# kb

id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-5.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
Regulators check that GM foods are "substantially equivalent" to their conventional counterparts, to detect any negative unintended consequences. New protein(s) that differ from conventional food proteins or anomalies that arise in the substantial equivalence comparison require further toxicological analysis. In 1999, Andrew Chesson of the Rowett Research Institute warned that substantial equivalence testing "could be flawed in some cases" and that current safety tests could allow harmful substances to enter the human food supply. The same year Millstone, Brunner and Mayer argued that the standard was a pseudo-scientific product of politics and lobbying that was created to reassure consumers and aid biotechnology companies to reduce the time and cost of safety testing. They suggested that GM foods have extensive biological, toxicological and immunological tests and that substantial equivalence should be abandoned. This commentary was criticized for misrepresenting history, for distorting existing data and poor logic. Kuiper claimed that it oversimplified safety assessments and that equivalence testing involves more than chemical tests, possibly including toxicity testing. Keler and Lappe supported Congressional legislation to replace the substantial equivalence standard with safety studies. In a 2016 review, Domingo criticized the use of the "substantial equivalence" concept as a measure of the safety of


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-6.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Allergenicity === A well-known risk of genetic modification is the introduction of an allergen. Allergen testing is routine for products intended for food, and passing those tests is part of the regulatory requirements. Organizations such as the European Green Party and Greenpeace emphasize this risk. The use of genes from known allergenic sources is discouraged in the research and development of GM foods. A 2005 review of the results from allergen testing stated that "no biotech proteins in foods have been documented to cause allergic reactions". Regulatory authorities require that new modified foods be tested for allergenicity before they are marketed. The Codex Alimentarius recommends a weight-of-evidence safety approach for assessing the allergenic potential of genetically modified crops, including the history of exposure and safety of the source of the inserted gene, the structure of the protein, its stability to pepsin digestion, and the degree of exposure in the gastrointestinal tract as a function of the abundance of the recombinant protein in the food. In the assessment of the allergenic safety of genetically modified organisms, bioinformatics is used to analyze whether newly expressed proteins show similarity to known human allergens. This process is based on comparing the amino acid


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-7.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Horizontal gene transfer === Horizontal gene transfer is the movement of genes from one organism to another in a manner other than reproduction. The risk of horizontal gene transfer between GMO plants and animals is very low and in most cases is expected to be lower than background rates. Two studies on the possible effects of feeding animals with genetically modified food found no residues of recombinant DNA or novel proteins in any organ or tissue samples. Studies found DNA from the M13 virus, Green fluorescent protein and RuBisCO genes in the blood and tissue of animals, and in 2012, a paper suggested that a specific microRNA from rice could be found at very low quantities in human and animal serum. Other studies however, found no or negligible transfer of plant microRNAs into the blood of humans or any of three model organisms. Another concern is that the antibiotic resistance gene commonly used as a genetic marker in transgenic crops could be transferred to harmful bacteria, creating resistant superbugs. A 2004 study involving human volunteers examined whether the transgene from modified soy would transfer to bacteria that live in the human gut. As of 2012 it was the only


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-8.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Animal feeding studies === Reviews of animal feeding studies mostly found no effects. A 2014 review found that the performance of animals fed GM feed was similar to that of animals fed "isogenic non-GE crop lines". A 2012 review of 12 long-term studies and 12 multigenerational studies conducted by public research laboratories concluded that none had discovered any safety problems linked to consumption of GM food. A 2009 review by Magaña-Gómez found that although most studies concluded that modified foods do not differ in nutrition or cause toxic effects in animals, some did report adverse changes at a cellular level caused by specific modified foods. The review concluded that "More scientific effort and investigation is needed to ensure that consumption of GM foods is not likely to provoke any form of health problem". Dona and Arvanitoyannis' 2009 review concluded that "results of most studies with GM foods indicate that they may cause some common toxic effects such as hepatic, pancreatic, renal, or reproductive effects and may alter the hematological, biochemical, and immunologic parameters". Reactions to this review in 2009 and 2010 noted that Dona and Arvanitoyannis had concentrated on articles with an anti-modification bias that were refuted in peer-reviewed


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-9.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Human studies === While some groups and individuals have called for more human testing of GM food, multiple obstacles complicate such studies. The General Accounting Office (in a review of FDA procedures requested by Congress) and a working group of the Food and Agriculture and World Health organizations both said that long-term human studies of the effect of GM food are not feasible. The reasons included lack of a plausible hypothesis to test, lack of knowledge about the potential long-term effects of conventional foods, variability in the ways humans react to foods and that epidemiological studies were unlikely to differentiate modified from conventional foods, which come with their own suite of unhealthy characteristics. Additionally, ethical concerns guide human subject research. These mandate that each tested intervention must have a potential benefit for the human subjects, such as treatment for a disease or nutritional benefit (ruling out, e.g., human toxicity testing). Kimber claimed that the "ethical and technical constraints of conducting human trials, and the necessity of doing so, is a subject that requires considerable attention." Food with nutritional benefits may escape this objection. For example, GM rice has been tested for nutritional benefits, namely, increased levels of Vitamin A.


