Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-5.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
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By 1615, Galileo's writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolò Lorini, who claimed that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible, which was seen as a violation of the Council of Trent and looked dangerously like Protestantism. Lorini specifically cited Galileo's letter to Castelli. Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas. At the start of 1616, Francesco Ingoli initiated a debate with Galileo, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against Copernicanism that followed. Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's actions. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, notably that heliocentrism would require the stars as they appeared to be much larger than the Sun. The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested Galileo focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention Galileo's biblical ideas. In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-6.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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parent: galileo-galilei-20260505-0
summary:
According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo muttered the rebellious phrase "And yet it moves". The earliest known written account of the legend dates to a century after his death. Supporting the legend was a claim that a 1640s painting by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until restoration work in 1911, depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. Based on the painting, Stillman Drake wrote "there is no doubt now that the famous words were already attributed to Galileo before his death". However, an intensive investigation by astrophysicist Mario Livio concludes that the supposed Murillo painting is most probably much more recent, a copy of an 1837 Flemish painting by Roman-Eugene Van Maldeghem. After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. He was ordered to read the Seven Penitential Psalms once a week for the next three years.


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-7.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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parent: galileo-galilei-20260505-0
summary:
Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as engineering, as distinct from pure physics. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a geometric and military compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni produced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire. In 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube. In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-8.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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In 1638, Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously. Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result. The speed of light has since been determined to be far too fast to be measured by such methods. ==== Galilean invariance ==== Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-9.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
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===== Time-squared law ===== Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum. He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (d∝t2). Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.) ==== Inertia ==== Galileo also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion, thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called "violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it. Philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. Galileo stated: Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-10.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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parent: galileo-galilei-20260505-0
summary:
=== Later Church reassessments === The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence. In 1741, Pope Benedict XIV authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue. In 1758, the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books. However, the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained. All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index. Interest in the Galileo affair was revived in the early 19th century when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the Spanish Inquisition and the myth of the flat Earth) to attack Roman Catholicism. Interest in it has waxed and waned ever since. In 1939, Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-11.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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parent: galileo-galilei-20260505-0
summary:
the Galilean moons the roughness of the Moon's surface the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615, Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced to the Inquisition by Niccolò Lorini (as discussed previously). In 1616, after the order by the Inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the "Discourse on the Tides" (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form


id: galileo-galilei-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei-12.md
category: reference
title: Galileo Galilei
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:49.900635+00:00
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=== Personal library === In the last years of his life, Galileo Galilei kept a library of at least 598 volumes (560 of which have been identified) at Villa Il Gioiello, on the outskirts of Florence. Under the restrictions of house arrest, he was forbidden to write or publish his ideas. However, he continued to receive visitors right up to his death and it was through them that he remained supplied with the latest scientific texts from Northern Europe. Galileo's will does not refer to his collection of books and manuscripts. An itemized inventory was only later produced after Galileo's death, when the majority of his possessions including his library passed to his son, Vincenzo Galilei Jr. On his death in 1649, the collection was inherited by his wife Sestilia Bocchineri. Galileo's books, personal papers and unedited manuscripts were then collected by Vincenzo Viviani, his former assistant and student, with the intent of preserving his old teacher's works in published form. It was a project that never materialised and in his final will, Viviani bequeathed a significant portion of the collection to the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence, where there already existed an extensive library. The value of


id: amaranta-g-mez-regalado-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranta_Gómez_Regalado-0.md
category: reference
title: Amaranta Gómez Regalado
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranta_Gómez_Regalado
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:51.142505+00:00
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parent: amaranta-g-mez-regalado-20260505-0
summary:
Amaranta Gómez Regalado (born 1977) is a Mexican Muxe social anthropologist, political candidate, HIV prevention activist, social researcher, columnist and promoter of pre-Columbian indigenous cultural identity. == Biography == Gómez was born in 1977 in a Zapotec village close to the border of Guatemala and adopted the name of Amaranta during adolescence, after reading One Hundred Years of Solitude, the famous work of Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez. During high school, Gómez Regalado studied languages and theater in Veracruz. She then traveled to several states in southern Mexico as part of a transvestism show. In October 2002, a car accident fractured her left arm to such an extent that it had to be amputated. In 2015 she managed to change her gender identity on her birth certificate, which allowed her to change other official documents such as a passport. This was possible from the reforms approved by what was once the Legislative Assembly of Mexico City to allow people to legally change their gender identity in their birth certificate, through only an administrative procedure. (See LGBT rights in Mexico#Gender identity and expression.) She studied social anthropology at the University of Veracruz between 2011 and 2016. Her undergraduate thesis was titled


id: luis-eduardo-gonz-lez-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Eduardo_González-0.md
category: reference
title: Luis Eduardo González
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Eduardo_González
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:52.389061+00:00
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parent: luis-eduardo-gonz-lez-20260505-0
summary:
Luis Eduardo González (28 October 1945 – 10 September 2016) was a Uruguayan political scientist, sociologist and polling specialist. He was a professor at the University of the Republic and the Catholic University. He published, among others, in the Uruguayan Journal of Political Science, the Latin American Research Review, and the Mexican Journal of Sociology. He was known for his analysis and predictions on voting trends (national, departmental, plebiscites) and in reference to opinion polls, as well as for his frequent appearances on Uruguayan television.[1] == Biography == A deaf person, he was known for his voting turnout predictions. He was noted for his ability to listen to all tendencies. Magister in Sociology, Department of Social Sciences, Fundación Bariloche, Argentina, 1976. He held a PhD in political science from Yale University, 1988. He lectured at Universidad de la República and UCUDAL. In 1992, he founded the polling firm CIFRA - González, Raga y Asociados. He worked as a consultant for IADB, INTAL, United Nations, and the World Bank. Author of several specialized publications: Political Structures and Democracy in Uruguay, Notre Dame University Press, 1991. Los partidos políticos uruguayos en tiempos de cambio. UCUDAL/Fundación Banco de Boston, año 1999. == References


id: tone-gravvold-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_Gravvold-0.md
category: reference
title: Tone Gravvold
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_Gravvold
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:53.573908+00:00
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parent: tone-gravvold-20260505-0
summary:
Tone Gravvold (born 19 June 1977) is a Norwegian cross-country skier and biathlete, and since 1998, also a cyclist. She won a dozen medals in the Paralympic Games in which she competed at between 1994 and 2006. In 2019, she was named Sportsperson of the Century for Møre og Romsdal. For the Oslo Vikings, she has competed in the Norwegian championships in goalball for the visually impaired. She has retinitis pigmentosa and competes in the B1 and B2 classes, has been on the board of the RP association since 2009, and works as a psychologist, in 2015 working for the National Centre for Rheumatological Rehabilitation at the Diakonhjemmet. == Titles == === Cross-country skiing === 1994 Winter Paralympics (Lillehammer): Cross-country skiing: Gold in 5 km freestyle (B2), bronze in 10 km classic (B2) Biathlon: 8th in 7.5 freestyle (B1-3). 1998 Winter Paralympics (Nagano): Gold in 5 km freestyle (B2-3), bronze in 15 km classic (B1-3), gold in relay 3x2.5 km (open) with Frode Nilssen as lead. 2002 Paralympic Winter Games (Salt Lake City): Cross-country skiing: Bronze in 5 km classic (B2-3), gold in relay 3x2.5 (open) Biathlon: Silver in 7.5 km freestyle (blind) Cross-country skiing at the 2006 Winter Paralympics


id: edvard-gylling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvard_Gylling-0.md
category: reference
title: Edvard Gylling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvard_Gylling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:54.760543+00:00
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parent: edvard-gylling-20260505-0
summary:
Edvard Otto Vilhelm Gylling (30 November 1881 – 14 June 1938) was a prominent Social Democratic and later Communist politician in Finland, later leader of the Karelian Labor Commune and Karelian ASSR. == Biography == Gylling was born in Kuopio in 1881. He was a member of Parliament of Finland for the Social Democratic Party of Finland 1908–1917 and active during the Finnish Civil War as Commissar of Finance for the Revolutionary "Red" Finnish government. On 1 March 1918, a Treaty between the socialist governments of Russia and Finland was signed in St Petersburg. The Treaty was signed by Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin from the Russian side and by Council of Peoples Representatives of Finland Edvard Gylling and Oskari Tokoi. After the Reds lost the war, Gylling fled to Sweden, but later moved to the Soviet Union. In 1923, Gylling's left leg was amputated above the knee in Leningrad. He became one of the main leaders of the Karelo-Finnish ASSR as Chairman of Council of People's Commissars of the Karelo-Finnish SSR 1920–1935. He was accused of nationalism, removed in 1935 and arrested in 1937 as a part of the Finnish Operation of the NKVD. There are some contradictions concerning


id: olaf-hassel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaf_Hassel-0.md
category: reference
title: Olaf Hassel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaf_Hassel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:55.925513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: olaf-hassel-20260505-0
summary:
Olaf Hassel (12 May 1898 – 22 August 1972) was a Norwegian amateur astronomer. He was born in Øvre Sandsvær. He is known for his discoveries of the comet Jurlov-Achmarof-Hassel in April 1939 and the nova V446 Herculis on 7 March 1960. Hassel was born deaf. == References == == External links == "Comet Discovered by Amateur Astronomers." Popular Science, September 1939, p. 113.


id: lars-havstad-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Havstad-0.md
category: reference
title: Lars Havstad
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Havstad
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:57.207188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lars-havstad-20260505-0
summary:
Lars Aanonsen Havstad (3 February 1851 – 29 August 1913) was a Norwegian statistician, writer, secretary in the Liberal Party, newspaper editor and activist. He was deaf as well as blind in one eye, and was the first (along with Halvard Aschehoug) deaf person to pass the examen artium in Norway. == Professional career == He was born as Lars Aanonsen Larssen in Arendal as a son of customs officer Aanon Larssen (1820–1863) and Christine Christophersen (1824–1895). He grew up in Tønsberg, but following scarlet fever and meningitis at the age of five, he became deaf as well as blind in one eye. He read for himself until enrolling in school in 1860, at Christiania Døvstumme-Institut in Christiania. His teacher Fredrik Glad Balchen created a class for special talented students, who he and external teachers tutored to reach the level of normal students. Two of four students in the talent class, one of them being Havstad, managed to pass the examen artium in 1871. Havstad and Halvard Aschehoug were the first two deaf people who passed the Norwegian examen artium, at that time regarded as a sensation. The examen artium was the final examination in Norwegian secondary schools until 1974.


