# kb

id: t-c-mits-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.C._Mits-0.md
category: reference
title: T.C. Mits
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.C._Mits
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:14.020975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: t-c-mits-20260505-0
summary:
T.C. Mits (acronym for "the celebrated man in the street"), is a term coined by Lillian Rosanoff Lieber to refer to an everyman. In Lieber's works, T.C. Mits was a character who made scientific topics more approachable to the public audience. The phrase has enjoyed sparse use by authors in fields such as molecular biology, secondary education, and general semantics. == The Education of T.C. MITS == Dr. Lillian Rosanoff Lieber wrote this treatise on mathematical thinking in twenty chapters. The writing took a form that resembled free-verse poetry, though Lieber included an introduction stating that the form was meant only to facilitate rapid reading, rather than emulate free-verse. Lieber's husband, a fellow professor at Long Island University, Hugh Gray Lieber, provided illustrations for the book. The title of the book was meant to emphasize that mathematics can be understood by anyone, which was further shown when a special "Overseas edition for the Armed Forces" was published in 1942, and approved by the Council on Books in Wartime to be sent to American troops fighting in World War II. == See also == John Doe The man on the Clapham omnibus == References ==


id: the-politics-of-modelling-numbers-between-science-and-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Politics_of_Modelling,_Numbers_Between_Science_and_Policy-0.md
category: reference
title: The Politics of Modelling, Numbers Between Science and Policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Politics_of_Modelling,_Numbers_Between_Science_and_Policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:15.216481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-politics-of-modelling-numbers-between-science-and-policy-20260505-0
summary:
The Politics of Modelling, Numbers Between Science and Policy is a multi-authors book edited by Andrea Saltelli and Monica Di Fiore and published in August 2023 by Oxford University Press. == Synopsis == The Politics of Modelling elaborates and expands on themes of responsible modelling from a manifesto published in the journal Nature in 2020. The text is structured into three main sections: Meeting Models, The Rules, and The Rules in Practice. The combination of theory with policy relevant examples makes the book accessible to modellers, researchers of modelling, and policy makers. The volume comes with a foreword of Wendy Nelson Espeland and a preface of Daniel Sarewitz, with chapters from Andy Stirling, Wolfgang Drechsler, Philip B. Stark, Ting Xu, Paolo Vineis, Andrea Saltelli, and other scholars. == Reception == The book argues that models live in a "state of exception" provided by their access to a wealth of methodology of analysis, and by their epistemic authority borrowed from mathematics. This state allows models to better defend an appearance of neutrality that is appreciated by policymakers in search of a justification. A review published in the Science notes that the volume incorporated insights from science and technology studies to explore


id: theorem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem-0.md
category: reference
title: Theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:16.454658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theorem-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics and formal logic, a theorem is a statement that has been proven, or can be proven. The proof of a theorem is a logical argument that uses the inference rules of a deductive system to establish that the theorem is a logical consequence of the axioms and previously proved theorems. In mainstream mathematics, the axioms and the inference rules are commonly left implicit, and, in this case, they are almost always those of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC), or of a less powerful theory, such as Peano arithmetic. Generally, an assertion that is explicitly called a theorem is a proved result that is not an immediate consequence of other known theorems. Moreover, many authors qualify as theorems only the most important results, and use the terms lemma, proposition and corollary for less important theorems. In mathematical logic, the concepts of theorems and proofs have been formalized in order to allow mathematical reasoning about them. In this context, statements become well-formed formulas of some formal language. A theory consists of some basis statements called axioms, and some deducing rules (sometimes included in the axioms). The theorems of the theory are the statements that can be


id: theorem-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem-1.md
category: reference
title: Theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:16.454658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theorem-20260505-0
summary:
== Epistemological considerations == Many mathematical theorems are conditional statements, whose proofs deduce conclusions from conditions known as hypotheses or premises. In light of the interpretation of proof as justification of truth, the conclusion is often viewed as a necessary consequence of the hypotheses. Namely, that the conclusion is true in case the hypotheses are true—without any further assumptions. However, the conditional could also be interpreted differently in certain deductive systems, depending on the meanings assigned to the derivation rules and the conditional symbol (e.g., non-classical logic). Although theorems can be written in a completely symbolic form (e.g., as propositions in propositional calculus), they are often expressed informally in a natural language such as English for better readability. The same is true of proofs, which are often expressed as logically organized and clearly worded informal arguments, intended to convince readers of the truth of the statement of the theorem beyond any doubt, and from which a formal symbolic proof can in principle be constructed. In addition to the better readability, informal arguments are typically easier to check than purely symbolic ones—indeed, many mathematicians would express a preference for a proof that not only demonstrates the validity of a theorem, but


id: theorem-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem-2.md
category: reference
title: Theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:16.454658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theorem-20260505-0
summary:
Nonetheless, there is some degree of empiricism and data collection involved in the discovery of mathematical theorems. By establishing a pattern, sometimes with the use of a powerful computer, mathematicians may have an idea of what to prove, and in some cases even a plan for how to set about doing the proof. It is also possible to find a single counter-example and so establish the impossibility of a proof for the proposition as-stated, and possibly suggest restricted forms of the original proposition that might have feasible proofs. For example, both the Collatz conjecture and the Riemann hypothesis are well-known unsolved problems; they have been extensively studied through empirical checks, but remain unproven. The Collatz conjecture has been verified for start values up to about 2.88 × 1018. The Riemann hypothesis has been verified to hold for the first 10 trillion non-trivial zeroes of the zeta function. Although most mathematicians can tolerate supposing that the conjecture and the hypothesis are true, neither of these propositions is considered proved. Such evidence does not constitute proof. For example, the Mertens conjecture is a statement about natural numbers that is now known to be false, but no explicit counterexample (i.e., a natural number


id: theorem-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem-3.md
category: reference
title: Theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:16.454658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theorem-20260505-0
summary:
Theorem (name of the person who proved it, along with year of discovery or publication of the proof) Statement of theorem (sometimes called the proposition) Proof Description of proof End The end of the proof may be signaled by the letters Q.E.D. (quod erat demonstrandum) or by one of the tombstone marks, such as "□" or "∎", meaning "end of proof", introduced by Paul Halmos following their use in magazines to mark the end of an article. The exact style depends on the author or publication. Many publications provide instructions or macros for typesetting in the house style. It is common for a theorem to be preceded by definitions describing the exact meaning of the terms used in the theorem. It is also common for a theorem to be preceded by a number of propositions or lemmas which are then used in the proof. However, lemmas are sometimes embedded in the proof of a theorem, either with nested proofs, or with their proofs presented after the proof of the theorem. Corollaries to a theorem are either presented between the theorem and the proof, or directly after the proof. Sometimes, corollaries have proofs of their own that explain why they follow


id: theorem-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem-4.md
category: reference
title: Theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:16.454658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theorem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Works cited === Boolos, George; Burgess, John; Jeffrey, Richard (2007). Computability and Logic (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Enderton, Herbert (2001). A Mathematical Introduction to Logic (2nd ed.). Harcourt Academic Press. Heath, Sir Thomas Little (1897). The works of Archimedes. Dover. Retrieved 2009-11-15. Hedman, Shawn (2004). A First Course in Logic. Oxford University Press. Hinman, Peter (2005). Fundamentals of Mathematical Logic. Wellesley, MA: A K Peters. Hoffman, Paul (1998). The Man Who Loved Only Numbers: The Story of Paul Erdős and the Search for Mathematical Truth. Hyperion, New York. ISBN 1-85702-829-5. Hodges, Wilfrid (1993). Model Theory. Cambridge University Press. Johnstone, P. T. (1987). Notes on Logic and Set Theory. Cambridge University Press. Monk, J. Donald (1976). Mathematical Logic. Springer-Verlag. Petkovsek, Marko; Wilf, Herbert; Zeilberger, Doron (1996). A = B (PDF). A.K. Peters, Wellesley, Massachusetts. ISBN 1-56881-063-6. Rautenberg, Wolfgang (2010). A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic (3rd ed.). Springer. van Dalen, Dirk (1994). Logic and Structure (3rd ed.). Springer-Verlag. Wentworth, G.; Smith, D.E. (1913). Plane Geometry. Ginn & Co. == Further reading == Chiswell, Ian; Hodges, Wilfred (2007). Mathematical Logic. Oxford University Press. Hunter, Geoffrey (1996) [1971]. Metalogic: An Introduction to the Metatheory of Standard First-Order Logic. University of California


id: toy-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Toy model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:17.746720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: toy-model-20260505-0
summary:
In scientific modeling, a toy model is a deliberately simplistic model with many details removed so that it can be used to explain a mechanism concisely. It is also useful in a description of the fuller model. In toy mathematical models used in mathematical physics, this is usually done by reducing or extending the number of dimensions or reducing the number of fields/variables or restricting them to a particular symmetric form. In toy economic models, some may be only loosely based on theory, others more explicitly so. They allow for a quick first pass at some question, and present the essence of the answer from a more complicated model or from a class of models. For the researcher, they may come before writing a more elaborate model, or after, once the elaborate model has been worked out. Blanchard's list of examples includes the IS–LM model, the Mundell–Fleming model, the RBC model, and the New Keynesian model. The phrase "tinker-toy model" is also used, in reference to the Tinkertoys product used for children's constructivist learning. == Examples == Examples of toy models in physics include: the Ising model as a toy model for ferromagnetism, or lattice models more generally. It is


id: toy-theorem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_theorem-0.md
category: reference
title: Toy theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toy_theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:18.952329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: toy-theorem-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a toy theorem is a simplified instance (special case) of a more general theorem, which can be useful in providing a handy representation of the general theorem, or a framework for proving the general theorem. One way of obtaining a toy theorem is by introducing some simplifying assumptions in a theorem. In many cases, a toy theorem is used to illustrate the claim of a theorem, while in other cases, studying the proofs of a toy theorem (derived from a non-trivial theorem) can provide insight that would be hard to obtain otherwise. Toy theorems can also have educational value as well. For example, after presenting a theorem (with, say, a highly non-trivial proof), one can sometimes give some assurance that the theorem really holds, by proving a toy version of the theorem. == Examples == A toy theorem of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem is obtained by restricting the dimension to one. In this case, the Brouwer fixed-point theorem follows almost immediately from the intermediate value theorem. Another example of toy theorem is Rolle's theorem, which is obtained from the mean value theorem by equating the function values at the endpoints. == See also == Corollary Fundamental theorem Lemma


id: transport-of-structure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_of_structure-0.md
category: reference
title: Transport of structure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_of_structure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:20.207704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transport-of-structure-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, particularly in universal algebra and category theory, transport of structure refers to the process whereby a mathematical object acquires a new structure and its canonical definitions, as a result of being isomorphic to (or otherwise identified with) another object with a pre-existing structure. Definitions by transport of structure are regarded as canonical. == Examples == Since mathematical structures are often defined in reference to an underlying space, many examples of transport of structure involve spaces and mappings between them. For example, if V {\displaystyle V} and W {\displaystyle W} are vector spaces with ( ⋅ , ⋅ ) {\displaystyle (\cdot ,\cdot )} being an inner product on W {\displaystyle W} , such that there is an isomorphism ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } from V {\displaystyle V} to W {\displaystyle W} , then one can define an inner product [ ⋅ , ⋅ ] {\displaystyle [\cdot ,\cdot ]} on V {\displaystyle V} by the following rule: [ v 1 , v 2 ] = ( ϕ ( v 1 ) , ϕ ( v 2 ) ) {\displaystyle [v_{1},v_{2}]=(\phi (v_{1}),\phi (v_{2}))} Although the equation makes sense even when ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is not an isomorphism, it only defines an


id: triviality-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triviality_(mathematics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Triviality (mathematics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triviality_(mathematics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:21.450294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: triviality-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the adjective trivial is often used to refer to a claim or a case which can be readily obtained from context, or a particularly simple object possessing a given structure (e.g., group, topological space). The noun triviality usually refers to a simple technical aspect of some proof or definition. The origin of the term in mathematical language comes from the medieval trivium curriculum, which distinguishes from the more difficult quadrivium curriculum. The opposite of trivial is nontrivial, which is commonly used to indicate that an example or a solution is not simple, or that a statement or a theorem is not easy to prove. Triviality does not have a rigorous definition in mathematics. It is subjective, and often determined in a given situation by the knowledge and experience of those considering the case. == Trivial and nontrivial solutions == In mathematics, the term "trivial" is often used to refer to objects (e.g., groups, topological spaces) with a very simple structure. These include, among others: Empty set: the set containing no or null members Trivial group: the mathematical group containing only the identity element Trivial ring: a ring defined on a singleton set "Trivial" can also be used to


id: triviality-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triviality_(mathematics)-1.md
category: reference
title: Triviality (mathematics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triviality_(mathematics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:21.450294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: triviality-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
A common joke in the mathematical community is to say that "trivial" is synonymous with "proved"—that is, any theorem can be considered "trivial" once it is known to be proved as true. Two mathematicians who are discussing a theorem: the first mathematician says that the theorem is "trivial". In response to the other's request for an explanation, he then proceeds with twenty minutes of exposition. At the end of the explanation, the second mathematician agrees that the theorem is trivial. But can we say that this theorem is trivial even if it takes a lot of time and effort to prove it? When a mathematician says that a theorem is trivial, but he is unable to prove it by himself at the moment that he pronounces it as trivial, is the theorem trivial? Often, as a joke, a problem is referred to as "intuitively obvious". For example, someone experienced in calculus would consider the following statement trivial: ∫ 0 1 x 2 d x = 1 3 . {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{1}x^{2}\,dx={\frac {1}{3}}.} However, to someone with no knowledge of integral calculus, this is not obvious, so it is not trivial. == Examples == In number theory, it is often important


id: undefined-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undefined_(mathematics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Undefined (mathematics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undefined_(mathematics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:22.620521+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: undefined-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the term undefined refers to a value, function, or other expression that cannot be assigned a meaning within a specific formal system. Attempting to assign or use an undefined value within a particular formal system, may produce contradictory or meaningless results within that system. In practice, mathematicians may use the term undefined to warn that a particular calculation or property can produce mathematically inconsistent results, and therefore, it should be avoided. Caution must be taken to avoid the use of such undefined values in a deduction or proof. Whether a particular function or value is undefined, depends on the rules of the formal system in which it is used. For example, the imaginary number − 1 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}} is undefined within the set of real numbers. So it is meaningless to reason about the value, solely within the discourse of real numbers. However, defining the imaginary number i {\displaystyle i} to be equal to − 1 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}} , allows there to be a consistent set of mathematics referred to as the complex number plane. Therefore, within the discourse of complex numbers, − 1 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}} is in fact defined. Many new fields of mathematics


id: undefined-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undefined_(mathematics)-1.md
category: reference
title: Undefined (mathematics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undefined_(mathematics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:22.620521+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: undefined-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Indeterminate === The term undefined should be contrasted with the term indeterminate. In the first case, undefined generally indicates that a value or property can have no meaningful definition. In the second case, indeterminate generally indicates that a value or property can have many meaningful definitions. Additionally, it seems to be generally accepted that undefined values may not be safely used within a particular formal system, whereas indeterminate values might be, depending on the relevant rules of the particular formal system. == See also == Analytic function - a function locally given by a convergent power series, which may be useful for dealing with otherwise undefined values L'Hôpital's rule - a method in calculus for evaluating indeterminate forms Indeterminate form - a mathematical expression for which many assignments exist NaN - the IEEE-754 expression indicating that the result of a calculation is not a number Primitive notion - a concept that is not defined in terms of previously defined concepts Singularity - a point at which a mathematical function ceases to be well-behaved == References == == Further reading == Smart, James R. (1988). Modern Geometries (3rd ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-08310-2. Lo Bello, Anthony (2013). Origins of Mathematical Words.


id: uniqueness-quantification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniqueness_quantification-0.md
category: reference
title: Uniqueness quantification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniqueness_quantification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:23.930015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uniqueness-quantification-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics and logic, the term "uniqueness" refers to the property of being the one and only object satisfying a certain condition. This sort of quantification is known as uniqueness quantification or unique existential quantification, and is often denoted with the symbols "∃!" or "∃=1". It is defined to mean there exists an object with the given property, and all objects with this property are equal. For example, the formal statement ∃ ! n ∈ N ( n − 2 = 4 ) {\displaystyle \exists !n\in \mathbb {N} \,(n-2=4)} may be read as "there is exactly one natural number n {\displaystyle n} such that ⁠ n − 2 = 4 {\displaystyle n-2=4} ⁠". == Proving uniqueness == The most common technique to prove the unique existence of an object is to first prove the existence of the entity with the desired condition, and then to prove that any two such entities (say, a {\displaystyle a} and ⁠ b {\displaystyle b} ⁠) must be equal to each other (i.e. ⁠ a = b {\displaystyle a=b} ⁠). For example, to show that the equation x + 2 = 5 {\displaystyle x+2=5} has exactly one solution, one would first start by establishing that


id: uniqueness-theorem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniqueness_theorem-0.md
category: reference
title: Uniqueness theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniqueness_theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:25.125766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uniqueness-theorem-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a uniqueness theorem, also called a unicity theorem, is a theorem asserting the uniqueness of an object satisfying certain conditions, or the equivalence of all objects satisfying the said conditions. Examples of uniqueness theorems include: Cauchy's rigidity theorem and Alexandrov's uniqueness theorem for three-dimensional polyhedra. Black hole uniqueness theorem Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem is the main local existence and uniqueness theorem for analytic partial differential equations associated with Cauchy initial value problems. Cauchy–Kowalevski–Kashiwara theorem is a wide generalization of the Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem for systems of linear partial differential equations with analytic coefficients. Division theorem, the uniqueness of quotient and remainder under Euclidean division. Fundamental theorem of arithmetic, the uniqueness of prime factorization. Holmgren's uniqueness theorem for linear partial differential equations with real analytic coefficients. Picard–Lindelöf theorem, the uniqueness of solutions to first-order differential equations. Thompson uniqueness theorem in finite group theory. Uniqueness theorem for Poisson's equation. Electromagnetism uniqueness theorem for the solution of Maxwell's equation. Uniqueness case in finite group theory. The word unique is sometimes replaced by essentially unique, whenever one wants to stress that the uniqueness is only referred to the underlying structure, whereas the form may vary in all ways that do not affect the mathematical content.


id: univariate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate-0.md
category: reference
title: Univariate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:26.386149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: univariate-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a univariate object is an expression, equation, function or polynomial involving only one variable. Objects involving more than one variable are multivariate. In some cases the distinction between the univariate and multivariate cases is fundamental; for example, the fundamental theorem of algebra and Euclid's algorithm for polynomials are fundamental properties of univariate polynomials that cannot be generalized to multivariate polynomials. In statistics, a univariate distribution characterizes one variable, although it can be applied in other ways as well. For example, univariate data are composed of a single scalar component. In time series analysis, the whole time series is the "variable": a univariate time series is the series of values over time of a single quantity. Correspondingly, a "multivariate time series" characterizes the changing values over time of several quantities. In some cases, the terminology is ambiguous, since the values within a univariate time series may be treated using certain types of multivariate statistical analyses and may be represented using multivariate distributions. In addition to the question of scaling, a criterion (variable) in univariate statistics can be described by two important measures (also key figures or parameters): Location & Variation. Measures of Location Scales (e.g. mode, median, arithmetic mean)


id: univariate-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate_(statistics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Univariate (statistics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate_(statistics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:27.600546+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: univariate-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Univariate is a term commonly used in statistics to describe a type of data which consists of observations on only a single characteristic or attribute. A simple example of univariate data would be the salaries of workers in industry. Similar to other data, univariate data can be visualized using graphs, images, or other analysis tools after the data are measured, collected, reported, and analyzed. == Data types == Some univariate data consist of numbers (such as the height of 1.65 m, or the mass of 70 kg), whilst others are non-numerical (such as eye colors of brown or blue). Generally, the terms categorical univariate data and numerical univariate data are used to distinguish between these types. === Categorical univariate data === Categorical univariate data consists of non-numerical observations that may be placed in categories. It includes labels or names used to identify an attribute of each element. Categorical univariate data usually use either nominal or ordinal scale of measurement. === Numerical univariate data === Numerical univariate data consists of observations that are numbers. They are obtained using either interval or ratio scale of measurement. This type of univariate data can be classified even further into two subcategories: discrete and continuous.


id: univariate-statistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate_(statistics)-1.md
category: reference
title: Univariate (statistics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate_(statistics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:27.600546+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: univariate-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The most frequently used graphical illustrations for univariate data are: === Frequency distribution tables === Frequency is how many times a number occurs. The frequency of an observation in statistics indicates the number of times the observation occurs in the data. For example, in the following list of numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 9, 8, 5, 1, 1, 9, 9, 0, 6, 9}, the frequency of the number 9 is 5 (because it occurs 5 times in this data set). === Bar charts === A bar chart is a graph consisting of rectangular bars. These bars actually represents number or percentage of observations of existing categories in a variable. The length or height of bars gives a visual representation of the proportional differences among categories. === Histograms === Histograms are used to estimate the distribution of the data, with the frequency of values assigned to a value range called a bin. === Pie charts === A pie chart is a circle divided into portions that represent the relative frequencies or percentages of a population or a sample belonging to different categories. == Distributions == Univariate distribution is a dispersal type for a single random variable described either with


id: universal-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_space-0.md
category: reference
title: Universal space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:28.849483+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: universal-space-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a universal space is a certain metric space that contains all metric spaces whose dimension is bounded by some fixed constant. A similar definition exists in topological dynamics. == Definition == Given a class C {\displaystyle \textstyle {\mathcal {C}}} of topological spaces, U ∈ C {\displaystyle \textstyle \mathbb {U} \in {\mathcal {C}}} is universal for C {\displaystyle \textstyle {\mathcal {C}}} if each member of C {\displaystyle \textstyle {\mathcal {C}}} embeds in U {\displaystyle \textstyle \mathbb {U} } . Menger stated and proved the case d = 1 {\displaystyle \textstyle d=1} of the following theorem. The theorem in full generality was proven by Nöbeling. Theorem: The ( 2 d + 1 ) {\displaystyle \textstyle (2d+1)} -dimensional cube [ 0 , 1 ] 2 d + 1 {\displaystyle \textstyle [0,1]^{2d+1}} is universal for the class of compact metric spaces whose Lebesgue covering dimension is less than d {\displaystyle \textstyle d} . Nöbeling went further and proved: Theorem: The subspace of [ 0 , 1 ] 2 d + 1 {\displaystyle \textstyle [0,1]^{2d+1}} consisting of set of points, at most d {\displaystyle \textstyle d} of whose coordinates are rational, is universal for the class of separable metric spaces whose Lebesgue covering


id: up-to-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_to-0.md
category: reference
title: Up to
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_to
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:29.989667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: up-to-20260505-0
summary:
Two mathematical objects a and b are called "equal up to an equivalence relation R" if a and b are related by R, that is, if aRb holds, that is, if the equivalence classes of a and b with respect to R are equal. This figure of speech is mostly used in connection with expressions derived from equality, such as uniqueness or count. For example, "x is unique up to R" means that all objects x under consideration are in the same equivalence class with respect to the relation R. Moreover, the equivalence relation R is often designated rather implicitly by a generating condition or transformation. For example, the statement "an integer's prime factorization is unique up to ordering" is a concise way to say that any two lists of prime factors of a given integer are equivalent with respect to the relation R that relates two lists if one can be obtained by reordering (permuting) the other. As another example, the statement "the solution to an indefinite integral is sin(x), up to addition of a constant" tacitly employs the equivalence relation R between functions, defined by fRg if the pointwise difference f−g is a constant function, and means that


id: upper-and-lower-bounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_and_lower_bounds-0.md
category: reference
title: Upper and lower bounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_and_lower_bounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:31.217787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: upper-and-lower-bounds-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, particularly in order theory, an upper bound or majorant of a subset S of some preordered set (K, ≤) is an element of K that is greater than or equal to every element of S. Dually, a lower bound or minorant of S is defined to be an element of K that is less than or equal to every element of S. A set with an upper (respectively, lower) bound is said to be bounded from above or majorized (respectively bounded from below or minorized) by that bound. The terms bounded above (bounded below) are also used in the mathematical literature for sets that have upper (respectively lower) bounds. == Examples == For example, 5 is a lower bound for the set S = {5, 8, 42, 34, 13934} (as a subset of the integers or of the real numbers, etc.), and so is 4. On the other hand, 6 is not a lower bound for S since it is not smaller than every element in S. 13934 and other numbers x such that x ≥ 13934 would be an upper bound for S. The set S = {42} has 42 as both an upper bound and a


id: well-defined-expression-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-defined_expression-0.md
category: reference
title: Well-defined expression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-defined_expression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:32.423393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: well-defined-expression-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a well-defined expression or unambiguous expression is an expression whose definition assigns it a unique interpretation or value. Otherwise, the expression is said to be not well defined, ill-defined or ambiguous. A function is well defined if it gives the same result when the representation of the input is changed without changing the value of the input. For instance, if f {\displaystyle f} takes real numbers as input, and if f ( 0.5 ) {\displaystyle f(0.5)} does not equal f ( 1 / 2 ) {\displaystyle f(1/2)} then f {\displaystyle f} is not well defined (and thus not a function). The term well-defined can also be used to indicate that a logical expression is unambiguous or uncontradictory. A function that is not well defined is not the same as a function that is undefined. For example, if f ( x ) = 1 x {\displaystyle f(x)={\frac {1}{x}}} , then even though f ( 0 ) {\displaystyle f(0)} is undefined, this does not mean that the function is not well defined; rather, 0 is not in the domain of f {\displaystyle f} . == Example == Let A 0 , A 1 {\displaystyle A_{0},A_{1}} be sets, let A =


id: well-defined-expression-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-defined_expression-1.md
category: reference
title: Well-defined expression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-defined_expression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:32.423393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: well-defined-expression-20260505-0
summary:
g : Z / 4 Z → Z / 8 Z n ¯ 4 ↦ n ¯ 8 , {\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}g:&\mathbb {Z} /4\mathbb {Z} &\to &\mathbb {Z} /8\mathbb {Z} \\&{\overline {n}}_{4}&\mapsto &{\overline {n}}_{8},\end{matrix}}} does not lead to a well-defined function, since e.g. 1 ¯ 4 {\displaystyle {\overline {1}}_{4}} equals 5 ¯ 4 {\displaystyle {\overline {5}}_{4}} in Z / 4 Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} /4\mathbb {Z} } , but the first would be mapped by g {\displaystyle g} to 1 ¯ 8 {\displaystyle {\overline {1}}_{8}} , while the second would be mapped to 5 ¯ 8 {\displaystyle {\overline {5}}_{8}} , and 1 ¯ 8 {\displaystyle {\overline {1}}_{8}} and 5 ¯ 8 {\displaystyle {\overline {5}}_{8}} are unequal in Z / 8 Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} /8\mathbb {Z} } . === Operations === In particular, the term well-defined is used with respect to (binary) operations on cosets. In this case, one can view the operation as a function of two variables, and the property of being well-defined is the same as that for a function. For example, addition on the integers modulo some n can be defined naturally in terms of integer addition. [ a ] ⊕ [ b ] = [ a


id: without-loss-of-generality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Without_loss_of_generality-0.md
category: reference
title: Without loss of generality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Without_loss_of_generality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:33.661377+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: without-loss-of-generality-20260505-0
summary:
Without loss of generality (often abbreviated to WOLOG, WLOG or w.l.o.g.; less commonly stated as without any loss of generality or with no loss of generality) is a frequently used expression in mathematics. The term is used to indicate the assumption that what follows is chosen arbitrarily, narrowing the premise to a particular case, but does not affect the validity of the proof in general. The other cases are sufficiently similar to the one presented that proving them follows by essentially the same logic. As a result, once a proof is given for the particular case, it is trivial to adapt it to prove the conclusion in all other cases. In many scenarios, the use of "without loss of generality" is made possible by the presence of symmetry. For example, if some property P(x,y) of real numbers is known to be symmetric in x and y, namely that P(x,y) is equivalent to P(y,x), then in proving that P(x,y) holds for every x and y, one may assume "without loss of generality" that x ≤ y. There is no loss of generality in this assumption, since once the case x ≤ y ⇒ P(x,y) has been proved, the other case follows


id: medical-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Medical terminology is language used to describe the components, processes, conditions, medical procedures and treatments of the human body. In the English language, medical terminology generally has a regular morphology; the same prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term often refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, and medical roots and affixes are often derived from Ancient Greek or Latin (particularly Neo-Latin). Many medical terms are examples of neoclassical compounds. Historically, all European universities used Latin as the dominant language of instruction and research, as Neo-Latin was the lingua franca of science, medicine, and education in Europe during the early modern period. Medical terminology includes a large part of anatomical terminology, which includes the anatomical terms of location, motion, muscle, bone, and histology. It also includes language from biology, chemistry, physics, and physiology, as well as vocabulary unique to the field of medicine, such as medical abbreviations. Each branch of medicine has its own clinical and scientific terminology. Medical dictionaries are specialised dictionaries for medical terminology and may be organised alphabetically or according to medical classification systems such as the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine, International Classification of Diseases, or Unified Medical


id: medical-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
The parasagittal (Greek πᾰρᾰ́ (pará), beside) or paramedian or sagittal planes (Latin sagitta, arrow), which include the median or midsagittal plane and divide the body into left and right (in reference to the subject and not the observer). The frontal or coronal plane (Latin corona, crown), which divide the body into front and back. The axial or horizontal or transverse plane (Latin trans, across; vetere, to turn), which is perpendicular to the other two planes. The transpyloric plane, the subcostal plane, and the transumbilical plane planes are also considered in the division of the torso into the quadrants and regions of the abdomen. The three main axes of a human are the left-right (or horizontal or frontal), the craniocaudal (or rostrocaudal, longitudinal, or cephalocaudal), and the anteroposterior (or dorsoventral or sagittal) axes. Other anatomical lines include the axillary lines, parasternal line, and scapular line. ==== Location ==== Many anatomical terms can be combined to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or the direction of a movement relative to the body: Anterolateral indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the standard anatomical position (such as the bulk of the pectoralis major muscle) or a named organ such


id: medical-terminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Bones are surrounded by a membrane known as the periosteum (Greek περῐ́ (perí), around; Greek ὀστέον (ostéon), bone), and comprise multiple layers, depending on the type of bone, including yellow and red bone marrow, spongy bone, and the endosteum. There are five general classifications of bones: Long bones are characterized by a shaft known as the diaphysis, which is much longer than its width, and an epiphysis (Greek ἐπι- (epi-) upon, outside, over), a rounded head at each end of the shaft, connected to the diaphysis by the epiphyseal plate. They are made up mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of marrow, located within the medullary cavity, and areas of spongy, cancellous bone at the ends of the bones. Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion. Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage


id: medical-terminology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-3.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Circulatory system ==== The network of blood vessels include the great vessels (comprising large elastic arteries and large veins), other arteries (which carry blood away from the heart) and veins (which carry blood to the heart), smaller arterioles, and capillaries, which join with venules. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma (comprising serum and clotting factors), red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Components of the blood include nutrients (such as proteins and minerals), hemoglobin, hormones, and gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. These substances provide nourishment, help the immune system to fight diseases, and help maintain homeostasis through mechanisms such as thermoregulation, osmoregulation, and acid-base regulation. The circulatory system has two divisions, a systemic circuit (i.e. the left heart pumping oxygenated blood to the rest of the body (via the aorta) and into the right heart (via the venae cava)) and a pulmonary circuit (i.e. the right heart pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs (via the pulmonary artery) and into the left heart (via the pulmonary vein)). In the human heart: There is one atrium (which receives blood) and one ventricle (which expels blood) for each circulation, with a total of four chambers: left atrium, left


id: medical-terminology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-4.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
The thoracic cavity is protected by the thoracic wall (comprising the rib cage and associated skin, muscle, and fascia), comprising the mediastinum, heart and great vessels, and the bulk of the respiratory tract. The abdominal cavity, lined by the peritoneum, contains the bulk of the gastrointestinal tract, the spleen and the kidneys. Abdominal organs may be classified as solid organs or hollow organs. The solid organs are the liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands. The hollow organs of the abdomen are the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bladder, and rectum. The pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs, and rectum. Viscera are the internal organs of the ventral cavity. The term "visceral" is contrasted with the term "parietal", meaning "of or relating to the wall of a body part, organ or cavity". The two terms are often used in describing a membrane or piece of connective tissue, referring to the opposing sides. ==== Respiratory system ==== The respiratory system allows for gas exchange, particularly of carbon dioxide and oxygen, in human beings. In the process of breathing or ventilation, the muscles of respiration pump air into the lungs, bringing it into close contact with the blood via millions of


id: medical-terminology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-5.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Muscle tissue comprises cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle. Smooth muscles control the flow of substances within the lumens of hollow organs, and are not consciously controlled. In the small intestine, smooth muscle contraction is characterised by peristalsis. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and arranged in opposing groups around joints. Skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles have striations, unlike smooth muscle. Only skeletal and smooth muscles are part of the musculoskeletal system and can move the body. Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and are used only to circulate blood; like the smooth muscles, these muscles are not under conscious control. Nervous tissue comprises neuroglia, which provide structural and metabolic support, and neurons, which send signals in the form of electrochemical impulses traveling along axons. Bundles of axons are known as nerve tracts and neural pathways. Impulses can be directly transmitted to neighbouring cells through electrical synapses or cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released at chemical synapses. The CNS includes astrocytes (-cyte, 'cell'; Greek κύτος (kútos), a hollow, vessel), oligodendrocytes, ependyma, and radial glia; the PNS includes Schwann cells, satellite glia, and enteric glia. Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells that have been observed to turn into neurons by virtue


id: medical-terminology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-6.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Fibrocyte Mesenchyme Adipocyte Fibroblast (Greek βλαστός (blastós), germinate or bud) ==== Epithelial ==== The basal surface of epithelial tissue rests on a basement membrane and the free, apical, or apex surface faces body fluid or the outside. The basement membrane acts as a scaffolding on which epithelium can grow and regenerate after injuries, and comprises the basal lamina and reticular lamina; although, some older sources use basement membrane and basal lamina synonymously. The basement membrane acts as a selectively permeable membrane that determines which substances will be able to enter the epithelium, as epithelial tissue has a nerve supply though no blood supply. There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell: squamous (scaly), columnar, and cuboidal. Transitional epithelium has cells that can change from squamous to cuboidal, depending on the amount of tension on the epithelium. Epithelial tissue can be further categorised as having a singular layer of cells as simple epithelium; or as layers of two or more cells deep as stratified epithelium—stratified squamous epithelium, stratified cuboidal epithelium, and stratified columnar epithelium. When taller simple columnar epithelial cells are viewed in cross section showing several nuclei appearing at different heights, they can be confused with stratified epithelia, and are


id: medical-terminology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-7.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
The professional phagocytes, which generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be called to specific locations by cytokines. Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte, it becomes trapped in an intracellular vesicle called a phagosome, which subsequently fuses with a lysosome vesicle to form a phagolysosome. The pathogen is then killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a respiratory burst that releases free radicals into the phagolysosome. Macrophages and neutrophils, which travel around the body in pursuit of invading pathogens. Macrophages are cells that reside within tissues and produce an array of chemicals including enzymes, complement proteins, and cytokines. They also rid the body of worn-out cells and other debris and act as antigen-presenting cells that activate the adaptive immune system. Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, representing 50% to 60% of total circulating leukocytes. During the acute phase of inflammation, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Dendritic cells are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment, located mainly in the skin,


id: medical-terminology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-8.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Killer T cells kill cells that are infected with pathogens or otherwise damaged or dysfunctional, which contain a complex of a specific antigen coupled to a Class I MHC receptor. When the receptor of a cytotoxic or "killer" T-cell contacts such cells, it releases cytotoxins, such as perforin, which form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions, water and toxins to enter. The entry of another toxin called granulysin induces the target cell to undergo apoptosis. Helper T cells and regulatory T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class II MHC molecules. Helper T cells regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses and help determine which immune responses the body makes to a particular pathogen. These cells have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly. They instead control the immune response by directing other cells to perform these tasks. A third, minor subtype are the γδ T cells, which recognise intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors. A B cell identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen. This antigen/antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by proteolysis into peptides.