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-10.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
In 2007, 2009, and 2011, Gilles-Éric Séralini published re-analysis studies that used data from Monsanto rat-feeding experiments for three modified maize varieties (insect-resistant MON 863 and MON 810 and glyphosate-resistant NK603). He concluded that the data showed liver, kidney and heart damage. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) then concluded that the differences were all within the normal range. EFSA also stated that Séralini's statistics were faulty. EFSA's conclusions were supported by FSANZ, a panel of expert toxicologists, and the French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee (HCB). In 2012, Séralini's lab published a paper that considered the long-term effects of feeding rats various levels of GM glyphosate-resistant maize, conventional glyphosate-treated maize, and a mixture of the two strains. The paper concluded that rats fed the modified maize had severe health problems, including liver and kidney damage and large tumors. The study provoked widespread criticism. Séralini held a press conference just before the paper was released in which he announced the release of a book and a movie. He allowed reporters to have access to the paper before his press conference only if they signed a confidentiality agreement under which they could not report other scientists' responses to the paper.


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-11.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
== Environment == Genetically modified crops are planted in fields much like regular crops. There they interact directly with organisms that feed on the crops and indirectly with other organisms in the food chain. The pollen from the plants is distributed in the environment like that of any other crop. This distribution has led to concerns over the effects of GM crops on the environment. Potential effects include gene flow/genetic pollution, pesticide resistance and greenhouse gas emissions. === Non-target organisms === A major use of GM crops is in insect control through the expression of the cry (crystal delta-endotoxins) and Vip (vegetative insecticidal proteins) genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Such toxins could affect other insects in addition to targeted pests such as the European corn borer. Bt proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the US since 1958, with no reported ill effects. Cry proteins selectively target Lepidopterans (moths and butterflies). As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in their rupture. Any organism that lacks the appropriate receptors in its gut is unaffected by the cry protein, and therefore is not


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-12.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gene flow === Genes from a GMO may pass to another organism just like an endogenous gene. The process is known as outcrossing and can occur in any new open-pollinated crop variety. As late as the 1990s this was thought to be unlikely and rare, and if it were to occur, easily eradicated. It was thought that this would add no additional environmental costs or risks - no effects were expected other than those already caused by pesticide applications. Introduced traits potentially can cross into neighboring plants of the same or closely related species through three different types of gene flow: crop-to-crop, crop-to-weedy, and crop-to-wild. In crop-to-crop, genetic information from a genetically modified crop is transferred to a non-genetically modified crop. Crop-to-weedy transfer refers to the transfer of genetically modified material to a weed, and crop-to-wild indicates transfer from a genetically modified crop to a wild, undomesticated plant and/or crop. There are concerns that the spread of genes from modified organisms to unmodified relatives could produce species of weeds resistant to herbicides that could contaminate nearby non-genetically modified crops, or could disrupt the ecosystem, This is primarily a concern if the transgenic organism has a significant survival capacity and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-13.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
The US has no legislation governing the relationship among mixtures of farms that grow organic, conventional, and GM crops. The country relies on a "complex but relaxed" combination of three federal agencies (FDA, EPA, and USDA/APHIS) and states' common law tort systems to manage coexistence. The Secretary of Agriculture convened an Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) to study coexistence and make recommendations about the issue. The members of AC21 included representatives of the biotechnology industry, the organic food industry, farming communities, the seed industry, food manufacturers, State governments, consumer and community development groups, the medical profession, and academic researchers. AC21 recommended that a study assess the potential for economic losses to US organic farmers; that any serious losses lead to a crop insurance program, an education program to ensure that organic farmers put appropriate contracts in place and that neighboring GMO farmers take appropriate containment measures. Overall the report supported a diverse agriculture system supporting diverse farming systems. The EU implemented regulations specifically governing co-existence and traceability. Traceability has become commonplace in the food and feed supply chains of most countries, but GMO traceability is more challenging given strict legal thresholds for unwanted mixing. Since 2001,


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-14.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Resistant insect pests === Resistance evolves naturally after a population has been subjected to selection pressure via repeated use of a single pesticide. In November 2009, Monsanto scientists found that the pink bollworm had become resistant to first generation Bt cotton in parts of Gujarat, India—that generation expresses one Bt gene, Cry1Ac. This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto. Similar resistance was later identified in Australia, China, Spain and the US. One strategy to delay Bt-resistance is to plant pest refuges using conventional crops, thereby diluting any resistant genes. Another is to develop crops with multiple Bt genes that target different receptors within the insect. In 2012, a Florida field trial demonstrated that army worms were resistant to Dupont-Dow's GM corn. This resistance was discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006, prompting Dow and DuPont to stop selling the product there. The European corn borer, one of Bt's primary targets, is also capable of developing resistance. == Economy == GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations. A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-15.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2014 review ==== A 2014 review, concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. According to The Economist, the meta-analysis considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same. Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistance. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points. The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed, and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for publication bias, by considering sources beyond academic journals. The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertiliser use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results. ==== 2010 review ==== A 2010 article, supported by CropLife International summarised the results of 49 peer-reviewed studies. On average, farmers in developed countries increased yields by 6% and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-16.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Intellectual property === Traditionally, farmers in all nations saved their own seed from year to year. However, since the early 1900s hybrid crops have been widely used in the developed world and seeds to grow these crops are purchased each year from seed producers. The offspring of the hybrid corn, while still viable, lose hybrid vigor (the beneficial traits of the parents). This benefit of first-generation hybrid seeds is the primary reason for not planting second-generation seed. However, for non-hybrid GM crops, such as GM soybeans, seed companies use intellectual property law and tangible property common law, each expressed in contracts, to prevent farmers from planting saved seed. For example, Monsanto's typical bailment license (covering transfer of the seeds themselves) forbids saving seeds, and also requires purchasers to sign a separate patent license agreement. Corporations say that they need to prevent seed piracy, to fulfill financial obligations to shareholders, and to finance further development. DuPont spent approximately half its $2 billion research and development (R&D) budget on agriculture in 2011 while Monsanto spends 9–10% of sales on R&D. Detractors such as Greenpeace say that patent rights give corporations excessive control over agriculture. The Center for Ecoliteracy claimed that "patenting