id: richard-g-holmes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_G._Holmes-0.md
category: reference
title: Richard G. Holmes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_G._Holmes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:58.421086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-g-holmes-20260505-0
summary:
Richard Grenfell Holmes (born 8 December 1947) is a South African psychologist and Paralympic athlete who competed at the 1972 Summer Paralympics. Holmes competed in the Athletics at the 1972 Summer Paralympics in Heidelberg, West Germany, in the Men's Javelin, Shot Put and Discus 1A category, winning the bronze medal in Javelin 1A. Holmes is the uncle of South African professional surfer Sean Holmes. == References ==


id: hua-luogeng-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hua_Luogeng-0.md
category: reference
title: Hua Luogeng
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hua_Luogeng
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:59.597971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hua-luogeng-20260505-0
summary:
Hua Luogeng or Hua Loo-Keng (Chinese: 华罗庚; Wade–Giles: Hua Lo-keng; 12 November 1910 – 12 June 1985) was a Chinese mathematician and politician famous for his contributions to number theory and for his role as the leader of mathematics research and education in the People's Republic of China. He was largely responsible for identifying and nurturing the mathematician Chen Jingrun, who proved Chen's theorem, the best-known result on the Goldbach conjecture. Hua's later work on mathematical optimization and operations research made an enormous impact on China's economy. He was elected a foreign associate of the US National Academy of Sciences in 1982. He was elected a member of the Standing Committee of the 1st through 6th National People's Congresses, Vice-Chairman of the 6th National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (April 1985) and vice-chairman of the China Democratic League (1979). He joined the Chinese Communist Party in 1979. Hua did not receive a formal university education. Although awarded several honorary PhDs, he never got a formal degree from any university. In fact, his formal education only consisted of six years of primary school and three years of secondary school. For that reason, Xiong Qinglai, after reading one of


id: hua-luogeng-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hua_Luogeng-1.md
category: reference
title: Hua Luogeng
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hua_Luogeng
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:59.597971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hua-luogeng-20260505-0
summary:
=== Later career in China (1950–1985) === Back in China, Hua threw himself into educational reform and the organization of mathematical activity at the graduate level, in the schools, and among workers in the burgeoning industry. In July 1952 the Mathematical Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) came into being, with Hua as its first director. In 1953, he was one of a 26-member delegation from CAS to visit the Soviet Union to establish links with Russian science. Later, he was the first chair of the Department of Mathematics and Vice President of University of Science & Technology of China (USTC), a new type of Chinese university established by CAS in 1958, aimed at fostering skilled researchers necessary for the economic development, defense and education in science and technology. Despite his many teaching and administrative duties, Hua remained active in research and continued to write, not only on topics that had engaged him before but also in areas that were new to him or had been only lightly touched on before. In 1956, his voluminous text Introduction to Number Theory appeared. It was later published in English by Springer. Harmonic Analysis of Functions of Several Complex Variables in


id: sheena-iyengar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheena_Iyengar-0.md
category: reference
title: Sheena Iyengar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheena_Iyengar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:00.867012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sheena-iyengar-20260505-0
summary:
Sheena S. Iyengar is the S.T. Lee Professor of Business in the Management Department at Columbia Business School, widely and best known as an expert on choice. Her research focuses on the many facets of decision making, including: why people want choice, what affects how and what we choose, and how we can improve our decision making. She has presented TED talks on choice and is the author of The Art of Choosing (2010). == Early life and education == Iyengar was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Her parents were immigrants from Delhi, India. As a child, she was diagnosed with a rare form of retinitis pigmentosa, an inherited disease of retinal degeneration. By the age of nine, she could no longer read. By the age of sixteen, she was completely blind, although able to perceive light. She remains blind as an adult. Iyengar's father died of a heart attack when she was thirteen. This change in family circumstances, and Iyengar's loss of vision, prompted Iyengar's mother to steer her towards higher education and self-sufficiency, saying to Iyengar: "I don't want to hear about men or boys, you've got to stand on your own two feet." In 1992, she graduated


id: baruch-kimmerling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Kimmerling-0.md
category: reference
title: Baruch Kimmerling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Kimmerling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:02.151322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baruch-kimmerling-20260505-0
summary:
Baruch Kimmerling (Hebrew: ברוך קימרלינג‎; 16 October 1939 – 20 May 2007) was an Israeli scholar and professor of sociology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Upon his death in 2007, The Times described him as "the first academic to use scholarship to reexamine the founding tenets of Zionism and the Israeli State". Though a sociologist by training, Kimmerling was associated with the New Historians, a group of Israeli scholars who question the official narrative of Israel's creation. == Biography == Baruch Kimmerling was born in the Transylvanian town of Turda, Romania in 1939. He was born with cerebral palsy, a developmental disability which led him using on a wheelchair for the last three decades of his life. His family narrowly avoided the Holocaust by escaping from Turda in a Romani wagon in 1944, after rumors of the imminent deportation of the Jews began circulating. During the journey, the wagon was strafed by a German plane. When the Kimmerling family returned to Turda after the war had ended, they discovered their property had gone. The family immigrated to Israel in 1952, and took up residence in a ma'abara (immigrants' camp), Sha'ar ha-Aliya, before moving to a small apartment on the


id: motoo-kimura-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motoo_Kimura-0.md
category: reference
title: Motoo Kimura
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motoo_Kimura
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:03.335766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: motoo-kimura-20260505-0
summary:
Motoo Kimura (木村 資生, Kimura Motō) (November 13, 1924 – November 13, 1994) was a Japanese biologist best known for introducing the neutral theory of molecular evolution in 1968. He became one of the most influential theoretical population geneticists. He is remembered in genetics for his innovative use of diffusion equations to calculate the probability of fixation of beneficial, deleterious, or neutral alleles. Combining theoretical population genetics with molecular evolution data, he also developed the neutral theory of molecular evolution in which genetic drift is the main force changing allele frequencies. James F. Crow, himself a renowned population geneticist, considered Kimura to be one of the two greatest evolutionary geneticists, along with Gustave Malécot, after the great trio of the modern synthesis, Ronald Fisher, J. B. S. Haldane, and Sewall Wright. == Life and work == Kimura was born on November 13, 1924, in Okazaki, Aichi Prefecture. From an early age he was very interested in botany, though he also excelled at mathematics (teaching himself geometry and other maths during a lengthy convalescence due to food poisoning). After entering a selective high school in Nagoya, Kimura focused on plant morphology and cytology; he worked in the laboratory of M. Kumazawa


id: per-eugen-kristiansen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_Eugen_Kristiansen-0.md
category: reference
title: Per Eugen Kristiansen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_Eugen_Kristiansen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:04.592398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: per-eugen-kristiansen-20260505-0
summary:
Per Eugen Kristiansen (born 8 April 1969) is a Norwegian sailor from Bekkestua who won a bronze medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in the Sonar class, together with Marie Solberg and Aleksander Wang-Hansen. He has sailed since he was 7. In 1994, he was involved in a climbing accident, and since then has been reliant on a wheelchair. Nine months later, he was an active sailor again. In 1998, he competed for the first time after a disabled sailor invited him to an event, and from then on, he has been an active regatta sailor. In January 2012, he won the World Sailing Championship in Florida. In 1993, Kristiansen got his cand.scient. in organic chemistry from the University of Oslo. On 22 October 1999, he received his doctorate, and from 2000 to 2002, he undertook postdoctorate studies at Washington State University. From 2002 to 2005, he worked at the University of Oslo, where he is now a senior engineer in the department for biochemistry and molecular biology. == References == == External links == Per Eugen Kristiansen at World Sailing (archived, alternate link) Per Eugen Kristiansen at the International Paralympic Committee Homepage at the Institute for Molecular Biological Science


id: richard-leakey-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Leakey-0.md
category: reference
title: Richard Leakey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Leakey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:05.923941+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-leakey-20260505-0
summary:
Richard Erskine Frere Leakey (19 December 1944 – 2 January 2022) was a Kenyan paleoanthropologist, conservationist and politician. Leakey held a number of official positions in Kenya, mostly in institutions of archaeology and wildlife conservation. He was director of the National Museum of Kenya, founded the NGO WildlifeDirect, and was the chairman of the Kenya Wildlife Service. Leakey served in the powerful office of cabinet secretary and head of public service during the tail end of President Daniel Toroitich Arap Moi's government. Leakey co-founded the "Turkana Basin Institute" in an academic partnership with Stony Brook University, where he was an anthropology professor. He served as the chair of the Turkana Basin Institute until his death. == Early life == === Earliest years === Richard Erskine Frere Leakey was born on 19 December 1944 in Nairobi. As a small boy, Leakey lived in Nairobi with his parents: Louis Leakey, curator of the Coryndon Museum, and Mary Leakey, director of the Leakey excavations at Olduvai, and his two brothers, Jonathan and Philip. The Leakey brothers had a very active childhood. All the boys had ponies and belonged to the Langata Pony Club. Sometimes the whole club were guests at the Leakeys' for


id: richard-leakey-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Leakey-1.md
category: reference
title: Richard Leakey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Leakey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:05.923941+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-leakey-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Omo === Plans for the museum had not matured when Louis, intentionally or not, found a way to remove his confrontational son from the scene. Louis attended a lunch with Emperor Haile Selassie and President Jomo Kenyatta. The conversation turned to fossils, and the Emperor wanted to know why none had been found in Ethiopia. Louis developed this inquiry into permission to excavate on the Omo River. The expedition consisted of three contingents: French, under Camille Arambourg, American, under F. Clark Howell, and Kenyan, led by Richard. Louis could not go because of his arthritis. Crossing the Omo in 1967, Leakey's contingent was attacked by crocodiles, which destroyed their wooden boat. Expedition members barely escaped with their lives. Richard radioed Louis for a new, aluminium boat, which the National Geographic Society was happy to supply. On site, Kamoya Kimeu found a hominid fossil. Leakey took it to be Homo erectus, but Louis identified it as Homo sapiens. It was the oldest of the species found at that time, dating to 160,000 years, and was the first find contemporaneous with Homo neanderthalensis. During the identification process, Leakey came to feel that the college men were patronising him. === Koobi


id: richard-leakey-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Leakey-2.md
category: reference
title: Richard Leakey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Leakey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:05.923941+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-leakey-20260505-0
summary:
=== Plane crash === In 1993, a small propeller-driven plane piloted by Richard Leakey crashed, crushing his lower legs, both of which were later amputated. Sabotage was suspected but never proven. While in the hospital, Leakey told President Moi, a religious man, not to pray for him, but act on matters pending for the Kenya Wildlife Service. Thereafter, Richard Leakey walked on artificial limbs. Around this time the Kenyan government announced that a secret probe had found evidence of corruption and mismanagement in the Kenya Wildlife Service. An annoyed Leakey resigned publicly in a press conference in January 1994. He was replaced by David Western as the head of the Kenya Wildlife Service. Richard Leakey wrote about his experiences at the Kenya Wildlife Service in his book Wildlife Wars: My Fight to Save Africa's Natural Treasures (2001). == Politics == In May 1995, Richard Leakey joined some Kenyan intellectuals in launching a new political party—the Safina Party, which in Swahili means "Noah's Ark". The Safina party was routinely harassed and even its application to become an official political party was not approved until 1997. In 1997, international donor institutions froze their aid to Kenya because of widespread corruption. To placate


id: lee-sang-mook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Sang-mook-0.md
category: reference
title: Lee Sang-mook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Sang-mook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:07.256531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lee-sang-mook-20260505-0
summary:
Lee Sang-Mook (born October 18, 1962) is a South Korean marine geologist and computational scientist. He has worked as a researcher at the Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute from 1998 to 2003, and as a professor and researcher at Seoul National University since 2003. As an associate professor in the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, he specializes in Marine Geology and Geophysics. He heads the Undergraduate Interdisciplinary Program in Computational Sciences and the graduate program in Computational Science and Technology. His research focuses on tectonic plates, underwater earthquakes, and volcanoes. He has advocated successfully at the national level for the use of Korean survey ships for basic scientific research. After being injured in a car accident on July 2, 2006, Dr. Lee became a quadriplegic. He was able to return to work in less than a year, and continues to teach, do research, and travel. He has helped in the development of assistive technologies such as the DOWELL smartphone program by Samsung. He is an advocate for the education of students with physical disabilities, and has introduced a "Calculative science collaboration major" focusing on the use of supercomputers, mathematics and digital modeling techniques, suitable for disabled science students.