id: medical-terminology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-9.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
The human brain contains multiple regions, as does the spinal cord. There are multiple ways to divide the brain, including by the embryological development of the brain; into three parts: the cerebellum, brainstem, and cerebrum; the evolution of the brain; and cytoarchitecture, as in the case of Brodmann areas. A popular model of the 'triune brain' — comprising the reptilian complex (basal ganglia), the paleomammalian complex (limbic system), and the neomammalian complex (neocortex) — was formerly popular during the 1960s, though is now regarded as a myth. 'Limbic system' and associated terms, however, remain in neuroanatomical use, although some neuroscientists have argued against such use. Various other neuroanatomical systems have been developed according to functions, connections, and systems of the brain. Neuroendocrine axes Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis Hypothalamic–neurohypophyseal system Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis Limbic system, corresponding to Cortical areas: Limbic lobe Orbitofrontal cortex Piriform cortex part of the olfactory system Entorhinal cortex Hippocampus and associated structures Fornix and septal nuclei Subcortical areas: Septal nuclei Amygdala Nucleus accumbens Diencephalic structures: Hypothalamus Mammillary bodies Anterior nuclei of thalamus ==== Neuropathology ==== In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes including


id: medical-terminology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-10.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== History == The earliest known glossaries of medical terms were discovered on Egyptian papyrus authored around 1600 B.C. Other precursors to modern medical dictionaries include lists of terms compiled from the Hippocratic Corpus in the first century AD. The Synonyma Simonis Genuensis (the Synonyms of Simon of Genoa), attributed to the physician to Pope Nicholas IV in the year 1288, was printed by Antonius Zarotus at Milan in 1473. Referring to a copy held in the library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, Henry wrote in 1905 that "It is the first edition of the first medical dictionary." However, this claim is disputed as the composition only included lists of herbs and drugs. At the beginning of the Renaissance, Italian universities began teaching a broader range of courses, such as law and medicine, whilst universities in northern Europe were still dominated by theology and related topics. All European universities required Latin proficiency for admission. Latin was the dominant language of university education, where rules were enforced against the use of vernacular languages. Lectures and debates took place in Latin, and writing was in Latin, across the curriculum. Latin dominated topics of international academic and scientific interest, especially at


id: medical-terminology-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology-11.md
category: reference
title: Medical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:35.931317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Works cited == Bertok L, Chow D (2005). Bertok L, Chow D (eds.). Natural Immunity. Vol. 5 (1st ed.). Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-44451-755-5. Breinstrup, Thomas (2006). "Un revolution in le mundo scientific" [A revolution in the scientific world]. Historia de interlingua (in Interlingua). Archived from the original on 2019-04-27. Retrieved 2025-01-14. Chung, Kyung Won (2005). Gross Anatomy (Board Review). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-5309-0. Cook, Chad E. (2012). Orthopedic Manual Therapy: An Evidence Based Approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-802173-3. Breinstrup, Th.; Stenström, Ingvar; Olsson, Jesper, eds. (2007) [2001]. "Biographias: Ingvar Stenström". Interlingua (in Interlingua). Archived from the original on 2019-04-26. Retrieved 2025-01-15. Dinour, Lauren M. (2019). "Speaking Out on 'Breastfeeding' Terminology: Recommendations for Gender-Inclusive Language in Research and Reporting". Breastfeeding Medicine. 14 (8). Mary Ann Liebert: 523–532. doi:10.1089/bfm.2019.0110. PMID 31364867. Fielding, Lucie (2021). Trans Sex: Clinical Approaches to Trans Sexualities and Erotic Embodiments. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-31829-0. Edwards, Heather. "Anatomy Talk". pp. 165–168. Gopsill, Frank Peter (1990). International languages: a matter for Interlingua. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society. ISBN 0-9511695-6-4. OCLC 27813762. Gopsill, Frank Peter (1994). Interlingua today: A course for beginners. Sheffield, England: British Interlingua Society. ISBN 978-1-898017-01-1. Gopsill, Frank


id: list-of-medical-roots-and-affixes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_roots_and_affixes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of medical roots and affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_roots_and_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:37.200007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-medical-roots-and-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of roots, suffixes, and prefixes used in medical terminology, their meanings, and their etymologies. Most of them are combining forms in Neo-Latin and hence international scientific vocabulary. There are a few general rules about how they combine. First, prefixes and suffixes, most of which are derived from ancient Greek or classical Latin, have a droppable vowel, usually -o-. As a general rule, this vowel almost always acts as a joint-stem to connect two consonantal roots (e.g. arthr- + -o- + -logy = arthrology), but generally, the -o- is dropped when connecting to a vowel-stem (e.g. arthr- + -itis = arthritis, instead of arthr-o-itis). Second, medical roots generally go together according to language, i.e., Greek prefixes occur with Greek suffixes and Latin prefixes with Latin suffixes. Although international scientific vocabulary is not stringent about segregating combining forms of different languages, it is advisable when coining new words not to mix different lingual roots. == Prefixes and suffixes == The following is an alphabetical list of medical prefixes and suffixes, along with their meanings, origins, and English examples. === A === === B === === C === === D === === E === === F === === G


id: abrasion-collar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrasion_collar-0.md
category: reference
title: Abrasion collar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrasion_collar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:38.336536+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abrasion-collar-20260505-0
summary:
An abrasion collar, also known as an abrasion ring or abrasion rim, is a narrow ring of stretched, abraded skin immediately surrounding projectile wounds, such as gunshot wounds. It is most commonly associated with entrance wounds and is a mechanical defect due to a projectile's penetration through the skin. It is caused by a temporary over-stretching of the skin surrounding the projectile's point of penetration. Like all skin abrasions, the abrasion collar tends to dry out due to scraping away of the skin's outer layers and the collapse and dehydration of the underlying cells; it therefore becomes easier to discern with time. This defect is most often seen around rifled firearm entrance wounds due to the striations or grooves in the bullet's surface caused by the rifling on the inside of the weapon's barrel; however, certain other high-velocity projectile wounds can also have the same effect. An abrasion collar is usually found in association with a contusion collar of bruising caused by damaged blood vessels in the skin by hydrostatic forces from the bullet's entry. An abrasion rim defect is also possible in firearm exit wounds under certain circumstances, such as if the skin at the exit was crushed between


id: absolute-risk-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_risk-0.md
category: reference
title: Absolute risk
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_risk
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:39.613272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: absolute-risk-20260505-0
summary:
Absolute risk (or AR) is the probability or chance of an event. It is usually used for the number of events (such as a disease) that occurred in a group, divided by the number of people in that group. Absolute risk is one of the most understandable ways of communicating health risks to the general public. In difference to absolute risk, the relative risk (RR) is the ratio of the probability of an outcome in an exposed group to the probability of the outcome in an unexposed group. == See also == Absolute risk reduction Relative risk reduction == References == == Further reading == Woloshin, Steven; Schwartz, Lisa M.; Welch, H. Gilbert (2008). Know Your Chances: Understanding Health Statistics. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press. PMID 23469386.


id: acholia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acholia-0.md
category: reference
title: Acholia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acholia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:40.769428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acholia-20260505-0
summary:
Acholia is pale feces, due to lack of bile which results in the normal brown colour. It is a sign of reduced conjugated bilirubin into the bowel, as a result of a problem in the liver itself or in the biliary tree. == Signs and symptoms == Acholia results in pale feces. == Cause == A condition in which little or no bile is secreted or the flow of bile into the digestive tract is obstructed. The acholia is a sign of many diseases, such as hepatitis. == Etymology == Ancient Greek: a + chole (without bile). == See also == Choluria == References == == External links ==


id: active-placebo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_placebo-0.md
category: reference
title: Active placebo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_placebo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:41.989643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: active-placebo-20260505-0
summary:
An active placebo is a placebo that produces noticeable side effects that may convince the person being treated that they are receiving a legitimate treatment, rather than an inert placebo. == Nomenclature == According to a 1965 paper, the term "concealed placebo" (German: Kaschiertes Placebo) was suggested in a 1959 paper published in German. == Example == An example of an active placebo is the 1964 work of Shader and colleagues who used a combination of low-dose phenobarbital plus atropine to mimic the sedation and dry mouth produced by phenothiazines. Morphine and gabapentin are painkillers with the common side effects of sleepiness and dizziness. In a 2005 study assessing the effects of these painkillers on neuropathic pain, lorazepam was chosen as an active placebo because it is not a painkiller but it does cause sleepiness and can cause dizziness. Testing from the late 1950s onwards on narcotic analgesics like morphine also has used dicyclomine as an active placebo, and on some occasions it was reported to cause the Straub mouse tail reaction, as do most narcotics. Clonidine is now finding more use as an active placebo for narcotics. == References == Shader, R. I.; Cohler, J.; Elashoff, R.; Grinspoon, L.


id: acute-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Acute (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:43.224820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acute-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, describing a disease as acute denotes that it is of recent onset; it occasionally denotes a short duration. The quantification of how much time constitutes "short" and "recent" varies by disease and by context, but the core denotation of "acute" is always qualitatively in contrast with "chronic", which denotes long-lasting disease (for example, in acute leukaemia and chronic leukaemia). In the context of the mass noun "acute disease", it refers to the acute phase (that is, a short course) of any disease entity. For example, in an article on ulcerative enteritis in poultry, the author says, "in acute disease there may be increased mortality without any obvious signs", referring to the acute form or phase of ulcerative enteritis. == Meaning variations == A mild stubbed toe is an acute injury. Similarly, many acute upper respiratory infections and acute gastroenteritis cases in adults are mild and usually resolve within a few days or weeks. The term "acute" is also included in the definition of several diseases, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome, acute leukaemia, acute myocardial infarction, and acute hepatitis. This is often to distinguish diseases from their chronic forms, such as chronic leukaemia, or to highlight the sudden


id: acute-abdomen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_abdomen-0.md
category: reference
title: Acute abdomen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_abdomen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:44.430078+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acute-abdomen-20260505-0
summary:
An acute abdomen refers to a sudden, severe abdominal pain. It is in many cases a medical emergency, requiring urgent and specific diagnosis. Several causes need immediate surgical treatment. == Differential diagnosis == Common causes of an acute abdomen include a gastrointestinal perforation, peptic ulcer disease, mesenteric ischemia, acute cholecystitis, appendicitis, diverticulitis, pancreatitis, and an abdominal hemorrhage. However, this is a non-exhaustive list and other less common causes may also lead to an acute abdomen. In pregnant patient, a tubo-ovarian abscess, ruptured ovarian cyst or a ruptured ectopic pregnancy are common causes of an acute abdomen. === Ischemic acute abdomen === Vascular disorders are more likely to affect the small bowel than the large bowel. Arterial supply to the intestines is provided by the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries (SMA and IMA respectively), both of which are direct branches of the aorta. Clinically, patients present with diffuse abdominal pain, bowel distention, and bloody diarrhea. On physical exam, bowel sounds will be absent. Laboratory tests reveal a neutrophilic leukocytosis, sometimes with a left shift, and increased serum amylase. Abdominal radiography will show many air-fluid levels, as well as widespread edema. Acute ischemic abdomen is a surgical emergency. Typically, treatment involves removal


id: acute-pericarditis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pericarditis-0.md
category: reference
title: Acute pericarditis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pericarditis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:45.765948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acute-pericarditis-20260505-0
summary:
Acute pericarditis is a type of pericarditis (inflammation of the sac surrounding the heart, the pericardium) usually lasting less than 4 to 6 weeks. It is the most common condition affecting the pericardium. == Signs and symptoms == Chest pain is one of the common symptoms of acute pericarditis. It is usually of sudden onset, occurring in the anterior chest and often has a sharp quality that worsens with breathing in or coughing, due to inflammation of the pleural surface at the same time. The pain may be reduced with sitting up and leaning forward while worsened with lying down, and also may radiate to the back, to one or both trapezius ridges. However, the pain can also be dull and steady, resembling the chest pain in an acute myocardial infarction. As with any chest pain, other causes must also be ruled out, such as GERD, pulmonary embolism, muscular pain, etc. A pericardial friction rub is a very specific sign of acute pericarditis, meaning the presence of this sign invariably indicates presence of disease. However, absence of this sign does not rule out disease. This rub can be best heard by the diaphragm of the stethoscope at the left sternal


id: acute-pericarditis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pericarditis-1.md
category: reference
title: Acute pericarditis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pericarditis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:45.765948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acute-pericarditis-20260505-0
summary:
stage 1 -- diffuse, positive, ST elevations with reciprocal ST depression in aVR and V1. Elevation of PR segment in aVR and depression of PR in other leads especially left heart V5, V6 leads indicates atrial injury. stage 2 -- normalization of ST and PR deviations stage 3 -- diffuse T wave inversions (may not be present in all patients) stage 4 -- EKG becomes normal OR T waves may be indefinitely inverted The two most common clinical conditions where ECG findings may mimic pericarditis are acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and generalized early repolarization. As opposed to pericarditis, AMI usually causes localized convex ST-elevation usually associated with reciprocal ST-depression which may also be frequently accompanied by Q-waves, T-wave inversions (while ST is still elevated unlike pericarditis), arrhythmias and conduction abnormalities. In AMI, PR-depressions are rarely present. Early repolarization usually occurs in young males (age <40 years) and ECG changes are characterized by terminal R-S slurring, temporal stability of ST-deviations and J-height/ T-amplitude ratio in V5 and V6 of <25% as opposed to pericarditis where terminal R-S slurring is very uncommon and J-height/ T-amplitude ratio is ≥ 25%. Very rarely, ECG changes in hypothermia may mimic pericarditis, however differentiation can be


id: acute-pericarditis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pericarditis-2.md
category: reference
title: Acute pericarditis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pericarditis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:45.765948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acute-pericarditis-20260505-0
summary:
presence of moderate or severe cardiac tamponade diagnostic purpose for suspected purulent, tuberculosis, or neoplastic pericarditis persistent symptomatic pericardial effusion NSAIDs in viral or idiopathic pericarditis. In patients with underlying causes other than viral, the specific etiology should be treated. With idiopathic or viral pericarditis, NSAID is the mainstay treatment. Goal of therapy is to reduce pain and inflammation. The course of the disease may not be affected. The preferred NSAID is ibuprofen because of rare side effects, better effect on coronary flow, and larger dose range. Depending on severity, dosing is between 300 and 800 mg every 6–8 hours for days or weeks as needed. An alternative protocol is aspirin 800 mg every 6–8 hours. Dose tapering of NSAIDs may be needed. In pericarditis following acute myocardial infarction, NSAIDs other than aspirin should be avoided since they can impair scar formation. As with all NSAID use, GI protection should be engaged. Failure to respond to NSAIDs within one week (indicated by persistence of fever, worsening of condition, new pericardial effusion, or continuing chest pain) likely indicates that a cause other than viral or idiopathic is in process. Colchicine, which has been essential to treat recurrent pericarditis, has been supported


id: purulent-pericarditis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purulent_pericarditis-0.md
category: reference
title: Purulent pericarditis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purulent_pericarditis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:47.030592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: purulent-pericarditis-20260505-0
summary:
Purulent pericarditis refers to localized inflammation in the setting of infection of the pericardial sac surrounding the heart. In contrast to other causes of pericarditis which may have a viral etiology, purulent pericarditis refers specifically to bacterial or fungal infection of the pericardial sac. Clinical etiologies of purulent pericarditis may include recent surgery, adjacent infection, trauma, or even primary infection. The onset of purulent pericarditis is usually acute, with most individuals presenting to a medical facility approximately 3 days following the onset of symptoms. As a subtype of pericarditis, purulent pericarditis often presents with substernal chest pain that is exacerbated by deep breathing and lying in the supine position. Other presenting features that may be more specific for purulent pericarditis include fever, rigors/chills, and cardiorespiratory signs (i.e., tachycardia, friction rub, pulsus paradoxus, pericardial effusion, cardiac tamponade, pleural effusion). The incidence of cardiac tamponade varies from 42-77% and is associated with rapid-onset mortality, especially without prompt intervention. Chest radiography may reveal cardiomegaly, pneumonia, pleural effusion, and/or mediastinal widening. Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a component of the diagnostic work-up which may suggest pericarditis as the underlying cause of symptoms. The ECG findings for purulent pericarditis are similar to those for other etiologies of


id: adherence-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Adherence (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:48.247796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adherence-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, patient adherence describes the degree to which a person correctly follows medical advice. Most commonly, it refers to medication or drug compliance, but it can also apply to other situations such as medical device use, self care, self-directed exercises, therapy sessions, or medical follow-up visits. Patient compliance and patient adherence may be used interchangeably but adherence emphasizes the role of the patient in decision-making and factors that influence the ability to follow instructions. Concordance is the process by which a patient and clinician make decisions together about treatment. Differences in terminology reflect regional variation, deliberate distinctions, and the preferences of various groups and organizations. Both patient and health-care provider affect adherence, and a positive physician-patient relationship is the most important factor in improving compliance. Access to care plays a role in patient adherence, whereby greater wait times to access care contributing to greater absenteeism. The cost of prescription medication and potential side effects also play a role. Worldwide, non-compliance is a major obstacle to the effective delivery of health care. 2003 estimates from the World Health Organization indicated that only about 50% of patients with chronic diseases living in developed countries follow treatment recommendations with particularly low rates


id: adherence-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Adherence (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:48.247796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adherence-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Literacy === In 1999 one fifth of UK adults, nearly seven million people, had problems with basic skills, especially functional literacy and functional numeracy, described as: "The ability to read, write and speak in English, and to use mathematics at a level necessary to function at work and in society in general." This made it impossible for them to effectively take medication, read labels, follow drug regimes, and find out more. In 2003, 20% of adults in the UK had a long-standing illness or disability and a national study for the UK Department of Health, found more than one-third of people with poor or very poor health had literary skills of Entry Level 3 or below. A study of the relationship of literacy to asthma knowledge revealed that only 31% of asthma patients with a reading level of a ten-year-old knew they needed to see the doctors, even when they were not having an asthma attack, compared to 90% with a high school graduate reading level. === Treatment cost === In 2013 the US National Community Pharmacists Association sampled for one month 1,020 Americans above age 40 for with an ongoing prescription to take medication for a chronic condition


id: adherence-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)-2.md
category: reference
title: Adherence (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:48.247796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adherence-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
==== Medication Possession Ratio ==== Prescription medical claims records can be used to estimate medication adherence based on fill rate. Patients can be routinely defined as being 'Adherent Patients' if the amount of medication furnished is at least 80% based on days' supply of medication divided by the number of days patient should be consuming the medication. This percentage is called the medication possession ratio (MPR). 2013 work has suggested that a medication possession ratio of 90% or above may be a better threshold for deeming consumption as 'Adherent'. Two forms of MPR can be calculated, fixed and variable. Calculating either is relatively straightforward, for Variable MPR (VMPR) it is calculated as the number of days' supply divided by the number of elapsed days including the last prescription. V M P R = All days' supply Elapsed days (inclusive of last prescription) {\displaystyle VMPR={\dfrac {\text{All days' supply}}{\text{Elapsed days (inclusive of last prescription)}}}} For the Fixed MPR (FMPR) the calculation is similar but the denominator is the number of days in a year whilst the numerator is constrained to be the number of days' supply within the year that the patient has been prescribed. F M P R = All days'


id: adherence-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)-3.md
category: reference
title: Adherence (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:48.247796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adherence-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technology === In 2012 it was predicted that as telemedicine technology improves, physicians will have better capabilities to remotely monitor patients in real-time and to communicate recommendations and medication adjustments using personal mobile devices, such as smartphones, rather than waiting until the next office visit. Medication Event Monitoring Systems (MEMS), as in the form of smart medicine bottle tops, smart pharmacy vials or smart blister packages as used in clinical trials and other applications where exact compliance data are required, work without any patient input, and record the time and date the bottle or vial was accessed, or the medication removed from a blister package. The data can be read via proprietary readers, or NFC enabled devices, such as smartphones or tablets. A 2009 study stated that such devices can help improve adherence. More recently a 2016 scoping review suggested that in comparison to MEMS, median mediction adherence was grossly overestimated by 17% using self-report, by 8% using pill count and by 6% using rating as alternative methods for measuring medication adherence. The effectiveness of two-way email communication between health care professionals and their patients has not been adequately assessed. ==== Mobile phones ==== As of 2019, 5.15 billion


id: adherence-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)-4.md
category: reference
title: Adherence (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:48.247796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adherence-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Diabetes non-compliance is 98% in US and the principal cause of complications related to diabetes including nerve damage and kidney failure. Among patients with Type 2 Diabetes, adherence was found in less than one third of those prescribed sulphonylureas and/or metformin. Patients taking both drugs achieve only 13% adherence. Other aspects that drive medicine adherence rates is the idea of perceived self-efficacy and risk assessment in managing diabetes symptoms and decision making surrounding rigorous medication regiments. Perceived control and self-efficacy not only significantly correlate with each other, but also with diabetes distress psychological symptoms and have been directly related to better medication adherence outcomes. Various external factors also impact diabetic patients' self-management behaviors including health-related knowledge/beliefs, problem-solving skills, and self-regulatory skills, which all impact perceived control over diabetic symptoms. Additionally, it is crucial to understand the decision-making processes that drive diabetics in their choices surrounding risks of not adhering to their medication. While patient decision aids (PtDAs), sets of tools used to help individuals engage with their clinicians in making decisions about their healthcare options, have been useful in decreasing decisional conflict, improving transfer of diabetes treatment knowledge, and achieving greater risk perception for disease complications, their efficacy in medication


id: adhesion-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesion_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Adhesion (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesion_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:49.521012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adhesion-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Adhesions are fibrous bands that form between tissues and organs, often as a result of irritation of internal surfaces during surgery, infections or trauma. They may be thought of as internal scar tissue that connects tissues not normally connected. == Pathophysiology == Adhesions form as a natural part of the body's healing process after surgery in a similar way that a scar forms. The term "adhesion" is applied when the scar extends from within one tissue across to another, usually across a virtual space such as the peritoneal cavity. Adhesion formation post-surgery typically occurs when two injured surfaces are close to one another. According to the "classical paradigm" of adhesion formation, the pathogenesis starts with inflammation and activation of the coagulation system which causes fibrin deposits onto the damaged tissues. The fibrin then connects the two adjacent structures where damage of the tissues occurred. The fibrin acts like a glue to seal the injury and builds the fledgling adhesion, said at this point to be "fibrinous." In body cavities such as the peritoneal, pericardial, and synovial cavities, a family of fibrinolytic enzymes may act to limit the extent of the initial fibrinous adhesion, and may even dissolve it. In many


id: adhesion-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesion_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Adhesion (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesion_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:49.521012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adhesion-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Abdominal surgery === A study showed that more than 90% of people develop adhesions following open abdominal surgery and that 55–100% of women develop adhesions following pelvic surgery. Adhesions from prior abdominal or pelvic surgery may obscure visibility and access at subsequent abdominal or pelvic surgery. In a very large study (29,790 participants) published in British medical journal The Lancet, 35% of patients who underwent open abdominal or pelvic surgery were readmitted to the hospital an average of two times after their surgery, due to adhesion-related or adhesion-suspected complications. Over 22% of all readmissions occurred in the first year after the initial surgery. Adhesion-related complexity at reoperation adds significant risk to subsequent surgical procedures. Certain organs and structures in the body are more prone to adhesion formation than others. The omentum is particularly susceptible to adhesion formation; one study found that 92% of post-operative adhesions were found in the omentum. It appears that the omentum is the chief organ responsible for "spontaneous" adhesion formation (i.e. no prior history of surgery). In another study, 100% of spontaneous adhesion formations were associated with the omentum. One method to reduce the formation of adhesions following abdominal surgery is hydroflotation, in which the


id: admission-note-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission_note-0.md
category: reference
title: Admission note
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission_note
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:50.831652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: admission-note-20260505-0
summary:
An admission note is part of a medical record that documents the patient's status (including history and physical examination findings), reasons why the patient is being admitted for inpatient care to a hospital or other facility, and the initial instructions for that patient's care. == Purpose == Admission notes document the reasons why a patient is being admitted for inpatient care to a hospital or other facility, the patient's baseline status, and the initial instructions for that patient's care. Health care professionals use them to record a patient's baseline status and may write additional on-service notes, progress notes (SOAP notes), preoperative notes, operative notes, postoperative notes, procedure notes, delivery notes, postpartum notes, and discharge notes. These notes constitute a large part of the medical record. Medical students often develop their clinical reasoning skills by writing admission notes. The traditional, rational definition of being admitted usually involves spending an overnight in the hospital. This definition is sometimes stretched in the U.S. medical billing industry, where hospital corporations may blur the definitions of "admission" and "observation" because of reimbursement rules under which healthcare payors pay less for the care if an "admission" was involved. == Components == An admission note may sometimes


id: adrenergic-storm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_storm-0.md
category: reference
title: Adrenergic storm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_storm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:52.151132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adrenergic-storm-20260505-0
summary:
An adrenergic storm is a sudden and dramatic increase in serum levels of the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline (also known as epinephrine and norepinephrine respectively), with a less significant increase in dopamine transmission. It is a life-threatening condition because of extreme tachycardia and hypertension, and is especially dire for those with prior heart problems. If treatment is prompt, prognosis is good; typically large amounts of diazepam or other benzodiazepines are administered alongside beta blockers. Beta blockers are contraindicated in some patients, so other antihypertensive medication such as clonidine may be used. Antipsychotics are also used to treat the most severe psychiatric reactions such as psychosis, paranoia or terror, after their use was formerly discouraged because of their potential to prolong the QT interval; however, more recent research performed since 2019 has revealed that this and other severe side effects are rare and their occurrence does not warrant banning antipsychotics from the treatment of adrenergic crises for which they can be extremely useful. Adrenergic storms are usually caused by overdoses of stimulants, especially cocaine or methamphetamine, or eating foods high in tyramine while taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors. A subarachnoid hemorrhage can also cause an adrenergic storm. A catecholamine storm is part


id: adrenergic-storm-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_storm-1.md
category: reference
title: Adrenergic storm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_storm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:52.151132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adrenergic-storm-20260505-0
summary:
=== Differential diagnosis === Because the adrenergic storm overlaps with so many other similar conditions, such as hypertensive crises, stimulant intoxication or overdose, or even panic attack, and because the treatments for these overlapping conditions are largely alike, it is not necessary to obtain a differential and definitive diagnosis before initiating treatment. However, analysis of the patient's medical history, checked against the possible causes of the adrenergic storm such as those above, should be done, because some adrenergic storms can be caused by serious underlying conditions. If a patient has an adrenergic storm and all or most of the other factors are ruled out, the adrenergic storm could lead to the discovery of a pheochromocytoma, which can become malignant. However, not all cases of adrenergic storm have an identifiable cause. Serotonin syndrome, in which an excess of serotonin in the synapses causes a similar crisis of hypertension and mental confusion, could be confused with an adrenergic storm. Serotonin, being a tryptamine (non-catecholamine) involved in higher brain functions, can cause dangerous hypertension and tachycardia from its effects on the sympathetic nervous system. Symptoms caused by excessive adrenergic signalling can occur alongside those of serotonergic signalling. Abnormal echocardiograms or chest pain are


id: adverse-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Adverse effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:53.424672+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adverse-effect-20260505-0
summary:
An adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention, such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a "side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect. The term complication is similar to adverse effect, but the latter is typically used in pharmacological contexts, or when the negative effect is expected or common. If the negative effect results from an unsuitable or incorrect dosage or procedure, this is called a medical error and not an adverse effect. Adverse effects are sometimes referred to as "iatrogenic" because they are generated by a physician/treatment. Some adverse effects occur only when starting, increasing or discontinuing a treatment. Using a drug or other medical intervention which is contraindicated may increase the risk of adverse effects. Adverse effects may cause complications of a disease or procedure and negatively affect its prognosis. They may also lead to non-compliance with a treatment regimen. Adverse effects of medical treatment resulted in 142,000 deaths in 2013 up from 94,000 deaths in 1990 globally. The harmful outcome is usually indicated by some result such as morbidity, mortality, alteration in body weight, levels of enzymes, loss of function, or as


id: adverse-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Adverse effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:53.424672+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adverse-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== Limitations === In principle, medical professionals are required to report all adverse effects related to a specific form of therapy. In practice, it is at the discretion of the professional to determine whether a medical event is at all related to the therapy. As a result, routine adverse effects reporting often may not include long-term and subtle effects that may ultimately be attributed to a therapy. Part of the difficulty is identifying the source of a complaint. A headache in a patient taking medication for influenza may be caused by the underlying disease or may be an adverse effect of the treatment. In patients with end-stage cancer, death is a very likely outcome and whether the drug is the cause or a bystander is often difficult to discern. == By situation == === Medical procedures === Surgery may have a number of undesirable or harmful effects, such as infection, hemorrhage, inflammation, scarring, loss of function, or changes in local blood flow. They can be reversible or irreversible, and a compromise must be found by the physician and the patient between the beneficial or life-saving consequences of surgery versus its adverse effects. For example, a limb may be lost to


id: adverse-effect-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effect-2.md
category: reference
title: Adverse effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:53.424672+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adverse-effect-20260505-0
summary:
==== Examples with specific medications ==== Abortion, miscarriage or uterine hemorrhage associated with misoprostol (Cytotec), a labor-inducing drug (this is a case where the adverse effect has been used legally and illegally for performing abortions) Addiction to many sedatives and analgesics, such as diazepam, morphine, etc. Birth defects associated with thalidomide Bleeding of the intestine associated with aspirin therapy Cardiovascular disease associated with COX-2 inhibitors (i.e. Vioxx) Deafness and kidney failure associated with gentamicin (an antibiotic) Death, following sedation, in children using propofol (Diprivan) Depression or hepatic injury caused by interferon Diabetes caused by atypical antipsychotic medications (neuroleptic psychiatric drugs) Diarrhea caused by the use of orlistat (Xenical) Erectile dysfunction associated with many drugs, such as antidepressants Fever associated with vaccination Glaucoma associated with corticosteroid-based eye drops Hair loss and anemia may be caused by chemotherapy against cancer, leukemia, etc. Headache following spinal anaesthesia Hypertension in ephedrine users, which prompted FDA to remove the dietary supplement status of ephedra extracts Insomnia caused by stimulants, methylphenidate (Ritalin), Adderall, etc. Lactic acidosis associated with the use of stavudine (Zerit, for HIV therapy) or metformin (for diabetes) Mania caused by corticosteroids Liver damage from paracetamol Melasma and thrombosis associated with use of estrogen-containing