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-17.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Status ==== In 2014, 64 countries required labeling of all GM foods. These include the European Union, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, China and India. As of March 2015, Israel was in the process of issuing regulations for labeling of food with ingredients from GMOs. Alaska required labeling of GMO fish and shellfish in 2005, even though no GM fish had been approved by the FDA at the time. A 2014 Vermont law went into effect on July 1, 2016, and some food manufacturers (including General Mills, Mars, Kellogg's, the Campbell Soup Company, PepsiCo, ConAgra, Frito-Lay, and Bimbo Bakeries USA) began distributing products either locally or nationwide with labels such as "Partially produced with Genetic Engineering". Other manufacturers removed about 3,000 non-compliant products from sale in Vermont. The federal government of the United States passed a law at the end of that month pre-empting all state laws, including Vermont's. The law requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018, and allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site. It is unclear whether the rules will require labeling of oils and sugars from GM crops, where the final product does not contain any


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-18.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== Four federal district court suits have been brought against Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the agency within USDA that regulates genetically modified plants. Two involved field trials (herbicide-tolerant turfgrass in Oregon; pharmaceutical-producing corn and sugar in Hawaii) and two the deregulation of GM alfalfa. and GM sugar beet. APHIS lost all four cases at trial, with the judges ruling they failed to diligently follow the guidelines set out in the National Environmental Policy Act. However, the Supreme Court overturned the nationwide ban on GM alfalfa and an appeal court allowed the partial deregulation of GM sugar beets. After APHIS prepared Environmental Impact Statements for both alfalfa and sugar beets they were approved. In 2014, Maui County, Hawaii approved an initiative calling for a moratorium on GMO production and research. The initiative specified penalties including fines and jail for knowing violations and did not limit its scope to commercial agriculture. The initiative passed by about 50.2 to 47.9 percent. On December 15, 2015, the New York Times ran an op-ed titled "Are You Eating Frankenfish?", saying that the United States congress will debate whether genetically engineered salmon should be labeled. ==== European Union ==== Until


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-19.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Philippines ==== A petition filed May 17, 2013, by environmental group Greenpeace Southeast Asia and farmer-scientist coalition Masipag (Magsasaka at Siyentipiko sa Pagpapaunlad ng Agrikultura) asked the appellate court to stop the planting of Bt eggplant in test fields, saying the impacts of such an undertaking to the environment, native crops and human health are still unknown. The Court of Appeals granted the petition, citing the precautionary principle stating "when human activities may lead to threats of serious and irreversible damage to the environment that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish the threat". Respondents filed a motion for reconsideration in June 2013 and on September 20, 2013, the Court of Appeals chose to uphold their May decision saying the bt talong field trials violate the people's constitutional right to a "balanced and healthful ecology". The Supreme Court on December 8, 2015, permanently stopped the field testing for Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) talong (eggplant), upholding the decision of the Court of Appeals which stopped the field trials for the genetically modified eggplant. In April 2023, the Supreme Court of the Philippines issued a Writ of Kalikasan ordering the Philippine Department of Agriculture to stop


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-20.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
India is an agrarian country with around 60% of its people depending directly or indirectly upon agriculture. From 1995 to 2013, a total of 296,438 farmers have killed themselves in India, or an average of 16,469 suicides per year. During the same period, about 9.5 million people died per year in India from other causes including malnutrition, diseases and suicides that were non-farming related, or about 171 million deaths from 1995 to 2013. Activists and scholars have offered a number of conflicting reasons for farmer suicides, such as monsoon failure, high debt burdens, genetically modified crops, government policies, public mental health, personal issues and family problems. There are also accusations of states reporting inaccurate data on farmer suicides. In India, GM cotton yields in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu resulted in an average 42% increase in yield in 2002, the first year of commercial planting. A severe drought in Andhra Pradesh that year prevented any increase in yield, because the GM strain was not drought tolerant. Drought-tolerant variants were later developed. Driven by substantially reduced losses to insect predation, by 2011 88% of Indian cotton was modified. There are economic and environmental benefits of GM cotton to farmers in India.