id: david-lloyd-botanist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lloyd_(botanist)-0.md
category: reference
title: David Lloyd (botanist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lloyd_(botanist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:08.391874+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-lloyd-botanist-20260505-0
summary:
David Graham Lloyd (20 June 1937 – 30 May 2006) was an evolutionary biologist and the seventh New Zealander to be elected as a fellow of the Royal Society in London. He did pioneering work in the field of plant reproduction. In December 1992, Lloyd fell victim to an apparent poisoning by acrylamide, a common laboratory chemical. As a result, he lay in a coma for three months and was left blind, mute, and quadriplegic. His former partner and fellow molecular biologist Vicky Calder was tried twice for his attempted murder. The first trial ended with a hung jury and the second acquitted her. == Research == Lloyd's major contribution to botany was in the field of plant reproduction. His contributions to the field include a mechanistic treatment of different modes of self-pollination in hermaphroditic plants, a genetically defined continuum of plant gender, early development of theory of the evolution of separate sexes in plants, and with C.J. Webb, a challenge to conventional views of the evolution of heterostyly. Because of his ideas and work on population biology of plants, he is sometimes referred to as the "W.D. Hamilton in plant biology". == References == == External links == New


id: gerrit-van-der-mey-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_van_der_Mey-0.md
category: reference
title: Gerrit van der Mey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_van_der_Mey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:09.669697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gerrit-van-der-mey-20260505-0
summary:
Gerrit van der Mey (5 January 1914 – November 2002) was a deafblind Dutch mathematician. He helped create software for PTERA and ZEBRA, some of the first computers designed in the Netherlands, as well as creating compilers for later computers. In 1982 he was made a member of the Order of Orange-Nassau at the grade of knight. == Early life and education == Gerrit van der Mey was born 5 January 1914 in Lisse. He was the son of a well-known bulb grower. When he was four, he contracted meningitis and became completely blind due to an opening between his outer and middle ear. He attended elementary school at a school for the blind in Bussum. He attended high school at Blinden Studien Anstalt in Marburg, Germany, where his mathematics teacher recognized his impressive aptitude for the subject. After returning to the Netherlands Mey began studying mathematics at Leiden University, but was forced to discontinue his studies when the Nazis shut down the university in 1941. He continued studying at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam under Jurjen Ferdinand Koksma and Johannes Haantjes, where he graduated cum laude in 1943. In 1945 Mey contracted meningitis again, leading to a total loss of hearing


id: alexander-mitchell-engineer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Mitchell_(engineer)-0.md
category: reference
title: Alexander Mitchell (engineer)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Mitchell_(engineer)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:10.919407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-mitchell-engineer-20260505-0
summary:
Alexander Mitchell (13 April 1780 – 25 June 1868) was an Irish engineer who from 1802 was blind. He is known as the inventor of the screw-pile lighthouse. == Early life == Born in Dublin, his family moved to Belfast while he was a child, and he received his formal education at Belfast Royal Academy, where he excelled in mathematics. == Career == Originally working in brickmaking in Belfast, he invented machines used in that trade, before patenting the screw-pile in 1833, for which he would later gain some fame. The screw-pile was used for the erection of lighthouses and other structures on mudbanks and shifting sands, including bridges and piers. Mitchell's designs and methods were employed all over the world from Portland breakwater to Bombay bridges. Initially it was used for the construction of lighthouses on Maplin Sands in the Thames Estuary (the first light application, in 1838), the Wyre Light at Fleetwood in Lancashire (the first such beacon lit) completed, in 1839), and at Belfast Lough where his lighthouse was finished in July 1844. In May 1851 he moved to Cobh to lay the foundation for a lighthouse on the Spit Bank; the success of these undertakings led


id: jordan-nguyen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Nguyen-0.md
category: reference
title: Jordan Nguyen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Nguyen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:24.348868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jordan-nguyen-20260505-0
summary:
Jordan Nguyen is an Australian biomedical engineer and inventor whose achievements include creating a mind-controlled wheelchair, and whose technological innovations are targeted at improving the lives of those living with physical disabilities. He is a Keynote Speaker and futurist, with strong views on using technology for maximum positive global impact. His work has gained considerable media attention across Australia, featuring on ABC's Catalyst and Channel 10's The Project. == Education == Growing up in Sydney, Australia, Jordan Nguyen attended Normanhurst Boys' High School on the Upper North Shore. He went on to the University of Technology Sydney, where he graduated in 2008 with a Bachelor of Engineering and First Class Honours. In 2012, he completed his PhD in Biomedical Engineering, and was awarded into the UTS Chancellor's List. For his PhD project, Nguyen developed a mind-controlled wheelchair for people with high-level physical disability. The wheelchair used cameras to observe its surroundings and provided navigation assistance to the operator whilst scanning the user's retinas as the means of delivering commands. == Work == Nguyen has spoken at a range of events across Australia, including TEDx events across Sydney, Think Inc., Wired For Wonder, and the international Engineering for Medicine and Biology


id: mildred-k-nobles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mildred_K._Nobles-0.md
category: reference
title: Mildred K. Nobles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mildred_K._Nobles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:25.608829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mildred-k-nobles-20260505-0
summary:
Mildred Katherine Nobles (7 June 1903 – 26 March 1993) was a Canadian mycologist. Born in Colborne, Northumberland County, Ontario, the only surviving child of William Harold and Ethel Nobles, she spent her early life at the family farm in Vernonville. She was an authority of the culture and identification of wood-rotting fungi, and developed a numerical identification system today known as the "Nobles Species Code". Nobles died in Ottawa, Ontario after a short illness. She was awarded the "Distinguished Mycologist" award, along with Rolf Singer, by the Mycological Society of America in 1986. == Education == Mildred's family relocated to Regina Saskatchewan due to her father's poor health, where she attended public schools and the Collegiate Institute. She later taught in multigrade schools around Regina. In the fall of 1927, Mildred entered Queen's University then later graduated in May 1929 with a B.A. (Honours) in Biology and Chemistry. She dreamt of working at the Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa so she applied for a summer student position. Initially, she was rejected during her interview due to being a woman however, she ended up getting hired later that day after being introduced to the mycologist Dr. Irene Mounce who advocated


id: june-opie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Opie-0.md
category: reference
title: June Opie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Opie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:26.780009+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: june-opie-20260505-0
summary:
Alice June Norma Opie (27 June 1924 – 25 August 1999), known as June Opie, was a New Zealand polio survivor, writer, campaigner and clinical psychologist. == Early life and education == Opie was born in New Plymouth on 27 June 1924, and lived as a child in Mōkau, north Taranaki. She was educated at New Plymouth Girls' High School and then qualified in teaching at Auckland Training College and in speech therapy at Christchurch Training College. She worked as a speech therapist for Whāngārei education department, before setting sail for England in 1947, planning to stay two years to teach and to observe speech therapy clinics. == Polio and later life == Opie contracted polio during the voyage, falling ill after two days in London. She was admitted to St Mary's Hospital and spent ten weeks in an iron lung. She then spent over a year in a plaster cast, and a total of two years in the hospital. She learned to walk with crutches and calipers, which was considered "a remarkable achievement given the extent of her initial paralysis". In 1949 she sailed back to New Zealand. At Auckland Hospital she was told she would spend the rest


id: edna-paisano-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edna_Paisano-0.md
category: reference
title: Edna Paisano
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edna_Paisano
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:28.012789+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edna-paisano-20260505-0
summary:
Edna Lee Paisano (January 1, 1948 – September 3, 2014) was a Nez Perce and Laguna Pueblo demographer and statistician. She worked to improve the representation of Indigenous communities in the United States census. She advocated for accurate representation of the demography of the United States, arguing that without this minority populations would not receive proportional resources. Paisano put this into practice as the first Native American full time employee of the United States Census Bureau. She has been credited with substantially increasing the accuracy of the American Indian and Alaska Native census category between the 1980 census and the 1990 census. == Early life and education == Paisano was born on the Nez Perce Reservation in Sweetwater, Idaho on January 1, 1948. She was one of four children, including an older sister who died in early adulthood. Her mother was active in education efforts on the Reservation, and when Edna Paisano was a child, her mother was awarded the Leo Reano Memorial Award from the National Educational Association for that work. Paisano attended school in Lapwai, Idaho, and spent two years at Boise College. She then switched to the University of Washington. Paisano spent most of her junior year


id: a-w-peet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet-0.md
category: reference
title: A. W. Peet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:29.538842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-w-peet-20260505-0
summary:
A. W. Peet (born 1968) is a New Zealand professor of physics at the University of Toronto. Peet's research interests include string theory as a quantum theory of gravity, quantum field theory and applications of string theory to black holes, gauge theories, cosmology, and the correspondence between anti-de Sitter space and conformal field theories (Maldacena duality). == Early life == Peet was born in New Zealand in 1968. As a child, they did both traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine activities, and never fully conformed to gender stereotypes. == Career == In 1990, Peet received a Bachelor of Science in physics from the University of Canterbury, and a doctorate in physics from Stanford University in 1994. From 1994 to 1997, they worked as a postdoctoral fellow at Princeton University, and as a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara from 1997 to 2000. Since 2000, they have been teaching and conducting research as an established professor at the University of Toronto. Peet is also an affiliate of the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. == Personal life == Peet is non-binary, uses they/them pronouns, and is a New Zealand citizen with a passport using an unspecified


id: a-w-peet-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet-1.md
category: reference
title: A. W. Peet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:29.538842+00:00
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== Publications == Burrington, BA; Peet, AW (2023). "Fractional conformal descendants and correlators in general 2D SN orbifold CFTs at large N". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2023 (2): 91. arXiv:2211.04633. Bibcode:2023JHEP...02..091B. doi:10.1007/JHEP02(2023)091. Burrington, BA; Peet, AW (2023). "Larger twists and higher n-point functions with fractional conformal descendants in SN orbifold CFTs at large N". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2023 (2): 229. arXiv:2212.03993. Bibcode:2023JHEP...02..229B. doi:10.1007/JHEP02(2023)229. de Beer, T; Burrington, BA; Jardine, IT; Peet, AW (2019). "The large N limit of OPEs in symmetric orbifold CFTs with N = (4, 4) supersymmetry". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2019 (8): 15. arXiv:1904.07816. Bibcode:2019JHEP...08..015D. doi:10.1007/S13130-019-11019-2. Cresswell, JC; Jardine, IT; Peet, AW (2019). "Holographic relations for OPE blocks in excited states". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2019 (3): 58. arXiv:1809.09107. Bibcode:2019JHEP...03..058C. doi:10.1007/JHEP03(2019)058. Burrington, BA; Jardine, IT; Peet, AW (2018). "The OPE of bare twist operators in bosonic SN orbifold CFTs at large N". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2018 (8): 202. arXiv:1804.01562. Bibcode:2018JHEP...08..202B. doi:10.1007/JHEP08(2018)202. Cresswell, JC; Peet, AW (2017). "Kinematic space for conical defects". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2017 (11): 155. arXiv:1708.09838. Bibcode:2017JHEP...11..155C. doi:10.1007/JHEP11(2017)155. Carson, Zaq; Jardine, Ian T; Peet, A. W. (2017), "Component twist method for higher twists in D1-D5 CFT",


id: a-w-peet-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet-2.md
category: reference
title: A. W. Peet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:29.538842+00:00
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parent: a-w-peet-20260505-0
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"Dilaton black holes near the horizon". Physical Review D. 46 (12): R5223–R5227. arXiv:hep-th/9209116. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.5223K. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.R5223. PMID 10014959. S2CID 12581419. Peet, AW; Susskind, L; Thorlacius, L (1992). "Information loss and anomalous scattering". Physical Review D. 46 (8): 3435–3443. arXiv:hep-th/9205114. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.3435P. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.3435. PMID 10015288. S2CID 16352761. Kallosh, R; Linde, A; Ortín, T; Peet, AW; Van Proeyen, A (1992). "Supersymmetry as a cosmic censor". Physical Review D. 46 (12): 5278–5302. arXiv:hep-th/9205027. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.5278K. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.5278. PMID 10014916. S2CID 15736500. == References == == External links == Centre for Inquiry Canada (11 July 2010). String Theory for the Scientifically Curious with Dr. A. W. Peet. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics (8 May 2015). A.W. Peet Public Lecture: String Theory Legos for Black Holes. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022.