id: adverse-outcome-pathway-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_outcome_pathway-0.md
category: reference
title: Adverse outcome pathway
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_outcome_pathway
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:55.006766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adverse-outcome-pathway-20260505-0
summary:
An adverse outcome pathway (AOP) is structured representation of biological events leading to adverse effects and is considered relevant to risk assessment. The AOP links in a linear way existing knowledge along one or more series of causally connected key events (KE) between two points — a molecular initiating event (MIE) and an adverse outcome (AO) that occur at a level of biological organization relevant to risk assessment. The linkage between the events is described by key event relationships (KER) that describe the causal relationships between the key events. AOPs are important for expanding the use of mechanistic toxicological data for risk assessment and regulatory applications with recent applications in further disciplines such as climate science. == Background == In 2012, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) launched a new programme on the development of adverse outcome pathways. A guidance document describes in detail how AOPs are to be developed, reviewed, agreed and published at the OECD level. The AOP development and reviewing workflow is intended to take place via a web-based IT management tool: the Adverse Outcome Pathway Knowledge Base (AOP-KB) which is currently still under development. It is the wiki-based, user-friendly tool providing open-source interface for


id: age-of-onset-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_onset-0.md
category: reference
title: Age of onset
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_onset
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:56.198547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: age-of-onset-20260505-0
summary:
The age of onset is the age at which an individual acquires, develops, or first experiences a condition or symptoms of a disease or disorder. For instance, the general age of onset for the spinal disease scoliosis is "10-15 years old," meaning that most people develop scoliosis when they are of age between ten and fifteen years. Diseases are often categorized by their age of onset as congenital, infantile, juvenile, or adult. Missed or delayed diagnosis often occurs if a disease that is typically diagnosed in juveniles (such as asthma) is present in adults, and vice versa (such as arthritis). Depending on the disease, ages of onset may impact features such as phenotype, as is the case in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. For example, the phenotype for juvenile Huntington's disease clearly differs from adult-onset Huntington's disease and late-onset Parkinson's exhibits more severe motor and non-motor phenotypes. == Causes == Germ-line mutations are often at least in part the cause of disease onset at an earlier age. Though many germ-line mutations are deleterious, the genetic lens through which they may be viewed may provide insights to treatment, possibly through genetic counseling. In some cases, the age of onset may be the


id: agenesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Agenesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:57.418271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agenesis-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, agenesis () refers to the failure of an organ to develop during embryonic growth and development due to the absence of primordial tissue. Many forms of agenesis are referred to by individual names, depending on the organ affected: Agenesis of the corpus callosum - failure in the development of the band of fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres Renal agenesis - failure of one or both of the kidneys to develop Amelia - failure of the arms or legs to develop Penile agenesis - failure of penis to develop Müllerian agenesis - failure of the uterus and part of the vagina to develop Agenesis of the gallbladder - failure of the Gallbladder to develop. A person may not realize they have this condition unless they undergo surgery or medical imaging, since the gallbladder is neither externally visible nor essential. == Eye agenesis == Eye agenesis is a medical condition in which people are born with no eyes. == Dental & oral agenesis == Anodontia, absence of all primary or permanent teeth. Aglossia, absence of the tongue. Agnathia, absence of the jaw. Wisdom tooth agenesis - most adult humans have three molars (on each upper/lower left/right side), with the third


id: agnosia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosia-0.md
category: reference
title: Agnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:58.633985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agnosia-20260505-0
summary:
Agnosia is a neurological disorder characterized by an inability to process sensory information. Often there is a loss of ability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells while the specific sense is neither defective nor is there any significant memory loss. It is usually associated with brain injury or neurological illness, particularly after damage to the occipitotemporal border, which is part of the ventral stream. Agnosia affects only a single modality, such as vision or hearing. More recently, a top-down interruption is considered to cause the disturbance of handling perceptual information. == Types == === Visual agnosia === Visual agnosia is a broad category that refers to a deficiency in the ability to recognize visual objects. Visual agnosia can be further subdivided into two different subtypes: apperceptive visual agnosia and associative visual agnosia. Individuals with apperceptive visual agnosia display the ability to see contours and outlines when shown an object, but they experience difficulty if asked to categorize objects. Apperceptive visual agnosia is associated with damage to one hemisphere, specifically damage to the posterior sections of the right hemisphere. In contrast, individuals with associative visual agnosia experience difficulty when asked to name objects. Associative agnosia is associated with damage


id: agnosia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosia-1.md
category: reference
title: Agnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:58.633985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agnosia-20260505-0
summary:
== Treatment == For all practical purposes, there is no direct cure. Patients may improve if information is presented in other modalities than the damaged one. Different types of therapies can help to reverse the effects of agnosia. In some cases, occupational therapy or speech therapy can improve agnosia, depending on its cause. Initially many individuals with a form of agnosia are unaware of the extent to which they have either a perceptual or recognition deficit. This may be caused by anosognosia, which is the lack of awareness of a deficit. This lack of awareness usually leads to a form of denial and resistance to any form of help or treatment. There are various methods that can be used which can help the individual recognize the impairment in perception or recognition that they may have. A patient can be presented with a stimulus to the impaired modality only to help increase their awareness of their deficit. Alternatively, a task can be broken down into its component parts so that the individual can see each part of the problem caused by the deficit. Once the individual acknowledges their perceptual or recognition deficit, a form of treatment may be recommended. There are


id: agonist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agonist-0.md
category: reference
title: Agonist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agonist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:25:59.888594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agonist-20260505-0
summary:
An agonist is a chemical that activates a receptor to produce a biological response. Receptors are cellular proteins whose activation causes the cell to modify what it is currently doing. In contrast, an antagonist blocks the action of the agonist, while an inverse agonist causes an action opposite to that of the agonist. == Etymology == The word originates from the Greek word ἀγωνιστής (agōnistēs), "contestant; champion; rival" < ἀγών (agōn), "contest, combat; exertion, struggle" < ἄγω (agō), "I lead, lead towards, conduct; drive." == Types of agonists == Receptors can be activated by either endogenous agonists (such as hormones and neurotransmitters) or exogenous agonists (such as drugs), resulting in a biological response. A physiological agonist is a substance that creates the same bodily responses but does not bind to the same receptor. An endogenous agonist for a particular receptor is a compound naturally produced by the body that binds to and activates that receptor. For example, the endogenous agonist for serotonin receptors is serotonin, and the endogenous agonist for dopamine receptors is dopamine. Full agonists bind to and activate a receptor with the maximum response that an agonist can elicit at the receptor. One example of a drug that


id: allopathic-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopathic_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Allopathic medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopathic_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:01.122654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allopathic-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Allopathic medicine, or allopathy, from Ancient Greek ἄλλος (állos), meaning "other", and πάθος (páthos), meaning "pain", is a label originally used derogatorily by 19th-century homeopaths to describe heroic medicine. In its current usage, the term generally refers to contemporary conventional medicine. However, there are regional variations in usage of the term. For example, in the United States the term is primarily used in contrast with osteopathic medicine, especially in the field of medical education; whereas in India the term is used to distinguish modern medicine from Siddha medicine, Ayurveda, homeopathy, Unani and other alternative and traditional medicine traditions, especially when comparing treatments and drugs. The terms were coined in 1810 by the creator of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann. Heroic medicine was the conventional European medicine of the time and did not rely on evidence of effectiveness. It was based on the belief that disease is caused by an imbalance of the four "humours" (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) and sought to treat disease symptoms by correcting that imbalance, using "harsh and abusive" methods to induce symptoms seen as opposite to those of diseases rather than treating their underlying causes: disease was caused by an excess of one humour and


id: allopathic-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopathic_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Allopathic medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopathic_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:01.122654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allopathic-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
James Whorton discusses this historical pejorative usage: One form of verbal warfare used in retaliation by irregulars was the word "allopathy". ..."Allopathy" and "allopathic" were liberally employed as pejoratives by all irregular physicians of the nineteenth century, and the terms were considered highly offensive by those at whom they were directed. The generally uncomplaining acceptance of [the term] "allopathic medicine" by today's physicians is an indication of both a lack of awareness of the term's historical use and the recent thawing of relations between irregulars and allopaths. The controversy surrounding the term can be traced to its original usage during a heated 19th-century debate between practitioners of homeopathy and those they derisively referred to as "allopaths." Hahnemann used "allopathy" to refer to what he saw as a system of medicine that combats disease by using remedies that produce effects in a healthy subject that are different (hence the Greek root allo- "different") from the effects produced by the disease to be treated. The distinction comes from the use in homeopathy of substances that are meant to cause similar effects as the symptoms of a disease to treat patients (homeo - meaning "similar"). As used by homeopaths, the term allopathy has


id: allow-natural-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allow_natural_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Allow natural death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allow_natural_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:02.316918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allow-natural-death-20260505-0
summary:
Allow Natural Death (AND) is a medical term defining the use of life-extending measures such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). These orders emphasize patient comfort and pain management instead of life extension. Currently, American medical communities utilize "do not resuscitate," (DNR) orders to define patients' medical wishes. Those who propose to replace DNR with AND posit that DNR orders are ambiguous and require complex understanding between several parties, while AND orders are clearer. Proponents of replacing DNR with AND believe that AND terminology is more ethically conscientious DNR terminology. Research has been conducted regarding participant preference for AND vs. DNR terminology. The ease with which the terminology change can be practically incorporated depends on many factors such as costs and staff reeducation. == DNR vs. AND == DNR orders range in the extent of life-saving measures to be avoided, from solely prohibiting the use of resuscitation to prohibiting any action seen as life extending. Because there are many parties involved in a patient's end of life care - significant others, family, personal doctors, specialists and nurses - DNR orders are not always completely clear, leaving open possible violation of the patient's wishes. DNR terminology was replaced in 2005 by the American


id: allow-natural-death-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allow_natural_death-1.md
category: reference
title: Allow natural death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allow_natural_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:02.316918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allow-natural-death-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Fan, S.-Y., Wang, Y.-W., & Lin, I.-M. (2018). Allow natural death versus do-not-resuscitate: Titles, information contents, outcomes, and the considerations related to do-not-resuscitate decision. BMC Palliative Care, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12904-018-0367-4. This is a peer-reviewed scientific journal, so it should be a reliable source. It covers the topic in some depth, so it's helpful in establishing notability. Miljković, M. D., Emuron, D., Rhodes, L., Abraham, J., & Miller, K. (2015). "allow natural death" versus "do not resuscitate": What do patients with advanced cancer choose? Journal of Palliative Medicine, 18(5), 457–460. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2014.0369. This is a peer-reviewed scientific journal, so it should be a reliable source. It covers the topic in some depth, so it's helpful in establishing notability. Wittmann-Price, Ruth; Celia, Linda M. (Nov–Dec 2010). "Exploring perceptions of "do not resuscitate" and "allowing natural death" among physicians and nurses". Holistic Nursing Practice. 24 (6): 333–337. This is a peer-reviewed scientific journal, so it should be a reliable source. It is an observational study that was used to understand the differences in perception of the terms "allow natural death" and "do not resuscitate." Akdeniz, Melahat; Yardımcı, Bülent; Kavukcu, Ethem (2021). "Ethical considerations at the end-of-life care". SAGE open medicine. 9: 20503121211000918.


id: ambulatory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulatory-0.md
category: reference
title: Ambulatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:03.561509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ambulatory-20260505-0
summary:
The ambulatory (Latin: ambulatorium 'walking place') is the covered passage around a cloister or the processional way around the east end of a cathedral or large church and behind the high altar. The first ambulatory was in France in the 11th century but by the 13th century ambulatories had been introduced in England and many English cathedrals were extended to provide an ambulatory. The same feature is often found in Indian architecture and Buddhist architecture generally, especially in older periods. Ritual circumambulation or parikrama around a stupa or cult image is important in Buddhism and Hinduism. Often the whole building was circumambulated, often many times. The Buddhist chaitya hall always allowed a path for this, and the Durga temple, Aihole (7th or 8th century) is a famous Hindu example. The term is also used to describe a garden feature in the grounds of a country house. A typical example is the one shown, which stands in the grounds of Horton Court in Gloucestershire, England. == Medical term == Ambulatory is also an adjective used to describe patients who can walk despite their illness or injury. outpatients generally including those needing a wheelchair. medical staff providing outpatient care (see Ambulatory care


id: anatomical-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:04.798609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Anatomical terminology is a specialized system of terms used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals, such as doctors, surgeons, and pharmacists, to describe the structures and functions of the body. This terminology incorporates a range of unique terms, prefixes, and suffixes derived primarily from Ancient Greek and Latin. While these terms can be challenging for those unfamiliar with them, they provide a level of precision that reduces ambiguity and minimizes the risk of errors. Because anatomical terminology is not commonly used in everyday language, its meanings are less likely to evolve or be misinterpreted. For example, everyday language can lead to confusion in descriptions: the phrase "a scar above the wrist" could refer to a location several inches away from the hand, possibly on the forearm, or it could be at the base of the hand, either on the palm or dorsal (back) side. By using precise anatomical terms, such as "proximal," "distal," "palmar," or "dorsal," this ambiguity is eliminated, ensuring clear communication. To standardize this system of terminology, Terminologia Anatomica was established as an international reference for anatomical terms. == Word formation == Anatomical terminology follows a regular morphology, with consistent prefixes and suffixes used to modify different roots.


id: anatomical-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:04.798609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Regions === In terms of anatomy, anatomical lines are theoretical lines used to divide the body into regions, such as the nine regions of the abdomen. Axillary lines provide reference points for the underarm region In the front, the trunk is referred to as the "thorax" and "abdomen". The back as a general area is the dorsum or dorsal area, and the lower back is the lumbus or lumbar region. The shoulder blades are the scapular area and the breastbone is the sternal region. The abdominal region is the area between the chest and the pelvis. The breast is also called the mammary region, the armpit as the axilla and axillary, and the navel as the umbilicus and umbilical. The pelvis is the lower torso, between the abdomen and the thighs. The groin, where the thigh joins the trunk, are the inguen and inguinal area. The entire arm is referred to as the brachium and brachial, the front of the elbow as the antecubitis and antecubital, the back of the elbow as the olecranon or olecranal, the forearm as the antebrachium and antebrachial, the wrist as the carpus and carpal area, the hand as the manus and manual, the


id: anatomical-terminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminology-2.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:04.798609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Anterior and posterior, which describe structures at the front (anterior) and back (posterior) of the body. For example, the toes are anterior to the heel, and the popliteus is posterior to the patella. Superior and inferior, which describe a position above (superior) or below (inferior) another part of the body. For example, the orbits are superior to the oris, and the pelvis is inferior to the abdomen. Proximal and distal, which describe a position that is closer to (proximal) or farther from (distal) the trunk of the body. For example, the shoulder is proximal to the arm, and the foot is distal to the knee. Superficial and deep, which describe structures that are closer to (superficial) or farther from (deep) the surface of the body. For example, the skin is superficial to the bones, and the brain is deep to the skull. Sometimes profound is used synonymously with deep. Medial and lateral, which describe a position that is closer to (medial) or farther from (lateral) the midline of the body. For example, the shoulders are lateral to the heart, and the umbilicus is medial to the hips. The medial side of the left knee is the side toward the opposite


id: anatomical-terminology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminology-3.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:04.798609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Flexion and extension, which refer to a movement that decreases (flexion) or increases (extension) the angle between body parts. For example, when standing up, the knees are extended. Abduction and adduction refers to a motion that pulls a structure away from (abduction) or towards (adduction) the midline of the body or limb. For example, a star jump requires the legs to be abducted. Internal rotation (or medial rotation) and external rotation (or lateral rotation) refers to rotation towards (internal) or away from (external) the center of the body. For example, the lotus position posture in yoga requires the legs to be externally rotated. Elevation and depression refer to movement in a superior (elevation) or inferior (depression) direction. Primarily refers to movements involving the scapula and mandible. === Special motions of the hands and feet === These terms refer to movements that are regarded as unique to the hands and feet: Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion refers to flexion (dorsiflexion) or extension (plantarflexion) of the foot at the ankle. For example, plantarflexion occurs when pressing the brake pedal of a car. Palmarflexion and dorsiflexion refer to movement of the flexion (palmarflexion) or extension (dorsiflexion) of the hand at the wrist. For example, prayer


id: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of location
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:06.044970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-0
summary:
Standard anatomical terms of location are used to describe unambiguously the anatomy of humans and other animals. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position provides a definition of what is at the front ("anterior"), behind ("posterior") and so on. As part of defining and describing terms, the body is described through the use of anatomical planes and axes. The meaning of terms that are used can change depending on whether a vertebrate is a biped or a quadruped, due to the difference in the neuraxis, or if an invertebrate is a non-bilaterian. A non-bilaterian has no anterior or posterior surface for example but can still have a descriptor used such as proximal or distal in relation to a body part that is nearest to, or furthest from its middle. International organisations have determined vocabularies that are often used as standards for subdisciplines of anatomy. For example, Terminologia Anatomica, Terminologia Neuroanatomica, and Terminologia Embryologica for humans and Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria for animals. These allow parties that use anatomical terms, such as anatomists, veterinarians, and medical doctors, to have a standard set of terms to communicate clearly the position of a


id: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location-1.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of location
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:06.044970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dorsal and ventral === These two terms, used in veterinary anatomy, are also used in human anatomy mostly in neuroanatomy, and embryology, to describe something at the back (dorsal, posterior) or front (ventral, anterior) of an organ, or organism. The dorsal (from Latin dorsum 'back') surface, (also dorsum) of an organism or organ, refers to the back, or upper side, such as in the human, the dorsum of the tongue, the dorsum of the hand, and the dorsum of the foot. If talking about the skull, the dorsal side is the top. The ventral (from Latin venter 'belly') surface refers to the front, or lower side, of an organism, or organ such as the undersurface of the tongue. In a fish, the dorsal fin is on the upper surface and its ventral fins (pelvic fins) are on the belly or undersurface. The terms are used in other contexts, for example in dorsal and ventral gun turrets on a bomber aircraft. === Medial and lateral === These terms describe how close something is to the median plane. Lateral (from Latin lateralis 'to the side') describes something to the sides of an animal, as in "left lateral" and "right lateral". Medial


id: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location-2.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of location
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:06.044970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-0
summary:
=== Superficial and deep === These terms refer to the distance of a structure from the surface. Deep (from Old English) describes something further away from the surface of the organism. For example, the external oblique muscle of the abdomen is deep to the skin. "Deep" is one of the few anatomical terms of location derived from Old English rather than Latin – the anglicised Latin term would have been "profound" (from Latin profundus 'due to depth'). Superficial (from Latin superficies 'surface') describes something near the outer surface of the organism. For example, in skin, the epidermis is superficial to the subcutis. === Combined terms === Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body. For example, anterolateral indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis (such as the bulk of the pectoralis major muscle), or to a named organ such as the anterolateral tibial tubercle. The term can also describe the direction and location of something that enters or courses through the body such as the anterolateral system in the spinal cord, and the anterolateral central


id: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location-3.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of location
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:06.044970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-0
summary:
Special terms are used to describe the mouth and teeth. Fields such as osteology, paleontology and dentistry apply special terms of location to describe the mouth and teeth. This is because although teeth may be aligned with their main axes within the jaw, some different relationships require special terminology as well; for example, teeth also can be rotated, and in such contexts terms like "anterior" or "lateral" become ambiguous. For example, the terms "distal" and "proximal" (or "mesial") are used for surfaces of individual teeth relative to the midpoint of the dental arch, and "medial" and "lateral" are used in the standard sense relative to the median plane. Terms used to describe structures include "buccal" (from Latin bucca 'cheek') and "palatal" (from Latin palatum 'palate') referring to structures close to the cheek and hard palate respectively. === Hands and feet === Several anatomical terms are particular to the hands and feet. Additional terms may be used to avoid confusion when describing the surfaces of the hand and what is the "anterior" or "posterior" surface. The term "anterior", while anatomically correct, can be confusing when describing the palm of the hand; Similarly is "posterior", used to describe the back of the


id: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location-4.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of location
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:06.044970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-location-20260505-0
summary:
== Other animals == Different terms are used because of different body plans in animals, whether animals stand on two or four legs, and whether an animal is symmetrical or asymmetrical. For example, as humans are bilaterally symmetrical, anatomical descriptions usually use the same terms as those for other vertebrates. However, the standard human anatomical position means that their anterior/posterior and ventral/dorsal directions are the same, so the inferior/superior directions are used due to longstanding tradition instead of cranial/caudal, which apply regardless of position, as in other species. The term "rostral" used to refer to the beak or nose in some animals is used less frequently in humans, with the exception of parts of the brain; while humans do not have a visible tail (the coccygeal vertebrae are present and commonly called the "tailbone") the term "caudal" that refers to the tail-end is also sometimes used in humans and animals without tails to refer to the hind part of the body. Flounder and other flatfish which lie on the seabed on their left or right side are asymmetric, with both eyes on the 'up' side, making anatomical nomenclature a challenge. Invertebrates have a large variety of body shapes that can


id: anginal-equivalent-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anginal_equivalent-0.md
category: reference
title: Anginal equivalent
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anginal_equivalent
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:07.251155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anginal-equivalent-20260505-0
summary:
An anginal equivalent is a symptom such as shortness of breath (dyspnea), diaphoresis (sweating), extreme fatigue, or pain at a site other than the chest, occurring in a patient at high cardiac risk. Anginal equivalents are considered to be symptoms of myocardial ischemia. Anginal equivalents are considered to have the same importance as angina pectoris in patients presenting with elevation of cardiac enzymes or certain EKG changes which are diagnostic of myocardial ischemia. == References ==


id: anisomastia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisomastia-0.md
category: reference
title: Anisomastia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisomastia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:08.506878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anisomastia-20260505-0
summary:
Anisomastia is a medical condition in which there is a severe asymmetry or unequalness in the size of the breasts, generally related to a difference in volume. In other words, when one of the breasts is much larger than the other. In contrast to anisomastia, a slight asymmetry of the breasts is common. Anisomastia may be corrected by surgical breast augmentation or reduction. == See also == Micromastia Breast hypertrophy == References == == External links ==


id: anophthalmia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anophthalmia-0.md
category: reference
title: Anophthalmia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anophthalmia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:09.740164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anophthalmia-20260505-0
summary:
Anophthalmia (Greek: ἀνόφθαλμος, "without eye") is the medical term for the absence of one or both eyes. Both the globe and the ocular tissue are missing from the orbit. The absence of the eye will cause a small bony orbit, a constricted mucosal socket, short eyelids, reduced palpebral fissure and malar prominence. Genetic mutations, chromosomal abnormalities, and prenatal environment can all cause anophthalmia. Anophthalmia is an extremely rare disease and is mostly rooted in genetic abnormalities. It can also be associated with other syndromes. == Classifications == There are three classifications for this condition: Primary anophthalmia is a complete absence of eye tissue due to a failure of the part of the brain that forms the eye. Secondary anophthalmia the eye starts to develop and for some reason stops, leaving the infant with only residual eye tissue or extremely small eyes which can only be seen under close examination. Degenerative anophthalmia the eye started to form and, for some reason, degenerated. One reason for this occurring could be a lack of blood supply to the eye. == Associations == There are a few conditions that are associated with anophthalmia. These include: Trisomy 13 Lenz syndrome Goldenhar-Gorlin syndrome Waardenburg syndrome Aside


id: anophthalmia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anophthalmia-1.md
category: reference
title: Anophthalmia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anophthalmia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:09.740164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anophthalmia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prosthetic eye === Currently, there is not a treatment option for regaining vision by developing a new eye. There are, however, cosmetic options so the absence of the eye is not as noticeable. Typically, the child will need to go to an ocularist to have conformers fitted into the eye. Conformers are made of clear plastic and are fitted into the socket to promote socket growth and expansion. As the child's face grows and develops, the conformer will need to be changed. An expander may also be needed in anophthalmia to expand the socket that is present. The conformer is changed every few weeks the first two years of life. After that, a painted prosthetic eye can be fitted for the child's socket. The prosthetic eye can be cleaned with mild baby soap and water. Rubbing alcohol should be avoided because it may damage the prosthetic eye. Children need to be checked regularly to ensure the fit and size is appropriate. A Cochrane Review published in 2016 asked whether the type of material used to make the prosthetic eye affects the success of the operation. Prosthetic eyes can be made from two types of material; porous or non-porous material.


id: aplasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Aplasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:11.073294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aplasia-20260505-0
summary:
Aplasia ( ; from Greek a, "not", "no" + plasis, "formation") is a birth defect where an organ or tissue is wholly or largely absent. It is caused by a defect in a developmental process. Aplastic anemia is the failure of the body to produce blood cells. It may occur at any time, and has multiple causes. == Types == === Pure red cell aplasia === Pure red cell aplasia (PRCA) is caused by the selective destruction or inhibition of erythroid progenitor or precursor cells. It is characterized by anemia and reticulocytopenia and can be chronic or acute. Diamond–Blackfan anemia is a type of PRCA that occurs at birth. PRCA can be acquired as a primary disorder or as a result of another disorder. Immunosuppressive drugs, particularly corticosteroids, will usually result in a temporary or permanent remission. The final outcome is primarily determined by the underlying disorder. === Aplasia cutis congenita === Aplasia cutis congenita is a condition in which some or large portions of the skin is missing at birth. The disorder is most commonly seen on the scalp, often as a solitary lesion without other abnormalities. The condition may be caused by epidermolysis bullosa, specific teratogens, or intrauterine


id: arrested-development-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrested_development-0.md
category: reference
title: Arrested development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrested_development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:12.406155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arrested-development-20260505-0
summary:
The term "arrested development" has had multiple meanings for over 200 years. In the field of medicine, the term "arrested development" was first used, circa 1835–1836, to mean a stoppage of physical development; the term continues to be used in the same way. In contrast, the UK's Mental Health Act 1983 used the term "arrested development" to characterize a form of mental disorder comprising severe mental impairment, resulting in a lack of intelligence. However, some researchers have objected to the notion that mental development can be "arrested" or stopped, preferring to consider mental status as continuing to develop in other ways. Consequently, the term "arrested development" is no longer used when referring to a developmental disorder in mental health. In anthropology and archaeology, the term "arrested development" means that a plateau of development in some sphere has been reached. Often it is a technological plateau such as the development of high temperature ceramics without glaze because of a lack of materials, or copper smelting without the development of bronze, because of a lack of tin. Arrested development is key in the insight of self-domestication in the evolution of hominidae where it involves being in an environment that favors reduction in


id: assessment-and-plan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assessment_and_plan-0.md
category: reference
title: Assessment and plan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assessment_and_plan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:13.697908+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: assessment-and-plan-20260505-0
summary:
The assessment and plan (abbreviated A/P" or A&P) is a component of an admission note. Assessment includes a discussion of the differential diagnosis and supporting history and exam findings. The plan is typically broken out by problem or system. Each problem should include: brief summary of the problem, perhaps including what has been done thus far orders for medications, labs, studies, procedures and surgeries to address the problem. problems are commonly derived from chief complaint history of present illness review of systems (rarely; these should have been picked up and incorporated as new chief complaints during the interview) physical exam (rarely; these should have been picked up and incorporated as new chief complaints during the exam) social history, including counseling for smoking, alcohol, and illicit drug use family history medications may indicate problems that need to be addressed in the treatment of the other problems, such as dyslipidemia controlled with a statin. == References ==


id: asymptomatic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic-0.md
category: reference
title: Asymptomatic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:14.855425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asymptomatic-20260505-0
summary:
Asymptomatic (or clinically silent) is an adjective categorising the medical conditions (i.e., injuries or diseases) that patients carry but without experiencing their symptoms, despite an explicit diagnosis (e.g., a positive medical test). Pre-symptomatic is the adjective categorising the time periods during which the medical conditions are asymptomatic. Subclinical and paucisymptomatic are other adjectives categorising either the asymptomatic infections (i.e., subclinical infections), or the psychosomatic illnesses and mental disorders expressing a subset of symptoms but not the entire set an explicit medical diagnosis requires. == Examples == An example of an asymptomatic disease is cytomegalovirus (CMV) which is a member of the herpes virus family. "It is estimated that 1% of all newborns are infected with CMV, but the majority of infections are asymptomatic." (Knox, 1983; Kumar et al. 1984) In some diseases, the proportion of asymptomatic cases can be important. For example, in multiple sclerosis it is estimated that around 25% of the cases are asymptomatic, with these cases detected postmortem or just by coincidence (as incidental findings) while treating other diseases. == Importance == Knowing that a condition is asymptomatic is important because: It may be contagious, and the contribution of asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic infections to the transmission level


id: asymptomatic-carrier-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier-0.md
category: reference
title: Asymptomatic carrier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:16.115969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asymptomatic-carrier-20260505-0
summary:
An asymptomatic carrier is a person or other organism that has become infected with a pathogen, but shows no signs or symptoms. Although unaffected by the pathogen, carriers can transmit it to others or develop symptoms in later stages of the disease. Asymptomatic carriers play a critical role in the transmission of common infectious diseases such as typhoid, HIV, C. difficile, influenzas, cholera, tuberculosis, and COVID-19, although the latter is often associated with "robust T-cell immunity" in more than a quarter of patients studied. While the mechanism of disease-carrying is still unknown, researchers have made progress towards understanding how certain pathogens can remain dormant in a human for a period of time. A better understanding of asymptomatic disease carriers is crucial to the fields of medicine and public health as they work towards mitigating the spread of common infectious diseases. == Types of asymptomatic carriers == Asymptomatic carriers can be categorized by their current disease state. When an individual transmits pathogens immediately following infection but prior to developing symptoms, they are known as an incubatory carrier. Humans are also capable of spreading disease following a period of illness. Typically thinking themselves cured of the disease, these individuals are known as


id: asymptomatic-carrier-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier-1.md
category: reference
title: Asymptomatic carrier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:16.115969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asymptomatic-carrier-20260505-0
summary:
Mary Mallon, known as "Typhoid Mary", was an asymptomatic carrier of Salmonella enterica serovar typhi, the causative agent of typhoid fever. She was a cook for several families and soldiers in New York City during the late 1800s, and several cases of typhoid fever were traced to her by the Health Department. At the time, there was no way of eradicating the disease, and it was spread primarily through fecal-oral transmission. Most of Mary Mallon's transmission risk was thought to arise from her continued involvement in occupations involving food preparation and handling. New York City's public health officials initially sought to merely restrict her from such employment rather than permanently quarantining her. When she continued to be non-compliant, the Health Commission ordered that she be quarantined on one of the islands surrounding Manhattan. She remained there until her death. Despite appearing perfectly healthy, it is estimated that Mallon infected about 50 people before she was quarantined on North Brother Island. Scientists calculate that between 1% and 6% of individuals infected with Salmonella typhi become chronic, asymptomatic carriers like Mary. === HIV === HIV infection has a long period during which the person is asymptomatic. Although the host may not be


id: atresia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atresia-0.md
category: reference
title: Atresia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atresia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:18.542702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atresia-20260505-0
summary:
Atresia is a condition in which an orifice or passage in the body is (usually abnormally) closed or absent. == Types == === Anotia === Anotia is characterized by the complete absence of the ear and is extremely rare. This condition may affect one or both ears, though one missing ear is more common. Anotia is also linked to conductive hearing loss, a condition in which sound waves do not travel well through the ear and sound is not efficiently conducted from the outer ear canal to the eardrum. Anotia has no known cause. An associated syndrome, such as Treacher Collins or Goldenhar syndrome, may affect up to 40% of patients. Anotia is typically diagnosed through a physical examination at birth. Prenatal ultrasounds may help with early detection. Total ear reconstruction is the standard treatment for Anotia. === Biliary atresia === Biliary atresia (BA) is a rare disease marked by an unknown-origin biliary obstruction that manifests in the neonatal period. The classic clinical triad of Biliary atresia is acholic stools, and dark urine, jaundice, and hepatomegaly. The clinical manifestations are used to make the diagnosis, which is supported by liver ultrasonography, cholangiography, and a liver biopsy. The initial treatment is


id: atresia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atresia-1.md
category: reference
title: Atresia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atresia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:18.542702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atresia-20260505-0
summary:
Renal agenesis occurs when the ureteric bud doesn't fuse with the metanephric blastema during embryogenesis, leading to the nephron and, in some cases, the ureter being absent. Unilateral renal agenesis occurs in 1 in 1000 live births, in contrast bilateral renal agenesis occurs in 1 in 3000 to 4000 pregnancies. Unilateral renal agenesis has a very good prognosis, whereas bilateral renal agenesis has a high rate of perinatal mortality and morbidity due to the lack of amniotic fluid, resulting in lethal pulmonary hypoplasia. The diagnosis of renal agenesis is usually made during a midgestation anatomy ultrasound examination. A genetic syndrome or other anomalies are linked to approximately 30% of cases of renal agenesis. === Tricuspid atresia === Tricuspid atresia is a form of congenital heart disease whereby there is a complete absence of the tricuspid valve. Therefore, there is an absence of right atrioventricular connection. This leads to a hypoplastic (undersized) or absent right ventricle. This defect is contracted during prenatal development, when the heart does not finish developing. It causes the systemic circulation to be filled with relatively deoxygenated blood. The causes of tricuspid atresia are unknown. === Vaginal atresia === Vaginal atresia is a birth defect that causes


id: atypia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atypia-0.md
category: reference
title: Atypia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atypia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:19.731619+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atypia-20260505-0
summary:
Atypia (from Greek, a + typos, without type; a condition of being irregular or nonstandard) is a histopathologic term for a structural abnormality in a cell, i.e. it is used to describe atypical cells. Atypia can be caused by infection or irritation. If, for example it were diagnosed in a Pap smear in the uterus it is more likely to be precancerous. The related concept of dysplasia refers to an abnormality of development, and includes abnormalities on larger, histopathologic scales. == Example features == Features that constitute atypia have different definitions for different diseases, but often include the following nucleus abnormalities: Enlargement Pleomorphism Nuclear polychromasia, which means variability in nuclear chromatin content. Polychromasia otherwise refers to a disease of immature red blood cells. Numerous mitotic figures === Examples for Barrett's esophagus === In Barrett's esophagus, features that are classified as atypia but not as dysplasia are mainly: Nuclear stratification, wherein cell nuclei, which are normally located nearly at the same level between adjacent cells, are instead located at different levels. Crowding Hyperchromatism Prominent nucleoli == Prognosis == It may or may not be a precancerous indication associated with later malignancy, but the level of appropriate concern is highly dependent on


id: auditory-agnosia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia-0.md
category: reference
title: Auditory agnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:21.081452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditory-agnosia-20260505-0
summary:
Auditory agnosia is a form of agnosia that manifests itself primarily in the inability to recognize or differentiate between sounds. It is not a defect of the ear or "hearing", but rather a neurological inability of the brain to process sound meaning. While auditory agnosia impairs the understanding of sounds, other abilities such as reading, writing, and speaking are not hindered. It is caused by bilateral damage to the anterior superior temporal gyrus, which is part of the auditory pathway responsible for sound recognition, the auditory "what" pathway. Persons with auditory agnosia can physically hear the sounds and describe them using unrelated terms, but are unable to recognize them. They might describe the sound of some environmental sounds, such as a motor starting, as resembling a lion roaring, but would not be able to associate the sound with "car" or "engine", nor would they say that it was a lion creating the noise. All auditory agnosia patients read lips in order to enhance the speech comprehension. It is yet unclear whether auditory agnosia (also called general auditory agnosia) is a combination of milder disorders, such auditory verbal agnosia (pure word deafness), non-verbal auditory agnosia, amusia and word-meaning deafness, or a


id: auditory-agnosia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia-1.md
category: reference
title: Auditory agnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:21.081452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditory-agnosia-20260505-0
summary:
== History == A relationship between hearing and the brain was first documented by Ambroise Paré, a 16th century battlefield doctor, who associated parietal lobe damage with acquired deafness (reported in Henschen, 1918). Systematic research into the manner in which the brain processes sounds, however, only began toward the end of the 19th century. In 1874, Wernicke was the first to ascribe to a brain region a role in auditory perception. Wernicke proposed that the impaired perception of language in his patients was due to losing the ability to register sound frequencies that are specific to spoken words (he also suggested that other aphasic symptoms, such as speaking, reading and writing errors occur because these speech specific frequencies are required for feedback). Wernicke localized the perception of spoken words to the posterior half of the left STG (superior temporal gyrus). Wernicke also distinguished between patients with auditory agnosia (which he labels as receptive aphasia) with patients who cannot detect sound at any frequency (which he labels as cortical deafness). In 1877, Kussmaul was the first to report auditory agnosia in a patient with intact hearing, speaking, and reading-writing abilities. This case-study led Kussmaul to propose of distinction between the word


id: auditory-agnosia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia-2.md
category: reference
title: Auditory agnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:21.081452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditory-agnosia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cerebral deafness === Cerebral deafness (also known as cortical deafness or central deafness) is a disorder characterized by complete deafness that is the result of damage to the central nervous system. The primary distinction between auditory agnosia and cerebral deafness is the ability to detect pure tones, as measured with pure tone audiometry. Using this test, auditory agnosia patients were often reported capable of detecting pure tones almost as good as healthy individuals, whereas cerebral deafness patients found this task almost impossible or they required very loud presentations of sounds (above 100 dB). In all reported cases, cerebral deafness was associated with bilateral temporal lobe lesions. A study that compared the lesions of two cerebral deafness patients to an auditory agnosia patient concluded that cerebral deafness is the result of complete de-afferentation of the auditory cortices, whereas in auditory agnosia some thalamo-cortical fibers are spared. In most cases the disorder is transient and the symptoms mitigate into auditory agnosia (although chronic cases were reported). Similarly, a monkey study that ablated both auditory cortices of monkeys reported of deafness that lasted 1 week in all cases, and that was gradually mitigated into auditory agnosia in a period of 3–7 weeks.