id: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Hobbes–Wallis controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:46.345665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Hobbes–Wallis controversy was a polemic debate that continued from the mid-1650s well into the 1670s, between the philosopher Thomas Hobbes and the mathematician and clergyman John Wallis. It was sparked by De corpore, a philosophical work by Hobbes in the general area of physics. The book contained not only a theory of mathematics subordinating it to geometry and geometry to kinematics, but a claimed proof of the squaring of the circle by Hobbes. While Hobbes retracted this particular proof, he returned to the topic with other attempted proofs. A pamphleteering exchange continued for decades. It drew in the newly formed Royal Society, and its experimental philosophy to which Hobbes was (on principle) opposed. The sustained nature of the exchanges can be attributed to several strands of the intellectual situation of the time. In mathematics there were open issues, namely the priority (pedagogic, or theoretical) to be assigned to geometry and algebra; and the status of algebra itself, which (from an English standpoint) had been pulled together by the text of William Oughtred, as more than a collection of symbolic abbreviations. Socially, the formation of the group of Royal Society members, and the status of the publication Philosophical Transactions, was


id: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Hobbes–Wallis controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:46.345665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Elenchus === Wallis's Elenchus geometriae Hobbianae, published in 1655, contained an elaborate criticism of Hobbes's attempt to put the foundations of mathematical science in its place within knowledge. Hobbes had limited his interest to geometry, restricting the scope of mathematics. The book was dedicated to John Owen, and in prefatory remarks Wallis (a Presbyterian) avows that his differences with Hobbes are largely rooted in theology. Hobbes himself wrote to Samuel de Sorbière in the same year, saying the controversy was not merely scientific. He regarded the use of infinite quantities as the thin end of the wedge for a return of scholasticism, and behind Wallis he saw "all the Ecclesiastics of England". Sorbière visited Wallis in Oxford; but his analysis of Wallis as stereotypical pedant helped not at all in the quarrel. Hobbes took care to remove some mistakes exposed by Wallis, before allowing an English translation of the De Corpore to appear in 1656. But he still attacked Wallis in a series of Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics, included with the De Corpore translation. Wallis defended himself, and re-confronted Hobbes with his mathematical inconsistencies. Hobbes responded with Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish


id: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Hobbes–Wallis controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:46.345665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Second phase: the Dialogus physicus of 1661 == The Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris attacked Robert Boyle and other friends of Wallis who were forming themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in 1662) for experimental research. The full Latin title of the book mentioned Gresham College as the experimental base of Boyle's group (see Gresham College and the formation of the Royal Society), followed immediately by a reference to the duplication of the cube, which in Hobbes's latest version was included as an appendix. Hobbes chose to take as the manifesto of the new academy Boyle's New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air (1660). Hobbes saw the whole approach as a direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry enjoined in the De Corpore. He had reasoned out his own conclusions years before from speculative principles, and he warned them that if they were not content to begin where he had left off, their work would come to naught. This attack from Hobbes was one of several at the time: other opponents of Boyle were Franciscus Linus and Henry More. The issues at stake now had broadened out, and this was a choice Hobbes


id: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-0.md
category: reference
title: Homosexual seduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
summary:
Homosexual seduction is the pseudoscientific conspiracy theory which suggests homosexuality is spread through intergenerational sex, and that older homosexuals aim to change the sexual orientation of previously heterosexual youth by seducing them. It is related to the LGBT grooming conspiracy theory, the discredited acquired homosexuality theory, the gay agenda conspiracy theory, and the drag panic phenomenon. The idea of homosexual seduction, or that sexuality can be changed, has been debunked multiple times in psychological academic discourse. Although scientific research shows that LGBT people do not molest children at higher rates than heterosexuals, anti-LGBT groups have pushed the purported link in popular culture over multiple decades going back to the times before World War II. The allegation that having an LGBT identity is caused by, causes, or otherwise contributes to pedophilia has continued as a matter of ideological faith into the 21st century. In 2010, 13 US organizations, including the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), signed an open letter which opposed attempts by anti-LGBT groups to promote this conspiracy theory, in order to "protect the safety and emotional well-being of students", including those who are LGBT. According to Sarah Kate Ellis, head of the LGBTQ advocacy group GLAAD, this conspiracy theory


id: homosexual-seduction-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md
category: reference
title: Homosexual seduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
summary:
== History == The theory originated in the early 20th century's work of German psychologists such as Albert Moll and Emil Kraepelin on adolescent sexuality, and was used in the early work attempting to explain the phenomenon of male prostitution. It played an important role in population regeneration efforts after the First World War in Germany and informed homophobic policies in Nazi Germany. In the 19th century, German psychologists Magnus Hirschfeld and Karl Heinrich Ulrichs had argued for the inborn nature of homosexuality. Challenging the idea of inborn and fixed sexuality, Sigmund Freud theorised that humans were inherently bisexual, and then became either heterosexual or homosexual as a result of childhood experiences. Freud argued that same-sex attraction and experimentation were essential parts of development, with heterosexuality being the preferable outcome. Although he argued that homosexuality should not be thought of as an illness, his focus on how the social environment may shift sexual identity inspired theories behind homosexual seduction. Opposing the inborn nature of sexuality put forward by Hirschfeld and Ulrichs, other psychologists including Max Dessoir, Albert Moll and Emil Kraepelin built on Freud's conception of teenage sexuality as indeterminate and susceptible to social influence. They recognised that same-sex activities