id: lev-pontryagin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Pontryagin-0.md
category: reference
title: Lev Pontryagin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Pontryagin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:30.778240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lev-pontryagin-20260505-0
summary:
Lev Semyonovich Pontryagin (Russian: Лев Семёнович Понтрягин, also written Pontriagin or Pontrjagin, first name sometimes anglicized as Leon) (3 September 1908 – 3 May 1988) was a Soviet mathematician. Completely blind from the age of 14, he made major discoveries in a number of fields of mathematics, including algebraic topology, differential topology and optimal control. == Early life and career == Pontryagin was born in Moscow and lost his eyesight completely due to an unsuccessful eye surgery after a primus stove explosion when he was 14. His mother Tatyana Andreyevna, who did not know mathematical symbols, read mathematical books and papers (notably those of Heinz Hopf, J. H. C. Whitehead, and Hassler Whitney) to him, and later worked as his secretary. His mother used alternative names for math symbols, such as "tails up" for the set-union symbol ∪ {\displaystyle \cup } . In 1925 he entered Moscow State University, where he was strongly influenced by the lectures of Pavel Alexandrov who would become his doctoral thesis advisor. After graduating in 1929, he obtained a position at Moscow State University. In 1934 he joined the Steklov Institute in Moscow. In 1970 he became vice president of the International Mathematical Union. ==


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-0.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
Sextil Iosif Pușcariu (4 January 1877 – 5 May 1948) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian linguist and philologist, also known for his involvement in administrative and party politics. A native of Brașov educated in France and Germany, he was active in Transylvania's cultural life and worked as a Romanian-language professor at Czernowitz in the Duchy of Bukovina. He began his scholarly career in 1906, when he was tasked with compiling a general dictionary of the Romanian language. Interested in a variety of disciplines, Pușcariu published widely and brought new ideas into Romania, as well as overseeing two monumental projects related to the language: advancing his dictionary to the letter "L", and creating an atlas of the language. As a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I, Pușcariu embraced the creation of Greater Romania at its conclusion, heading the department of foreign affairs in the provisional government representing Bukovina Romanians. He was also the founder of Glasul Bucovinei, a newspaper which helped channel Romanian nationalism in that region, and, with Ion Nistor, oversaw Bukovina's union with Romania in November 1918. Under Romanian rule, he led efforts to create a new university in Cluj, where he also set up a research


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-1.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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=== Debut in academia and World War I experience === Pușcariu made frequent crossings into the Kingdom of Romania (the "Old Kingdom", in later reference). He was elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1906, becoming a titular member in 1914. He also became one of several Transylvanian affiliates of Sămănătorul, the Romanian traditionalist and ethnic nationalist review in Bucharest, finding his ideas on linguistics and history challenged by Densusianu and Ion Aurel Candrea. Pușcariu's scholarly work was featured in the mainstream review Convorbiri Literare, signaling the latter's own transition toward Sămănătorist nationalism. While at Leipzig, he came into contact with Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, under whom he began his university career and who offered him a post at the University of Fribourg. Pușcariu declined, citing a wish to be closer to the Romanian lands. In 1903 Pușcariu began courting Leonora Maria Dima. In keeping up with the Pușcariu family tradition, which favored consanguine marriage, she was his mother's grandniece. Leonora had studied music in Brașov; her father, a mathematics teacher at Pușcariu's high school, was the elder brother of composer Gheorghe Dima. They were married on 5 September 1905, selecting academics Ion Bianu and Virgil Cioflec as their godfathers.


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-2.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
By October 1918, Pușcariu had regained Bukovina, joining the Romanian nationalist caucus forming in that region. As reported by eyewitness Teodor Bălan, his presence there was a "great fortune" for Romanian groups, since Pușcariu indicated the "straight path ahead" for his conationals. On 12 October, he founded the newspaper Glasul Bucovinei, which had as its limited initial goal the protection of rights for the province's Romanians, who formed an overall minority of the local population. However, Glasul also preserved a hidden agenda, namely: "to shatter the respect and fear inspired by the Austrian Empire and to militate for the ideal of pan-Romanian unification." Events quickly evolved, and Pușcariu served as a vice president of the Romanian National Council (CNR) that worked for the union of Bukovina with Romania. This initiative pitted Pușcariu against the loyalist Aurel Onciul, who vetoed all projects for Bukovina's merger with Romania. Pușcariu was also co-opted by the General Congress of Bukovina, a CNR body which claimed to be the provisional parliament of Bukovina, in opposition to the Ukrainian assembly; from 27 October 1918, he served on its foreign policy committee, alongside Alexandru Hurmuzachi and Gheorghe Grigorovici. On 9 November, he helped Ilie Lazăr organize armed


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-3.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
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=== University administrator and anti-Semitic campaign === Following these events, which marked the culmination of Greater Romania's creation, Pușcariu could return to Transylvania, being named as the first rector of the Superior Dacia University in Cluj. A Franz Joseph University already existed in the city, but its Hungarian faculty departed as a bloc and an entirely new professorial corps and administrative structure were required. The revamped university had two founders, the idealistic Ghibu and the more practical Pușcariu. Chosen by the Directing Council, Transylvania's provisional government, the latter headed a twenty-man committee charged with the seemingly insurmountable task of setting up four faculties (Literature and Philosophy, Medicine, Science, Law) and recruiting professors within a few months. As a native Transylvanian, Pușcariu was familiar with the Austro-Hungarian milieu; he also had relations with academics in Western Europe and was close to a number of figures in the Old Kingdom, especially Nicolae Iorga. Set up in July 1919, the committee included twelve professors from the Universities of Iași and Bucharest, and eight Transylvanians. At the time, Pușcariu recommended that intellectuals in Bukovina and Transylvania steer away from any involvement in the Old Kingdom's party politics. Despite pressures from the PNR, he announced


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-4.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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Between 1922 and 1926, Pușcariu served as part of Romania's delegation to the League of Nations. This allowed him to leave the country regularly, and also cemented his friendship with diplomat Nicolae Titulescu, whom Pușcariu called "charming". Together, they defended the Romanian cause against property claims made in Transylvania by Hungarian citizens. In 1923, Pușcariu also helped art historian George Oprescu take office art the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, of which he himself was a member. The following year, Pușcariu put out Cultura magazine from Cluj. It enshrined his affiliation to Europeanism and support for the League of Nations. From around 1922, Pușcariu approached various intellectuals and politicians with the goal of creating new institutions for the preservation of cultural identity. With Vintilă Brătianu and Nistor, he set up the Brătianu Foundation, which financed a network of summer schools for adult education. With Iorga's assistance, Pușcariu established the Museum of the Romanian Language, a research institute he had conceived in early 1917, while on the front. The large group of collaborators and students who advanced the language as an academic discipline came to be known as the Cluj School of linguistics. Rather than confine himself to a narrow field,


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-5.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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=== FOR and Iron Guard === By 1931, Lia Pușcariu had married Grigore Manoilescu, brother of the influential ideologue, Mihail Manoilescu. Encouraged by his Manoilescu in-laws, Pușcariu was briefly a sympathizer of Iorga's Democratic Nationalist Party, and spent some time as director of its regional mouthpiece, Drumul Nou. He is also credited as the newspaper's founder, while schoolteacher Ioan Costea was its editor. The circle he created around him was noted for enthusiastically supporting Romania's authoritarian King, Carol II. Pușcariu also attempted to go into national politics as a university representative in the Senate of Romania. He presented himself in the June 1931 election, but lost to the more popular Nicolae Bănescu; this conflict prolonged itself into a local scandal, with Pușcariu accusing Bănescu of opportunism. Pușcariu had another row with historian Alexandru Lapedatu, whom he challenged to a duel with swords in October 1931. That outcome was eventually averted when they agreed to reconcile. In tandem, Pușcariu was becoming critical of Iorga's behavior—already in 1923, he complained that his former mentor was "dictatorial". In keeping with his Orthodoxist agenda, Pușcariu also helped Nicolae Ivan set up the Romanian Orthodox Fraternity (FOR), which, as noted by historian Lucian Nastasă, was


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-6.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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=== Berlin institute === A year into World War II, Hungarian territorial demands received backing from Germany, limiting Romania's choices. In August 1940, Pușcariu attended a crisis meeting of Transylvanian notabilities. He took a conciliatory position, supporting a voluntary exchange of territories with Hungary. Following the Nazi-mediated Second Vienna Award, a large area, defined as "Northern Transylvania", was re-annexed by Hungary. The political crisis originating from this event also had the unlikely consequence of bringing the Iron Guard to power, producing the "National Legionary State". Slightly earlier, in August 1940, Pușcariu had proposed the founding of the Berlin-headquartered Romanian Institute in Germany, becoming its first president and serving until 1943. The purpose of this body was to counter Hungarian propaganda, particularly as related to Northern Transylvania. Pușcariu, who made generous financial contributions to the Guard's coffers, based his hiring at the institute on whether applicants belonged to the movement, and according to one of his employees there, was a member of the Guard's senate. Grigore Manoilescu, who had returned to politics as an Iron Guard figure, became the institute's director; Maximilian Hacman, former rector at Cernăuți, was an old friend; among the younger hires was Constantin Noica. The order for


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-7.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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=== Final years === A member of the Permanent Committee of Linguists, Pușcariu was admitted to the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 1936 and in 1939 became the second Romanian, after Dimitrie Cantemir, to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In addition to his activity as a propagandist, he worked on his definitive tract of sociolinguistics, Limba română ("The Romanian Language"), put out by Editura Fundațiilor Regale. According to philologist Pompiliu Constantinescu, the work exceeded "the narrow bounds of specialization", turning the historical development of language and into the ethnographic "mirror" of Romanian culture and civilization. Limba română, which saw print in 1940, investigated proto-Romanian (designated by Pușcariu under the name of străromână), and spoke of a large Sprachbund comprising all Eastern Romance languages; his theory identifying Istro-Romanian as a Western variety of the language was since corrected by his pupil Petrovici. His views on the topic were also being challenged from 1941 by Alexandru Rosetti, who noted that Aromanian was highly distinct from its point of origin. Other parts of the book broke ground in the professional study of the Romanian lexis, with a phonaesthetic retrospective on the national poet Mihai Eminescu and a sociological analysis of


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-8.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
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== Legacy == For the first two decades after his death, linguists largely avoided using Pușcariu's work in their publications. Dumitru Macrea cited him as early as 1956, followed by Romulus Todoran and, later, Emil Petrovici. Challenging Communist censorship, Petrovici also attempted to obtain for the second volume of Limba română to be released for print, and earned endorsement from Alexandru Graur and Iorgu Iordan. At the time, the manuscript had been handed back to the Pușcariu family. Other collaborators, many of them facing their own difficulties with the regime, did not bring up their former mentor; these included Capidan and Lacea, as well as George Giuglea and Silviu Dragomir. In 1959, the latter made oblique references to Pușcariu's treatment of Eastern Romance as a single dialect, highlighting yet again that Aromanian was more distantly related to Romanian. Work on the dictionary was moved to Bucharest, while the museum and Dacoromania were disbanded. There was a colloquium held about Pușcariu's life at the Brașov County Museum in 1977, to mark the centenary of his birth. His reputation did not fully revive until after the Romanian Revolution of 1989, with his rehabilitation embodied by an international conference held at Cluj-Napoca in


id: al-qasabani-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasabani-0.md
category: reference
title: Al-Qasabani
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasabani
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:33.304895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: al-qasabani-20260505-0
summary:
Abu Al-Qasim Al-Fadl bin Mohammed bin Ali bin Al-Fadl Al-Qasabani (Arabic: أبو القاسم الفضل بن محمد بن علي بن الفضل القصباني) (died 444 AH), was a well known Arab philologist and grammarian of the Abbasid Caliphate. == Life == He was born in Basra, in the Bani Haram neighborhood, where he spent his entire life. He was blind, and many students of knowledge studied under him, the most famous of whom were: Al-Hariri, Al-Khatib Al-Tabrizi, and the judge of Basra, Abu Al-Faraj Al-Basri. He used to sell reeds, so he was nicknamed Al-Qasabani. He was also a poet. He died during the era of the Caliphate of Al-Qa'im bi-amri 'llah in 444 AH/1052 AD. == Works == Among his works are the following: Muqadimah fi al-Nahw Kitab Al-Amali Al-Safwa fi Ashaar Al-Arab w Mukhtareha Al-Hawashi ala Al-Idhah Al-Hawashi ala Al-Sihah == See also == List of pre-modern Arab scientists and scholars == References ==