id: auditory-agnosia-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia-3.md
category: reference
title: Auditory agnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:21.081452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditory-agnosia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Non-verbal auditory agnosia === The term auditory agnosia was originally coined by Sigmund Freud in 1891, to describe patients with selective impairment of environmental sounds. In a review of the auditory agnosia literature, Ulrich re-named this disorder as non-verbal auditory agnosia (although sound auditory agnosia and environmental sound auditory agnosia are also commonly used). This disorder is very rare and only 18 cases have been documented. In contradiction to pure word deafness and general auditory agnosia, this disorder is likely under-diagnosed because patients are often not aware of their disorder, and thus don't seek medical intervention. Throughout the 20th century, all reported non-verbal auditory agnosia patients had bilateral or right temporal lobe damage. For this reason, the right hemisphere was traditionally attributed with the perception of environmental sounds. However, Tanaka et al reported 8 patients with non-verbal auditory agnosia, 4 with right hemisphere lesions and 4 with left hemisphere lesions. Saygin et al also reported a patient with damage to the left auditory cortex. The underlying deficit in non-verbal auditory agnosia appears to be varied. Several patients were characterized by impaired discrimination of pitch whereas others reported with impaired discrimination of timbre and rhythm (discrimination of pitch was relatively


id: auditory-agnosia-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia-4.md
category: reference
title: Auditory agnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_agnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:21.081452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: auditory-agnosia-20260505-0
summary:
== Neurological mechanism == Auditory agnosia (with the exception of non-verbal auditory agnosia and amusia) is strongly dependent on damage to both hemispheres. The order of hemispheric damage is irrelevant to manifestation of symptoms, and years could take between the damage of the first hemisphere and the second hemisphere (after which the symptoms suddenly emerge). A study that compared lesion locations, reported that in all cases with bilateral hemispheric damage, at least in one side the lesion included Heschl's gyrus or its underlying white matter. A rare insight into the etiology of this disorder was reported in a study of an auditory agnosia patient with damage to the brainstem, instead of cortex. fMRI scanning of the patient revealed weak activation of the anterior Heschl's gyrus (area R) and anterior superior temporal gyrus. These brain areas are part of the auditory 'what' pathway, and are known from both human and monkey research to participate in the recognition of sounds. == See also == Amusia Aphasia Apraxia Auditory verbal agnosia == References == == Further reading == Polster MR, Rose SB (February 1998). "Disorders of auditory processing: evidence for modularity in audition" (PDF). Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the


id: aura-symptom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aura_(symptom)-0.md
category: reference
title: Aura (symptom)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aura_(symptom)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:22.252744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aura-symptom-20260505-0
summary:
An aura is a perceptual disturbance experienced by some with epilepsy or migraine. An epileptic aura is a form of minor seizure. Epileptic and migraine auras are due to the involvement of specific areas of the brain, which are those that determine the symptoms of the aura. Therefore, if the visual area is affected, the aura will consist of visual symptoms, while if a tactile sensory one, then tactile sensory symptoms will occur. Epileptic auras are subjective sensory or psychic phenomena due to a focal seizure, i.e. a seizure that originates from that area of the brain responsible for the function which then expresses itself with the symptoms of the aura. It is important because it makes it clear where the alteration causing the seizure is located. An epileptic aura is in most cases followed by other manifestations of a seizure, for example a convulsion, since the epileptic discharge spreads to other parts of the brain. Rarely it remains isolated. Auras, when they occur, allow some people who have epilepsy time to prevent injury to themselves and/or others when they lose consciousness. == Migraine == The aura of migraine is visual in the vast majority of cases, because dysfunction starts


id: autoamputation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoamputation-0.md
category: reference
title: Autoamputation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoamputation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:23.447574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: autoamputation-20260505-0
summary:
Autoamputation is the spontaneous detachment (amputation) of an appendage or organ from the body. This is not to be confused with self-amputation, which is performed at will. It is usually due to destruction of the blood vessels feeding an extremity such as the finger tips. Once the vessels are destroyed, the tissue is starved of oxygen and dies, which is often followed by gangrene. Autoamputation is a feature of ainhum, cryoglobulinemia and thromboangiitis obliterans. In 1881, Thornton made the case of autoamputation. Autoamputation could be the result of severe cases of certain chronic wounds, such as frostbite. These chronic wounds might be due to some vascular and pathogenic conditions like Buerger disease or Raynaud's phenomenon. Also, uncontrolled diabetes can predispose one to autoamputation. However, autoamputation has been described as spontaneous. Autoamputation has often been associated with fingers and toes but other parts of the body can suffer this condition as well. There have been reported cases of ovarian autoamputation in a newborn and also in a mature ovary of adults. Autoamputation has been reported to affect an infant of closely consanguineous parentage. Though autoamputation is often regarded as an acquired ailment, it could also be congenital. Chronic torsion or a


id: autonomic-dysreflexia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_dysreflexia-0.md
category: reference
title: Autonomic dysreflexia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_dysreflexia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:24.727358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: autonomic-dysreflexia-20260505-0
summary:
Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) is a life-threatening medical emergency characterized by hypertension and cardiac arrhythmias. This condition is sometimes referred to as autonomic hyperreflexia. Most cases of AD occur in individuals with spinal cord injuries. Lesions at or above the T6 spinal cord level are more frequently reported, although there are reports of AD in patients with lesions as low as T10. Guillain–Barré syndrome may also cause autonomic dysreflexia. Hypertension in AD may result in mild symptoms, such as sweating above the lesion level, goosebumps, blurred vision, or headache. Severe symptoms may result in life-threatening complications including seizure, intracranial bleeds (stroke), myocardial infarction, and retinal detachment. Both noxious and non-noxious stimuli can trigger AD. The result is stimulation and hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system. The noxious stimuli activate a sympathetic surge that travels through intact peripheral nerves, resulting in systemic vasoconstriction below the level of the spinal cord lesion. The peripheral arterial vasoconstriction and hypertension activates the baroreceptors, resulting in a parasympathetic surge. This surge originates in the central nervous system to inhibit the sympathetic outflow. However, the parasympathetic signal is unable to transmit below the level of the spinal cord lesion to reduce elevated blood pressure. This can result


id: autonomic-dysreflexia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_dysreflexia-1.md
category: reference
title: Autonomic dysreflexia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_dysreflexia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:24.727358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: autonomic-dysreflexia-20260505-0
summary:
The autonomic nervous system comprises the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous systems. The mechanism of autonomic dysreflexia has to do with the relationship of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Supraspinal vasomotor neurons send projections to the intermediolateral cell column, which is composed of sympathetic preganglionic neurons (SPN) through the T1-L2 segments of the spinal cord. The supraspinal neurons act on the SPN and its tonic firing by modulating its action on the peripheral sympathetic chain ganglia and the adrenal medulla. The sympathetic ganglia act directly on the blood vessels they innervate throughout the body. This controls vessel diameter and resistance. The adrenal medulla indirectly controls the same action through the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. In a patient with a spinal cord lesion, the descending autonomic pathways that are responsible for the supraspinal communication with the SPN are interrupted. This results in decreased sympathetic outflow below the level of the injury. In this circumstance, the SPN is controlled only by spinal influences. After a spinal injury, the decreased sympathetic outflow causes reduced blood pressure and sympathetic reflex. Eventually, synaptic reorganization and plasticity of the SPN develops into an overly sensitive state. Because of this, there is abnormal reflex activation of


id: autonomic-dysreflexia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_dysreflexia-2.md
category: reference
title: Autonomic dysreflexia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_dysreflexia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:24.727358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: autonomic-dysreflexia-20260505-0
summary:
== Research directions == Most future work on the topic of autonomic dysreflexia is directed at earlier detection and intervention. Overall, the goal of these research projects involves minimizing complications that result from late detection of autonomic dysreflexia. Some research is aimed at investigating the use of non-invasive sensors to track nerve activity to detect signs of AD. Other work has begun to look at the use of AI for this role, although it has been limited to rat models. Results from a study showed that AI can serve as another non-invasive tool in combination with sensors that track nerve activity. Future work of studies such as these includes using more sensors to track other variables for increasingly accurate results. Other work revolves around increasing the understanding of the mechanism behind AD. While it is understood that spinal cord injury results in inhibited parasympathetic surges and a heightened sympathetic response that can lead to AD, other details are yet to be defined. It is also understood that the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays a significant role in cardiovascular function in addition to the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. What remains to be studied is the


id: azygos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azygos-0.md
category: reference
title: Azygos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azygos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:25.966903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: azygos-20260505-0
summary:
Azygos (impar), from the Greek άζυξ, refers to an anatomical structure that is unpaired. This is relatively unusual, as most elements of anatomy reflect bilateral symmetry. Azygos may refer to: Azygos anterior cerebral artery Azygos artery of vagina Azygos lobe Azygos vein Ganglion impar


id: b-type-inclusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_type_inclusion-0.md
category: reference
title: B type inclusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_type_inclusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:27.133905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: b-type-inclusion-20260505-0
summary:
B-type inclusions, formerly known as Guarnieri bodies are cellular features found upon microscopic inspection of epithelial cells of individuals suspected of having poxvirus (e.g. smallpox or vaccinia). In cells stained with eosin, they appear as pink blobs in the cytoplasm of affected epithelial cells. The absence of Guarnieri bodies cannot be used as to rule out smallpox, however, as more sensitive test need to be performed. B-type inclusions are the sites of viral replication and are found in all poxvirus-infected cells, unlike A-type inclusions which are more strongly eosinophilic and only found in infections with certain poxviruses. They are named after the Italian physician Giuseppe Guarnieri. == References == == Further reading == GOODPASTURE EW (1959). "Cytoplasmic inclusions resembling Guarnieri bodies, and other phenomena induced by mutants of the virus of fowlpox". Am. J. Pathol. 35 (2): 213–31. PMC 1934859. PMID 13627123.


id: ballard-maturational-assessment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballard_Maturational_Assessment-0.md
category: reference
title: Ballard Maturational Assessment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballard_Maturational_Assessment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:28.282771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ballard-maturational-assessment-20260505-0
summary:
The Ballard maturational assessment, Ballard score, or Ballard scale, is a gestational age assessment technique. It was devised by Dr. Jeanne L. Ballard, professor emeritus of the Department of Pediatrics, Obstetrics, and Gynecology at the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. It was developed in 1979. The assessment scores various criteria, the sum of which is then extrapolated to the gestational age of the fetus. These criteria are divided into physical and neuromuscular criteria, which allows for the estimation of age in the range of 26 weeks to 44 weeks. The new Ballard score is an extension of the above to include extremely preterm babies, i.e., up to 20 weeks. The scoring relies on the intrauterine changes the fetus undergoes during maturation. Whereas the neuromuscular criteria depend mainly upon muscle tone, the physical scale relies on anatomical changes. Neonate fetuses (less than 37 weeks of age) are in a state of physiological hypotonia, and since muscle tone increases throughout the fetal growth period, it can be used to identify fetal maturation. == Neuromuscular criteria == Posture – score the infant's posture from flexed to extended Square window – assess the flexibility of the wrist Arm recoil – measure the angle


id: benign-tumor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign_tumor-0.md
category: reference
title: Benign tumor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign_tumor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:29.480012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: benign-tumor-20260505-0
summary:
A benign tumor is a mass of cells (tumor) that does not invade neighboring tissue or metastasize (spread throughout the body). Compared to malignant (cancerous) tumors, benign tumors generally have a slower growth rate. Benign tumors have relatively well differentiated cells. They are often surrounded by an outer surface (fibrous sheath of connective tissue) or stay contained within the epithelium. Common examples of benign tumors include moles and uterine fibroids. Some forms of benign tumors may be harmful to health. Benign tumor growth causes a mass effect that can compress neighboring tissues. This can lead to nerve damage, blood flow reduction (ischemia), tissue death (necrosis), or organ damage. The health effects of benign tumor growth may be more prominent if the tumor is contained within an enclosed space such as the cranium, respiratory tract, sinus, or bones. For example, unlike most benign tumors elsewhere in the body, benign brain tumors can be life-threatening. Tumors may exhibit behaviors characteristic of their cell type of origin; as an example, endocrine tumors such as thyroid adenomas and adrenocortical adenomas may overproduce certain hormones. The word benign means 'favourable, kind, fortunate, salutary, propitious'. However, a benign tumor is not benign in the usual sense;


id: benign-tumor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign_tumor-1.md
category: reference
title: Benign tumor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign_tumor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:29.480012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: benign-tumor-20260505-0
summary:
==== Giant cell tumors ==== Giant cell tumors of bone frequently occur in long bone epiphyses of the appendicular skeleton or the sacrum of the axial skeleton. Local growth can cause destruction of neighboring cortical bone and soft tissue, leading to pain and limiting range of motion. The characteristic radiologic finding of giant cell tumors of bone is a lytic lesion that does not have marginal sclerosis of bone. On histology, giant cells of fused osteoclasts are seen as a response to neoplastic mononucleated cells. Notably, giant cells are not unique among benign bone tumors to giant cell tumors of bone. Molecular characteristics of the neoplastic cells causing giant cell tumors of bone indicate an origin of pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells that adopt preosteoblastic markers. Cytogenetic causes of giant cell tumors of bone involve telomeres. Treatment involves surgical curettage with adjuvant bisphosphonates. ==== Osteochondroma ==== Osteochondromas form cartilage-capped projections of bone. Structures such as the marrow cavity and cortical bone of the osteochondroma are contiguous to those of the originating bone. Sites of origin often involve metaphyses of long bones. While many osteochondromas occur spontaneously, there are cases in which several osteochondromas can occur in the same individual; these may


id: benign-tumor-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign_tumor-2.md
category: reference
title: Benign tumor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign_tumor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:29.480012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: benign-tumor-20260505-0
summary:
Benign neoplasms are typically, but not always, composed of cells which bear a strong resemblance to a normal cell type in their organ of origin. These tumors are named for the cell or tissue type from which they originate. The suffix "-oma" (but not -carcinoma, -sarcoma, or -blastoma, which are generally cancers) is applied to indicate a benign tumor. For example, a lipoma is a common benign tumor of fat cells (lipocytes), and a chondroma is a benign tumor of cartilage-forming cells (chondrocytes). Adenomas are benign tumors of gland-forming cells, and are usually specified further by their cell or organ of origin, as in hepatic adenoma (a benign tumor of hepatocytes, or liver cells). Teratomas contain many cell types such as skin, nerve, brain and thyroid, among others, because they are derived from germ cells. Hamartomas are a group of benign tumors that have relatively normal cellular differentiation but exhibit disorganized tissue organization. Exceptions to the nomenclature rules exist for historical reasons. Malignant examples include melanoma (a skin cancer of pigmented melanocytes) and seminoma (a cancer of male reproductive cells). Not all benign growths are tumors. Skin tags, vocal chord polyps, and hyperplastic polyps of the colon are often called


id: bethesda-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethesda_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Bethesda system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethesda_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:30.688221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bethesda-system-20260505-0
summary:
The Bethesda system (TBS), officially called The Bethesda System for Reporting Cervical Cytology, is a system for reporting cervical or vaginal cytologic diagnoses, used for reporting Pap smear results. It was introduced in 1988 and revised in 1991, 2001, and 2014. The name comes from the location (Bethesda, Maryland) of the conference, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, that established the system. Since 2010, the Bethesda system has been used for cytopathology of thyroid nodules, which is called The Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (TBSRTC or BSRTC). Like TBS, it was the result of a conference sponsored by the NIH and is published in book editions (currently by Springer). Mentions of "the Bethesda system" without further specification usually refer to the cervical system, unless the thyroid context of a discussion is implicit. == Cervix == Abnormal results include: Atypical squamous cells Atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) Atypical squamous cells – cannot exclude HSIL (ASC-H) Low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LGSIL or LSIL) High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HGSIL or HSIL) Squamous cell carcinoma Atypical Glandular Cells not otherwise specified (AGC-NOS) Atypical Glandular Cells, suspicious for AIS or cancer (AGC-neoplastic) Adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS) The results are calculated differently


id: biliary-microlithiasis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biliary_microlithiasis-0.md
category: reference
title: Biliary microlithiasis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biliary_microlithiasis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:31.871930+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biliary-microlithiasis-20260505-0
summary:
Biliary microlithiasis refers to the creation of small gallstones less than 3 mm in diameter in the biliary duct or gallbladder. It has been suggested as a cause of postcholecystectomy syndrome, or PCS, the symptoms of which include: Upset stomach, nausea, and vomiting. Gas, bloating, and diarrhea. Persistent pain in the upper right abdomen. == Diagnostics == Biliary Microlithiasis may be detectable by ultrasound using a Rapid Patient Rotation Ultrasound Protocol Analysis of biliary sludge obtained through endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) == Treatment == Oral ursodeoxycholic acid can be used to dissolve these crystals. == See also == Biliary sludge == References ==


id: biliary-pseudolithiasis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biliary_pseudolithiasis-0.md
category: reference
title: Biliary pseudolithiasis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biliary_pseudolithiasis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:33.115723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biliary-pseudolithiasis-20260505-0
summary:
Biliary pseudolithiasis is an unusual complication of ceftriaxone where the drug complexes with calcium and mimics gallstones. It is reversed when ceftriaxone administration is stopped. It was first described in 1988 by Schaad et al. as "reversible ceftriaxone-associated biliary pseudolithiasis". Ceftriaxone has been frequently associated with biliary sludge or biliary pseudolithiasis in subsequent reports. Ceftriaxone is excreted primarily through the urine, but also through the bile, up to 40% of its excretion, with concentrations in the bile 20-150 times higher than in the serum. It forms a calcium salt in the gallbladder, which can exceed its solubility and create precipitates that resemble gallstones on ultrasonography. The incidence of pseudolithiasis in children treated with ceftriaxone is up to 25%, but most patients are asymptomatic. Risk factors for biliary pseudolithiasis include age greater than 24 months, gram-negative sepsis, high doses of ceftriaxone, hypercalcemia, surgery, and decreased bile flow/increased ceftriaxone excretion in bile. Conservative management with serial ultrasounds is recommended until the "stones" completely resolve. If associated with ceftriaxone, it resolves on average about 2 weeks after the ceftriaxone is stopped. == Ceftriaxone == Ceftriaxone sold under the brand name Rocephin, is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic used for the treatment of a number


id: biliary-sludge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biliary_sludge-0.md
category: reference
title: Biliary sludge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biliary_sludge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:34.361744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biliary-sludge-20260505-0
summary:
Biliary sludge refers to a viscous mixture of small particles derived from bile. These sediments consist of cholesterol crystals, calcium salts, calcium bilirubinate, mucin, and other materials. == Signs and symptoms == === Complications === Biliary sludge may cause complications such as biliary colic, acute cholecystitis, acute cholangitis, and acute pancreatitis. == Cause == Biliary sludge has been associated with pregnancy, rapid weight loss, total parenteral nutrition, drugs such as ceftriaxone and octreotide, solid organ transplantation, and gastric surgery. In many of these conditions, it is thought that the impairment in the contractility of the gallbladder leads to the formation of the sludge. == Pathophysiology == The pathophysiology of biliary sludge formation is likely related to gallbladder dysmotility. It is presumed that because the gallbladder is unable to effectively empty, the biliary sludge can start to accumulate. == Diagnosis == Biliary sludge is typically diagnosed by CT scan or transabdominal ultrasonography. Endoscopic ultrasonography is another more sensitive option. However, the gold standard is considered to be direct microscopy of aspirated gallbladder bile. This method is much more sensitive, although it is less practical. == Treatment == For patients without symptoms, no treatment is recommended. If patients become symptomatic and/or develop


id: list-of-biological-development-disorders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biological_development_disorders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biological development disorders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biological_development_disorders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:35.537754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biological-development-disorders-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of terms used to describe biological disorders of development, arranged by root word and shared prefix: == References == == Bibliography == Reece, JB; Urry, LA; Cain, ML; Wasserman, SA; Minorsky, PV; Jackson, RB (2014). Campbell Biology (10th ed.). Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 978-0321834959.


id: biotrauma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotrauma-0.md
category: reference
title: Biotrauma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotrauma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:36.815898+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biotrauma-20260505-0
summary:
Although the term has occasionally been used in other ways, in medical literature biotrauma is usually defined as a severe inflammatory response produced in the lungs of patients who breathe by means of a mechanical ventilator for a long period of time. The term was coined in a 1998 paper by L. N. Tremblay and A. S. Slutsky, titled Ventilator-induced injury: from barotrauma to biotrauma. The message of that paper was that barotrauma caused by pressure differentials is only one of several types of lung damage that a ventilator can produce. == References ==


id: bleb-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleb_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Bleb (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleb_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:38.141600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bleb-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a bleb is a blister-like protrusion (often hemispherical) or vesicle filled with serous fluid. Blebs can form in a number of tissues by different pathologies, including frostbite and can "appear and disappear within a short time interval". In pathology, pulmonary blebs are small subpleural thin-walled air-containing spaces, not larger than 1-2 cm in diameter, found by the upper lobe of the lung, between the lung and the visceral pleura. Their walls are thin, being less than 1 mm thick. If they rupture, they allow air to escape into pleural space, resulting in a spontaneous pneumothorax and possibly a collapsed lung. Blebs can grow larger or join together to create a larger cyst, or bulla. There are usually no symptoms unless a pneumothorax occurs or the bulla grows very large. Blebs are usually associated with emphysema. In ophthalmology, blebs may be formed intentionally in the treatment of glaucoma. In such treatments, functional blebs facilitate the circulation of aqueous humor, the blockage of which will lead to increase in eye pressure. Use of collagen matrix wound modulation device such as ologen during glaucoma surgery is known to produce vascular and functional blebs, which are positively correlated with treatment success rate.


id: body-fluid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_fluid-0.md
category: reference
title: Body fluid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_fluid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:39.339802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-fluid-20260505-0
summary:
Body fluids, bodily fluids, or biofluids, sometimes body liquids, are liquids within the body of an organism. In lean healthy adult men, the total body water is about 60% (60–67%) of the total body weight; it is usually slightly lower in women (52–55%). The exact percentage of fluid relative to body weight is inversely proportional to the percentage of body fat. A lean 70 kg (150 lb) man, for example, has about 42 (42–47) liters of water in his body. The total body of water is divided into fluid compartments, between the intracellular fluid compartment (also called space, or volume) and the extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment (space, volume) in a two-to-one ratio: 28 (28–32) liters are inside cells and 14 (14–15) liters are outside cells. The ECF compartment is divided into the interstitial fluid volume – the fluid outside both the cells and the blood vessels – and the intravascular volume (also called the vascular volume and blood plasma volume) – the fluid inside the blood vessels – in a three-to-one ratio: the interstitial fluid volume is about 12 liters; the vascular volume is about 4 liters. The interstitial fluid compartment is divided into the lymphatic fluid compartment – about


id: body-image-neuroscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_image_(neuroscience)-0.md
category: reference
title: Body image (neuroscience)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_image_(neuroscience)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:40.513246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-image-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
Body image is a complex construct, often used in the clinical context of describing a patient's cognitive perception of their own body. The medical concept began with the work of the Austrian neuropsychiatrist and psychoanalyst Paul Schilder, described in his book The Image and Appearance of the Human Body first published in 1935. The term "body image" was officially introduced by Schilder himself and his widely used definition is: "body image is the picture of our own body we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves". In research with the term "body image" we currently refer to a conscious mental representation of one's own body, which involves affects, attitudes, perceptual components and cognition. On the contrary, the term "body schema" was initially used to describe an unconscious body mental representation fundamental for action. Keizer and colleagues (2013) suggest the following definition: "[body schema is] an unconscious, sensorimotor, representation of the body that is invoked in action". In light of recent scientific developments regarding the multisensory integration of body sensations, the distinction between body image and body schema appears simplistic and probably no longer useful for scientific research and clinical purposes.


id: body-image-neuroscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_image_(neuroscience)-1.md
category: reference
title: Body image (neuroscience)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_image_(neuroscience)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:40.513246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-image-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Body integrity disorder === Body integrity dysphoria is a mental disorder in which a person gets the feeling that a certain part of their body no longer belongs on their body. People with this disorder know that the part is useful and healthy, but don't believe that they should be able to use it. It often causes people to try and get amputations or attempt to amputate themselves. There's no known cause of body integrity disorder, but it is thought to have to do with issues regarding the structure of the brain because multiple parts of the brain are involved in body perception. === Measurements === Attempts by researchers to measure variances in body image include the FAI index, developed in a 2014 study (Zaccagni 2014). The FAI (feel-status minus actual-status inconsistency) index is used to assess someone's weight perception. FAI scores range from -3 to +3: Negative FAI values mean weight status underestimation, positive FAI values mean weight status overestimation and a FAI score of 0 means a realistic perception of one's weight status. The study found that women tend to have positive FAI values (overestimating their weight) while men had negative FAI values (underestimating their weight). Further


id: bogart-bacall-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogart–Bacall_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Bogart–Bacall syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogart–Bacall_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:41.835054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bogart-bacall-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
Bogart–Bacall syndrome (BBS) is a voice disorder that is caused by abuse or overuse of the vocal cords. People who speak or sing outside their normal vocal range can develop BBS; symptoms are chiefly an unusually deep or rough voice, or dysphonia, and vocal fatigue. The people most commonly affected are those who speak in a low-pitched voice, particularly if they have poor breath and vocal control. The syndrome can affect both men and women. In 1988, an article was published describing a discrete type of vocal dysfunction which results in men sounding like actor Humphrey Bogart and women sounding like actress Lauren Bacall; Bogart and Bacall were married to each other and made several films together. BBS is now the medical term for an ongoing hoarseness that often affects actors, singers or TV/radio voice workers who routinely speak in a very low pitch. Treatment usually involves voice therapy by a speech language pathologist. == Signs and symptoms == Signs and symptoms of Bogart–Bacall Syndrome can appear differently depending on the vocal use of the individual. In singers, symptoms may appear more subtly due to their extreme sensitivity to small changes in the laryngeal mechanism and being able to control


id: bogart-bacall-syndrome-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogart–Bacall_syndrome-1.md
category: reference
title: Bogart–Bacall syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogart–Bacall_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:41.835054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bogart-bacall-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
== Prevention and treatment == Prevention of Bogart–Bacall syndrome aims to target the two main symptoms of this disorder, dysphonia and vocal fatigue. Having effective posture allows a person to shift the tension between the muscles allowing free movement of the larynx without blockage leading to effective voice production. Improvement of breath control with a professional vocal coach is also important for individuals who may have work-related conditions that require continuous strain on the vocal cords and larynx. Speech therapy with a speech-language pathologist is a very common method of treatment to return speaking level to its normal pitch range. Consultation with a speech-language pathologist will determine what levels of rest, fluid, and performance corrections are needed for the vocal cords and larynx to sustain a healthy voice. If there is a particular underlying cause of the condition that can be treated with medication, this can be coupled with speech therapy as a form of treatment. Individuals with persistent symptoms after speech therapy may require more invasive treatment. Invasive treatment may require the removal of lesions, nodules, or masses on the vocal cords if visualized during diagnostic imaging. If the disorder is found to be nerve related through electromyography the


id: breast-atrophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_atrophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Breast atrophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_atrophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:43.043100+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: breast-atrophy-20260505-0
summary:
Breast atrophy is the normal or spontaneous atrophy or shrinkage of the breasts. Breast atrophy commonly occurs in women during menopause when estrogen levels decrease. It can also be caused by hypoestrogenism and/or hyperandrogenism in women in general, such as in antiestrogen treatment for breast cancer, in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and in malnutrition such as that associated with eating disorders like anorexia nervosa or with chronic disease. It can also be an effect of weight loss. In the treatment of gynecomastia in males and macromastia in women, and in hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for trans men, breast atrophy may be a desired effect. == See also == Mammoplasia Micromastia == References == == External links ==


id: brief-resolved-unexplained-event-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brief_resolved_unexplained_event-0.md
category: reference
title: Brief resolved unexplained event
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brief_resolved_unexplained_event
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:44.192552+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brief-resolved-unexplained-event-20260505-0
summary:
Brief resolved unexplained event (BRUE), previously apparent life-threatening event (ALTE), is a medical term in pediatrics that describes an event that occurs during infancy. The event is noted by an observer, typically the infant's caregiver. It is characterized by one or more concerning symptoms such as change in skin color, lack of breathing, weakness, or poor responsiveness. By definition, by the time they are assessed in a healthcare environment they must be back to normal without obvious explanation after the clinician takes the appropriate clinical history and physical examination. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) clarified the use of both terms in a 2016 consensus statement that recommended the term BRUE be used whenever possible as it is more specifically defined. Thus, it is more useful for assessing risk of further events. The cause for BRUEs is often unknown, although some of the more common causes include gastroesophageal reflux, seizure, and child maltreatment. Evaluation after an ALTE or BRUE is diagnostically important, as some events represent the first sign or symptom of an underlying medical condition. In most cases, assuming the infants are otherwise healthy and no underlying medical issue is found, the infants who have a BRUE are unlikely