id: homosexual-seduction-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md
category: reference
title: Homosexual seduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
summary:
The homosexual seduction theory, like the acquired homosexuality and LGBT grooming conspiracy theories, has subsequently been used in homophobic propaganda and by anti-LGBT rights groups to delay the progress of LGBT rights, by portraying homosexual men as "old perverts who prey on children". The theoretical link between homosexual men and predation or child abuse has permeated discussions about levelling the age of consent, anti-discrimination efforts, adoption and fostering rights, marriage equality, LGBT pride events, pediatric healthcare, and inclusion in sports and public spaces. It has created harmful stereotypes around gay and bisexual men, which have led to increasing and disproportionate numbers of anti-LGBT hate crimes, including violence and even mass murder. In some countries, it has also led to anti-LGBT legislation which criminalizes homosexuality; in Uganda, this may even result in a death sentence. According to Bryn Nelson in Scientific American, conspiracy theories based on pedophilia use disgust as a form of "stochastic terrorism", that incites audiences already primed for violence to target the subjects of those conspiracy theories. A 2020 paper by James A. Piazza found that there is a correlation between politicians sharing prejudicial views and rising domestic terrorism. Another study in Warsaw supported this view. The idea


id: homosexual-seduction-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md
category: reference
title: Homosexual seduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
summary:
Utah state Senator Daniel Thatcher has said of the homosexual seduction trope, "This idea of grooming, I'll tell ya, to me — as a survivor of childhood sexual assault — I'll just tell ya, I find it personally deeply offensive." == See also == LGBT grooming conspiracy theory Acquired homosexuality Gay agenda Anti-LGBT rhetoric Environment and sexual orientation Conversion therapy Growing Up Straight Pederasty == References ==


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-0.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
The Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry, often called the Khazar myth by its critics, is a largely abandoned historical hypothesis that postulated that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from converts to Judaism among the Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and central Caucasus and the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the late 6th century CE. It is still sometimes used in antisemitic conspiracy theories and in various anti-Zionist approaches. The hypothesis draws on medieval sources such as the Khazar Correspondence, according to which at some point in the 8th–9th centuries, a small number of Khazars were said by Judah Halevi and Abraham ibn Daud to have converted to Rabbinic Judaism. The hypothesis also postulates that after collapse of the Khazar empire, the Khazars fled to Eastern Europe and made up a large part of the Jews there. The scope of the conversion within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain, but the evidence used to tie the subsequent Ashkenazi communities to the Khazars is meager and subject to conflicting interpretations. Speculation that Europe's Jewish population originated among the Khazars has persisted for two centuries, from at least


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-1.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
This conversion of the kingdom of the Khazars has a considerable importance regarding the origin of those Jews who dwell in the countries along the Danube and southern Russia. These regions enclose great masses of Jewish populations which have in all probability nothing or almost nothing that is anthropologically Jewish in them. According to Mari Réthelyi, a Jewish studies teacher writing in the journal Hungarian Cultural Studies, many Hungarian Jews in the late nineteenth century, responding to Magyarization and to Hungarian antisemitism, took up the theory, proposed by Rabbi Samuel Kohn in 1884, that Hungarian Jews, like Hungarian Christians, shared a common ethnic descent from the intermarriage of Khazars and Magyars. Renan's thesis found an echo soon after, in 1885, when Isidore Loeb, a rabbi, historian and secretary of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, arguing for the cause of Jewish emancipation, challenged the notion that nations were based on races, and the Jews therefore, could be excluded as alien. To the contrary, he argued, they were no different from other peoples and nations, all of which arose from miscegenation: the Jews were no exception, and one could assume, he added, that many German and Russian Jews descended from the Khazars. Similarly,


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-2.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1939–1945 === In 1943, Abraham Polak (sometimes referred to as Poliak), later professor of the history of the Middle Ages at Tel Aviv University, published a Hebrew monograph in which he concluded that the East European Jews came from Khazaria. First written as an article in 1941, then as a monograph (1943), it was twice revised in 1944, and then in 1951 with the title Khazaria: History of a Jewish Kingdom in Europe. In Nazi Germany, unlike most race theorists in Germany down to his time, Hans F. K. Günther argued that the Jews were not a pure race, although he nevertheless considered them to be highly inbred. He argued that the Ashkenazi were a mix of Near Eastern, Oriental, East Baltic, Eastern, Inner-Asian, Nordic, Hamite, and Negro peoples and separate from the Sephardim. Günther believed that the conversion of the Khazars, whom he took to have been a Near Eastern race, constituted a further external element in the racial makeup of the Ashkenazi Jews, strengthening its Near Eastern component. Günther's theorizing about racial consequences flowing from the conversion of the Khazars was embraced by Gerhard Kittel. The Karaite claim not to be ethnic Jews, but descendants of the


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-3.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1976–present: Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe and contemporary views === The Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication in 1976 of Arthur Koestler's book The Thirteenth Tribe, which made sweeping claims for a Khazar legacy among the Ashkenazi, and asserted that the Jewish population in Eastern Europe could not have reached 8 million without the contribution of the Khazars. Koestler argued that the Khazar theory would mitigate European racially-based antisemitism. The book received both positive and negative reviews. Israel's ambassador to Britain branded it "an anti-Semitic action financed by the Palestinians", while Bernard Lewis claimed that the idea was not supported by any evidence whatsoever, and had been "abandoned by all serious scholars". Raphael Patai, however, registered some support for the idea that Khazar remnants had played a role in the growth of Eastern European Jewish communities, and several amateur researchers, such as Boris Altschüler (1994) and Kevin Alan Brook, kept the thesis in the public eye. Brook's views evolved as new data became available: in the first edition of his book (1999), he contended that about one-fourth of Ashkenazic ancestry may trace back to the Khazars, whereas in the second edition (2006)