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-0.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
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parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
Francisc Iosif Rainer (December 28, 1874 – August 4, 1944) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian pathologist, physiologist and anthropologist. From an immigrant family, he earned early recognition for his experimental work in anatomy, and helped reform Romanian medical science. He spent much of his youth training himself in anatomical pathology and the various areas of natural science, gaining direct experience as a microbiologist, surgeon, and military physician. With teaching positions at the University of Iași and the University of Bucharest, where he established specialized sections, Rainer became a noted promoter of science and an innovator in his field. He notably favored and introduced the anatomical study of "functional structures", and was in particular preoccupied with issues pertaining to ontogenesis and kinesiology. An intellectual influence on several generations of doctors, his wife was Marta Trancu-Rainer, Romania's first female surgeon. In addition to his experimental approach, Rainer is remembered as a talented pedagogue and public speaker, who took public stances in defense of his social and cultural ideals. Vilified by the far-right for his left-wing stances, he blended progressivism with genetic determinism, and, although an adept of eugenics, condemned scientific racism. He was notably involved with Dimitrie Gusti's project of rural sociology, contributing


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-1.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Iași career and World War I === Upon his return in 1912, Rainer became assistant professor at Bucharest. The following year, with referrals from Constantin Ion Parhon, he became chairman of the anatomy department at the University of Iași medical faculty. Soon after his appointment, with the outbreak of the Second Balkan War, he was mobilized in the Romanian Land Forces medical service. He barely escaped with his life when his automobile fell off the pontoon bridge at Nikopol. Upon his return, he busied himself with organizing his Iași department, supplying the microscopes, microtomes, thermostats, magazine collections and a projector for the faculty. Meanwhile, during this period, he was involved in scientific publication, sitting on the editorial board of Spitalul, writing for Romania Medicală and, in 1911, helping found the Paris-based Annales de Biologie. According to Marta Rainer's own account, her husband's move to Iași at age forty marked the end of a "prolonged adolescence", settling Rainer on the path to professional success. As Rainer himself noted, teaching was a major responsibility: "I have always held the belief that there is no feeling so great, no thought so vast and deep, that they may not reach out to young


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-2.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
In 1920, Rainer was employed by the new anatomy and embryology department set up at Bucharest University. Affected by deafness, attributed to his long-term exposure to formaldehyde, he continued to work at the same pace, but was noticeably withdrawn from public life. The anatomy section existed only in name when Rainer took over. Rainer took personal charge of furnishing it, in the end setting up a large collection of craniums and full skeletons that earned the respect of Western colleagues such as Eugène Pittard, Carleton S. Coon, Henri Victor Vallois, and Kurt Warnekros. He was seconded by his devoted disciple and godson, the endocrinologist Ștefan Milcu (he eventually left Rainer's team in 1932, after developing an allergy to formaldehyde). Other important presences among Rainer's students and collaborators were George Emil Palade and Vintilă Ciocâlteu, distinguished for their work in the United States. At various intervals, the team also included surgeon Ion Țurai, pharmacologist Alfred Teitel, embryologist Benedict M. Menkeș, and anatomist Zalman Iagnov. After his move, Rainer began expanding the scope of his contribution, and passed on to his students a particular view of science, decisively materialistic, rationalist, and anti-metaphysical. In particular, Rainer rejected the intuitionism of Henri Bergson, which


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-3.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
Rainer's views eventually placed him at odds with the emerging far-right and antisemitic movement of the 1920s. At a time when the Iași-based National-Christian Defense League (LANC), seeking to purge Jews from Romanian universities, was gaining momentum in Bucharest, a student identified Rainer as a Jew, and issued claims denying merit to his scholarship. According to Vitner, Rainer was the diametrical opposite of a Iași rival, the racist and LANC affiliate Nicolae Paulescu, who stood for "dark and backward scientism". Vitner also recalls that Rainer was even shot at by far-right affiliates, so that he would no longer popularize his "democratic convictions". For a while, Rainer was under the permanent protection of a Gendarme guard. Nevertheless, Rainer was himself an active proponent of "hereditary determinism" and eugenics, which he understood as the cornerstone of social welfare policy. As he put it: "In the colorful mass of genes that carry those characteristics we inherit from our forerunners, one may find embedded [...] even our very destinies as men." A committed physiognomist, he believed that "only the phenotype may be influenced, to a certain extent, by our environment and our education." In June 1929, the newspaper Adevărul published one of Rainer's critical


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-4.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
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parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
With his activity in academia, Rainer reacted against cronyism, taking a public stand against arbitrary appointments in teaching, and ruining his relationship with the establishment. At a time when the Romanian school of anthropology was being divided between centrists and supporters of the fascist Iron Guard, he was again confronted by the far-right. Rainer was opposed to the fascist youth, whose members instigated in favor of academic censorship in his university curriculum. At one such incident in early 1938, Rainer stood unmoved at his desk as some of his fascist students, including the son of painter Nicolae Tonitza, lit firecrackers and threw eggs in his direction. However, he refused to ask for sanctions against them, and eventually received their letter of apology. After 1939, although Romania was formally aligned with Nazi Germany, Rainer spoke out against Nazi racial science. In his public lectures, he dismissed the Nazi claim that cephalic indexes were good predictors of intelligence. His publicized texts, deemed "courageous" by historian Adrian Majuru, accepted the idea of race, but denied the concept of a "pure race", rejected the scientific claims of Aryanism, and argued that European civilization owed its existence to Semitic peoples. According to Rainer, races were


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-5.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == Rainer was generally well regarded by the communist regime, which existed in Romania until the 1989 Revolution. His texts on science and society were collected and preserved, against Rainer's final wish that they should all be burned. Some were carried in the first issues of Contemporanul review, from September 1946. In 1948, the corpus was published by the academy as four volumes, together with critical essays and memoirs edited by Marta Rainer and Mihail Sevastos. However, his anthropological museum, assigned to Popa and later to Milcu, was poorly staffed by the communist supervisors and faced closure. Communist supervisors such as Mihail Roller suspected that Rainer had created the anthropology research center to promote racism, but Milcu was able to convince them otherwise, and even obtained funds for an anthropological study of Romanian ethnogenesis. Despite other political obstacles and the communist rejection of anthropology as an "abstract intellectual game", cultural anthropologist Vasile Caramelea was able to obtain approval for further research, and expanded the institute's contribution to social science. A biography of Rainer was published by Ilie Th. Riga, in 1966, at Editura Științifică. It revealed to the public glimpses of Rainer's diaries, which had been preserved by


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-0.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eugen-relgis-20260505-0
summary:
Eugen D. Relgis (backward reading of Eisig D. Sigler; first name also Eugenio, Eugène or Eugene, last name also Siegler or Siegler Watchel; 22 March 1895 – 24 May 1987) was a Romanian writer, pacifist philosopher and anarchist militant, known as a theorist of humanitarianism. His internationalist dogma, with distinct echoes from Judaism and Jewish ethics, was first shaped during World War I, when Relgis was a conscientious objector. Infused with anarcho-pacifism and socialism, it provided Relgis with an international profile, and earned him the support of pacifists such as Romain Rolland, Stefan Zweig and Albert Einstein. Another, more controversial, aspect of Relgis' philosophy was his support for eugenics, which centered on the compulsory sterilization of "degenerates". The latter proposal was voiced by several of Relgis' essays and sociological tracts. After an early debut with Romania's Symbolist movement, Relgis promoted modernist literature and the poetry of Tudor Arghezi, signing his name to a succession of literary and political magazines. His work in fiction and poetry alternates the extremes of Expressionism and didactic art, giving artistic representation to his activism, his pacifist vision, or his struggle with a hearing impairment. He was a member of several modernist circles, formed around Romanian


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-1.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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parent: eugen-relgis-20260505-0
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=== From Umanitatea to Mântuirea === After training in architecture, Relgis was enrolled at the University of Bucharest, where he took courses in Philosophy. During the period, he first left Romania on a trip to the Ottoman Empire and Kingdom of Greece. He interrupted his studies shortly after Romania entered the war, in the second half of 1916. Back in Iași after the Central Powers stormed into southern Romania, he was reportedly drafted into the Romanian Land Forces, but refused to take up arms as a conscientious objector; briefly imprisoned as a result, he was in the end discharged for his deafness. Resuming his publishing activity upon the end of war, Eugen Relgis began publicizing his humanitarianist and pacifist agenda. In summer 1918, Relgis became one of the contributors to the Iași-based review Umanitatea ("The Humanity" or "The Human Race"). Historian Lucian Boia, who notes that Umanitatea was published when Romania's temporary defeat seemed to announce sweeping political reforms, believes that the magazine mainly reflected the "nebulous" agenda of a senior editor, the Bessarabian journalist Alexis Nour. In addition to Relgis and Nour, Umanitatea enlisted contributions from Ludo and Avram Steuerman-Rodion. The short-lived magazine, Boia writes, supported land reform, labor


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-2.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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=== Sburătorul and Umanitarismul === Also during the early 1920s, Eugen Relgis came into contact with the Bucharest-based Sburătorul circle, which stood for modernist literature and aesthetic relativism. The eponymous magazine published samples of his lyrical poetry. With his humanitarian literature, Relgis was a singular figure among the many Sburătorul factions, as later noted by literary historian Ovid Crohmălniceanu in discussing the studied eclecticism of Sburătorul doyen Eugen Lovinescu. Another Romanian researcher, Henri Zalis, notes that Relgis was one of the many Jewish intellectuals whom Lovinescu cultivated in reaction to the tradition of ethno-nationalist discrimination. However, according to critic Eugen Simion, Lovinescu also greatly exaggerated Relgis' literary worth. Relgis' contribution to Romanian literature was renewed in 1926, when he published Melodiile tăcerii ("Melodies of Silence") and the collection Poezii ("Poems"), followed in 1927 by Glasuri în surdină ("Muted Voices"). The latter novel, later republished with a foreword by Austrian author Stefan Zweig, chronicled Relgis' own difficulties with his post-lingual deafness. At that stage in his career, Eugen Relgis was also a contributor to the Bucharest left-wing dailies Adevărul and Dimineața, part of a new generation of radical or pacifist authors cultivated by the newspaper (alongside Zamfirescu, Ion Marin Sadoveanu and