id: brief-resolved-unexplained-event-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brief_resolved_unexplained_event-1.md
category: reference
title: Brief resolved unexplained event
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brief_resolved_unexplained_event
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:44.192552+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brief-resolved-unexplained-event-20260505-0
summary:
== Prognosis == The risk of death of patients who have a BRUE has been studied by using the literature about ALTEs, since this data is more abundant. The studies concluded that there is no increased risk of death for these patients compared to the rest of the infant population. As for the prognosis of these infants into adulthood, research still needs to be conducted to assess for any long-term health effects. == History == In 1986, the National Institute of Health defined an apparent life-threatening event (ALTE) as an observed frightening event of an infant that includes at least one component of lack of breathing (apnea), skin color change (such as cyanosis), weakness, choking, or gagging. The term was invented to avoid previously used terms such as "near-miss SIDS" to dissociate the event from SIDS, a separate condition in infancy. There had been literature discussion in the past about the increased risk of SIDS in these infants, but more recently the research has concluded that there is no direct relationship between an ALTE and SIDS. It also was defined as part of an attempt to characterize the different forms of apnea, or sudden lack of breathing, in infants. In


id: calcinosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcinosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Calcinosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcinosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:45.452780+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calcinosis-20260505-0
summary:
Calcinosis is the formation of calcium deposits in any soft tissue. It is a rare condition that has many different causes. These range from infection and injury to systemic diseases like kidney failure. == Types == === Dystrophic calcification === The most common type of calcinosis is dystrophic calcification. This type of calcification can occur as a response to any soft tissue damage, including that involved in implantation of medical devices. === Metastatic calcification === Metastatic calcification involves a systemic calcium excess imbalance, which can be caused by hypercalcemia, kidney failure, milk-alkali syndrome, lack or excess of other minerals, or other causes. === Tumoral calcinosis === The cause of the rare condition of tumoral calcinosis is not entirely understood. It is generally characterized by large, globular calcifications near joints. == See also == Calcification Calcinosis cutis Dermatomyositis Fahr's syndrome Hyperphosphatemia Primrose syndrome Scleroderma == References == == External links == Media related to Calcinosis at Wikimedia Commons


id: calculus-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Calculus (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:46.702674+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calculus-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
A calculus (pl.: calculi), often called a stone, is a concretion of material, usually mineral salts, that forms in an organ or duct of the body. Formation of calculi is known as lithiasis (). Stones can cause a number of medical conditions. Some common principles (below) apply to stones at any location, but for specifics see the particular stone type in question. Calculi are not to be confused with gastroliths, which are ingested rather than grown endogenously. == Types == Calculi in the inner ear are called otoliths. Unlike other entries in this list, otoliths are not pathological but are a normal feature of the inner ear. Calculi in the urinary system are called urinary calculi and include kidney stones (also called renal calculi or nephroliths) and bladder stones (also called vesical calculi or cystoliths). They can have any of several compositions, including mixed. Principal compositions include oxalate and urate. Calculi in the prostate are called prostatic calculi. Calculi in the mammary gland are called breast microcalcifications or mammary microcalcifications. Calculi of the gallbladder and bile ducts are called gallstones and are primarily developed from bile salts and cholesterol derivatives. Calculi in the nasal passages (rhinoliths) are rare. Calculi in


id: cardiac-shunt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_shunt-0.md
category: reference
title: Cardiac shunt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_shunt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:47.861966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cardiac-shunt-20260505-0
summary:
In cardiology, a cardiac shunt is a pattern of blood flow in the heart that deviates from the normal circuit of the circulatory system. It may be described as right-left, left-right or bidirectional, or as systemic-to-pulmonary or pulmonary-to-systemic. The direction may be controlled by left and/or right heart pressure, a biological or artificial heart valve or both. The presence of a shunt may also affect left and/or right heart pressure either beneficially or detrimentally. == Terminology == The left and right sides of the heart are named from a dorsal view, i.e., looking at the heart from the back or from the perspective of the person whose heart it is. There are four chambers in a heart: an atrium (upper) and a ventricle (lower) on both the left and right sides. In mammals and birds, blood from the body goes to the right side of the heart first. Blood enters the upper right atrium, is pumped down to the right ventricle and from there to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. Blood going to the lungs is called the pulmonary circulation. When the blood returns to the heart from the lungs via the pulmonary vein, it goes to the left


id: carnoy-s-solution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnoy's_solution-0.md
category: reference
title: Carnoy's solution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnoy's_solution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:50.446534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnoy-s-solution-20260505-0
summary:
Carnoy's solution is a fixative composed of 60% ethanol, 30% chloroform and 10% glacial acetic acid, 1 gram of ferric chloride. Carnoy's solution is also the name of a different fixation composed of ethanol and glacial acetic acid (3:1). The invention of Carnoy's solution is attributed to Jean-Baptiste Carnoy, a pioneering 19th century cytologist. == Uses == Some of the uses of Carnoy's solution are: Enhancing lymph node detection during dissection of cadavers. Immunohistochemical fixation and detection of NMDA receptors within the murine hippocampus. Applied directly following enucleation for the treatment of odontogenic keratocysts. Direct application following enucleation (Cuba) for certain kinds of unicystic ameloblastomas. This appears to decrease the likelihood of recurrence over enucleation alone. Protein coagulation is thought to limit uptake of these toxic materials by surrounding tissues, however it is this fact that limits its usefulness as a treatment agent in general. As a fixative for pap smear samples. As a fixative agent for both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA in various tissues. As a fixative agent to preserve mucus, useful for tissue preparation before staining with periodic acid-Schiff base. == References ==


id: case-presentation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_presentation-0.md
category: reference
title: Case presentation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_presentation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:51.626584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-presentation-20260505-0
summary:
A case presentation is a formal communication between health care professionals such as doctors and nurses regarding a patient's clinical information. Essential parts of a case presentation include: Identification Reason for consultation/admission Chief complaints (CC) - what made patients seek medical attention. History of present illness (HPI) - circumstances relating to chief complaints. Past medical history (PMHx) Past surgical history Current medications Allergies Family history (FHx) Social history (SocHx) Physical examination (PE) Laboratory results (Lab) Other investigations (imaging, biopsy etc.) Case summary and impression Management plans follow up in clinic or hospital Adherence of the patient to treatment success of the treatment or failure. causes of success or failure. == See also == Case report Case series == References ==


id: case-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_report-0.md
category: reference
title: Case report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:52.887502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-report-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a case report is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports may contain a demographic profile of the patient, but usually describe an unusual or novel occurrence. Some case reports also contain a literature review of other reported cases. Case reports are professional narratives that provide feedback on clinical practice guidelines and offer a framework for early signals of effectiveness, adverse events, and cost. They can be shared for medical, scientific, or educational purposes. == Types == Most case reports are on one of six topics: An unexpected association between diseases or symptoms. An unexpected event in the course of observing or treating a patient. Findings that shed new light on the possible pathogenesis of a disease or an adverse effect. Unique or rare features of a disease. Unique therapeutic approaches. A positional or quantitative variation of the anatomical structures. == Roles in research and education == A case report is generally considered a type of anecdotal evidence. Given their intrinsic methodological limitations, including lack of statistical sampling, case reports are placed at the bottom of the hierarchy of clinical evidence, together with case series. Nevertheless, case reports


id: cause-of-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_of_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Cause of death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_of_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:54.150733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cause-of-death-20260505-0
summary:
In law, medicine, and statistics, cause of death is an official determination of the conditions resulting in a human's death, which may be recorded on a death certificate. A cause of death is determined by a medical examiner. In rare cases, an autopsy needs to be performed by a pathologist. The cause of death is a specific disease or injury, in contrast to the manner of death, which is a small number of categories like "natural", "accident", "suicide", and "homicide", each with different legal implications. The standards for cause of death recording and reporting are set by WHO. All death certificates typically include a medical certificate of cause of death collecting information for disease prevention and health policy. The recommended international format for this certificate is established by the World Health Organization (WHO) and applies uniformly across member states. The World Health Organization's ICD-11 Reference Guide provides the authoritative specification for its design and completion. Extensive detail is also available in the format of a manual for medical certification. International Classification of Disease (ICD) codes are used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that makes it easy to compile statistics and more feasible to compare


id: central-venous-pressure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_venous_pressure-0.md
category: reference
title: Central venous pressure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_venous_pressure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:55.347879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: central-venous-pressure-20260505-0
summary:
Central venous pressure (CVP) is the blood pressure in the venae cavae, near the right atrium of the heart. CVP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart to pump the blood back into the arterial system. CVP is often a good approximation of right atrial pressure (RAP), although the two terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the venae cavae and the right atrium. CVP and RAP can differ when arterial tone is altered. This can be graphically depicted as changes in the slope of the venous return (VR) plotted against right atrial pressure (where central venous pressure (CVP) increases, but right atrial pressure (RAP) stays the same; VR = CVP − RAP). CVP has been, and often still is, used as a surrogate for preload, and changes in CVP in response to infusions of intravenous fluid have been used to predict volume-responsiveness (i.e. whether more fluid will improve cardiac output). However, there is increasing evidence that CVP, whether as an absolute value or in terms of changes in response to fluid, does not correlate with ventricular volume (i.e. preload) or volume-responsiveness, and so should not be


id: cerebellar-degeneration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_degeneration-0.md
category: reference
title: Cerebellar degeneration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_degeneration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:56.519839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cerebellar-degeneration-20260505-0
summary:
Cerebellar degeneration is a condition in which cerebellar cells, otherwise known as neurons, become damaged and progressively weaken in the cerebellum. There are two types of cerebellar degeneration; paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, and alcoholic or nutritional cerebellar degeneration. As the cerebellum contributes to the coordination and regulation of motor activities, as well as controlling equilibrium of the human body, any degeneration to this part of the organ can be life-threatening. Cerebellar degeneration can result in disorders in fine movement, posture, and motor learning in humans, due to a disturbance of the vestibular system. This condition may not only cause cerebellar damage on a temporary or permanent basis, but can also affect other tissues of the central nervous system, those including the cerebral cortex, spinal cord and the brainstem (made up of the medulla oblongata, midbrain, and pons). Cerebellar degeneration can be attributed to a plethora of hereditary and non-hereditary conditions. More commonly, cerebellar degeneration can also be classified according to conditions that an individual may acquire during their lifetime, including infectious, metabolic, autoimmune, paraneoplastic, nutritional or toxic triggers. == Signs and symptoms == Patients with cerebellar degeneration experience a progressive loss of nerve cells (Purkinje cells) throughout the cerebellum. As well


id: cerebellar-degeneration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_degeneration-1.md
category: reference
title: Cerebellar degeneration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_degeneration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:56.519839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cerebellar-degeneration-20260505-0
summary:
To select an appropriate and accurate diagnostic test for cerebellar degeneration, it is crucial that a range of factors specific to each patient are taken into consideration. These include; the patient's age, acuity of their signs and symptoms, associated neurological conditions, and family history of hereditary forms of cerebellar degeneration. A diagnosis for cerebellar degeneration is regarded after any of the aforementioned signs and symptoms surface. For genetically classified forms of cerebellar degeneration, genetic testing can be carried out in order to confirm or deny the diagnosis, where this form of testing is only possible if the gene responsible for the cause of the condition is recognised. In saying this, for most conditions the genetic cause of cerebellar degeneration is unidentified, hence these patients cannot proceed with genetic testing. In cases where cerebellar degeneration is acquired, a diagnosis can be established using imaging methods such as computerised tomography (CT scans) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), necessary to detect brain abnormalities in patients with cerebellar degeneration. == Treatment == Like any other disease, treatment for cerebellar degeneration is contingent on the underlying cause, unique to each patient. As of present time, hereditary forms of cerebellar degeneration are incurable, though they can


id: cerebral-perfusion-pressure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_perfusion_pressure-0.md
category: reference
title: Cerebral perfusion pressure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_perfusion_pressure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:57.755648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cerebral-perfusion-pressure-20260505-0
summary:
Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) is the net pressure gradient causing cerebral blood flow to the brain (brain perfusion). It must be maintained within narrow limits because too little pressure could cause brain tissue to become ischemic (having inadequate blood flow), and too much could raise intracranial pressure (ICP). == Definitions == The cranium encloses a fixed-volume space that holds three components: blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and very soft tissue (the brain). While both the blood and CSF have poor compression capacity, the brain is easily compressible. Every increase of ICP can cause a change in tissue perfusion and an increase in stroke events. === From resistance === CPP can be defined as the pressure gradient causing cerebral blood flow (CBF) such that C B F = C P P / C V R {\displaystyle CBF=CPP/CVR} where: CVR is cerebrovascular resistance === By intracranial pressure === An alternative definition of CPP is: C P P = M A P − I C P {\displaystyle CPP=MAP-ICP} where: MAP is mean arterial pressure ICP is intracranial pressure JVP is jugular venous pressure This definition may be more appropriate if considering the circulatory system in the brain as a Starling resistor, where an external


id: cervical-conization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_conization-0.md
category: reference
title: Cervical conization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_conization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:59.084677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cervical-conization-20260505-0
summary:
Cervical conization refers to an excision of a cone-shaped portion of tissue from the mucous membrane of the cervix. Conization is used for diagnostic purposes as part of a biopsy and for therapeutic purposes to remove pre-cancerous cells (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) or early stage cervical cancer. Ablative treatments are also available to treat abnormal cervical cells. The decision to perform a cervical conization procedure is made with consideration of a patient's pap smear, colposcopy, and HPV test results. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends that decisions regarding excision should be based on the risk of CIN3+. A conization can be performed in the office or the operating room, depending on the type of conization performed. This procedure carries few risks, with the most common one being bleeding after the procedure. == History == Before the introduction of the speculum, cervical cancer was only found once it was advanced. With the invention and use of a speculum, changes in the cervix could be appreciated. First, they were evaluated macroscopically and eventually were also assessed using a microscope. In 1927, H. Hinselmann discovered the transformation zone, where metaplastic squamous epithelium is found between the columnar epithelium of the endocervix


id: cervical-conization-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_conization-1.md
category: reference
title: Cervical conization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_conization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:59.084677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cervical-conization-20260505-0
summary:
The vagina is prepped using antimicrobial scrub or iodine. Draping is placed to maintain a sterile surgical field. Some physicians may choose to drain the bladder using a catheter. The speculum will be placed, and the cervix visualized. The tissue is then excised from the cervix. The tissue will include the transformation zone and will be shaped like a cone, as the procedure name suggests. The physician will ensure hemostasis has been achieved before removing the speculum and ending the procedure. Typically, the physician will place a suture at the 12 o'clock position of the excised tissue to serve as a reference point during histological examination. The main difference between cold knife conization and LEEP is the instrument used to excise the tissue. In a LEEP, a thin wire loop electrode is used to remove the cone-shaped surgical specimen. During a cold knife cone, a scalpel is used to excise the tissue. Both LEEP and cold knife cone have shown equal effectiveness, so the decision for which procedure is often based on the physician's comfort with each procedure or other clinical considerations. Cold knife cone is performed with a scalpel, and one advantage of this procedure is that the margins


id: cervical-dislocation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_dislocation-0.md
category: reference
title: Cervical dislocation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_dislocation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:00.313128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cervical-dislocation-20260505-0
summary:
Cervical dislocation is a common method of animal euthanasia. It refers to a technique used in physical euthanasia of small animals by applying pressure to the neck and dislocating the spinal column from the skull or brain. The aim is to quickly separate the spinal cord from the brain so as to provide the animal with a fast, painless, and easy death. == Technique == Firm pressure is applied at the base of the skull, along with a sharp pinching and twisting of the thumb and forefinger. At the same time, the tail is pulled backward. This severs the spinal cord at the base of the brain or within the cervical spine area (the upper third of the neck). According to the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC), cervical dislocation is normally only conducted on small animals. == Ethics == The University of Iowa and some veterinary associations consider the technique to be an ethically acceptable method for killing small rodents such as rats, mice, squirrels, etc. == See also == Cervical fracture Blunt trauma Slaughter (livestock) == References ==


id: chain-of-survival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival-0.md
category: reference
title: Chain of survival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:01.490920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chain-of-survival-20260505-0
summary:
The chain of survival refers to a series of actions that, properly executed, reduce the mortality associated with sudden cardiac arrest. Like any chain, the chain of survival is only as strong as its weakest link. The six interdependent links in the chain of survival are early recognition of sudden cardiac arrest and access to emergency medical care, early CPR, early defibrillation, early advanced cardiac life support, and physical and emotional recovery. The first three links in the chain can be performed by lay bystanders, while the second three links are designated to medical professionals. Currently, between 70 and 90% of cardiac arrest patients die before they reach the hospital. However, a cardiac arrest does not have to be lethal if bystanders can take the right steps immediately. == Background == According to the American Heart Association, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest can affect more than 300,000 people in the United States each year. Three minutes after the onset of cardiac arrest, a lack of blood flow starts to damage the brain, and 10 minutes after, the chances of survival are low. Therefore, bystanders have only a few minutes to act to optimize a person's chances of survival and recovery. To improve


id: chain-of-survival-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival-1.md
category: reference
title: Chain of survival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:01.490920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chain-of-survival-20260505-0
summary:
== Early advanced care == Early advanced cardiac life support by paramedics is another critical link in the chain of survival. In communities with survival rates > 20%, a minimum of two of the rescuers are trained to the advanced level. Some ACLS ambulance providers will administer medications to manage pain, arrhythmias, shock, and pulmonary congestion; monitor the heart rhythm to identify any potentially lethal cardiac arrhythmias; or initiate transcutaneous pacing. ACLS ambulance providers use the mnemonic "MONA" (morphine, oxygen, nitroglycerin, and aspirin) to reflect the out-of-hospital therapies they will use for cardiac arrest. Often, ACLS ambulance providers will attach an electrocardiogram to the patient and transmit its findings to the receiving hospital or care facility, which leads to earlier diagnosis of a heart attack, and significantly reduces time to treatment at the hospital. This prearrival ECG and notification has been shown to improve patient outcomes. In the event of a complication at the scene of the event or on the way to the hospital, ACLS ambulance providers can administer life saving therapies, including CPR, rapid defibrillation, airway management, and intravenous medications. == Recovery == In October 2020, the American Heart Association added the recovery phase as the sixth link


id: cheesewiring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheesewiring-0.md
category: reference
title: Cheesewiring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheesewiring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:02.729782+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cheesewiring-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, the term cheesewiring or cheesewire effect (used interchangeably) describes any process in which cells or intercellular matrix are dissected or extruded either by the material being pressed through a taut element, or by the tension of a taut element pulling through tissue. The procedure is typically conducted in a surgical setting. Cheesewiring or the cheesewire effect can also describe the process of suture material cutting or tearing through viscera at the time of suture anastomosis and tension. == As a complication == Cheesewiring can be a complication or part of a negative outcome of a procedure. Examples include tumor growth penetrating the openings in a bowel stent that was placed to open an obstructed bowel, sutures used to hold a transplanted cornea in place, and treatment of tendon rupture, when sutures pull through the tendon. Evidence that the cheesewire effect has occurred is most clearly seen after surgery has been completed. Postoperatively as wound margins begin to swell, a suture can drag through the thin portion of tissue present near the surface. This suture drag is most often the result of tension being reduced in tying or placing the suture. It is apparent that cheesewiring has occurred if


id: chemoprophylaxis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemoprophylaxis-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemoprophylaxis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemoprophylaxis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:03.934272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemoprophylaxis-20260505-0
summary:
Chemoprevention or chemoprophylaxis refers to the administration of a medication for the purpose of preventing disease or infection. Antibiotics, for example, may be administered to patients with disorders of immune system function to prevent bacterial infections (particularly opportunistic infection). Antibiotics may also be administered to healthy individuals to limit the spread of an epidemic, or to patients who have repeated infections (such as urinary tract infections) to prevent recurrence. It may also refer to the administration of heparin to prevent deep venous thrombosis in hospitalized patients. In some cases, chemoprophylaxis is initiated to prevent the spread of an existing infection in an individual to a new organ system, as when intrathecal chemotherapy is administered in patients with malignancy to prevent further infection. The use of chemoprophylaxis is limited primarily by two factors: risk and financial costs. All medications have the potential to cause side effects. In general, chemoprophylaxis should be initiated only when the benefits of treatment outweigh the risks. The cost associated with chemoprophylaxis may be prohibitive, particularly when the cost of treatment is high or the incidence of the target disease is low. Many forms of chemoprophylaxis are therefore not cost-effective. == Specific diseases == Using chemoprophylaxis as


id: chief-complaint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_complaint-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief complaint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_complaint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:05.058536+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-complaint-20260505-0
summary:
The chief complaint, formally known as CC in the medical field, or termed presenting complaint (PC) in Europe and Canada, forms the second step of medical history taking. It is sometimes also referred to as reason for encounter (RFE), presenting problem, problem on admission or reason for presenting. The chief complaint is a concise statement describing the symptom, problem, condition, diagnosis, physician-recommended return, or other reason for a medical encounter. In some instances, the nature of a patient's chief complaint may determine if services are covered by health insurance. When obtaining the chief complaint, medical students are advised to use open-ended questions. Once the presenting problem is elucidated, a history of present illness can be done using acronyms such as SOCRATES or OPQRST to further analyze the severity, onset and nature of the presenting problem. The patient's initial comments to a physician, nurse, or other health care professionals are important for formulating differential diagnoses. == Prevalence == The collection of chief complaint data may be useful in addressing public health issues. Certain complaints are more common in certain settings and among certain populations. Fatigue has been reported as one of the ten most common reasons for seeing a physician. In


id: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States-0.md
category: reference
title: Children with Special Healthcare Needs in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:06.242840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
Children with Special Healthcare Needs (CSHCN) are defined by the Maternal and Child Health Bureau as: "Those who have one or more chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional conditions and who also require health and related services of a type or amount beyond that required by children generally" == Types of special healthcare needs == There are a wide variety of physical, mental, and psychological health conditions considered to be special healthcare needs in the United States. They range from relatively mild to chronic and severe. The functional impairments of CSHCN include problems with one or more of the following criteria: breathing, swallowing/digestion/metabolism, blood circulation, chronic pain, hearing even with corrective devices, seeing even with corrective devices, taking care of self, coordination/moving around, learning/understanding/paying attention, speaking/communicating, making/keeping friends, and behavior. The list below states health conditions considered to be special healthcare needs. Attention deficit disorder (ADD) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Depression Anxiety problems Behavioral problems Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) Diabetes Developmental disability Intellectual disability (ID) Epilepsy Migraines Traumatic brain injury (TBI) Heart problems Blood problems Cystic fibrosis Cerebral palsy Muscular dystrophy Down syndrome Arthritis Joint problems Allergies == Population == As of 2009, 15.1% of all children in the


id: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States-1.md
category: reference
title: Children with Special Healthcare Needs in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:06.242840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
Inpatient/outpatient hospital resources Transportation for non-emergency medical care Home health services Laboratory procedures Physician services Family planning Nursing facilities Early Periodic Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment (EPDST) program Tobacco cessation programs for pregnant women Medicaid requires no co-payment or deductibles. To be eligible for the program one must be in one of four categories. The first is income level, the second is disability criteria, the third is eligibility for institutional level of care, and the fourth is out of home placement. Many CSHCN qualify for Medicaid based on low income level, but some children qualify independently of income level due to their disabilities. Medicaid has a more restrictive definition of disabilities and special healthcare needs than the Maternal and Children's Health Bureau (MCHB), and defines special needs as needs that must impede daily functioning. Medicaid accepts children who need to receive Supplemental Security Income program money, and children who are defined as medically needy. Medically needy children are those whose families have above the maximum income to receive Medicaid, but due to health expenditures their income is lowered to the level required. 40 states currently offer this program. Medicaid programs in each state are administered differently, and federal dollars go to


id: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States-2.md
category: reference
title: Children with Special Healthcare Needs in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:06.242840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
=== Therapy for CSHCN === Therapies for children with special healthcare needs can be accessed via public schools or private therapists. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) includes occupational and physical therapy as well as other therapies, as part of the special education that should be offered in all public schools to CSHCN. This act states that all children with disabilities should have access to education that suits their SHCN, including needed therapies. Out of school therapies can also be used be employed by children with SHCN but only 3.2% of CSHCN qualify for uses of special therapy under their insurance programs. One type of therapy for children with SHCN is occupational therapy. Occupational therapists work with CSHCN by supporting them and their families to learn how to participate in everyday routines and daily activities. They encourage children with physical, cognitive, communication and behavior challenges to develop ways to live, play, learn and make friends despite their special needs. Occupational therapists can work with these children and their schools to create more accommodating learning environments. Another skill these professionals teach to children with SHCN is how to use adaptive equipment such as wheelchairs, eating aids and braces in daily


id: chronic-condition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-0.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
A chronic condition, also known as chronic disease or chronic illness, is a health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in its effects. The term chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more than three months. Common chronic diseases include diabetes, functional gastrointestinal disorder, eczema, arthritis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, autoimmune diseases, genetic disorders and some viral diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Chronic illnesses are sometimes contrasted with terminal illnesses, which will end the affected person’s life. It is possible for an illness to change in definition from terminal to chronic as medicine progresses. For example, type 1 diabetes and HIV were once terminal, but are now considered chronic illnesses due to the availability of daily medications which allow these individuals to live while managing symptoms. In medicine, chronic conditions are distinguished from those that are acute. An acute condition typically affects a person for a few days to several weeks. On the other hand, a chronic condition persists for an extended period of time or is lifelong, even with treatment. Chronic conditions may have periods of remission, where a person has few or no symptoms, and relapse, where symptoms


id: chronic-condition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-1.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
While risk factors vary, many common chronic diseases are caused by dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors. Therefore, these conditions might be prevented by behavioral changes, such as quitting smoking, adopting a healthy diet, and increasing physical activity. Social determinants are important risk factors for chronic diseases. Social factors, e.g., socioeconomic status, education level, and race/ethnicity, are a major cause for the disparities observed in the care of chronic disease. Lack of access and delay in receiving care result in worse outcomes for patients from minorities and underserved populations. Those barriers to medical care complicate patients monitoring and continuity in treatment. In the US, minorities and low-income populations are less likely to seek, access and receive preventive services necessary to detect conditions at an early stage. The majority of US health care and economic costs associated with medical conditions are incurred by chronic diseases and conditions and associated health risk behaviors. Eighty-four percent of all health care spending in 2006 was for the 50% of the population who have one or more common chronic medical conditions (CDC, 2014). There are several psychosocial risk and resistance factors among children with chronic illness and their family members. Adults with chronic illness were


id: chronic-condition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-2.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
== Prevention == A growing body of evidence supports that prevention is effective in reducing the effect of chronic conditions; in particular, early detection results in less severe outcomes. Clinical preventive services include screening for the existence of the disease or predisposition to its development, counseling and immunizations against infectious agents. Despite their effectiveness, the utilization of preventive services is typically lower than for regular medical services. In contrast to their apparent cost in time and money, the benefits of preventive services are not directly perceived by patient because their effects are on the long term or might be greater for society as a whole than at the individual level. Public health programs are important in educating the public, and promoting healthy lifestyles and awareness about chronic diseases. While those programs can benefit from funding at different levels (state, federal, private) their implementation is mostly in charge of local agencies and community-based organizations. Studies have shown that public health programs are effective in reducing mortality rates associated to cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancer, but the results are somewhat heterogeneous depending on the type of condition and the type of programs involved. For example, results from different approaches in cancer prevention


id: chronic-condition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-3.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === As of 2003, there are a few programs which aim to gain more knowledge on the epidemiology of chronic disease using data collection. The hope of these programs is to gather epidemiological data on various chronic diseases across the United States and demonstrate how this knowledge can be valuable in addressing chronic disease. In the United States, as of 2004 nearly one in two Americans (133 million) has at least one chronic medical condition, with most subjects (58%) between the ages of 18 and 64. The number is projected to increase by more than one percent per year by 2030, resulting in an estimated chronically ill population of 171 million. The most common chronic conditions are high blood pressure, arthritis, respiratory diseases like emphysema, and high cholesterol. Based on data from 2014 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS), about 60% of adult Americans were estimated to have one chronic illness, with about 40% having more than one; this rate appears to be mostly unchanged from 2008. MEPS data from 1998 showed 45% of adult Americans had at least one chronic illness, and 21% had more than one. According to research by the CDC, chronic disease is also


id: chronic-condition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-4.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === The Public Health Agency of Canada states that chronic disease has a negative impact on the labor force participant of individuals. In particular, people with chronic diseases "are likely to have recurrent sick leave, long-term absences from work, and often face an early retirement from the labour force." In 2000, the Public Health Agency of Canada stated that the total economic burden of arthritis totaled 6.4 billion Canadian dollars per year, representing 28.9% of all musculoskeletal disease expenditures. 65% of the total economic cost was incurred by those aged 35-64 years old. It is anticipated that people aged 55 and older will most significantly contribute to the prevalence of arthritis. This is projected to result in reduced labor force participant and a substantial increase in morbidity costs. The Public Health Agency of Canada recommends focusing on prevention strategies, minimizing costs by improving health and reducing disability, and providing support to people with arthritis to remain active in the workforce. === Japan === As of 2004, the estimated economic burden of Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is 805.5 billion yen per year. Direct costs, which include inpatient care, outpatient care, and home oxygen therapy, account for 645.1 billion


id: chronic-condition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-5.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gender === Gender influences how chronic disease is viewed and treated in society. Women's chronic health issues are often considered to be most worthy of treatment or most severe when the chronic condition interferes with a woman's fertility. Historically, there is less of a focus on a woman's chronic conditions when it interferes with other aspects of her life or well-being. Many women report feeling less than or even "half of a woman" due to the pressures that society puts on the importance of fertility and health when it comes to typically feminine ideals. These kinds of social barriers interfere with women's ability to perform various other activities in life and fully work toward their aspirations. === Socioeconomic class and race === Race is also implicated in chronic illness, although there may be many other factors involved. Racial minorities are 1.5-2 times more likely to have most chronic diseases than white individuals. Non-Hispanic blacks are 40% more likely to have high blood pressure that non-Hispanic whites, diagnosed diabetes is 77% higher among non-Hispanic blacks, and American Indians and Alaska Natives are 60% more likely to be obese than non-Hispanic whites. Some of this prevalence has been suggested to be


id: chronic-care-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_care-0.md
category: reference
title: Chronic care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:08.631564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-care-20260505-0
summary:
Chronic care refers to medical care which addresses pre-existing or long-term illness, as opposed to acute care which is concerned with short term or severe illness of brief duration. Chronic medical conditions include asthma, diabetes, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, congestive heart disease, cirrhosis of the liver, hypertension and depression. Without effective treatment chronic conditions may lead to disability. The incidence of chronic disease has increased as mortality rates have decreased. It is estimated that by 2030 half of the population of the USA will have one or more chronic conditions. According to the CDC, 6 out of 10 adults in the U.S. are managing at least one chronic disease and 42% of adults have two or more chronic conditions. Conditions, injuries and diseases which were previously fatal can now be treated with chronic care. Chronic care aims to maintain wellness by keeping symptoms in remission while balancing treatment regimes and quality of life. Many of the core functions of primary health care are central to chronic care. Chronic care is complex in nature because it may extend over a pro-longed period of time, requires input from a diverse set of health professionals, various medications and possibly monitoring equipment. == Policy making


id: clinical-formulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_formulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical formulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_formulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:09.793793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-formulation-20260505-0
summary:
A clinical formulation, also known as case formulation, case conceptualisation, and problem formulation, is a theoretically based explanation or conceptualisation of the information obtained from a clinical assessment. It offers a hypothesis about the cause and nature of the presenting problems and is considered an adjunct or alternative approach to the more categorical approach of psychiatric diagnosis. In clinical practice, formulations are used to communicate a hypothesis and provide a framework for developing the most suitable treatment approach. It is most commonly used by mental health professionals and is deemed to be a core component of that profession. Clinical psychologists, mental health nurses, social workers, and some psychiatrists use this formulation based on specific psychological frameworks. == Types of formulation == Different psychological schools or models utilize clinical formulations, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and related therapies: systemic therapy, psychodynamic therapy, and applied behavior analysis. The structure and content of a clinical formulation is determined by the psychological model. Most systems of formulation contain the following broad categories of information: symptoms and problems; precipitating stressors or events; predisposing life events or stressors; and an explanatory mechanism that links the preceding categories together and offers a description of the precipitants and


id: clinical-pathway-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_pathway-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical pathway
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_pathway
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:10.961778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-pathway-20260505-0
summary:
A clinical pathway, also known as care pathway, integrated care pathway, critical pathway, or care map, is one of the main tools used to manage the quality in healthcare concerning the standardisation of care processes. It has been shown that their implementation reduces the variability in clinical practice and improves outcomes. Clinical pathways aim to promote organised and efficient patient care based on evidence-based medicine, and aim to optimise outcomes in settings such as acute care and home care. A single clinical pathway may refer to multiple clinical guidelines on several topics in a well specified context. == Definition == A clinical pathway is a multidisciplinary management tool based on evidence-based practice for a specific group of patients with a predictable clinical course, in which the different tasks (interventions) by the professionals involved in the patient care are defined, optimized and sequenced either by hour (ED), day (acute care) or visit (homecare). Outcomes are tied to specific interventions. The concept of clinical pathways may have different meanings to different stakeholders. Managed care organizations often view clinical pathways in a similar way as they view care plans, in which the care provided to a patient is definitive and deliberate. Clinical pathways