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-4.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Behar et al. studies === According to a 2010 study by Doron Behar et al., Ashkenazi Jews form a "tight cluster" overlying non-Jewish samples from the Levant with Sephardic, Middle Eastern and North African Jewish populations and Samaritans, results being "consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant". In 2013 Behar et al. published a genetic study that came up with the conclusion that there isn't genetic evidence for the Khazar origin of Ashkenazi Jews, and instead Ashkenazi Jews are genetically closest to other Jewish groups and non-Jewish Middle Eastern and European populations. A 2003 study by Behar et al., found that Haplogroup R1a1a (R-M17) is present in over 50% of Ashkenazi Levites (who comprise 4% of the Ashkenazi Jewish population). In 2008 David Goldstein asserted that based on the study a Khazar connection "now seems to me plausible, if not likely". Faerman (2008) states that "External low-level gene flow of possible Eastern European origin has been shown in Ashkenazim but no evidence of a hypothetical Khazars' contribution to the Ashkenazi gene pool has ever been found.". However, Behar and others made two more genetic studies on


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-5.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
==== Criticism of the Elhaik studies ==== Elhaik's 2012 study proved highly controversial. Several noted geneticists, among them Marcus Feldman, Harry Ostrer, Doron Behar, and Michael Hammer have maintained—and the view has gained widespread support among scientists—that the worldwide Jewish population is related and shares common roots in the Middle East, Feldman stated Elhaik's statistical analysis would not pass muster with most scientists; Hammer affirmed it was an outlier minority view without scientific support. Elhaik in reply described the group as "liars" and "frauds", noting Ostrer would not share genetic data that might be used "to defame the Jewish people". Elhaik's PhD supervisor Dan Graur, likewise dismissed them as a "clique", and said Elhaik is "combative" which is what science itself is. Elhaik's 2012 study was criticized in a 2013 paper in Human Biology for its use of Armenians and Azerbaijani Jews as proxies for Khazars and for using Bedouin and Jordanian Hashemites as a proxy for the Ancient Israelites. The former decision was criticized because Armenians were assumed to have a monolithic Caucasian ancestry, when as an Anatolian people (rather than Turkic) they contain many genetically Middle Eastern elements. Azerbaijani Jews are also assumed for the purposes of the


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-6.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
Maurice Fishberg and Roland B. Dixon's works were later exploited in racist and religious polemical literature by advocates of British Israelism in the United States. Particularly after the publication of Burton J. Hendrick's The Jews in America (1923) Singerman 2004, pp. 4–5 it began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restrictions in the 1920s; racial theorists like Lothrop Stoddard; antisemitic conspiracy theorists such as the Ku Klux Klan's Hiram Wesley Evans; and anti-communist polemicists such as John O. Beaty. In 1938, Ezra Pound, then strongly identifying with the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, sent a query to fellow poet Louis Zukofsky concerning the Khazars after someone had written to him claiming that the ancient Jews had died out and that modern Jews were of Khazar descent. He returned to the issue in 1955, apparently influenced by a book called Facts Are Facts, which pushed the Jewish-Khazar descent theory, and which for Pound had dug up "a few savoury morsels". The booklet in question, by a Roman Catholic convert from Rabbinic Judaism, Benjamin H. Freedman, was an antisemitic tirade written to David Goldstein after the latter had converted to Catholicism. John O. Beaty was an antisemitic, McCarthyite professor of


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-7.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Germany === The Khazar hypothesis was promoted by the former Nazi scholar Herman Wirth (1885-1981), who wrote an anti-Semitic legal report in 1958 that questioned the origins of the Jewish People and relativized the Holocaust. It was central to his Palestinabuch (Book of Palestine), the extensive manuscript of which was lost for unclear reasons in the 1970s. It was his theory that the Ashkenazi Jews descended from a superstitious slave people (Khazars) on the fringes of a mythical Nordic civilization (Shambhala) in the Gobi Desert. According to Wirth, Christ descended from a lost tribe of the original Aryans, who had left their traces in the Near East in the form of Megalithic monuments. The Palestinabuch was meant as a counterpart to Wirth's Ura Linda Chronicle (1933) on the ancient Frisians, whom he considered direct descendants of the first Aryans and whose origins he located in Palestine. It was officially titled The Riddle of the Palestine's Megalithic Graves: From JAU to Jesus. By 1969 the proposed title had changed into Between the North Sea and the Sea of Genezareth, implicitly referring to an influential book by the 19th-century German reactionary Julius Langbehn. The myth of the lost Palestinabuch was promoted


id: king-of-clones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones-0.md
category: reference
title: King of Clones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:51.375999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: king-of-clones-20260505-0
summary:
King of Clones is a documentary released on Netflix and directed by Aditya Thayi which examines the Hwang affair involving human cloning by South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-suk. == Description == The documentary is described by Netflix as "After rocking the world with work in human cloning, a scientist falls from grace. Now, he's back -- this time with pets and extinct species." == Release == The film was released on 23 June 2023 by Netflix. == Production == King of Clones was directed by London-based Singaporean filmmaker Aditya Thayi via and is a Netflix U.K. commission. Thayi has 20 nominations and five wins at the Asian Television Awards, including two wins for best direction. Thayi described Hwang as a "polarizing figure" in South Korea and wanted to do an objective take on him." According to Variety, Thayi learned about Hwang due to anxiety he had waiting for the birth of his child, due to growing up in India in the 1980s where multiple industrial disasters occurred affecting children's health. He looked into getting genetic testing done and "was amazed by the choices that modern science has put in the hands of prospective parents and the complex ethical questions it