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-3.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
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=== Travels abroad and Șantier affiliation === The Romanian writer traveled extensively to promote his ideas of social change. By 1928, he was in regular correspondence with French writer and human rights activist Romain Rolland, who answered in writing to Relgis' various inquiries. He was a delegate to pacifist reunions in Hoddesdon, England and Sonntagberg, Austria (1928). Relgis also exchanged letters with various other prestigious left-wing intellectuals: Zweig, Upton Sinclair, Henri Barbusse, Max Nettlau etc. His various inquiries also enlisted positive replies from other international supporters of pacifism: physicist Albert Einstein, biologist Auguste Forel, writer Heinrich Mann and anarchist militant Paul Reclus. He became a contributor to Sébastien Faure's Anarchist Encyclopedia, with the "Humanitarianism" entry. In 1929, Delpeuch company published his French-language essay L'Internationale pacifiste ("The Pacifist International"), reissued the same year in Valencia, Spain, as La Internacional Pacifista. Around 1930, Relgis was in Paris, where he met with Han Ryner, and in Berlin, where he conversed with his mentor Nicolai. In its new translated editions, Apel către... was signed by a number of leading pacifist intellectuals of various persuasions, among them Zweig, Sinclair, Barbusse, Campio Carpio, Manuel Devaldès, Philéas Lebesgue, Rabindranath Tagore. While in France, where his work was


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-4.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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=== World War II, persecution and departure === Eugen Relgis was still active on the literary scene during the first two years of World War II, before Romania formalized its military alliance with the Axis powers. The Phoney War caught him in France, but he returned to Romania shortly after, exposing himself to persecution by the growing Romanian fascist movements. In February 1940, he gave a retrospective lecture, republished by the newspaper L'Indépendance Roumaine, on the work of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Another book of his political prose, Spiritul activ ("The Active Spirit"), saw print the same year. The emergence of antisemitic and fascist regimes (see Romania in World War II, Holocaust in Romania) signified the beginning of Relgis' marginalization. During the short-lived National Legionary State, established by the Iron Guard fascists between 1940 and early 1941, the author lived in seclusion. His Biblioteca Cercului Libertatea was banned in 1940, but Relgis secretly moved the books into a stable. After the Guard fell from power, the Ion Antonescu dictatorship still included Relgis on a nationally circulated list of banned Romanian Jewish authors, but Relgis continued to write. His texts of the time include a posthumous praise of his pacifist disciple


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-5.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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=== South American career === With noted help from anarchist translator Vladimiro Muñoz, Relgis began his new career as a Spanish-language writer and publicist with a succession of works. Umanitarism și eugenism was translated into a Spanish edition: Humanitarismo y eugenismo, Ediciones Universo, Toulouse, 1950. The same imprint released his essay Las aberraciones sexuales en la Alemania nazi ("Sexual Aberrations in Nazi Germany"), which discussed in some depth the characteristics of Nazi eugenics. Also in 1950, with his Montevideo printing office Ediciones Humanidad, Relgis released a Spanish edition of his Principiile, a version of Max Nettlau's World Peace volume, as well as reissuing Cosmometápolis. Two years later, Ediciones Humanidad published Relgis' biographical essay Stefan Zweig, cazador de almas ("Stefan Zweig, the Soul Hunter"), followed in 1953 by a Hachette version of De mis peregrinaciones europeas ("From My Wanderings in Europe"). Relgis also tried to get his contributions translated into Portuguese, asking anarchist philosopher José Oiticica for assistance. He was at the time employed by El Plata daily, editing its Wednesday literary page, and helping to discover, in 1954, the twelve-year-old poet Teresa Porzecanski. In 1954, Relgis printed another biographical study, on Romain Rolland: El hombre libre frente a la barbarie


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-6.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eugen-relgis-20260505-0
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=== Main ideas === Throughout his career, Relgis was the proponent of anarchism. The Romanian writer spoke about the negativity of "state fetishism", seeking to overturn it and create "universal fraternity", and, in Diario de otoño, postulated a necessary distinction between Law ("which may be interpreted for or against") and Justice ("elementary" and unavoidable). Relgis likewise believed that war could be overcome once humanity shall have toppled "the three idols: State, Property, Money." Political philosopher Ángel Cappelletti argues: "Relgis was not an anarchist militant, but was always close to libertarian ideas". According to Stefan Zweig, Relgis fought "tirelessly for the great goal of spiritual fraternity." The sentiment was echoed by Romain Rolland, who recognized in Relgis his disciple: "There is no other European man in whose hands I could place, with as much confidence, [...] my pacifist and universalist idea, for it to be passed on into the future. For none other has such far-reaching intelligence to this goal, and none other would feel this idea so intimately connected to his being." Speaking from the cultural mainstream, Romanian literary historian George Călinescu observed Relgis' anti-establishment and anti-artistic rhetoric, but described it as mere "idealist reverie", "without any daring proposals that


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-7.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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=== Judaism, Zionism, Jewish culture === Beginning in the late 1920s, Relgis was also a supporter of Zionism, convinced that the path of Jewish assimilation was unsatisfactory for the affirmation of Jewish talents. He also adhered to philosopher Martin Buber's ideas about reuniting the three paths chosen by diaspora Jews: universalism, Zionism and Conservative Judaism. In his 1929 Avodah conference, he analyzed the ongoing Jewish resettlement into the Land of Israel, and investigated the causes of violent clashes between Jewish migrants and the Palestine Arabs. In other public statements, Relgis proudly stated his Judaic faith, noting that he had never actually left Judaism, "being integrated into its vast reality by the very reality of my own preoccupations, sociological and ethical, humanitarianist and pacifist." However, he explained to Iosif Gutman that joining a Zionist organization was not worth the effort, since membership was a form of captivity, and elsewhere suggested that Zionism was justified only as long as it did not follow "the restrictive methods of vulgar nationalism." The writer also described himself as committed to Romanian culture, and, as late as 1981, noted that Romanian was still his language of choice. His essays on Judaism (some of which were dedicated


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-8.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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=== On Latin America === After his move to Uruguay, Relgis developed a personal theory on Latin America as a "neohumanist" continent. Earlier, in Europa cea tânără, Relgis had claimed that the European continent needed to revisit its "pathetic history" of violence and imperialism, and reconvert by combining the lessons of Eastern philosophy and United States models of industrialization. Both models, he warned, carried risks: Asia's "spiritual renunciations" were mirrored by a "cancer of machinism" in North America. With Perspectivas culturales en Sudamérica, he expanded on a distinction between civilization and culture: the former as a transitory phase in human development, the latter as a permanent and characteristic sum of ideas; civilization, he argued, was in existence within the New World, but a Latin American culture was still ahead. Relgis identified this as a merit, describing South America in general and Uruguay in particular as exceptionally fertile and a "healthier" example for the whole world, offering safe haven to independent thinkers and defying the ideological divisions of the Cold War era. Summarizing the future links between the Latin American regions and Europe as envisaged by Relgis, William Rose wrote: "the cultural mission of America consists in a careful selection of


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-9.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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parent: eugen-relgis-20260505-0
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=== Literary style and principles === Eugen Relgis blended a critique of capitalism, advocacy of internationalism and modern art interest with all his main contributions to literature. In his essays and "all too cerebral" novels, George Călinescu argues, Eugen Relgis was "obsessed with humanitarianism" and self-help techniques. With his 1934 piece for Șantier, Relgis divided the experience and nature of art into a primordial, collective, form and a newer, individualist one: in the past, Relgis noted, creativity was consumed into creating vast anonymous works ("the pyramid, the temple, the cathedral"), often demanding "the silent and tenacious effort of successive generations." Presently, he thought, the combat against the "imperative of Profit" and "vulgar materialism" justified the "ethical and aesthetic individualism". Relgis' essay described industrial society in harsh terms, as directed by "the bloody gods" of "Capitalism and War", and cautioned that the advocacy of anonymity in modern art could lead to kitsch ("serialized production, without the significance it used to carry in bygone days"). Elsewhere, however, Relgis also argued that books needed to have a formative value, and that literature, unlike journalism, "needs to be the expression of length and depth." Some of Relgis' preferences were shaped from his time at


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-10.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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=== Poetry === During his time at Fronda, Eugen Relgis and his fellow writers published collective, experimental and unsigned poems, largely echoing the influence of Arghezi and Minulescu, but, according to Cernat, "aesthetically monstrous". This perspective is echoed by Șerban, who notes that Relgis' debut as a poet was largely without "convincing results". In Triumful neființei, the main stylistic reference was, according to Lovinescu, the Romanian Symbolist prose poet Dimitrie Anghel, imitated to the point of "pastiche". With time, Relgis developed a style deemed "the poetry of professions" by George Călinescu. According to Călinescu's classification, Relgis the poet is similar in this respect to fellow Symbolists Alexandru Tudor-Miu and Barbu Solacolu, but also to Simona Basarab, Leon Feraru, Cristian Sârbu and Stelian Constantin-Stelian. The same critic notes that Relgis "attempted, with some beautiful poetic suggestions, to establish a modern-era mythology with abstract gods [...] and other machinist monsters." Lovinescu describes the poet in Relgis as one who "survived" through humanitarian propaganda, returning "in a compact Verhaeren form, rhetorical and accumulative." Lovinescu includes the resulting works in a category of "descriptive" and "social" poems, relating Relgis to Feraru, Alice Călugăru, Aron Cotruș, Vasile Demetrius, Camil Petrescu and I. Valerian. Relgis' poems,


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-11.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
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== References == Trenton W. Batson, Eugene Bergman, preface and notes to Angels and Outcasts: An Anthology of Deaf Characters in Literature, Gallaudet University Press, Washington, 1985. ISBN 0-930323-17-3 Lucian Boia, "Germanofilii". Elita intelectuală românească în anii Primului Război Mondial, Humanitas, Bucharest, 2010. ISBN 978-973-50-2635-6 Maria Bucur, Eugenics and Modernization in Interwar Romania, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 2002. ISBN 0-8229-4172-4 George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1986 Ángel Cappelletti, "Anarquismo latinoamericano", in Carlos M. Rama, El Anarquismo en América Latina, Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracas, 1990. ISBN 980-276-117-6 Paul Cernat, Avangarda românească și complexul periferiei: primul val, Cartea Românească, Bucharest, 2007. ISBN 978-973-23-1911-6 (in Romanian) Ion Clopoțel, "Discuții și recensii. Eugen Relgis: Bulgaria necunoscută", in Societatea de Mâine, Nr. 7-9/1933, p. 168–169 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library) Ovid Crohmălniceanu, Literatura română între cele două războaie mondiale, Vol. I, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1972. OCLC 490001217 (in Romanian) Dorel Dorian, Geo Șerban, "Eugen Relgis: un literat provoacă destinul: îngrijorat de învrăjbirile umanității", Realitatea Evreiască supplement, Nr. 310-311 (1010–1011), December 2008 – January 2009: page I, page II, page III, page IV, page V, page VI, page VII, page VIII (in French) Bernard


id: cel-l-eng-r-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celâl_Şengör-0.md
category: reference
title: Celâl Şengör
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celâl_Şengör
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:37.157249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cel-l-eng-r-20260505-0
summary:
Ali Mehmet Celâl Şengör (Turkish: [ˈali ˈmehmet ˈdʒeɫal ˈʃænɟœɾ]; born 24 March 1955) is a Turkish geologist. He is retired from the faculty at Istanbul Technical University, Department of Geological Engineering. Şengör is a (foreign) member of the American Philosophical Society, Academia Europaea (1990), the United States National Academy of Sciences (2000), the Russian Academy of Sciences, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Accademia nazionale delle scienze (2023), and Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities (2024). He is a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Science. He is a recipient of Gustav-Steinmann-Medaille — the highest distinction of the Geologische Vereinigung e.V. == Personal life == Celal Şengör was born on 24 March 1955, in Istanbul, to a muhacir family from Rumelia. After graduating from Robert College, he received his BS (1978), MS (1979), PhD (1982) degrees from the State University of New York, Albany. He writes a weekly popular science column in the center-left daily Cumhuriyet. He is married and has a son. Şengör has been diagnosed with Asperger syndrome. == Controversies == Şengör is vocal in his support of the Turkish military and the 1980 military coup in Turkey. In a very controversial interview published on the website