id: clinical-research-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_research_center-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical research center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_research_center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:12.161397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-research-center-20260505-0
summary:
The term "Clinical research center" (CRC) or "General clinical research center" (GCRC) refers to any designated medical facility used to conduct clinical research, such as at a hospital or medical clinic. They have been used to perform clinical trials of various medical procedures. The medical profession has had specific uses for CRC facilities, including awarding grants to support various types of research. For example, the U.S. National Institutes of Health had, for years, issued GCRC grants, but later changed to awarding a Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA). Many hospitals or clinics have included a wing, ward, or other area titled as "Clinical Research Center" (with capitalized words). == Example facilities == Some examples of CRC facilities are: Harvard-Thorndike General Clinical Research Center in Massachusetts. Mallinckrodt General Clinical Research Center in Massachusetts. Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Center in Maryland. UCLA General Clinical Research Center in California. == References ==


id: clinical-supervision-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_supervision-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical supervision
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_supervision
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:13.366942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-supervision-20260505-0
summary:
Supervision is used in counselling, psychotherapy, and other mental health disciplines as well as many other professions engaged in working with people. Supervision may be applied as well to practitioners in somatic disciplines for their preparatory work for patients as well as collateral with patients. Supervision is a replacement instead of formal retrospective inspection, delivering evidence about the skills of the supervised practitioners. It consists of the practitioner meeting regularly with another professional, not necessarily more senior, but normally with training in the skills of supervision, to discuss casework and other professional issues in a structured way. This is often known as clinical or counselling supervision (consultation differs in being optional advice from someone without a supervisor's formal authority). The purpose is to assist the practitioner to learn from his or her experience and progress in expertise, as well as to ensure good service to the client or patient. Learning shall be applied to planning work as well as to diagnostic work and therapeutic work. Derek Milne defined clinical supervision as: "The formal provision, by approved supervisors, of a relationship-based education and training that is work-focused and which manages, supports, develops and evaluates the work of colleague/s". The main methods


id: clinical-supervision-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_supervision-1.md
category: reference
title: Clinical supervision
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_supervision
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:13.366942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-supervision-20260505-0
summary:
== Models or approaches == There are many different ways of developing supervision skills which can be helpful to the clinician or practitioner in their work. Specific models or approaches to both counselling supervision and clinical supervision come from different historical strands of thinking and beliefs about relationships between people. A few examples are given below. Peter Hawkins (1985) developed an integrative process model which is used internationally in a variety of helping professions. His "Seven Eyed model of Supervision" was further developed by Peter Hawkins along with Robin Shohet, Judy Ryde and Joan Wilmot in "Supervision in the Helping Professions" (1989, 2000 and 2006 and 2012) and with Nick Smith in "Coaching, Mentoring and organisational Consultancy: Supervision and Development" (2006 and 2013) and is taught on the courses of the Centre for Supervision and Team Development as well as many other supervision training courses. S. Page and V. Wosket describe a cyclical structure. F. Inskipp and B. Proctor (1993, 1995) developed an approach based on the normative, formative and restorative elements of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee. The Brief Therapy practice teaches a solution focused approach based on the work of Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg


id: clinophilia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinophilia-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinophilia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinophilia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:14.564316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinophilia-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, clinophilia is a sleep disorder described as the tendency of a patient to remain in bed in a reclined position without sleeping for prolonged periods of time. == Etymology and consequences == The word clinophilia means "liking to lie down" (from the Greek clino- 'lying down' and -philia 'love'). It is one of the first symptoms of depression or schizophrenia, but is not in itself a disease. Clinophiliacs generally experience feelings of isolation and repressed sadness. == Description == This is a psychologically based disorder sometimes found in depression or certain forms of schizophrenia. Clinophiles generally feel lonely. Care must be taken not to confuse this disorder with true hypersomnia, since in the latter patients sleep genuinely and very deeply, whereas in clinophilia, the long sleep times patients may describe are not objectively present. In clinophilia, if patients complain of oversleeping, this is due to psychic problems and not to a physiological defect in the wake/sleep system, as in idiopathic hypersomnia or narcolepsy. Similarly, it should not be confused with dysania, which describes a difficulty in getting out of bed, whereas clinophilia does not describe an "impediment" to getting up, but rather a "willingness" to lie down. Clinophilia


id: cluttering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluttering-0.md
category: reference
title: Cluttering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluttering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:15.816505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cluttering-20260505-0
summary:
Cluttering is a speech and communication disorder characterized by a rapid rate of speech, erratic rhythm, and poor syntax or grammar, making speech difficult to understand. == Classification == Cluttering is a speech and communication disorder that has also been described as a fluency disorder. It is defined as: Cluttering is a fluency disorder characterized by a rate that is perceived to be abnormally rapid, irregular, or both for the speaker (although measured syllable rates may not exceed normal limits). These rate abnormalities further are manifest in one or more of the following symptoms: (a) an excessive number of disfluencies, the majority of which are not typical of people with stuttering; (b) the frequent placement of pauses and use of prosodic patterns that do not conform to syntactic and semantic constraints; and (c) inappropriate (usually excessive) degrees of coarticulation among sounds, especially in multisyllabic words. == Signs and symptoms == Cluttering is sometimes confused with stuttering. Both communication disorders break the normal flow of speech, but they are distinct. A stutterer has a coherent pattern of thoughts, but may have a difficult time vocally expressing those thoughts; in contrast, a clutterer has no problem putting thoughts into words, but those


id: combination-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Combination therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:17.093860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: combination-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Combination therapy or polytherapy is therapy that uses more than one medication or modality. Typically, the term refers to using multiple therapies to treat a single disease, and often all the therapies are pharmaceutical (although it can also involve non-medical therapy, such as the combination of medications and talk therapy to treat depression). 'Pharmaceutical' combination therapy may be achieved by prescribing/administering separate drugs, or, where available, dosage forms that contain more than one active ingredient (such as fixed-dose combinations). Polypharmacy is a related term, referring to the use of multiple medications (without regard to whether they are for the same or separate conditions/diseases). Sometimes "polymedicine" is used to refer to pharmaceutical combination therapy. Most of these kinds of terms lack a universally consistent definition, so caution and clarification are often advisable. == Uses == Conditions treated with combination therapy include tuberculosis, leprosy, cancer, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. One major benefit of combination therapies is that they reduce development of drug resistance since a pathogen or tumor is less likely to have resistance to multiple drugs simultaneously. Artemisinin-based monotherapies for malaria are explicitly discouraged to avoid the problem of developing resistance to the newer treatment. Combination therapy may seem costlier than monotherapy


id: communicans-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicans-0.md
category: reference
title: Communicans
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicans
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:18.216211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: communicans-20260505-0
summary:
Communicans is a Latin word meaning "communicating". It is most commonly used in medical or biological terminology. The rami communicans are connective spinal nerves that attach to the ganglion of the sympathetic trunk. The two branches of the nerves are termed the White ramus communicans. The arteria comminicans are the three arteries in the brain that form the circle of Willis. Communicating artery is a synonym for this term. The macula communicans (or zonula communicans) is a synonym for a gap junction. These are locations on the cellular membrane that lie 2–4 nm from an adjacent cell and are penetrated by a connexon. A ductus communicans is a constriction of a swim bladder between the anterior and posterior chambers.


id: complication-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Complication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:19.410220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: complication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
A complication in medicine, or medical complication, is an unfavorable result of a disease, health condition, or treatment. Complications may adversely affect the prognosis, or outcome, of a disease. Complications generally involve a worsening in the severity of the disease or the development of new signs, symptoms, or pathological changes that may become widespread throughout the body and affect other organ systems. Thus, complications may lead to the development of new diseases resulting from previously existing diseases. Complications may also arise as a result of various treatments. The development of complications depends on a number of factors, including the degree of vulnerability, susceptibility, age, health status, and immune system condition. Knowledge of the most common and severe complications of a disease, procedure, or treatment allows for prevention and preparation for treatment if they should occur. Complications are not to be confused with sequelae, which are residual effects that occur after the acute (initial, most severe) phase of an illness or injury. Sequelae can appear early in the development of disease or weeks to months later and are a result of the initial injury or illness. For example, a scar resulting from a burn or dysphagia resulting from a stroke would


id: complication-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Complication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:19.410220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: complication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Cardiovascular disease. Adults with diabetes are significantly more likely to die from heart disease than are those without diabetes. Diabetes is associated with risk factors for various cardiovascular diseases including obesity, insulin resistance, high blood cholesterol and triglyceride content, and high blood pressure. These conditions increase risk of thrombosis, atherosclerosis (blockage of coronary arteries leading to inadequate supply of oxygen to parts of the heart), and hypertension which can lead to myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease (CAD), and others. Diabetic neuropathy. Hyperglycemia can eventually cause damage to nerves in the distal extremities (peripheral neuropathy), thighs and hips (radiculoplexus neuropathy), face (mononeuropathy), and internal organs (autonomic neuropathy). Initial symptoms may present as numbness, tingling, pain, muscular weakness, loss of reflexes or proper bodily functions, and many others. Diabetic nephropathy. Excessive amounts of certain solutes passing through the kidneys for prolonged periods of time can lead to kidney damage. Diabetic nephropathy is specifically characterized by abnormally high levels of urinary albumin excretion. This affects approximately 40% of patients with type I or type II diabetes. Diabetic retinopathy. Chronic or prolonged type I and type II diabetes can lead to damage in the blood vessels of the retina due to hyperglycemia (excessive blood


id: complication-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)-2.md
category: reference
title: Complication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:19.410220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: complication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Streptococcal pharyngitis, also known as strep throat, is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by group A Strep, Streptococcus pyogenes, a gram-positive, cocci, beta-hemolytic (lyses blood cells) bacteria. It is primarily spread by direct contact and the transfer of fluids via oral or other secretions and manifests largely in children. Common symptoms associated with streptococcal pharyngitis include sore throat, fever, white excretions at the back of the mouth, and cervical adenopathy (swollen lymph nodes underneath the chin and around the neck area). Streptococcal pharyngitis can lead to various complications and recurrent infection can increase the likelihood. In many of these, lack of treatment and the body's immune response is responsible for the additional adverse reactions. These include: Scarlet fever. In addition to the symptoms of strep throat, individuals may experience increased a red rash, increased red tone, and strawberry tongue. The prominent rash generally fades after a few days and may peel for a few weeks. Treatment is the same as for strep throat. Rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever generally develops a few weeks after symptoms of strep throat have passed and is less likely to develop if prompt treatment (antibiotics) is given. Typical symptoms can include polyarthritis (temporary joint


id: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry-0.md
category: reference
title: Computerized physician order entry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:20.608307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-0
summary:
Computerized physician order entry (CPOE), sometimes referred to as computerized provider order entry or computerized provider order management (CPOM), is a process of electronic entry of medical practitioner instructions for the treatment of patients (particularly hospitalized patients) under his or her care. The entered orders are communicated over a computer network to the medical staff or to the departments (pharmacy, laboratory, or radiology) responsible for fulfilling the order. CPOE reduces the time it takes to distribute and complete orders, while increasing efficiency by reducing transcription errors including preventing duplicate order entry, while simplifying inventory management and billing. CPOE is a form of patient management software. == Required data == In a graphical representation of an order sequence, specific data should be presented to CPOE system staff in cleartext, including: identity of the patient role of required member of staff resources, materials and medication applied procedures to be performed operational sequence to be obeyed feedback to be noted case specific documentation to build Some textual data can be reduced to simple graphics. == CPOE related terminology == CPOE systems use terminology familiar to medical and nursing staff, but there are different terms used to classify and concatenate orders. The following items


id: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry-1.md
category: reference
title: Computerized physician order entry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:20.608307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-0
summary:
== Patient safety benefits == In the past, physicians have traditionally hand-written or verbally communicated orders for patient care, which are then transcribed by various individuals (such as unit clerks, nurses, and ancillary staff) before being carried out. Handwritten reports or notes, manual order entry, non-standard abbreviations and poor legibility lead to errors and injuries to patients, . A follow-up IOM report in 2001 advised use of electronic medication ordering, with computer- and internet-based information systems to support clinical decisions. Prescribing errors are the largest identified source of preventable hospital medical error. A 2006 report by the Institute of Medicine estimated that a hospitalized patient is exposed to a medication error each day of his or her stay. While further studies have estimated that CPOE implementation at all nonrural hospitals in the United States could prevent over 500,000 serious medication errors each year. Studies of computerized physician order entry (CPOE) has yielded evidence that suggests the medication error rate can be reduced by 80%, and errors that have potential for serious harm or death for patients can be reduced by 55%, and other studies have also suggested benefits. Further, in 2005, CMS and CDC released a report that showed only


id: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry-2.md
category: reference
title: Computerized physician order entry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:20.608307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-0
summary:
== Implementation == CPOE systems can take years to install and configure. Despite ample evidence of the potential to reduce medication errors, adoption of this technology by doctors and hospitals in the United States has been slowed by resistance to changes in physician's practice patterns, costs and training time involved, and concern with interoperability and compliance with future national standards. According to a study by RAND Health, the US healthcare system could save more than 81 billion dollars annually, reduce adverse medical events and improve the quality of care if it were to widely adopt CPOE and other health information technology. As more hospitals become aware of the financial benefits of CPOE, and more physicians with a familiarity with computers enter practice, increased use of CPOE is predicted. Several high-profile failures of CPOE implementation have occurred, so a major effort must be focused on change management, including restructuring workflows, dealing with physicians' resistance to change, and creating a collaborative environment. An early success with CPOE by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) is the Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture or VistA. A graphical user interface known as the Computerized Patient Record System (CPRS) allows health care


id: conservative-treatment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_treatment-0.md
category: reference
title: Conservative treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:21.793562+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservative-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
Conservative treatment is a type of medical treatment defined by the avoidance of invasive procedures, such as surgery, usually with the intent to preserve function or body parts, maintain quality of life, or avoid the risk of complications from surgery. The effectiveness of a conservative treatment plan depends on patient/provider goals as well as the stage and type of disease or injury. == Effectiveness of conservative treatment == === Kidney failure === In patients with advanced kidney failure, Conservative Kidney Management (CKM), or Comprehensive Conservative Care (CCC), is an alternative to dialysis or transplant. CKM includes management of pain and other symptoms, nutrition, and preservation of kidney function through noninvasive methods with an emphasis on quality of life. Studies of treatment strategies among elderly patients show that while more aggressive treatments such as dialysis may increase life expectancy, this effect diminishes among patients over 80, while patients who choose conservative treatment report a higher quality of life. One barrier to establishing strong provider-patient communication about CKM is disagreement among providers over the specific terms used, including "conservative treatment," "conservative care," "supportive care," "palliative care," "Conservative Kidney Management," and "Comprehensive Conservative Care." === Appendicitis === Conservative treatment of acute appendicitis has


id: contraindication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraindication-0.md
category: reference
title: Contraindication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraindication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:23.038235+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contraindication-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a contraindication is a condition (a situation or factor) that serves as a reason not to take a certain medical treatment due to the harm that it would cause the patient. Contraindication is the opposite of indication, which is a reason to use a certain treatment. Absolute contraindications are contraindications for which there are no reasonable circumstances for undertaking a course of action (that is, overriding the prohibition). For example: Children and teenagers with viral infections should not be given aspirin because of the risk of Reye syndrome. A person with an anaphylactic food allergy should never eat the food to which they are allergic. A person with hemochromatosis should not be administered iron preparations. Some medications are so teratogenic that they are absolutely contraindicated in pregnancy; examples include thalidomide and isotretinoin. Relative contraindications are contraindications for circumstances in which the patient is at higher risk of complications from treatment, but these risks may be outweighed by other considerations or mitigated by other measures. For example, pregnant individuals should normally avoid getting X-rays, but the risk from radiography may be outweighed by the benefit of diagnosing (and then treating) a serious condition such as tuberculosis. Another principal pair


id: convulsion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsion-0.md
category: reference
title: Convulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:24.230938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: convulsion-20260505-0
summary:
A convulsion is a medical condition where the body muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in uncontrolled shaking. Because epileptic seizures typically include convulsions, the term convulsion is often used as a synonym for seizure. However, not all epileptic seizures result in convulsions, and not all convulsions are caused by epileptic seizures. Non-epileptic convulsions have no relation with epilepsy, and are caused by non-epileptic seizures. Convulsions can be caused by epilepsy, infections (including a severe form of listeriosis which is caused by eating food contaminated by Listeria monocytogenes), brain trauma, or other medical conditions. They can also occur from an electric shock or improperly enriched air for scuba diving. The word fit is sometimes used to mean a convulsion or epileptic seizure. == Signs and symptoms == A person having a convulsion may experience several different symptoms, such as a brief blackout, confusion, drooling, loss of bowel or bladder control, sudden shaking of the entire body, uncontrollable muscle spasms, or temporary cessation of breathing. Symptoms usually last from a few seconds to several minutes, although they can last longer. Convulsions in children are not necessarily benign, and may lead to brain damage if prolonged. In these patients, the


id: corpulence-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpulence_index-0.md
category: reference
title: Corpulence index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpulence_index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:25.492049+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: corpulence-index-20260505-0
summary:
The Corpulence Index (CI) (also Ponderal Index (PI), Rohrer's Index, Tri-ponderal Mass Index, or Triponderal Mass Index (TMI)) is a measure of corpulence, or of leanness in other variants, of a person calculated as a relationship between mass and height. It was first proposed in 1921 as the "Corpulence measure" by Swiss physician Fritz Rohrer and hence is also known as Rohrer's Index. It is similar to the body mass index, but the mass is normalized with the third power of body height rather than the second power. C I = m a s s h e i g h t 3 {\displaystyle \mathrm {CI} ={\frac {\mathrm {mass} }{\mathrm {height} ^{3}}}} with m a s s {\displaystyle \mathrm {mass} } in kilograms and h e i g h t {\displaystyle \mathrm {height} } in metres, giving a measure with the same dimensions as density. The corpulence index yields valid results even for very short and very tall persons, which is a problem with BMI — for example, an ideal body weight for a person 152.4 cm tall (48 kg) will render BMI of 20.7 and CI of 13.6, while for a person 200 cm tall (99 kg), the BMI will


id: cosmesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:26.654274+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmesis-20260505-0
summary:
Cosmesis is the preservation, restoration, or bestowing of bodily beauty. In the medical context, it usually refers to the surgical correction of a disfiguring defect, or the cosmetic improvements made by a surgeon following incisions. Its use is generally limited to the additional, usually minor, steps that the surgeon (who is generally operating for noncosmetic indications) takes to improve the aesthetic appearance of the scars associated with the operation. Typical actions include removal of damaged tissue, mitigation of tension on the wound, and/or using fine (thin) sutures to close the outer layer of skin. Cosmetic surgery is the portion of plastic surgery that concerns itself with the elective improvement of cosmesis. == Prosthetic limbs == The practice of cosmesis, the creation of lifelike limbs made from silicone or PVC, has grown in popularity. Such prosthetics, such as artificial hands, can now be made to mimic the appearance of real limbs, complete with freckles, veins, hair, fingerprints, and even tattoos. Custom-made silicone cosmeses are generally more expensive, costing thousands of US dollars depending on the level of detail. Standard cosmeses come ready-made in various sizes, though they are often not as realistic as their custom-made counterparts. Another option is the custom-made


id: counterstimulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterstimulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Counterstimulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterstimulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:27.843943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: counterstimulation-20260505-0
summary:
Counterstimulation is a treatment for pain based on distraction. A basic example is the practice of rubbing a fresh bruise, so that attention is paid to the sense of touch and pressure, rather than to the pain of the injury. Liniment and "medicated" products containing menthol work in the same way, producing sensations such as heat or cold or strong odors. Counterstimulation can also be applied to a remote part of the body. Pain control can also be achieved by the use of electronic media, such as television or virtual reality. == See also == Counterirritant == References == A definition of counterstimulation Virtual reality for pain management


id: course-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Course (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:29.002187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: course-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine the term course generally takes one of two meanings, both reflecting the sense of "path that something or someone moves along...process or sequence or steps": A course of medication is a period of continual treatment with drugs, sometimes with variable dosage and in particular combinations. For instance treatment with some drugs should not end abruptly. Instead, their course should end with a tapering dosage. Antibiotics: Taking the full course of antibiotics is important to prevent reinfection and/or development of drug-resistant bacteria. Steroids: For both short-term and long-term steroid treatment, when stopping treatment, the dosage is tapered rather than abruptly ended. This permits the adrenal glands to resume the body's natural production of cortisol. Abrupt discontinuation can result in adrenal insufficiency; and/or steroid withdrawal syndrome (a rebound effect in which exaggerated symptoms return). The course of a disease, also called its natural history, is the development of the disease in a patient, including the sequence and speed of the stages and forms they take. Typical courses of diseases include: chronic recurrent or relapsing subacute: somewhere between an acute and a chronic course acute: beginning abruptly, intensifying rapidly, not lasting long fulminant or peracute: particularly acute, especially if unusually violent


id: craniocervical-instability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniocervical_instability-0.md
category: reference
title: Craniocervical instability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniocervical_instability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:30.316146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: craniocervical-instability-20260505-0
summary:
Craniocervical instability (CCI) is a medical condition characterized by excessive movement of the vertebra at the atlanto-occipital joint and the atlanto-axial joint located between the skull and the top two vertebra, known as C1 and C2. The condition can cause neural injury and compression of nearby structures, including the brain stem, spinal cord, vagus nerve, and vertebral artery, resulting in a constellation of symptoms. Craniocervical instability is more common in people with a connective tissue disease, including Ehlers–Danlos syndromes, osteogenesis imperfecta, and rheumatoid arthritis. It is frequently co-morbid with atlanto-axial joint instability, Chiari malformation, or tethered spinal cord syndrome. The condition can be brought on by physical trauma, including whiplash, laxity of the ligaments surrounding the joint, or other damage to the surrounding connective tissue. == Symptoms and signs == The experience of craniocervical instability can range from minor symptoms to severe disability, in which patients are bedbound. The constellation of symptoms caused by craniocervical instability is known as cervico-medullary syndrome, which may include: Anxiety disorders Bobble-head doll syndrome – a sensation that the skull may fall off the cervical spine Clumsiness and motor delay Cognitive and memory decline Double or blurred vision Dysphagia – a sensation of choking Dyspnea


id: culture-conversion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_conversion-0.md
category: reference
title: Culture conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:31.571045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: culture-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
Culture conversion is a diagnostic criteria indicating the point at which samples taken from a person infected with a tuberculosis can no longer produce tuberculosis cell cultures. Culture conversion is a positive prognostic marker indicating that a person is cured of, or is recovering from, tuberculosis. == References ==


id: cure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cure-0.md
category: reference
title: Cure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:32.738778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cure-20260505-0
summary:
A cure is a substance or procedure that resolves a medical condition. This may include a medication, a surgical operation, a lifestyle change, or even a philosophical shift that alleviates a person's suffering or achieves a state of healing. The medical condition can be a disease, mental illness or genetic disorder. An incurable disease is not necessarily a terminal illness, and conversely, a curable illness can still be fatal. The cure fraction or cure rate—the proportion of people with a disease who are cured by a given treatment—is determined by comparing disease-free survival in treated individuals against a matched control group without the disease. Another method for determining the cure fraction and/or "cure time" involves measuring when the hazard rate in a diseased group returns to the hazard rate observed in the general population. The concept of a cure inherently implies the permanent resolution of a specific instance of a disease. For example, a person who recovers from the common cold is considered cured, even though they may contract another cold in the future. Conversely, a person who effectively manages a disease like diabetes mellitus to prevent undesirable symptoms without permanently eliminating it is not considered cured. Related concepts with


id: dead-on-arrival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_on_arrival-0.md
category: reference
title: Dead on arrival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_on_arrival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:34.005679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-on-arrival-20260505-0
summary:
Dead on arrival (DOA) indicates that a patient is unsalvageable, i.e. cannot be resuscitated, upon arrival at a medical facility or the arrival of paramedics at the scene. Dead in the field, brought in dead (BID), and dead right there (DRT) are terms which similarly indicate that a patient was found to be already clinically dead upon the arrival of professional medical assistance, often in the form of first responders such as emergency medical technicians, paramedics, firefighters, or police. In some jurisdictions, first responders must consult verbally with a physician before officially pronouncing a patient deceased, but once cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is initiated, it must be continued until a physician can pronounce the patient dead. == Medical DOA == When presented with a patient, medical professionals are required to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) unless specific conditions are met that allow them to pronounce the patient as deceased. In most places, these are examples of such criteria: Injuries that are incompatible with life. These include but are not necessarily limited to decapitation, catastrophic brain trauma, incineration, gross dismemberment, or injuries that do not permit effective administration of CPR. If a patient has sustained such injuries, it should be intuitively obvious that


id: dead-space-physiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dead space (physiology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:35.255677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-space-physiology-20260505-0
summary:
Dead space is the volume of air that is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange, because it either remains in the conducting airways or reaches alveoli that are not perfused or poorly perfused. It means that not all the air in each breath is available for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Mammals breathe in and out of their lungs, wasting that part of the inhalation which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur. == Components == Total dead space (also known as physiological dead space) is the sum of the anatomical dead space and the alveolar dead space. Benefits do accrue to a seemingly wasteful design for ventilation that includes dead space. Carbon dioxide is retained, making a bicarbonate-buffered blood and interstitium possible. Inspired air is brought to body temperature, increasing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, improving O2 uptake. Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways, allowing its removal by mucociliary transport. Inspired air is humidified, improving the quality of airway mucus. In humans, about a third of every resting breath has no change in O2 and CO2 levels. In adults, it is usually


id: dead-space-physiology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Dead space (physiology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:35.255677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-space-physiology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Anatomic dead space === A different maneuver is employed in measuring anatomic dead space: the test subject breathes all the way out, inhales deeply from a 0% nitrogen gas mixture (usually 100% oxygen) and then breathes out into equipment that measures nitrogen and gas volume. This final exhalation occurs in three phases. The first phase (phase 1) has no nitrogen as that is gas that is 100% oxygen in the anatomic dead space. The nitrogen concentration then rapidly increases during the brief second phase (phase 2) and finally reaches a plateau in the third phase (phase 3). The anatomic dead space is equal to the volume exhaled during the first phase plus the volume up to the mid-point of the transition from phase 1 to phase 3. == Ventilated patient == The depth and frequency of our breathing is determined by chemoreceptors and the brainstem, as modified by a number of subjective sensations. When mechanically ventilated using a mandatory mode, the patient breathes at a rate and tidal volume that is dictated by the machine. Because of dead space, taking deep breaths more slowly (e.g. ten 500 ml breaths per minute) is more effective than taking shallow breaths quickly


id: death-by-misadventure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_by_misadventure-0.md
category: reference
title: Death by misadventure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_by_misadventure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:36.467338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: death-by-misadventure-20260505-0
summary:
In the United Kingdom, death by misadventure is the recorded manner of death for an accidental death caused by a risk taken voluntarily. Misadventure in English law, as recorded by coroners and on death certificates and associated documents, is a death that is primarily attributed to an accident that occurred due to a risk that was taken voluntarily. In contrast, when the manner of death is given as an accident, the coroner has determined that the decedent had taken no unreasonable willful risk. "Misadventure may be the right conclusion when a death arises from some deliberate human act which unexpectedly and unintentionally goes wrong." Legally defined manner of death: a way by which an actual cause of death (trauma, exposure, etc.) was allowed to occur. For example, a death caused by an illicit drug overdose may be ruled a death by misadventure, as the user took the risk of drug usage voluntarily. Misadventure is a form of unnatural death, a category that also includes accidental death, suicide, and homicide. In the case of R v Wolverhampton Coroner, it was held that the coroner must establish death by misadventure on the balance of probabilities, commonly known as "more likely than not".


id: decompensation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompensation-0.md
category: reference
title: Decompensation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompensation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:37.741951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompensation-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, decompensation is the functional deterioration of a structure or system that had been previously working with the help of compensation. Decompensation may occur due to fatigue, stress, illness, or old age. When a system is "compensated", it is able to function despite stressors or defects. Decompensation describes an inability to compensate for these deficiencies. It is a general term commonly used in medicine to describe a variety of situations. == Medical term == For example, cardiac decompensation may refer to the failure of the heart to maintain adequate blood circulation, after long-standing (previously compensated) vascular disease (see heart failure). Short-term treatment of cardiac decompensation can be achieved through administration of dobutamine, resulting in an increase in heart contractility via an inotropic effect. Kidney failure can also occur following a slow degradation of kidney function due to an underlying untreated illness; the symptoms of the latter can then become much more severe due to the lack of efficient compensation by the kidney. Some of the signs of chronic liver disease detectable on clinical examination are associated with decompensation. == Psychology == In psychology, the term refers to an individual's loss of healthy defense mechanisms in response to stress, resulting


id: deficiency-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deficiency_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Deficiency (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deficiency_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:39.068236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deficiency-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a deficiency is a lack or shortage of a functional entity, by less than normal or necessary supply or function. A person can have chromosomal deficiencies, mental deficiencies, nutritional deficiencies, complement deficiencies, or enzyme deficiencies. == Nutritional deficiency == Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is a condition where people consume very little in the way of energy, proteins, or both in their diets; as a result, it is common in developing nations. The two main illnesses associated with this condition are kwashiorkor, which is characterized by severe protein deficiency, and marasmus, which is total food deprivation with abnormally low amounts of protein and energy. === Carbohydrates deficiency === Certain human body cells, such as neurons, require high glucose concentrations. When there are insufficient carbohydrates in the diet, the breakdown of body proteins, dietary proteins, and glycerol from fats is what drives gluconeogenesis. Most gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver. A condition known as ketosis (increased ketones production), which is characterized by a strangely sweet-smelling patient, may result from a prolonged shortage of carbohydrates. === Essential fatty acids deficiency === The essential fatty acids (EFA) omega-3 and omega-6 are polyunsaturated. Clinical signs of an EFA deficiency include stunted growth in kids and


id: degeneration-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneration_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Degeneration (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneration_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:40.395082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degeneration-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Degeneration is deterioration in the medical sense. Generally, it is the change from a higher to a lower form. More specifically, it is the change of tissue to a lower or less functionally active form. True degeneration: when there is actual chemical change of the tissue itself. Infiltration: when the change consists of the deposit of abnormal matter in the tissues Degenerative disease == See also == Dysgenics Macular degeneration Neurodegenerative disease Social degeneration == References == Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (Twenty-sixth Edition) (ISBN 0-7216-1645-3)


id: dense-breast-tissue-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_breast_tissue-0.md
category: reference
title: Dense breast tissue
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_breast_tissue
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:41.578373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dense-breast-tissue-20260505-0
summary:
Dense breast tissue, also known as dense breasts, is a condition of the breasts where a higher proportion of the breasts are made up of glandular tissue and fibrous tissue than fatty tissue. Around 40–50% of women have dense breast tissue and one of the main medical components of the condition is that mammograms are unable to differentiate tumorous tissue from the surrounding dense tissue. This increases the risk of late diagnosis of breast cancer in women with dense breast tissue. Additionally, women with such tissue have a higher likelihood of developing breast cancer in general, though the reasons for this are poorly understood. == Definition and prevalence == Dense breast tissue is defined based on the amount of glandular and fibrous tissue as compared to the percentage of fatty tissue. The current mammography classifications split up the density of breasts into four categories. Approximately 10% of women have almost entirely fatty breasts, 40% with small pockets of dense tissue, 40% with even distribution of dense tissue throughout, and 10% with extremely dense tissue. The latter two groups are those included under the definition of dense breasts. These categories were officially determined as a part of the American College of


id: dense-breast-tissue-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_breast_tissue-1.md
category: reference
title: Dense breast tissue
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_breast_tissue
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:41.578373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dense-breast-tissue-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== The issues of diagnosing breast cancer for such affected women are required to be a part of the information given and the suggestion of additional testing using alternative methods. Most legislation also has any mammograms taken be given to the patient's physician and made a part of their medical record. The first state legislation on dense breast notifications was passed in 2009 in Connecticut after advocacy by breast cancer survivor Nancy Cappello, who had been diagnosed with stage 3 cancer owing to the failure of mammograms to detect the growing tumor. Other states have passed their own legislation, with Texas, for example, passing Henda's Law in 2011. By 2015, 19 states had legal notification statutes for dense breast tissue. A federal law titled the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA) already covers and regulates how mammography reports are handled and requires sending dense breast identification to physicians. But the law did not include notifying the patient; state-level laws have sought to account for this gap in regulation since 2009. A federal bill to expand the MQSA was presented to Congress in October of 2011, but was not passed. Subsequent federal bills were signed into law in February