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-0.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
On 28 February 1998, a fraudulent research paper primarily authored by physician Andrew Wakefield, along with twelve other coauthors (titled "Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children"), was published in The Lancet, a British medical journal. The paper falsely claimed causative links between the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and colitis, and between colitis and autism. The fraud involved data bias and manipulation, and two undisclosed conflicts of interest. It was exposed in a lengthy Sunday Times investigation by reporter Brian Deer, resulting in the paper's retraction in February 2010 and Wakefield's being discredited and struck off the UK medical register three months later. In the paper, Wakefield fabricated evidence to suggest a new "syndrome" existed, which he called "autistic enterocolitis". Wakefield had been employed by a lawyer representing parents in lawsuits against vaccine producers, and had reportedly earned up to US$43 million per year selling diagnostic kits for the non-existent syndrome he claimed to have discovered. He also held a patent to a rival measles vaccine at the time. The scientific consensus on vaccines and autism is that there is no connection between MMR (or any other vaccine) and autism. == 1998 The Lancet paper


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-1.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple subsequent studies failed to find any link between the MMR vaccine, colitis, and autism. In March 1998, a panel of 37 scientific experts set up by the Medical Research Council, headed by Professor Sir John Pattison found "no evidence to indicate any link" between the MMR vaccine and colitis or autism in children. Public concern over Wakefield's claims of a possible link between MMR and autism gained momentum in 2001 and 2002, after he published further papers suggesting that the immunisation programme was not safe. These were a review paper with no new evidence, published in a minor journal, and two papers on laboratory work that he said showed that measles virus had been found in tissue samples taken from children who had autism and bowel problems. There was wide media coverage including distressing anecdotal evidence from parents, and political coverage attacking the health service and government peaked with unmet demands that Prime minister Tony Blair reveal whether his infant son, Leo, had been given the vaccine. It was the biggest science story of 2002, with 1257 articles mostly written by non-expert commentators. In the period January to September 2002, 32% of the stories written about MMR mentioned Leo


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-2.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Conflict of interest === Public understanding of the claims sharply changed in February 2004 with revelations by The Sunday Times of an undisclosed conflict of interest on Wakefield's part in that, two years before the paper's publication, he had been approached by Richard Barr, a lawyer of Justice, Awareness and Basic Support, who was looking for an expert witness to start a planned class action regarding alleged "vaccine damage". Barr hired Wakefield at £150 per hour, plus expenses, and only then did they recruit the twelve children, actively seeking the parents of cases that might imply a connection between MMR and autism. Barr and Wakefield convinced the UK Legal Aid Board, a UK government organization to give financial support to people who could not afford access to justice, to assign £55,000 to fund the initial stage of the research. According to journalist Brian Deer, the project was intended to create evidence for the court case, but this only became publicly known six years after the Lancet report, with the newspaper's first disclosures. Based on Deer's evidence, the Lancet's editor-in-chief Richard Horton said Wakefield's paper should have never been published because its findings were "entirely flawed". Although Wakefield maintained that


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-3.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Manipulation of data === The Sunday Times continued the investigation, and on 8 February 2009, Brian Deer reported that Wakefield had "fixed" results and "manipulated" patient data in the Lancet, creating the appearance of a link with autism. Wakefield falsely denied these allegations, and even filed a complaint with the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) over this article on 13 March 2009. The complaint was expanded by a 20 March 2009 addendum by Wakefield's publicist. In July 2009, the PCC stated that it was staying any investigation regarding the Sunday Times article, pending the conclusion of the GMC investigation. Wakefield did not pursue his complaint, which Deer then published along with a statement saying he and The Sunday Times rejected the complaint as "false and disingenuous in all material respects", and that the action had been suspended by the PCC in February 2010. === UK General Medical Council inquiry === Responding to the first Sunday Times reports, the General Medical Council (GMC), which is responsible for licensing doctors and supervising medical ethics in the UK, launched an investigation into the affair. The GMC brought the case itself, not citing any specific complaints, claiming that an investigation was in the public


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-4.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Full retraction and fraud revelations === In an April 2010 report in The BMJ, Deer expanded on the laboratory aspects of his findings recounting how normal clinical histopathology results generated by the Royal Free Hospital were later changed in the medical school to abnormal results, published in the Lancet. Deer wrote an article in The BMJ casting doubt on the "autistic enterocolitis" that Wakefield claimed to have discovered. In the same edition, Deirdre Kelly, President of the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition and the Editor of the Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition expressed some concern about The BMJ publishing this article while the GMC proceedings were underway. On 5 January 2011, The BMJ published the first of a series of articles by Brian Deer, detailing how Wakefield and his colleagues had faked some of the data behind the 1998 Lancet article. By looking at the records and interviewing the parents, Deer found that for all 12 children in the Wakefield study, diagnoses had been tweaked or dates changed to fit the article's conclusion. Continuing BMJ series on 11 January 2011, Deer said that based upon documents he obtained under freedom of information legislation, Wakefield—in partnership with