id: josephine-siao-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephine_Siao-0.md
category: reference
title: Josephine Siao
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephine_Siao
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:38.440552+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: josephine-siao-20260505-0
summary:
Josephine Siao Fong-fong (simplified Chinese: 萧芳芳; traditional Chinese: 蕭芳芳; pinyin: Xiāo Fāngfāng; Jyutping: siu1 fong1 fong1; born March 13, 1947) is a Hong Kong film star who became popular as a child actress and continued her success as a mature actress, winning numerous awards including Best Actress at the 45th Berlin International Film Festival (for Summer Snow). Since retiring from show business (partly due to her increasing deafness), she has become a writer and a psychologist, known for her work against child abuse. Born in Shanghai, Ciao emigrated to Hong Kong at the age of 2, and began her acting career at the age of 6. In 1955, she appeared alongside Bruce Lee in An Orphan's Tragedy. Her performance in The Orphan Girl (1956) garnered the Best Child Actor Award at the 2nd Southeast Asian Film Festival. Ciao subsequently became one of the biggest teen idols in Hong Kong during the late 1960s, along with frequent co-star Connie Chan Po-chu. The two were often cast in wuxia films and contemporary dramas. Colourful Youth (1966), in which they both appeared, is credited with popularising Cantonese film musicals. Siao briefly retired from acting in 1968 to attend Seton Hall University in the


id: olga-skorokhodova-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga_Skorokhodova-0.md
category: reference
title: Olga Skorokhodova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga_Skorokhodova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:39.640274+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: olga-skorokhodova-20260505-0
summary:
Olga Ivanovna Skorokhodova (Russian: Ольга Ивановна Скороходова; 24 May [O.S. 11 May] 1911 – 7 May 1982) was a Soviet scientist, therapist, teacher and writer. She lost her vision and hearing at age five due to meningitis, and worked in the Institute for the Handicapped for the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences as the world's only deafblind researcher. Skorokhodova created a number of scientific works concerning the development of education and teaching of deafblind children. == Biography == Some sources indicated incorrect information about Skorokhodova's date of birth: it was sometimes referred to 1912 or 1914. However, according to the extracts from Church records, which were found after her death, she was born in 1911 (Julian calendar). Skorokhodova was born in Bilozerka, Kherson Oblast (current-day Ukraine) in a poor peasant family. Her father was mobilized for war in 1914 and never returned, and her mother was forced to work as a housemaid for a priest. Olga began to lose her hearing when she was five years old as a result of meningitis. In 1922 after her mother's death, she was sent to a school for the blind in Odesa. In 1925, almost completely mute, Olga came to the School-Clinic for


id: ume-tange-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ume_Tange-0.md
category: reference
title: Ume Tange
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ume_Tange
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:40.875652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ume-tange-20260505-0
summary:
Ume (Umeko) Tange (丹下 梅子; 1873–1955) was one of the first three women admitted to a Japanese university in 1913. She previously studied at a women's college. After graduating from university, she traveled to the US to study, gaining a PhD in chemistry from Johns Hopkins University in 1927, one of the first Japanese women awarded a doctorate in science. Tange returned to Japan to teach and do further research at RIKEN, studying vitamins, especially vitamin B2. She gained a second doctorate, in agricultural science, in 1940, from Tokyo Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo). == Early life and education == Ume Tange was the sixth child of seven siblings in a prosperous family in Kagoshima, southern Japan. She was born on March 17, 1873. While playing with one of her sisters, Tange was injured when she fell on a chopstick, losing the sight in one eye. Tange began her career as a primary school teacher. In 1901, when she was 28, Tange began studying home economics at a women's college, Japan Women's University. After graduating, she worked as an assistant there, and became the first woman to pass the secondary teacher examination in chemistry. In 1913, she was


id: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky-0.md
category: reference
title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:42.166993+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-0
summary:
Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (; Russian: Константин Эдуардович Циолковский, IPA: [kənstɐnʲˈtʲin ɪdʊˈardəvʲɪtɕ tsɨɐlˈkofskʲɪj] ; 17 September [O.S. 5 September] 1857 – 19 September 1935) was a Russian rocket scientist who pioneered astronautics. Along with Hermann Oberth and Robert H. Goddard, he is one of the pioneers of space flight and the founding father of modern rocketry and astronautics. His works later inspired Wernher von Braun and leading Soviet rocket engineers Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko, who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program. Tsiolkovsky spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of Kaluga, about 200 km (120 mi) southwest of Moscow. A recluse by nature, his unusual habits made him appear eccentric to his fellow townsfolk. == Early life == Tsiolkovsky was born in Izhevskoye (now in Spassky District, Ryazan Oblast), in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family. His father, Makary Edward Erazm Ciołkowski, was a Polish forester of Roman Catholic faith who relocated to Russia. His Russian Orthodox mother Maria Ivanovna Yumasheva was of mixed Volga Tatar and Russian origin. According to family tradition, Tsiolkovsky family is of the Zaporozhian Cossack descent, related to Cossack Hetman Nalyvaiko. His father was successively a


id: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky-1.md
category: reference
title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:42.166993+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-0
summary:
Tsiolkovsky stated that he developed the theory of rocketry only as a supplement to philosophical research on the subject. He wrote more than 400 works including approximately 90 published pieces on space travel and related subjects. Among his works are designs for rockets with steering thrusters, multistage boosters, space stations, airlocks for exiting a spaceship into the vacuum of space, and closed-cycle biological systems to provide food and oxygen for space colonies. Tsiolkovsky's first scientific study dates back to 1880–1881. He wrote a paper called "Theory of Gases," in which he outlined the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, but after submitting it to the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (RPCS), he was informed that his discoveries had already been made 25 years earlier. Undaunted, he pressed ahead with his second work, "The Mechanics of the Animal Organism". It received favorable feedback, and Tsiolkovsky was made a member of the Society. Tsiolkovsky's main works after 1884 dealt with four major areas: the scientific rationale for the all-metal balloon (airship), streamlined airplanes and trains, hovercraft, and rockets for interplanetary travel. In 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. During this period, Tsiolkovsky began


id: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky-2.md
category: reference
title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:42.166993+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-0
summary:
The result of the first publication was not what Tsiolkovsky expected. No foreign scientists appreciated his research, which today is a major scientific discipline. In 1911, he published the second part of the work "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices". Here Tsiolkovsky evaluated the work needed to overcome the force of gravity, determined the speed needed to propel the device into the Solar System ("escape velocity"), and examined calculation of flight time. The publication of this article made a splash in the scientific world, and Tsiolkovsky found many friends among his fellow scientists. In 1926–1929, Tsiolkovsky solved the practical problem regarding the role played by rocket fuel in getting to escape velocity and leaving the Earth. He showed that the final speed of the rocket depends on the rate of gas flowing from it and on how the weight of the fuel relates to the weight of the empty rocket. Tsiolkovsky conceived a number of ideas that have been later used in rockets. They include: gas rudders (graphite) for controlling a rocket's flight and changing the trajectory of its center of mass, the use of components of the fuel to cool the outer shell of the spacecraft


id: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky-3.md
category: reference
title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:42.166993+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-0
summary:
In 1964, The Monument to the Conquerors of Space was erected to celebrate the achievements of the Soviet people in space exploration. Located in Moscow, the monument is 107 meters (350 feet) tall and covered with titanium cladding. The main part of the monument is a giant obelisk topped by a rocket and resembling in shape the exhaust plume of the rocket. A statue of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the precursor of astronautics, is located in front of the obelisk. The State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga now bears his name. His residence during the final months of his life (also in Kaluga) was converted into a memorial museum a year after his death. The town Uglegorsk in Amur Oblast was renamed Tsiolkovsky by President of Russia Vladimir Putin in 2015. The crater Tsiolkovskiy, the most prominent crater on the far side of the Moon, was named after him. Asteroid 1590 Tsiolkovskaja was named after his wife. The Soviet Union obtained naming rights by operating Luna 3, the first space device to successfully transmit images of the side of the Moon not seen from Earth. The Tsiolkovsky Memorial Apartment. A museum created in Borovsk where he lived and had


id: per-uhl-n-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_Uhlén-0.md
category: reference
title: Per Uhlén
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_Uhlén
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:43.381582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: per-uhl-n-20260505-0
summary:
Per Uhlén, born in 1969 in Uppsala, is a Swedish researcher in cell and molecular biology and professor of cell signaling at Karolinska Institute in Stockholm. Uhlén conducts research about cell signaling and how different cues affect important biological processes for cancer and development, such as cell division, cell differentiation and cell death. Uhlén is also conducting research using three-dimensional (3D) imaging with light sheet fluorescence microscopy and tissue clearing to map and characterize intact tumor samples and whole brains. Uhlén began studying engineering physics (Teknisk Fysik) at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm in 1993 and graduated with a master's degree in engineering in 1998. He then began doctoral studies at Karolinska Institute and became a doctor of philosophy (PhD) in 2002 with the thesis "Signal Transduction Via Ion Fluxes". After his dissertation, Uhlén moved to the United States to conduct postdoctoral research in Barbara Ehrlich's laboratory at Yale University in New Haven, CT. During his postdoc stay in the United States, Uhlén also conducted research at the Marine Biology Laboratory (MBL) in Woods Hole, MA. In 2006, Uhlén returned to Sweden to establish his own research group at Karolinska Institute. Uhlén became an associate professor (Docent)


id: geerat-j-vermeij-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geerat_J._Vermeij-0.md
category: reference
title: Geerat J. Vermeij
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geerat_J._Vermeij
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:44.611627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geerat-j-vermeij-20260505-0
summary:
Geerat J. Vermeij (born September 28, 1946) is a Dutch-born paleoecologist and evolutionary biologist in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of California, Davis. He studies marine molluscs, both as fossils and as living creatures, as well as influence creatures have on each other's evolutionary fates, alongside having worked on plants, crabs, extinction, biological invasions, and biogeography. He received a MacArthur Fellowship in 1992, and in 2000, was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences. He was also a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences in 1992 and was awarded the Fellows Medal from the California Academy of Sciences in 2017. == Early life and education == Vermeij was born in Sappemeer, Netherlands. Blind from the age of three, he studied Braille at the Prins Alexander Stichting Boarding School in Huis Ter Heide. He moved from the Netherlands to Nutley, New Jersey at age 10, and graduated from Nutley High School in 1965. Since the age of 10, Vermeij wanted to be a conchologist. Vermeij had a school teacher who once brought shells from Florida. There were great differences in the characteristics of those shells and the ones he experienced


id: anatoli-vitushkin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoli_Vitushkin-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatoli Vitushkin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoli_Vitushkin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:45.904091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatoli-vitushkin-20260505-0
summary:
Anatoli Georgievich Vitushkin (Russian: Анато́лий Гео́ргиевич Виту́шкин) (June 25, 1931 – May 9, 2004) was a Soviet mathematician noted for his work on analytic capacity and other parts of mathematical analysis. == Early life == Anatoli Georgievich Vitushkin was born on 25 June 1931 in Moscow. He was blind. == Career == He entered Moscow State University in 1949 after graduating from the Tula Suvorov Military School where mathematics was taught as part of a broader education for potential officers. He graduated in 1954. He studied under Andrey Kolmogorov and benefited from participation in Alexander Kronrod's circle. He joined the Steklov Institute of Mathematics staff in 1965. For many years he was a member of the editorial board of the Russian journal; Mathematical Notes. He died, at the age of 72, in Moscow on 9 May 2004. == Bibliography == Vitushkin, Anatoli G. (2004). "On Hilbert's thirteenth problem and related questions". Russian Mathematical Surveys. 51 (1): 11–25. Bibcode:2004RuMaS..59...11V. doi:10.1070/RM2004v059n01ABEH000698. S2CID 250837749. Vitushkin, A. G.; Chirka, E.M.; Khenkin, G.M.; Dolbeault, P. (November 1, 1997). Introduction to Complex Analysis. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-63005-0. Vitushkin, A. G. (1988). "Uniform approximation of functions by holomorphic functions". Proc. Steklov Inst. Math. (Mathematical Physics and Complex Analysis)