id: dental-abrasion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_abrasion-0.md
category: reference
title: Dental abrasion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_abrasion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:42.908553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dental-abrasion-20260505-0
summary:
Abrasion is the non-carious, mechanical wear of tooth from interaction with objects other than tooth-tooth contact. It most commonly affects the premolars and canines, usually along the cervical margins. Based on clinical surveys, studies have shown that abrasion is the most common but not the sole aetiological factor for development of non-carious cervical lesions (NCCL) and is most frequently caused by incorrect toothbrushing technique. Abrasion frequently presents at the cemento-enamel junction and can be caused by many contributing factors, all with the ability to affect the tooth surface in varying degrees. The appearance may vary depending on the cause of abrasion, however most commonly presents in a V-shaped caused by excessive lateral pressure whilst tooth-brushing. The surface is shiny rather than carious, and sometimes the ridge is deep enough to see the pulp chamber within the tooth itself. Non-carious cervical loss due to abrasion may lead to consequences and symptoms such as increased tooth sensitivity to hot and cold, increased plaque trapping which will result in caries and periodontal disease, and difficulty of dental appliances such as retainers or dentures engaging the tooth. It may also be aesthetically unpleasant to some people. For successful treatment of abrasion, the cause first


id: dental-abrasion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_abrasion-1.md
category: reference
title: Dental abrasion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_abrasion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:42.908553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dental-abrasion-20260505-0
summary:
== Treatment == There are several reasons to treat abrasion lesion(s) (also known as 'Class V cavity') such as: Sensitivity. Presence of carious lesion. Aesthetically unpleasant. Arresting the progression of the lesion. Reducing potential onset of caries or periodontal disease as these lesions can present as a plaque retention factor. Where there is a risk of pulpal exposure if lesion depth is severe enough. When retention of a removable appliance is interfered, i.e. denture To improve denture clasp(s) retention. Overall integrity of tooth structure is compromised. In order for successful treatment of abrasion to occur, the aetiology first needs to be identified. The most accurate way of doing so is completing a thorough medical, dental, social and diet history. All aspects need to be investigated as in many cases the cause of abrasion can be multi-factorial. Once a definitive diagnosis is completed the appropriate treatment can commence. Treatment for abrasion can present in varying difficulties depending on the current degree or progress caused by the abrasion. Abrasion often presents in conjunction with other dental conditions such as attrition, decay and erosion. Evidence suggest there is a decrease in the effect of dental abrasion with dental erosion when fluoride varnish is


id: dentomandibular-sensorimotor-dysfunction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentomandibular_sensorimotor_dysfunction-0.md
category: reference
title: Dentomandibular sensorimotor dysfunction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentomandibular_sensorimotor_dysfunction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:44.166953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dentomandibular-sensorimotor-dysfunction-20260505-0
summary:
Dentomandibular sensorimotor dysfunction (DMSD) is a medical condition involving the mandible (lower jaw), upper three cervical (neck) vertebrae, and the surrounding muscle and nerve areas. There is a concentrated nerve center in this area called the trigeminal nucleus. This major pathway of nerves controls pain signals from the teeth, face, head, and neck, and carries them to the brain. DMSD is a condition in which an individual experiences chronic pain or stiffness from these nerve inputs as a result of dental force imbalances. == Signs and symptoms == There are many symptoms associated with DMSD conditions. The most commonly reported are: Headache/Migraine Chronic daily headache Tension-type headache Myofascial pain Tinnitus Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJD) Pulpitis Poor airway control Sleep/arousal disorder Changes in brain chemistry and neurotransmitter balance Bruxism Abfraction Tooth fracture/damage Unstable dental arch form Restricted range of motion and postural adaptations Clenching with or without torus formation Abnormal tooth wear patterns Malocclusion Parafunction Degenerative joint disease This condition affects all ages and both genders. However, females are more likely to suffer from DMSD. Individuals who have experienced chronic headaches and/or migraines without finding lasting relief through traditional medicine can be assessed for DMSD through a combination of objective tests,


id: dentomandibular-sensorimotor-dysfunction-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentomandibular_sensorimotor_dysfunction-1.md
category: reference
title: Dentomandibular sensorimotor dysfunction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentomandibular_sensorimotor_dysfunction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:44.166953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dentomandibular-sensorimotor-dysfunction-20260505-0
summary:
==== Range-of-motion (ROM) assessment ==== This test digitally measures an individual's cervical range of motion from a standing position and displays the results in terms of flexion and extension, left and right lateral flexion, and left and right rotation. Limited cervical range of motion is a disability, and being able to understand what is normal—and where their own mouth, head and neck are during the examination—helps people see how this disability is affecting their condition. This is also when the amount a person can open their mouth is measured. Along with normal opening movement, the jaw should slide symmetrically from left to right at least 25% of the total mouth opening distance. Finally, during the range of motion assessment, a record of jaw joint vibrations and sounds are made. Normal jaw joints glide without noise or vibrations. Depending on the assessment findings, patients are classified as needing 1 of 4 levels of care (see Table 1: Levels of Dental Headache Care) to treat and manage their pain and balance their dental foundation. Every level has a regimented therapy protocol designed to provide the most effective, long-lasting care for each individual. Once the type of headache pain and extent of dental


id: depression-physiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(physiology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Depression (physiology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(physiology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:45.334730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: depression-physiology-20260505-0
summary:
In physiology and medicine, depression refers to a lowering, in particular a reduction in a specific biological variable or the functions of an organ. It is the opposite of elevation. For example, it is possible to refer to "depressed thyroid function" or to a depression of blood flow in a particular area. Further examples: Depression of the central nervous system of an animal may be expressed as drowsiness or sleep, lack of coordination and unconsciousness. Respiratory depression or hypoventilation. == References ==


id: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Developmental origins of health and disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:46.543071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) is an approach to medical research factors that can lead to the development of human diseases during early life development. These factors include the role of prenatal and perinatal exposure to environmental factors, such as undernutrition, stress, environmental chemical, etc. This approach includes an emphasis on epigenetic causes of adult chronic non-communicable diseases. As well as physical human disease, the psychopathology of the foetus can also be predicted by epigenetic factors. == Origin == DOHaD has evolved into its modern understanding from several precursor concepts. In the 19th century the idea of "maternal impressions" was popular. Maternal impression is the idea that anything the mother did before giving birth could affect her offspring. Our modern understanding of DOHaD was developed by several studies by David Barker and his colleagues, which showed a strong relationship between infant mortality rates from 1921 to 1925 and ischemic heart disease rates from 1968 to 1978. This led to the fetal origins hypothesis of the origins of adult diseases, which proposed that this relationship was caused by differences in early life nutrition, with a supporting theory that birthweight is connected to the development of chronic disease. During the


id: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease-1.md
category: reference
title: Developmental origins of health and disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:46.543071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Environmental mismatch hypothesis === This is also referred to as the mismatch theory. Foetal malnutrition followed by excess nutrition in adults is a key example of environmental mismatches. This is very common among people born in impoverished societies. For pregnant women who are living in this type of circumstance the foetuses which are in utero are more likely to sense a low-protein condition and alter their development to survive. Therefore, the foetus will predict that getting food will be very difficult which then will set its metabolism for a "thrifty phenotype". By doing this it will use every calorie to its most efficient use for survival. This can be the same cause for a society with plenty of food available. The embryo will develop insulin resistance and enzyme levels will convert the food that is not being used into fat, which in later life can lead to obesity and diabetes. Overall the environmental mismatch hypothesis is an advantage for human development but not without some disadvantage in later life. == Mechanisms == Epigenetic alterations of gene expression are closely related with developmental origins of the health and disease hypothesis. DNA methylation, histone modifications and non-coding RNAs are altered by


id: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease-2.md
category: reference
title: Developmental origins of health and disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:46.543071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Metabolic diseases === A study done at UC Irvine looked at the impact that maternal stress has on foetal development and overall foetal health. The researchers determined that a mother's stress and adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) related to the length of gestation and growth of the foetus along with impacts on the endocrine and immune systems of the foetus. Early life influences, both prenatal and postnatal, have important effects on children later in life. It was determined that breastfed infants have significantly lower risks of obesity later in life than infants that were formula-fed. Nutrition and growth during the early years of life can be related to the growth of diseases in humans later in their lives. For example, a study done in Jamaica showed that the blood pressure of children was associated with the mother's hemoglobin levels and body fat during pregnancy. Another example of this is shown in an article from the New England Journal of Medicine which took place during the Dutch famine. This study concluded that those who were in utero at the time of the famine were at a greater risk of obesity, hypertension, and heart disease than those who were born before or


id: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease-3.md
category: reference
title: Developmental origins of health and disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:46.543071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Schizophrenia === Large-scale famines offer insights into the effects prenatal malnutrition has on developing foetuses. A team led by Mingqing Xu investigated this possible connection between prenatal malnutrition and schizophrenia by analyzing medical records of people born between 1960 and 1961 during the Great Chinese Famine. This study found that there was a two-fold risk for someone who was born in a rural area during this period of famine to later develop schizophrenia than someone who was born either before or after. However, being born in an urban area during this time was not associated with an increased risk of schizophrenia. This is probably due to factors that exacerbated the impact of the famine in rural areas such as grain procurement and lack of large-scale grain storage. Similar results have been found in studying the effects of the Dutch famine from 1944 to 1945. A study by Hoek compared the levels of schizophrenia for those born between August 15 and December 31, 1945, to those born after the famine had ended. This study found that those born during the time period were between two and two and a half times more likely to have schizophrenia than those born after


id: diadochokinesia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochokinesia-0.md
category: reference
title: Diadochokinesia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochokinesia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:47.860542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diadochokinesia-20260505-0
summary:
Diadochokinesia or diadochokinesis is the ability to make antagonistic movements in quick succession, alternately bringing a limb into opposite positions, as of flexion and extension or of pronation and supination. Speech-language pathology defines it as the speed necessary to stop a determined motor impulse and substitute it with its opposite. The relative timing of this kind of movements is also called alternate motion rates (AMR) or sequential motor rates (SMR). Loss of this ability, called dysdiadochokinesia, is a characteristic sign of cerebellar diseases. Many clinical tests may be employed to test for such disturbances. Alternating movements: Patient is told e.g. to pronate and supinate their hands in rapid succession, holding forearms vertically. In cerebellar diseases, the movements are irregular and inaccurate; in case of the pyramidal tract lesion the motion may be slowed or incomplete. Stewart-Holmes rebound sign: Patient tries to flex the elbow against applied resistance. When physician's grip is suddenly released, the patient should be able to deter it from rebounding. With cerebellar disease, the forearm may sway in several cycles. The patient may even strike themself if not guarded. Various instrumental techniques can be used to investigate speech motor skills, such as imaging movement transduction and point


id: diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:48.997079+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Diagnosis (pl.: diagnoses) is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in a lot of different disciplines, with variations in the use of logic, analytics, and experience, to determine "cause and effect". In systems engineering and computer science, it is typically used to determine the causes of symptoms, mitigations, and solutions. == Computer science and networking == Bayesian network Complex event processing Diagnosis (artificial intelligence) Event correlation Fault management Fault tree analysis Grey problem RPR problem diagnosis Remote diagnostics Root cause analysis Troubleshooting Unified Diagnostic Services == Mathematics and logic == Bayesian probability Block Hackam's dictum Occam's razor Regression diagnostics Sutton's law == Medicine == Medical diagnosis Molecular diagnostics === Methods === CDR computerized assessment system Computer-aided diagnosis Differential diagnosis Retrospective diagnosis === Tools === DELTA (taxonomy) DXplain List of diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry == Organizational development == Organizational diagnostics == Systems engineering == Five whys Eight disciplines problem solving Fault detection and isolation Problem solving == References == == External links == The dictionary definition of diagnosis at Wiktionary


id: diagnosis-of-exclusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis of exclusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:50.188477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-of-exclusion-20260505-0
summary:
A diagnosis of exclusion or by exclusion (per exclusionem) is a diagnosis of a medical condition reached by a process of elimination, which may be necessary if presence cannot be established with complete confidence from history, examination or testing. Such elimination of other reasonable possibilities is a major component in performing a differential diagnosis. Diagnosis by exclusion tends to occur where scientific knowledge is scarce, specifically where the means to verify a diagnosis by an objective method is absent. It can also commonly occur where objective diagnostic tests do exist, but extensive diagnostic testing or sufficient exploration of differential diagnosis by a multidisciplinary team is not undertaken due to financial constraints or assessment bias (health inequity). The largest category of diagnosis by exclusion is seen among psychiatric disorders where the presence of physical or organic disease must be excluded as a prerequisite for making a functional diagnosis. == Examples == An example of such a diagnosis is "fever of unknown origin": to explain the cause of elevated temperature the most common causes of unexplained fever (infection, neoplasm, or collagen vascular disease) must be ruled out. Other examples include: Fibromyalgia Adult-onset Still's disease Behçet's disease Bell's palsy Burning mouth syndrome Chronic


id: diagnosis-related-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-related_group-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis-related group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-related_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:51.426194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-related-group-20260505-0
summary:
Diagnosis-related group (DRG) is a system to classify hospital cases into one of originally 467 groups, with the last group (currently coded as 999) being "Ungroupable". This system of classification was developed in the 1970s as a collaborative project by Robert B Fetter, PhD, of the Yale School of Management, and John D. Thompson, MPH, of the Yale School of Public Health. The system is also referred to as "the DRGs", and its intent was to identify the "products" that a hospital provides. Examples include appendectomy, normal newborn (vaginal delivery), heart failure or psychoses. The system was developed in anticipation of convincing Congress to use it for reimbursement, to replace "cost based" reimbursement that had been used up to that point. DRGs are assigned by a "grouper" program based on ICD (International Classification of Diseases) diagnoses, procedures, age, sex, discharge status, and the presence of complications or comorbidities. DRGs have been used in the US since 1982 to determine how much Medicare pays the hospital for each "product", since patients within each category are clinically similar and are expected to use the same level of hospital resources. DRGs may be further grouped into Major Diagnostic Categories (MDCs). DRGs are also


id: diagnosis-related-group-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-related_group-1.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis-related group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-related_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:51.426194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-related-group-20260505-0
summary:
...the single most influential postwar innovation in medical financing: Medicare's prospective payment system (PPS). Inexorably rising medical inflation and deep economic deterioration forced policymakers in the late 1970s to pursue radical reform of Medicare to keep the program from insolvency. Congress and the Reagan administration eventually turned to the one alternative reimbursement system that analysts and academics had studied more than any other and had even tested with apparent success in New Jersey: prospective payment with diagnosis-related groups (DRGs). Rather than simply reimbursing hospitals whatever costs they charged to treat Medicare patients, the new model paid hospitals a predetermined, set rate based on the patient's diagnosis. The most significant change in health policy since Medicare and Medicaid's passage in 1965 went virtually unnoticed by the general public. Nevertheless, the change was nothing short of revolutionary. For the first time, the federal government gained the upper hand in its financial relationship with the hospital industry. Medicare's new prospective payment system with DRGs triggered a shift in the balance of political and economic power between the providers of medical care (hospitals and physicians) and those who paid for it - power that providers had successfully accumulated for more than half a century.


id: diagnostic-greed-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_greed-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnostic greed
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_greed
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:52.629258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnostic-greed-20260505-0
summary:
Diagnostic greed is a medical term coined by physician Maurice Pappworth to describe the rigidity of physicians in insisting on every classic symptom and physical sign be present before making a diagnosis. Pappworth explained that “overwhelming evidence is not essential for correct diagnosis, and the absence of some expected symptom or sign often does not invalidate an otherwise reasonable diagnosis.” Where a diagnosis may have considerable impact, additional tests providing supporting evidence might be required, making diagnostic greed advantageous. == Origin and definition == The term "diagnostic greed" was coined by physician Maurice Pappworth to describe the rigidity of physicians in insisting on every classic symptom and physical sign be present before making a diagnosis. Pappworth explained that “overwhelming evidence is not essential for correct diagnosis, and the absence of some expected symptom or sign often does not invalidate an otherwise reasonable diagnosis.” He recorded that the correct question was "wherefore is this disease different from all other disease?" Coming to a correct diagnosis "is not like a jury's verdict. It does not have to be proved beyond a reasonable doubt." == Examples == Where a person presents with a classic history associated with clearly recognisable symptoms and signs of


id: diastasis-physiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diastasis_(physiology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Diastasis (physiology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diastasis_(physiology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:53.849340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diastasis-physiology-20260505-0
summary:
In physiology, diastasis is the middle stage of diastole during the cycle of a heartbeat, where the initial passive filling of the heart's ventricles has slowed, but before the atria contract to complete the active filling. Diastasis is the longest phase of cardiac cycle. == See also == Compare diastasis (pathology) == References ==


id: diathesis-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diathesis_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Diathesis (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diathesis_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:55.158526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diathesis-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine and allied fields, diathesis (from Greek διάθεσις) is a hereditary or constitutional predisposition to a group of diseases, an allergy, or other disorder. There are many types of diathesis. Some including strumous diathesis, sthenic diathesis, and many more. Atopic diathesis is a predisposition to develop one or more of hay fever, allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, or atopic dermatitis. == Types == Lupus diathesis Strumous diathesis Sthenic diathesis == See also == Bleeding diathesis Diathesis–stress model == References == == External links == Media related to Diathesis (medicine) at Wikimedia Commons


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
In healthcare, a nomothetic (DDx) is a method of analysis that distinguishes a particular disease or condition from others that present with similar clinical features. Differential diagnostic procedures are used by clinicians to diagnose the specific disease in a patient, or, at least, to consider any imminently life-threatening conditions. Often, each possible disease is called a differential diagnosis (e.g., acute bronchitis could be a differential diagnosis in the evaluation of a cough, even if the final diagnosis is common cold). More generally, a differential diagnostic procedure is a systematic diagnostic method used to identify the presence of a disease entity where multiple alternatives are possible. This method may employ algorithms, akin to the process of elimination, or at least a process of obtaining information that decreases the "probabilities" of candidate conditions to negligible levels, by using evidence such as symptoms, patient history, and medical knowledge to adjust epistemic confidences in the mind of the diagnostician (or, for computerized or computer-assisted diagnosis, the software of the system). Differential diagnosis can be regarded as implementing aspects of the hypothetico-deductive method, in the sense that the potential presence of candidate diseases or conditions can be viewed as hypotheses that clinicians further determine as


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Pr(Presentation is caused by condition in individual) is the probability that the presentation is caused by condition in the individual; condition without further specification refers to any candidate condition Pr(Presentation has occurred in individual) is the probability that the presentation has occurred in the individual, which can be perceived and thereby set at 100% Pr(Presentation WHOIFPI by condition) is the probability that the presentation Would Have Occurred in the First Place in the Individual by condition Pr(Presentation WHOIFPI) is the probability that the presentation Would Have Occurred in the First Place in the Individual When an individual presents with a symptom or sign, Pr(Presentation has occurred in individual) is 100% and can therefore be replaced by 1, and can be ignored since division by 1 does not make any difference: Pr ( Presentation is caused by condition in individual ) = Pr ( Presentation WHOIFPI by condition ) Pr ( Presentation WHOIFPI ) {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{Presentation is caused by condition in individual}})={\frac {\Pr({\text{Presentation WHOIFPI by condition}})}{\Pr({\text{Presentation WHOIFPI}})}}} The total probability of the presentation to have occurred in the individual can be approximated as the sum of the individual candidate conditions: Pr ( Presentation WHOIFPI ) = Pr ( Presentation WHOIFPI by


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Pr ( PH in population ) = 0.5 years ⋅ 1 4000 per year = 1 8000 {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PH in population}})=0.5{\text{ years}}\cdot {\frac {1}{\text{4000 per year}}}={\frac {1}{8000}}} With the relative risk conferred from the family history, the probability that primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) would have occurred in the first place in the individual given from the currently available information becomes: Pr ( PH WHOIFPI ) ≈ R R P H ⋅ Pr ( PH in population ) = 10 ⋅ 1 8000 = 1 800 = 0.00125 {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PH WHOIFPI}})\approx RR_{PH}\cdot \Pr({\text{PH in population}})=10\cdot {\frac {1}{8000}}={\frac {1}{800}}=0.00125} Primary hyperparathyroidism can be assumed to cause hypercalcemia essentially 100% of the time (rPH → hypercalcemia = 1), so this independently calculated probability of primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) can be assumed to be the same as the probability of being a cause of the presentation: Pr ( Hypercalcemia WHOIFPI by PH ) = Pr ( PH WHOIFPI ) ⋅ r PH → hypercalcemia = 0.00125 ⋅ 1 = 0.00125 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Pr({\text{Hypercalcemia WHOIFPI by PH}})&=\Pr({\text{PH WHOIFPI}})\cdot r_{{\text{PH}}\rightarrow {\text{hypercalcemia}}}\\&=0.00125\cdot 1=0.00125\end{aligned}}} For cancer, the same time-at-risk is assumed for simplicity, and let's say that the incidence of cancer in the area is estimated at 1 in 250 per


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-3.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Pr ( hypercalcemia is present despite no disease in individual ) = Pr ( hypercalcemia WHOIFPI by no disease ) Pr ( hypercalcemia WHOIFPI ) = 0.0014 0.00335 = 0.418 = 41.8 % {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\Pr({\text{hypercalcemia is present despite no disease in individual}})\\=&{\frac {\Pr({\text{hypercalcemia WHOIFPI by no disease}})}{\Pr({\text{hypercalcemia WHOIFPI}})}}\\=&{\frac {0.0014}{0.00335}}=0.418=41.8\%\end{aligned}}} For clarification, these calculations are given as the table in the method description: Thus, this method estimates that the probability that the hypercalcemia is caused by primary hyperparathyroidism, cancer, other conditions or no disease at all are 37.3%, 6.0%, 14.9%, and 41.8%, respectively, which may be used in estimating further test indications. This case is continued in the example of the method described in the next section. === Likelihood ratio-based method === The procedure of differential diagnosis can become extremely complex when fully taking additional tests and treatments into consideration. One method that is somewhat a tradeoff between being clinically perfect and being relatively simple to calculate is one that uses likelihood ratios to derive subsequent post-test likelihoods. ==== Theory ==== The initial likelihoods for each candidate condition can be estimated by various methods, such as: By epidemiology as described in the previous section. By clinic-specific pattern recognition, such as statistically


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-4.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Odds ⁡ ( PostBT P H ) = Odds ⁡ ( PreBT P H ) ⋅ L H ( B T ) = 0.595 ⋅ 7 = 4.16 , {\displaystyle \operatorname {Odds} ({\text{PostBT}}_{PH})=\operatorname {Odds} ({\text{PreBT}}_{PH})\cdot LH(BT)=0.595\cdot 7=4.16,} where: Odds(PostBTPH) is the odds for primary hyperparathyroidism after the blood test for parathyroid hormone Odds(PreBTPH is the odds in favor of primary hyperparathyroidism before the blood test for parathyroid hormone LH(BT) is the likelihood ratio positive for the blood test for parathyroid hormone An Odds(PostBTPH) of 4.16 is again converted to the corresponding probability by: Pr ( PostBT P H ) = Odds ⁡ ( PostBT P H ) Odds ⁡ ( PostBT P H ) + 1 = 4.16 4.16 + 1 = 0.806 = 80.6 % {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PostBT}}_{PH})={\frac {\operatorname {Odds} ({\text{PostBT}}_{PH})}{\operatorname {Odds} ({\text{PostBT}}_{PH})+1}}={\frac {4.16}{4.16+1}}=0.806=80.6\%} The sum of the probabilities for the rest of the candidate conditions should therefore be: Pr ( PostBT r e s t ) = 100 % − 80.6 % = 19.4 % {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PostBT}}_{rest})=100\%-80.6\%=19.4\%} Before the blood test for parathyroid hormone, the sum of their probabilities were: Pr ( PreBT rest ) = 6.0 % + 14.9 % + 41.8 % = 62.7 % {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PreBT}}_{\text{rest}})=6.0\%+14.9\%+41.8\%=62.7\%}


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-5.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Combinations == If two conditions get high post-test probabilities, especially if the sum of the probabilities for conditions with known likelihood ratios becomes higher than 100%, then the actual condition is a combination of the two. In such cases, that combined condition can be added to the list of candidate conditions, and the calculations should start over from the beginning. To continue the example used above, let's say that the history and physical examination were indicative of cancer as well, with a likelihood ratio of 3, giving an Odds(PostH&E) of 0.057, corresponding to a P(PostH&E) of 5.4%. This would correspond to a "Sum of known P(PostH&E)" of 101.5%. This is an indication for considering a combination of primary hyperparathyroidism and cancer, such as, in this case, a parathyroid hormone-producing parathyroid carcinoma. A recalculation may therefore be needed, with the first two conditions being separated into "primary hyperparathyroidism without cancer", "cancer without primary hyperparathyroidism" as well as "combined primary hyperparathyroidism and cancer", and likelihood ratios being applied to each condition separately. In this case, however, tissue has already been resected, wherein a histopathologic examination can be performed that includes the possibility of parathyroid carcinoma in the examination (which may entail


id: disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
A disease is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific signs and symptoms. A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions. For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases, including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. In humans, disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person affected, or similar problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person's perspective on life. Death due to disease is called death by natural causes. There are four main types of


id: disease-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-1.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
Disease The term disease broadly refers to any condition that impairs the normal functioning of the body. For this reason, diseases are associated with the dysfunction of the body's normal homeostatic processes. Commonly, the term is used to refer specifically to infectious diseases, which are clinically evident diseases that result from the presence of pathogenic microbial agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and aberrant proteins known as prions. An infection or colonization that does not and will not produce clinically evident impairment of normal functioning, such as the presence of the normal bacteria and yeasts in the gut, or of a passenger virus, is not considered a disease. By contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but expected to produce symptoms later, is usually considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most forms of cancer, heart disease, and genetic disease. Acquired disease An acquired disease is one that began at some point during one's lifetime, as opposed to disease that was already present at birth, which is congenital disease. Acquired sounds like it could mean "caught via contagion", but it simply means acquired sometime after birth. It also sounds like it could


id: disease-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-2.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
Some health insurance policies also define a medical condition as any illness, injury, or disease except for psychiatric illnesses. As it is more value-neutral than terms like disease, the term medical condition is sometimes preferred by people with health issues that they do not consider deleterious. However, by emphasizing the medical nature of the condition, this term is sometimes rejected, such as by proponents of the autism rights movement. The term medical condition is also a synonym for medical state, in which case it describes an individual patient's current state from a medical standpoint. This usage appears in statements that describe a patient as being in critical condition, for example. Morbidity Morbidity (from Latin morbidus 'sick, unhealthy') is a diseased state, disability, or poor health due to any cause. The term may refer to the existence of any form of disease, or to the degree that the health condition affects the patient. Among severely ill patients, the level of morbidity is often measured by ICU scoring systems. Comorbidity, or co-existing disease, is the simultaneous presence of two or more medical conditions, such as schizophrenia and substance abuse. In epidemiology and actuarial science, the term morbidity (also morbidity rate or morbidity


id: disease-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-3.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Types by body system === Mental Mental illness is a broad, generic label for a category of illnesses that may include affective or emotional instability, behavioral dysregulation, cognitive dysfunction or impairment. Specific illnesses known as mental illnesses include major depression, generalized anxiety disorders, and schizophrenia, to name a few. Mental illness can be of biological (e.g., anatomical, chemical, or genetic) or psychological (e.g., trauma or conflict) origin. It can impair the affected person's ability to work or study and can harm interpersonal relationship. Organic An organic disease is one caused by a physical or physiological change to some tissue or organ of the body. The term sometimes excludes infections. It is commonly used in contrast with mental disorders. It includes emotional and behavioral disorders if they are due to changes to the physical structures or functioning of the body (such as after a stroke or a traumatic brain injury — organic brain disease is a dated term for such cases) but not if they are due to psychosocial issues. === Stages === In an infectious disease, the incubation period is the time between infection and the appearance of symptoms. The latency period is the time between infection and the


id: disease-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-4.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
Diseases can be caused by any number of factors and may be acquired or congenital. Microorganisms, genetics, the environment or a combination of these can contribute to a diseased state. Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The microorganisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc. Also, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to person play a role, while other diseases can be prevented or ameliorated with appropriate nutrition or other lifestyle changes. Some diseases, such as most (but not all) forms of cancer, heart disease, and mental disorders, are non-infectious diseases. Many non-infectious diseases have a partly or completely genetic basis (see genetic disorder) and may thus be transmitted from one generation to another. Social determinants of health are the social conditions in which people live that determine their health. Illnesses are generally related to social, economic, political, and


id: disease-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-5.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
Epidemiology is the study of the factors that cause or encourage diseases. Some diseases are more common in certain geographic areas, among people with certain genetic or socioeconomic characteristics, or at different times of the year. Epidemiology is considered a cornerstone methodology of public health research and is highly regarded in evidence-based medicine for identifying risk factors for diseases. In the study of communicable and non-communicable diseases, the work of epidemiologists ranges from outbreak investigation to study design, data collection, and analysis including the development of statistical models to test hypotheses and the documentation of results for submission to peer-reviewed journals. Epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a syndemic. Epidemiologists rely on a number of other scientific disciplines such as biology (to better understand disease processes), biostatistics (the current raw information available), Geographic Information Science (to store data and map disease patterns) and social science disciplines (to better understand proximate and distal risk factors). Epidemiology can help identify causes as well as guide prevention efforts. In studying diseases, epidemiology faces the challenge of defining them. Especially for poorly understood diseases, different groups might use significantly different definitions. Without an agreed-on definition, different


id: disease-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-6.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
How a society responds to diseases is the subject of medical sociology. A condition may be considered a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. For example, obesity was associated with prosperity and abundance, and this perception persists in many African regions, especially since the beginning of the HIV/AIDS. Epilepsy is considered a sign of spiritual gifts among the Hmong people. Sickness confers the social legitimization of certain benefits, such as illness benefits, work avoidance, and being looked after by others. The person who is sick takes on a social role called the sick role. A person who responds to a dreaded disease, such as cancer, in a culturally acceptable fashion may be publicly and privately honored with higher social status. In return for these benefits, the sick person is obligated to seek treatment and work to become well once more. As a comparison, consider pregnancy, which is not interpreted as a disease or sickness, even if the mother and baby may both benefit from medical care. Most religions grant exceptions from religious duties to people who are sick. For example, one whose life would be endangered by fasting on Yom Kippur or during the month of


id: disease-registry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_registry-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease registry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_registry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:58.923750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-registry-20260505-0
summary:
Disease or patient registries are collections of secondary data related to patients with a specific diagnosis, condition, or procedure. In its simplest form, a disease registry could consist of a collection of paper cards kept inside "a shoe box" by an individual physician. Most frequently registries vary in sophistication from simple spreadsheets that only can be accessed by a small group of physicians to very complex databases that are accessed online across multiple institutions. Registries are different from indexes in that they contain more extensive data. They can help to hypothesize risk factors and allow scientific research. They provide health care providers (or patients) with reminders to check certain tests in order to reach certain quality goals. They play a role in epidemiological research, drug safety and post marketing surveillance of pharmaceuticals and devices. == Definition == A disease registry is a data collection related to persons with a specific diagnosis, condition, or procedure. Registries can be sponsored by a government agency, nonprofit organization, health care facility, or private company. Data ownerhip and data access as well as goals vary accordingly. Registries have traditionally been less complex and simpler to set up than electronic medical records, which according to a


id: disease-registry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_registry-1.md
category: reference
title: Disease registry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_registry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:58.923750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-registry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pay-for-performance (P4P) === Registries can be associated with pay-for-performance (P4P) quality based contracts for individualhealth care providers, groups of or even all doctors in a country. For example, the United Kingdom, rewards physicians according to 146 quality measures related with 10 chronic diseases that are tracked electronically. In 2017 in the United States, Medicare started a 1.5% P4P contract based on health measures that can be tracked by disease registries. == Technical aspects of data tracking == The quality of a disease registry is contingent on the quality of its data and all the processes involved in updating it and keeping its integrity. In every registry there is always a risk of "garbage in, garbage out". Issues that can affect a registry and its acceptance by a physician group: Is the registry only updated centrally or can a physician update or correct it? For example, a physician does not want to get reminders from a registry regarding diabetes patients that died, moved to another state or left her/his practice. Most frequently, a list of patients with a certain condition (e.g. diabetes) is generated based on certain criteria. In the U.S., Healthcare Effectiveness Data and Information Set (HEDIS) criteria are


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:00.228979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
The modern disease theory of alcoholism states that problem drinking is sometimes caused by a disease of the brain, characterized by altered brain structure and function. Today, alcohol use disorder (AUD) is used as a more scientific and suitable approach to alcohol dependence and alcohol-related problems. The largest association of physicians – the American Medical Association (AMA) – declared that alcoholism was an illness in 1956. In 1991, the AMA further endorsed the dual classification of alcoholism by the International Classification of Diseases under both psychiatric and medical sections. == Theory == Under the model of alcoholism, alcohol use disorder is viewed as chronic problem for which abstinence is required. A brain disease model of addiction, based on the extent of neuroadaptation and impaired control, is main position advanced for proposing a disease model of alcohol use disorder. However, if managed properly, damage to the brain can be stopped and to some extent reversed. In addition to problem drinking, the disease is characterized by symptoms including an impaired control over alcohol, compulsive thoughts about alcohol, and distorted thinking. Alcoholism can also lead indirectly, through excess consumption, to physical dependence on alcohol, and diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver. The


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-1.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:00.228979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
My observations authorize me to say, that persons who have been addicted to them, should abstain from them suddenly and entirely. 'Taste not, handle not, touch not' should be inscribed upon every vessel that contains spirits in the house of a man, who wishes to be cured of habits of intemperance. Rush argued that "habitual drunkenness should be regarded not as a bad habit but as a disease", describing it as "a palsy of the will". Rush expounded his views in a book published in 1808. His views are described by Valverde, Levine Spode, and Perkins-McVey. Already in 1802 the prominent German physician Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland had published a book on the "brandy plague" stating that the "infection" with spirits makes it "inevitably necessary to drink ever more." Later he wrote an enthusiastic preface to the book On the addiction to drink and a rational cure of it by German-Russian physician C. von Brühl-Cramer. As Spode points out, this study marked the birth of a consistent "paradigm" of addiction as a mental illness, although it took many decades until this view was accepted. Perkins-McVey argues that Rush, Trotter, and Brühl-Cramer each independently developed their own disease theories of alcoholism as


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-2.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:00.228979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
== Controlled drinking == The disease theory is often interpreted as implying that problem drinkers are incapable of returning to 'normal' problem free drinking, and therefore that treatment should focus on total abstinence. Some critics have used evidence of controlled drinking in formerly dependent drinkers to dispute the disease theory of alcoholism. The first major empirical challenge to this interpretation of the disease theory followed a 1962 study by Dr. D. L. Davies. Davies' follow-up of ninety-three problem drinkers found that seven of them were able to return to "controlled drinking" (less than seven drinks per day for at least seven years). Davies concluded that "the accepted view that no alcohol addict can ever again drink normally should be modified, although all patients should be advised to aim at total abstinence"; After the Davies study, several other researchers reported cases of problem drinkers returning to controlled drinking. In 1976, a major study commonly referred to as the RAND report, published evidence of problem drinkers learning to consume alcohol in moderation. The publication of the study renewed controversy over how people with a disease which reputedly leads to uncontrollable drinking could manage to drink controllably. Subsequent studies also reported evidence of


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-3.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:00.228979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
== Current acceptance == Alcoholism is a disease with a known pathology and an established biomolecular signal transduction pathway which culminates in ΔFosB overexpression within the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens; when this overexpression occurs, ΔFosB induces the addictive state. In 2004, the World Health Organization published a detailed report on alcohol and other psychoactive substances entitled "Neuroscience of psychoactive substance use and dependence". It stated that this was the "first attempt by WHO to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological factors related to substance use and dependence by summarizing the vast amount of knowledge gained in the last 20-30 years. The report highlights the current state of knowledge of the mechanisms of action of different types of psychoactive substances, and explains how the use of these substances can lead to the development of dependence syndrome." The report states that "dependence has not previously been recognized as a disorder of the brain, in the same way that psychiatric and mental illnesses were not previously viewed as being a result of a disorder of the brain. However, with recent advances in neuroscience, it is clear that dependence is as much a disorder of the brain as any


id: disease-modifying-treatment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-modifying_treatment-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease-modifying treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-modifying_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:01.433151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-modifying-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
A disease-modifying drug, or disease-modifying therapy, is a treatment that delays, slows or reverses the progression of a disease by targeting its underlying cause. They are distinguished from symptomatic treatments that treat the symptoms of a disease but do not address its underlying cause. == Examples == Disease-modifying osteoarthritis drug Disease-modifying antirheumatic drug == References ==


id: disseminated-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disseminated_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Disseminated disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disseminated_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:02.635093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disseminated-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Disseminated disease can refer to disseminated cancer which is the movement of cancerous cells from the original tumor to other areas of the body, or disseminated infection which is the pathogen's entry into the host, growth, and dissemination, which results in illness. After exiting the main tumor, cancer cells circulate throughout the body. They are known as circulating tumor cells once they are in the blood. Few circulating tumor cells can disseminate to distant locations and remain tumor cells. The amount of disseminated tumor cells that can develop into metastases is even lower. == See also == Metastasis Localized disease == References == == Further reading == Albert, WH; Hauch, S; Zieglschmid, V (2005). "Detection of Disseminated Cancer Cells in Blood". EJIFCC. 16 (2). International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine: 81–85. PMC 6008966. PMID 29942243. Ramamoorthi, Ganesan; Kodumudi, Krithika; Gallen, Corey; Zachariah, Nadia Nocera; Basu, Amrita; Albert, Gabriella; Beyer, Amber; Snyder, Colin; Wiener, Doris; Costa, Ricardo L.B.; Czerniecki, Brian J. (2022). "Disseminated cancer cells in breast cancer: Mechanism of dissemination and dormancy and emerging insights on therapeutic opportunities". Seminars in Cancer Biology. 78. Elsevier BV: 78–89. doi:10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.02.004. ISSN 1044-579X. PMID 33626407. == External links ==


id: distress-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distress_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Distress (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distress_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:03.912155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distress-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, distress is an aversive state in which a person is unable to completely adapt to difficult situations and their resulting effects and shows maladaptive behaviors. It can be evident in the presence of various phenomena, such as inappropriate social interaction (e.g., aggression, passivity, or withdrawal). Distress is the opposite of eustress, a positive emotion that motivates people. == Risk factors == Stress can be created by influences such as work, school, peers or co-workers, family and death. Other influences vary by age. People under constant distress are more likely to become sick, mentally or physically. There is a clear response association between psychological distress and major causes of mortality across the full range of distress. Higher education has been linked to a reduction in psychological distress in both men and women, and these effects persist throughout the aging process, not just immediately after receiving education. However, this link does lessen with age. The major mechanism by which higher education plays a role on reducing stress in men is more so related to labor-market resources rather than social resources as in women. In the clinic, distress is a patient reported outcome that has a huge impact on patient's quality


id: divaricate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divaricate-0.md
category: reference
title: Divaricate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divaricate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:05.077629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: divaricate-20260505-0
summary:
Divaricate means branching, or having separation or a degree of separation. The angle between branches is wide. == In botany == In botany, the term is often used to describe the branching pattern of plants. Plants are said to be divaricating when their growth form is such that each internode diverges widely from the previous internode, producing an often tightly interlaced shrub or small tree. Of the 72 small leaved shrubs found on the Banks Peninsula, for example, some 38 are divaricating. == See also == Diastasis (pathology), a medical term for separation of parts Laciniate == References ==


id: diverticulum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diverticulum-0.md
category: reference
title: Diverticulum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diverticulum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:06.331221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diverticulum-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine or biology, a diverticulum is an outpouching of a hollow (or a fluid-filled) structure in the body. Depending upon which layers of the structure are involved, diverticula are described as being either true or false. In medicine, the term usually implies the structure is not normally present, but in embryology, the term is used for some normal structures arising from others, as for instance the thyroid diverticulum, which arises from the tongue. The word comes from Latin dīverticulum, "bypath" or "byway". == Classification == Diverticula are described as being true or false depending upon the layers involved: False diverticula (also known as "pseudodiverticula") do not involve muscular layers or adventitia. False diverticula, in the gastrointestinal tract for instance, involve only the submucosa and mucosa, such as Zenker's diverticulum. False diverticula are typically synonymous with pulsion diverticula, which describes the mechanism of formation as increased intraluminal pressure. True diverticula involve all layers of the structure, including muscularis propria and adventitia, such as Meckel's diverticulum. True diverticula are typically synonymous with traction diverticula, which describes the mechanism of formation as pulling forces external to the structure. == Embryology == The kidneys are originally diverticula in the development of the urinary


id: dose-area-product-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_area_product-0.md
category: reference
title: Dose area product
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_area_product
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:07.646252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dose-area-product-20260505-0
summary:
Dose area product (DAP) is a quantity used in assessing the radiation risk from diagnostic X-ray radiography examinations and interventional procedures, like angiography. It is defined as the absorbed dose multiplied by the area irradiated, expressed in gray-centimetres squared (Gy·cm2 – sometimes the prefixed units dGy·cm2, mGy·cm2 or cGy·cm2 are also used). Gray (Gy) is the SI unit of absorbed dose of ionizing radiation, while the milligray (mGy) is its subunit, numerically equivalent to the millisievert (mSv) as used to quantify equivalent and effective doses for gamma (γ) and X-rays. Manufacturers of DAP meters usually calibrate them in terms of absorbed dose to air. DAP reflects not only the dose within the radiation field but also the area of tissue irradiated. Therefore, it may be a better indicator of the overall risk of inducing cancer than the dose within the field. It also has the advantage of being easily measured, with the permanent installation of a DAP meter on the X-ray set. Due to the divergence of a beam emitted from a "point source", the area irradiated (A) increases with the square of distance from the source (A ∝ d2), while radiation intensity (I) decreases according to the inverse square


id: drop-attack-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop_attack-0.md
category: reference
title: Drop attack
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop_attack
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:08.814933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: drop-attack-20260505-0
summary:
A drop attack is a sudden fall without loss of consciousness. A drop attack has been defined as "a collapse or fall with little warning, following which the patient lies motionless or nearly motionless for a variable time, but often with rapid recovery to their normal state". However, the understanding of what constitutes a drop attack varies widely between authors. Drop attacks stem from diverse mechanisms, including orthopedic causes (for example, leg weakness and knee instability), hemodynamic causes (for example, transient vertebrobasilar insufficiency, a type of interruption of blood flow to the brain), and neurologic causes (such as epileptic seizures or unstable vestibular function). The term "drop attack", also known as "cryptogenic drop attack" or "La maladie des genoux bleus"; is used to categorize otherwise unexplained falls from a wide variety of causes and is considered ambiguous medical terminology; drop attacks are currently reported much less often than in the past, possibly as a result of better diagnostic precision. The common cardiovascular causes of drop attacks include syncope (a sudden transient loss of awareness due to reduced blood flow to the brain), orthostatic hypotension (which is often precipitated by medications), and arrhythmias (abnormalities of the heart beat). A drop of


id: dyscopia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscopia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dyscopia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscopia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:10.105316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dyscopia-20260505-0
summary:
Dyscopia consists of the Latin root copia, which means abundance or plenty (see cornucopia), and the Greek prefix dys-, which means "bad", "abnormal", "difficult" or "impaired". This word has assumed two meanings, both of which are essentially a play on words based on the phonic similarity of the words "copy" and "cope" with copia. In the field of neurology, dyscopia is used to describe a type of developmental coordination disorder related to dyslexia and dysgraphia (inability to read or write). Specifically, it is taken to mean difficulty with coping. Sometimes a similar word, "acopia", is mistaken to mean the same, although this is not a medical term and has no basis in Latin. The term "dyscopia" has also made its way into general medical parlance as a tongue-in-cheek shorthand notation for patients who, after being examined and found to have no specific medical condition, are deemed to be not coping with certain aspects of their lives, and are presumed to be seeking treatment as a form of comfort from the medical profession. More recently, and controversially, the term has been used in this context as a diagnosis for admission to hospital. The words have also been used in medical notes


id: dyscrasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscrasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dyscrasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscrasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:11.461150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dyscrasia-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, both ancient and modern, a dyscrasia is any of various disorders. The word has ancient Greek roots meaning "bad mixture". The concept of dyscrasia was developed by the Greek physician Galen (129–216 AD), who elaborated a model of health and disease as a structure of elements, qualities, humors, organs, and temperaments (based on earlier humorism). Health was understood in this perspective to be a condition of harmony or balance among these basic components, called eucrasia. Disease was interpreted as the disproportion of bodily fluids or four humours: phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. The imbalance was called dyscrasia. In modern medicine, the term is still occasionally used in medical context for an unspecified disorder of the blood, such as a plasma cell dyscrasia. == Ancient use == To the Greeks, it meant an imbalance of the four humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and water (phlegm). These humors were believed to exist in the body, and any change in the balance among the four of them was the direct cause of all disease. This is similar to the concepts of bodily humors in the Tibetan medical tradition and the Indian Ayurvedic system, which both relate health and


id: dysdiadochokinesia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysdiadochokinesia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dysdiadochokinesia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysdiadochokinesia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:12.737219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dysdiadochokinesia-20260505-0
summary:
Dysdiadochokinesia (DDK) is the medical term for an impaired ability to perform rapid, alternating movements (i.e., diadochokinesia). Complete inability is called adiadochokinesia. The term is from Greek δυς dys "bad", διάδοχος diadochos "working in turn", κίνησις kinesis "movement". The term was first described by neurologist Joseph Francois Félix Babinski in 1902. Impaired pronation/supination of the upper extremities, hand/finger tapping, and heel-to-shin test are some clinical ways to test for dysdiadochokinesia. Causes can either be from cerebellar or extrapyramidal origin. Management includes treating the underlying cause and neurorehabilitation therapies. == History of name and origin == The term dysdiadochokinesia came into fruition in 1902 after the neurologist Joseph Francois Félix Babinski observed patients with cerebellar lesions. He noticed that these patients could not perform rapid, alternating movements of agonist and antagonist muscles. During this time period, neurophysiologists discovered that voluntary movements came from the cerebellum. The term has the Greek roots, "dys", "diadochos", "kinesis", meaning impaired, succeeding, and movement, respectively. == Signs and symptoms == Abnormalities in dysdiadochokinesia can be seen in the upper extremity, lower extremity, and in speech. These deficits can greatly impact activities of daily living through motor movements. The deficits become visible in the rate of alternation,


id: dystrophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystrophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Dystrophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystrophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:13.930063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dystrophy-20260505-0
summary:
Dystrophy is the degeneration of tissue, due to disease or malnutrition, most likely due to heredity. == Types == Muscular dystrophy Duchenne muscular dystrophy Becker's muscular dystrophy Myotonic dystrophy Reflex neurovascular dystrophy Retinal dystrophy Cone dystrophy Corneal dystrophy Lipodystrophy Nail dystrophy == See also == Muscle weakness Muscle atrophy Myotonia List of biological development disorders


id: e-patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-patient-0.md
category: reference
title: E-patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:15.181300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: e-patient-20260505-0
summary:
An e-patient is a health consumer who participates fully in their own medical care, primarily by gathering information about medical conditions that impact them and their families, using the Internet and other digital tools. The term encompasses those who seek guidance for their own ailments, and the friends and family members who research on their behalf. E-patients report two effects of their health research: "better health information and services, and different, but not always better, relationships with their doctors." E-patients are active in their care and demonstrate the power of the participatory medicine or Health 2.0 / Medicine 2.0. model of care. The "e" can stand for "electronic" but has also been used to refer to other terms, such as "equipped", "enabled", "empowered" and "expert". The current state of knowledge on the impact of e-patients on the healthcare system and the quality of care received indicates: A growing number of people say the internet played a crucial or important role as they helped another person cope with a major illness. Many clinicians underestimated the benefits and overestimated the risks of online health resources for patients. Medical online support groups are an important healthcare resource. "The net friendliness of clinicians and


id: early-pregnancy-loss-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_pregnancy_loss-0.md
category: reference
title: Early pregnancy loss
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_pregnancy_loss
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:16.369257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: early-pregnancy-loss-20260505-0
summary:
Early pregnancy loss is a medical term that when referring to humans can variously be used to mean: Death of an embryo or fetus during the first trimester. This can happen by implantation failure, miscarriage, embryo resorption, early fetal resorption or vanishing twin syndrome. Death of an embryo or fetus before 20 weeks gestation, as in all pregnancy loss before it becomes considered stillbirth. == Causes of early pregnancy loss == Pregnancy loss, in many cases, occurs for unknown reasons, often involving random chromosome issues during conception. Miscarriage is not caused by everyday activities like working, exercising, or having sex. Even falls or blows are rarely to blame. Research on the effects of alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine on miscarriage is inconclusive, so it's not something you could have prevented. It's crucial not to blame yourself for a miscarriage, as it's not the result of anything you did or didn't do. == Symptoms of early pregnancy loss == The most prevalent indication of pregnancy loss is vaginal bleeding. In the later stages of pregnancy, a woman experiencing a stillbirth may cease to sense fetal movements. However, it's important to note that each type of pregnancy loss presents distinct symptoms, so it's


id: ebullism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism-0.md
category: reference
title: Ebullism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:17.583213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ebullism-20260505-0
summary:
Ebullism is the formation of water vapour bubbles in bodily fluids due to reduced environmental pressure, usually at extreme high altitude. It occurs because a system of liquid and gas at equilibrium will see a net conversion of liquid to gas as pressure lowers; for example, liquids reach their boiling points at lower temperatures when the pressure on them is lowered. The injuries and disorder caused by ebullism is also known as ebullism syndrome. Ebullism will expand the volume of the tissues, but the vapour pressure of water at temperatures in which a human can survive is not sufficient to rupture skin or most other tissues encased in skin. Ebullism produces predictable injuries, which may be survivable if treated soon enough, and is often accompanied by complications caused by rapid decompression, such as decompression sickness and a variety of barotrauma injuries. Persons at risk are astronauts and high altitude aviators, for whom it is an occupational hazard. == Symptoms == Symptoms of ebullism include bubbles in the membranes of the mouth and eyes, swelling of the soft tissues with possible bruising, and bubbles in the blood. Blood circulation and breathing may be impaired or stopped by cardiac vapour lock. The


id: ebullism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism-1.md
category: reference
title: Ebullism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:17.583213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ebullism-20260505-0
summary:
== Treatment and outcomes == Ebullism produces secondary tissue damage which, when extensive, has generally been considered fatal due to limited availability of treatment options on site. Immediate recompression to a pressure at minimum pressure for effective oxygenation is necessary for survival in whole-body exposure, along with re-oxygenation. Continued or additional pressurisation where necessary to prevent or treat decompression sickness is also indicated. High-frequency percussive ventilation is recommended by Murray et al (2013) for respiratory support as atelectasis is likely. Initial field evaluation would be similar to trauma assessment. It may be necessary to remove a pressure suit to give access for primary and secondary surveys. Airway, breathing, and circulation are immediate priorities, followed by assessment of level of consciousness. Intubation is indicated if unconscious and deteriorating. If a pulse cannot be distinguished, and the person is unresponsive, cardiopulmonary resuscitation should be started immediately, with advanced cardiac life support and cardiovascular monitoring as soon as possible. Little information is available on the effectiveness of conventional treatment, such as hyperbaric oxygen, or adjunctive therapies, for injuries due to ebullism. Spontaneous recovery has occurred in cases where recompression was applied with minimal delay, or the damage was restricted to parts of the


id: economic-credentialing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_credentialing-0.md
category: reference
title: Economic credentialing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_credentialing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:18.753617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economic-credentialing-20260505-0
summary:
Economic credentialing is a term of disapproval used by the American Medical Association (AMA). The association defines the term as "the use of economic criteria unrelated to quality of care or professional competence in determining a physician's qualifications for initial or continuing hospital medical staff membership or privileges." Traditionally, physicians applied for hospital staff membership based on education, medical licensure and a record of quality care. Privileges are requests to perform certain procedures or use certain skills based on training and experience. For example, an obstetrician and a family practitioner might request privileges for both routine deliveries and caesarean sections. Typically an obstetrician could demonstrate enough experience and be granted those privileges. The FP might obtain both procedures or be restricted to routine deliveries only, or none at all, based on hospital policy. As medical costs have increased and reimbursement has declined or been stagnant, both hospitals and physicians have come under increasing financial pressure. One response by physicians has been the formation of specialty hospitals or diagnostic centers with physician ownership. Some hospitals have seen this as a threat to their economic interests and have denied or revoked membership and privileges of the physician owners. == External links ==


id: efficacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy-0.md
category: reference
title: Efficacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:19.923293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: efficacy-20260505-0
summary:
Efficacy is the ability to perform a task to a satisfactory or expected degree. The word comes from the same roots as effectiveness, and it has often been used synonymously, although in pharmacology a distinction is now often made between efficacy and effectiveness. The word efficacy is used in pharmacology and medicine to refer both to the maximum response achievable from a pharmaceutical drug in research settings, and to the capacity for sufficient therapeutic effect or beneficial change in clinical settings. == Pharmacology == In pharmacology, efficacy (Emax) is the maximum response achievable from an applied or dosed agent, for instance, a small molecule drug. Intrinsic activity is a relative term for a drug's efficacy relative to a drug with the highest observed efficacy. It is a purely descriptive term that has little or no mechanistic interpretation. In order for a drug to have an effect, it needs to bind to its target, and then to affect the function of this target. The target of a drug is commonly referred to as a receptor, but can in general be any chemically sensitive site on any molecule found in the body. The nature of such binding can be quantified by characterising


id: elective-surgery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective_surgery-0.md
category: reference
title: Elective surgery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective_surgery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:21.091015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elective-surgery-20260505-0
summary:
Elective surgery or elective procedure is surgery that is scheduled in advance because it does not involve a medical emergency. Semi-elective surgery is a surgery that must be done to preserve the patient's life, but does not need to be performed immediately. Most surgeries are elective, scheduled at a time to suit the surgeon, hospital, and patient. By contrast, an urgent surgery is one that can wait until the patient is medically stable, but should generally be done within 2 days, and an emergency surgery is one that must be performed without delay; the patient has no choice other than immediate surgery if permanent disability or death is to be avoided. Many surgeries can be performed as either elective or emergency surgeries, depending on the patient's needs. == Description == An elective surgery or elective procedure (from the Latin: eligere, meaning to choose) is a surgery that does not involve a medical emergency and is scheduled in advance. Semi-elective surgery is a surgery that must be done to preserve the patient's life, but does not need to be performed immediately. == Types == === Elective === Most surgical medical treatments are elective, that is, scheduled at a time to suit


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-0.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
Electronic prescription (e-prescribing or e-Rx) is the computer-based electronic generation, transmission, and filling of a medical prescription, taking the place of paper and faxed prescriptions. E-prescribing allows a physician, physician assistant, pharmacist, or nurse practitioner to use digital prescription software to electronically transmit a new prescription or renewal authorization to a community or mail-order pharmacy. It outlines the ability to send error-free, accurate, and understandable prescriptions electronically from the healthcare provider to the pharmacy. E-prescribing is meant to reduce the risks associated with traditional prescription script writing. It is also one of the major reasons for the push for electronic medical records. By sharing medical prescription information, e-prescribing seeks to connect the patient's team of healthcare providers to facilitate knowledgeable decision making. == Functions == An e-prescribing system used in the United States must be capable of performing all of the following functions: Patient's identification Generating a complete active medication list, possibly incorporating electronic data received from an insurance provider Access to patient historical data Prescribe or add new medication and select the pharmacy where the prescription will be filled. Work with an existing medication within the practice, this can involve viewing details of a medication, remove a medication from


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-1.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Improving patient safety and quality of care === Illegibility from handwritten prescriptions is eliminated, decreasing the risk of medication errors while simultaneously decreasing risks related to liability. Oral miscommunications regarding prescriptions can be reduced, as e-prescribing should decrease the need for phone calls between prescribers and dispensers. Causes of medication errors include mistakes by the pharmacist incorrectly interpreting illegible handwriting or ambiguous nomenclature, and lapses in the prescriber's knowledge of desired dosage of a drug or undesired interactions between multiple drugs. Electronic prescribing has the potential to eliminate most of these types of errors. Warning and alert systems are provided at the point of care. E-prescribing systems can enhance an overall medication management process through clinical decision support systems that can perform checks against the patient's current medications for drug-drug interactions, drug-allergy interactions, diagnoses, body weight, age, drug appropriateness, and correct dosing. Based on these algorithms, the system can alert prescribers to contradictions, adverse reactions, and duplicate therapies. The computer can also ensure that clear and unambiguous instructions are encoded in a structured message to the pharmacist, and decision support systems can flag lethal dosages and lethal combinations of drugs. E-prescribing allows for increased access to the patient's medical


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-2.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
Financial Cost and Return on Investment (ROI) - The costs associated with purchasing, implementing, supporting and maintaining such a system may be beyond the means of most small clinical practices, and noted to be one of the greatest implementation barriers. Health care workers who are responsible for medical prescription, especially those in small practices, inner-city areas, or remote rural settings, may bear more than their fair share of the cost associated with e-prescribing. This is in response to the various other stakeholders that may reap the benefits from such a system, without having to financially support it, disseminating their risk substantially. Clinical practices therefore need to invest significantly in both hardware and software, with varying costs based on system specifications (stand alone system or entire EHR system). Even clinics that receive free e-prescribing systems may face financial costs pertaining to management of the interface, customization due to flexibility, training, maintenance, and upgrades. On top of this, the clinic must also take into consideration the lost time and efficiency during the transition period of implementation. As a result, large urban areas may see the greatest ROI when compared to those in rural areas. Change management - Many underestimate the challenges pertaining


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-3.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === On March 22, 2016, the Government of Canada allocated funds to Canada Health Infoway to develop an e-prescribing service. Infoway is working with Health Canada, the provinces and territories and industry stakeholders to create PrescribeIT, a multi-jurisdiction e-prescribing service. Infoway will create, operate and maintain the service, along with its partners. The service will be financially self-sustaining and is designed to be scaled across the country and will enable prescribers to electronically transmit a prescription to a patient's pharmacy of choice. Physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners and other prescribers will be able to use the system either through their existing electronic medical record or through a standalone application. Health Canada included supporting better prescribing practices, including e-prescribing, as part of its Action on Opioid Misuse plan. Until recently in Canada, it was the position of Health Canada that, to allow for e-prescribing, amendments to Part C of the Food and Drugs Regulations made under the Food and Drugs Act, regulations made under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act and possibly regulations made under Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act would be required. After further review, Health Canada has concluded that there are currently no regulatory impediments


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-4.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
About 420 million repeat prescriptions are generated in the UK each year - about 200 for each general practitioner each week. They account for about 80% of the cost of medication in primary care. Paper based Repeat Dispensing Services were introduced by the NHS in 1991, and in 1992 it became possible to use the NHS Electronic Prescription Service for this purpose. In 2017 awareness of the scheme among patients was low. In October 2017 Keith McNeil, NHS England's chief clinical information officer demanded that NHS hospitals should be moved rapidly onto electronic prescribing in the light of research showing it would cut serious prescribing errors by more than half. There was no information about the extent to which it is happening in hospitals. After successful pilots in London and the East Midlands it was agreed in April 2018 that electronic prescribing should be introduced in all urgent care settings in England, including NHS 111 and other Out-of-hours services so that dispensed medication can be ready for collection at a pharmacy when patients arrive. £78 million was allocated in December 2018 to encourage progress with implementing electronic prescribing in NHS organisations which were struggling. Electronic prescribing is to start in


id: electronic-visit-verification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_visit_verification-0.md
category: reference
title: Electronic visit verification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_visit_verification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:23.527598+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-visit-verification-20260505-0
summary:
Electronic visit verification (EVV) is a method used in the United States to verify home healthcare visits to ensure patients are not neglected and to cut down on fraudulently documented home visits. Beginning January 1, 2020, home care agencies that provide personal care services must have an EVV solution in place or risk having their Medicaid claims denied, under a mandate included in the 21st Century Cures Act. While the federal mandate sets key data points that must be collected and electronically verified, states create their own systems. State governments decide how to gather and report data that EVV vendors use, and whether to include additional EVV compliance rules. == History == Electronic visit verification was created to help cut down on fraud and ensure that people receive the documented care they need. EVV was designed to help verify that services billed for home healthcare are for actual visits made. The passing of the Affordable Care Act signed into law in 2010 made provisions for the cut down of fraud and over-payments, requiring states to stop Medicaid payments to providers when there is credible evidence of fraud. At least 10 states implemented an office of inspector general to oversee Medicaid


id: electuary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electuary-0.md
category: reference
title: Electuary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electuary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:24.853354+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electuary-20260505-0
summary:
An electuary is a medicine consisting of a powder or other ingredient mixed with something sweet such as honey to make it more palatable. In German and Swiss cultures, electuary (German: Latwerge or Latwerg) is also more generally a thickened juice and honey preparation with a thick, viscous consistency that is used in for culinary purposes, such as a (bread) spread or as a sauce ingredient. In the Indian Ayurveda tradition, electuaries are called Lēhya (लेह्य) (literally, "lickable"). == Types == There are several different types of electuary: laxative electuary, joyful electuary, etc. The fermentation of mixed herbs in honey and their effects on each other are said to increase the medical properties already present and to create new ones. == Famous electuaries in medicine == Chyawanprash Diasenna Mithridate Faroug Figra Sootira == References == Avicenna (1999). The Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fī'l-ṭibb), vol. 5. translate by Abdurrahman Sharafkandi.


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Hospital emergency codes are coded messages often announced over a public address system of a hospital to alert staff to various classes of on-site emergencies. The use of codes is intended to convey essential information quickly and with minimal misunderstanding to staff while preventing stress and panic among visitors to the hospital. Such codes are sometimes posted on placards throughout the hospital or are printed on employee identification badges for ready reference. Hospital emergency codes have varied widely by location, even between hospitals in the same community. Confusion over these codes has led to the proposal for and sometimes adoption of standardised codes. In many American, Canadian, and Australian hospitals, for example "code blue" indicates a patient has entered cardiac arrest, while "code red" indicates that a fire has broken out somewhere in the hospital. In order for a code call to be useful in activating the response of specific hospital personnel to a given situation, it is usually accompanied by a specific location description (e.g., "Code red, second floor, corridor three, room two-twelve"). Other codes, however, only signal hospital staff generally to prepare for the consequences of some external event such as a natural disaster. == Summary == This


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-1.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Code black: bomb threat Code blue: cardiac or respiratory arrest Code brown: hazardous material Code gold: earthquake (Yukon has the highest seismic activity rate in Canada) Code green stage 1: partial evacuation to a safe area within the building Code green stage 2: complete evacuation of the building Code grey: shelter in place/air exclusion Code orange: mass casualty Code red: fire Code white: aggressive behaviour Lockdown: violent situation/hostage taking Code yellow: missing patient === United Kingdom === In the UK, hospitals have standardised codes across individual NHS trusts (England and Wales) and health boards (Scotland), but there are not many standardised codes across the entire NHS. This allows for differences in demands on hospitals in different areas, and also for hospitals of different roles to communicate different alerts according to their needs (e.g., a major trauma centre like St. George's Hospital in South London has different priority alert needs to a rural community hospital like West Berkshire Community Hospital). Some more standardised codes are as follows: Code black: hospital at capacity – no available beds for new admissions from A&E. A code black is declared by the hospital's general bed manager, who then relays this to the local ambulance service


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-2.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Code white: paediatric medical emergency, combative person without a weapon, or emergency operating procedures dependent on the state. Code gold: bomb threat Code brown: missing adult patient Code violet: combative person Code triage: mass casualty Code walker: missing adult patient ==== Plain-language alerts ==== In 2015, the South Carolina Hospital Association formed a work group to develop plain language standardisation code recommendations. Abolishing all colour codes was suggested. In 2016, the Texas Hospital Association encouraged the use of standardised plain language emergency alerts at all Texas hospitals. The only colour code that was still recommended was "code blue," meaning a cardiac arrest. Plain language alerts are announced using the following format: Alert type + description + location (general to specific) + instructions (if applicable). For example, if a patient in ICU Bed 4 went into cardiac arrest, the alert would be "Medical alert + code blue + second floor + intensive care unit + bed 4." In January 2025, the Washington State Hospital Association (WSHA) recommended plain-language codes, although it advised keeping the legacy colour codes of "Code Blue" and "Amber Alert." The new system, which is "strongly recommend[ed]" but not required, classifies alerts into "Facility," "Medical," and "Security" alerts.


id: empyema-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empyema-0.md
category: reference
title: Empyema
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empyema
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:32.131529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empyema-20260505-0
summary:
An empyema (; from Ancient Greek ἐμπύημα (empúēma) 'abscess') is a collection or gathering of pus within a naturally existing anatomical cavity. The term is most commonly used to refer to pleural empyema, which is empyema of the pleural cavity. It is similar to or the same as abscess in meaning, but the context of use may sometimes be different. For instance, an appendicular empyema is in medicine now generally called an abscess. Empyema most commonly occurs as a complication of pneumonia but can also result from other infections or conditions that lead to the collection of infected fluid in a body cavity. == Classification == Empyema occurs in: the pleural cavity (pleural empyema also known as pyothorax) the thoracic cavity the uterus (pyometra) the appendix (appendicitis) the meninges (subdural empyema) the joints (septic arthritis) the gallbladder == Diagnosis == Chest X-rays or computed tomography (CT) scans can reveal the presence of fluid within the pleural space and help assess its characteristics. Once a fluid-filled cavity has been identified, it is often partially or fully drained with a needle, so that the fluid may be analyzed. This helps determine whether the fluid is infected and allows for the identification of


id: end-organ-damage-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage-0.md
category: reference
title: End organ damage
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:33.470549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: end-organ-damage-20260505-0
summary:
End organ damage is severe impairment of major body organs due to systemic disease. Commonly this is referred to in diabetes, high blood pressure, or states of low blood pressure or low blood volume. This can present as a heart attack or heart failure, pulmonary edema, neurologic deficits including a stroke, or acute kidney failure. == Pathophysiology == End organ damage typically occurs where systemic disease causes cell death in most or all organs. === Hypertensive === When blood pressures are critically high (>180/120 mm Hg) or the rate of rise in blood pressure is rapid, a large volume of blood circulating in a small space creates turbulence and can damage the inner lining of blood vessels. The body’s repair systems are activated by damage and circulating blood components, like platelets, work on repair. The deposition of platelets can clutter the vessel space and impair the body’s natural ability to produce nitrous oxide, which would dilate blood vessels and help lower blood pressure. When high pressure is pushing on the walls of narrowed blood vessels, fluid leaves the inside of blood vessels and moves to the space just outside. This impairs necessary blood flow and cuts off circulating oxygen, which