id: elwyn-welch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elwyn_Welch-0.md
category: reference
title: Elwyn Welch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elwyn_Welch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:47.121880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elwyn-welch-20260505-0
summary:
Elwyn Owen Arnold Welch (13 January 1925 – 10 December 1961) was a New Zealand farmer, ornithologist, conservationist and Open Brethren missionary. An expert in raising endangered bird chicks, he is best known for his part in the captive breeding of newly re-discovered takahē (Porphyrio hochstetteri) in the 1950s. His efforts live on as Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre. As an Open Brethren missionary, he served in Nigeria beginning in April 1961. He died in Nigeria at age 36 from polio. == Early life == Welch was born in Masterton, Wairarapa, New Zealand, in 1925. He grew up on the family farm 'Kelvin Grove' on the slopes of Mt Bruce, and was educated as a boarder at Wairarapa College in Masterton. After completing his secondary schooling he returned to the family farm. In his youth he developed a passion for birds, and became one of New Zealand's leading amateur ornithologists. He began his bird conservation work by hand-raising grey teal chicks on the farm. In 1948 he married Shirley Noeline Elizabeth Burridge, and then took over the family farm from his parents. == Bird conservation work == By the mid-1950s, Welch was recognised for his expertise in raising


id: justin-yerbury-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Yerbury-0.md
category: reference
title: Justin Yerbury
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Yerbury
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:48.367404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: justin-yerbury-20260505-0
summary:
Justin John Yerbury (3 May 1974 – 28 July 2023) was an Australian molecular biologist who was spurred to follow a career in biological research when he discovered that his family has the genetic form of motor neurone disease (MND). He held the position of Professor in Neurodegenerative Disease at the University of Wollongong. He was diagnosed with MND himself in 2016, but continued to research until his death from the disease in 2023. == Education and career == Yerbury grew up in Wollongong, New South Wales, where he attended Oak Flats High School in the southern suburb of Oak Flats. He graduated in 1991. He later said that he "was not much of a scientist at school." He studied for a Bachelor of Commerce and helped to run the family business. In 1995, Yerbury played two games for the Illawarra Hawks in the National Basketball League (NBL). In the late 1990s, several members of Yerbury's extended family were diagnosed and died from motor neurone disease (MND, also known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig's disease). Ninety to 95 per cent of cases are considered sporadic, occurring randomly in the population. The remaining 5–10% of cases are hereditary.


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
LGBT people in science are students, professionals, hobbyists, and anyone else who is LGBT and interested in science. The sexuality of many people in science remains up for debate by historians, largely due to the unaccepting cultures in which many of these people lived. For the most part, we do not know for certain how people in the past would have labelled their sexuality or gender because many individuals lived radically different private lives outside of the accepted gender and sexual norms of their time. One such example of a historical person in science that was arguably part of the LGBT community is Leonardo da Vinci, whose sexuality was later the subject of Sigmund Freud's study. In modern times, LGBTQ+ individuals in science still navigate a landscape shaped by discrimination, social exclusion, and professional devaluation, but increased visibility and advocacy have led to growing efforts for inclusion and equity. Numerous organizations now work to support LGBTQ+ scientists, while companies and institutions are implementing policies aimed at fostering diversity and reducing barriers for underrepresented groups in STEM. Issues such as the "glass closet," where individuals feel pressure to conceal their identities for career advancement, continue to highlight the ongoing need for


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
== History of LGBT people in science == Magnus Hirschfeld, a German physician and sexologist, was one of the first advocates for homosexual and transgender rights. Hirschfeld was most well known for his sexual theories and for activism. In 1897 Hirschfeld created the first sexual rights organization, the Scientific Humanitarian Community, which aimed to explore and defend the rights of homosexuals. As one of the first advocates for homosexual rights, Hirschfeld faced a great amount of backlash from newspapers claiming, for example, that "abnormal propensities" should be distanced from "mainstream medicine". Hirschfeld was attacked by Nazis for being gay and Jewish, and he was beaten, sacked, and had his books burned. He was eventually forced into exile in France. John Maynard Keynes, an English economist, changed the ideology and practice of macroeconomics, and his ideas formed the school of thought known as Keynesian economics. Keynes's romantic relationships early in his life were only with other men. He had many sexual encounters with other men and he was open about these affairs. Several communities, in which Keynes was involved with, such as the Bloomsbury Group, and the Cambridge Apostles were accepting towards Keynes's homosexuality. People who opposed Keynes's ideas used his


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Known for her groundbreaking research on heat-resistant corals, Gates aimed to safeguard coral reefs from the devastating effects of ocean warming and acidification. Beyond her scientific achievements, Gates was deeply committed to public outreach, using documentaries like Chasing Coral to raise awareness about the urgent need for climate action. Her legacy continues through her lab, the Coral Resilience Lab, and through initiatives like the Ruth Gates Coral Restoration Innovation Grant, ensuring her mission to protect coral ecosystems lives on. Dr. Gates' work not only transformed reef studies but also inspired others to believe in the possibility of changing the narrative around climate change, making her an influential figure for both the scientific and LGBTQ+ communities. Richard Summerbell is a leading figure in mycology, recognized globally for his research on fungi and their impact on human and environmental health. As a prolific scientist with over 150 peer reviewed publications, Summerbell's work has significantly advanced our understanding of fungi, from their role in forest ecosystems to their involvement in human infections. Beyond his contributions to science, Summerbell was a prominent advocate for the LGBTQ+ community, actively participating in the liberation movement in the 70s and 80s. He co-hosted the Canadian show Coming


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-3.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Challenges for LGBT people in science == There are traditions and expectations that LGBT people should not study or have careers in science, according to Manil Suri. In 2016 the American Physical Society published a list of ways in which LGBT physicists have a more difficult career experience than their non-LGBT counterparts. Studies have shown that many LGBT faculty and researchers are not out in their departments, and coming out may negatively affect retention. This is of particular issue in the STEM field as the work cultures and professional environments within this field of work can often exclude or alienate the existence of the LGBT community and the individuals within it. A 2021 study identified various inequalities for LGBT people in science. LGBTQ professionals in STEM face a variety of challenges that make their work environments more hostile than those of their non-LGBTQ colleagues. They are more likely to leave their jobs due to higher levels of social exclusion, professional devaluation, and harassment rates up to 30% higher than their peers. LGBTQ individuals also report fewer opportunities for skill development, less access to resources, and less confidence about whistleblowing without retaliation. These issues contribute to higher levels of stress,


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-4.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom and Europe === Pride in STEM, a charitable organization based in the United Kingdom, co-founded the International Day of LGBTQ+ People in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths. In Germany, a similar movement was founded under the name LGBTQ STEM Berlin. The Proud Science Alliance is a collective organisation made up of representatives from LGBTQ+ networks from across the healthcare and life sciences sector. The first interdisciplinary conference in the UK for LGBTQ+ people working in STEM fields was the LGBTSTEMinar hosted at the University of Sheffield in 2016. It has been hosted annually since then and in 2020 the Royal Society Athena Prize was awarded for this work. == Corporate Policies & Inclusion Efforts == Corporate policies aimed at promoting LGBTQ+ inclusion have become important for diversity, equity, and innovation in the modern workplace. Achieving true inclusion requires more than surface-level commitments; it involves embedding equity into policies, practices, and cultural norms. === The Value of Inclusive Corporate Policies === Inclusive policies serve as both a moral imperative and a strategic advantage. Research consistently demonstrates that diverse workplaces outperform less inclusive ones by fostering creativity, improving problem-solving, and enhancing employee satisfaction. The 2021 Corporate Equality Index by


id: s-ren-brostr-m-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-0.md
category: reference
title: Søren Brostrøm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:51.253005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: s-ren-brostr-m-20260505-0
summary:
Søren Brostrøm (born 4 June 1965) is a Danish physician-scientist specializing in obstetrics and gynaecology. He was the Director general of the Danish Health Authority between 2015 and 2023, and has been a senior adviser to the Director-General of the WHO in charge of organizational change, since 2023. Brostrøm has previously been a member (from 2017), Vice-chair (from 2018), and Chair (from 2019), of the Standing Committee of the European Regional Committee (SCRC), as well as (ex officio) Deputy Executive president of the WHO Regional Committee for Europe (69th session; 2019–2020). He held these posts during the COVID-19 pandemic, and as chairperson he led the committee's crisis management and response. Before becoming director general in 2015, Brostrøm served, from September 2011, as the Director of the Department of Hospitals and Emergency management, also at the Danish Health Authority. Brostrøm worked as a chief physician at Herlev Hospital and as an associate professor at the University of Copenhagen, before joining the Danish Health Authority. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, Brostrøm became a prominent public figure in Denmark, where he played a key role in the Danish response to COVID-19, which has been described as "one of the most successful in Europe." In


id: s-ren-brostr-m-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-1.md
category: reference
title: Søren Brostrøm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:51.253005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: s-ren-brostr-m-20260505-0
summary:
=== HIV/AIDS impact on Brostrøm === Brostrom spoke in an interview in 2020 about how the HIV and AIDS global epidemic affected his youth: "HIV and AIDS is the disease I myself grew up with. Both as a young gay man and as a young medical student." Brostrøm described how the disease came as a shock and put a damper on the free and uninhibited sexuality that had taken hold in the gay community throughout the 1960s and 70s. Brostrøm said, "In 1992 I was in the US as part of (medical) school, and from that period I remember it very clearly. There was a lot of debate and the disease was shrouded in taboo. There were religious and conservative groups who called HIV and AIDS God's punishment on homosexuals. At that time I saw young beautiful men lying dead. People like myself." == Memberships, chairmanships and organizational work == Brostrøm has been chairman and board member of a number of organizations. List: === Danish === Member of the Board of the Danish Society of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2001–2003: President of the Danish Association of Young Gynaecologists and Obstetricians (FYGO). 2008–2011: President of the Danish FIGO-foundation. 2018–2022: Member of the


id: uzi-even-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Even-0.md
category: reference
title: Uzi Even
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Even
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:52.435254+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uzi-even-20260505-0
summary:
Uzi Even (Hebrew: עוזי אבן; born 18 October 1940) is an Israeli professor emeritus of physical chemistry at Tel Aviv University and a former politician well known for being the first openly gay member of the Knesset (the Israeli Parliament). == Biography == Uzi Even was born in Haifa during the British Mandate era. He earned a BSc and MSc in physics at the Technion, and a PhD at Tel Aviv University. His specializations are spectroscopy of super cold molecules, molecular clusters and cluster impact chemistry, and the quantum properties of helium clusters. He then worked as a scientist at the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona. As a reservist in the Israel Defense Forces he reached the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. He conducted top-secret military research and served as an intelligence officer during the Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War. In 1968 he left his job at the reactor and joined Lekem, an Israeli intelligence agency responsible for collecting scientific and technical information from abroad. In May 1981, Even leaked the news of preparations to carry out "Operation Opera" to opposition leader Shimon Peres. Peres subsequently wrote a letter of protest to Prime Minister Menachem Begin, and the operation