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-5.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Aftermath == Characterised as "perhaps the most damaging medical hoax of the 20th Century", The Lancet paper led to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in the UK and Ireland. Promotion of the claimed link, which continues in anti-vaccination propaganda despite being refuted, led to an increase in the incidence of measles and mumps, resulting in deaths and serious permanent injuries. Following the initial claims in 1998, multiple large epidemiological studies were undertaken. Reviews of the evidence by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academy of Sciences, the UK National Health Service, and the Cochrane Library all found no link between the MMR vaccine and autism. Physicians, medical journals, and editors have described Wakefield's actions as fraudulent and tied them to epidemics and deaths. Among commentators drawing on Deer's investigation, academic Peter N. Steinmetz summarizes six fabrications and falsifications in the paper itself and in Wakefield's response: findings of non-specific colitis; timing of MMR vaccine administration and first behavioral symptoms; findings of regressive autism; ethics consent statement; conflict of interest statement; and methods of patient referral. Wakefield has continued to defend his research and conclusions,


id: list-of-scientific-debates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific debates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:53.929624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-debates-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable scientific debates in the history of science and mathematics. == Biology == Nature versus nurture, long-standing debate in biology on human behavior 1764–1778 Voltaire vs Needham, between Voltaire and John Needham and others on the validity of preformationism. 1830 Cuvier–Geoffroy debate between Georges Cuvier and Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire on animal structure. 1860 Oxford evolution debate between several scientists on Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. 1860–1862 Great Hippocampus Question, between Thomas Henry Huxley and Richard Owen on the importance of hippocampus minor. == Chemistry and nanoscience == 2001–2003 Drexler–Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology by K. Eric Drexler and Richard Smalley on the feasibility of molecular assemblers. == Mathematics == 1654–1665 problem of points, correspondence between Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat on games and the fair share of a prize pot. 1655–1679 Hobbes–Wallis controversy, between Thomas Hobbes and John Wallis on geometry and other topics. 1745 Leibniz–Bernoulli correspondence, between Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli on the logarithm of negative numbers. 1902–1924 Nekrasov–Markov conflict, between Pavel Nekrasov and Andrey Markov on the relation between the law of large numbers and free will. 1903–1912 Poincaré vs. Russell, between Henri Poincaré and Bertrand Russell on


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The materialism controversy (German: Materialismusstreit) was a public debate in the mid-19th century about how new developments in the natural sciences might affect existing worldviews. During the 1840s, a new form of materialism emerged, shaped by advances in biology and the decline of idealistic philosophy. This form of materialism sought to explain human beings and their behavior through scientific methods. The central question of the debate was whether scientific discoveries were compatible with traditional ideas such as the existence of an immaterial soul, a personal God, and human free will. The discussion also touched on deeper philosophical issues, such as what kind of knowledge a materialist or mechanical view of the world could offer. In his Physiologische Briefe from 1846, zoologist Carl Vogt argued that mental processes were entirely physical, famously stating that "thoughts stand in the same relation to the brain as bile does to the liver or urine to the kidneys." In 1854, the physiologist Rudolf Wagner criticized this view in a speech to the Göttingen Naturalists' Assembly. He argued that religious belief and science belonged to separate areas of understanding, and that natural science could not answer questions about God, the soul, or free will. Wagner’s comments


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The materialism controversy was sparked in part by the writings of physiologist Carl Vogt, beginning in 1847. His commitment to materialism was shaped by the scientific and political reform movements of the time, as well as his own personal and political development. Vogt was born in Giessen in 1817, into a family with both scientific and revolutionary traditions. His father, Philipp Friedrich Wilhelm Vogt, was a professor of medicine who moved to Bern in 1834 after facing political persecution. On his mother’s side, political activism was also a strong influence: Louise Follen’s three brothers—Adolf, Karl, and Paul Follen—were all involved in nationalist and democratic causes and eventually went into exile. In 1817 Adolf Follen drafted a proposal for a future German constitution and was later arrested for his political activities. He avoided a 10-year prison sentence by fleeing to Switzerland. Karl Follen was suspected of encouraging the assassination of conservative writer August von Kotzebue and escaped to the United States, where he became a professor at Harvard University. The youngest brother, Paul Follen, helped found the Gießener Auswanderungsgesellschaft in 1833, which aimed to establish a German republic in the U.S. Though the plan failed, Paul settled in Missouri as a


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
During the summer of 1854, the 31st Naturalists' Meeting was held in Göttingen. A major topic of discussion was the existence of the soul and its compatibility with emerging materialist views in science. During the event, physiologist Rudolf Wagner gave a prominent lecture on human creation and the nature of the soul, in which he sharply criticized materialism. He argued that denying the existence of a soul created by God—and especially the rejection of free will—would undermine the moral foundations of society. Wagner claimed that materialist theories, such as those proposed by Carl Vogt, reduced human beings to passive machines without responsibility, which conflicted with the ethical duties of scientists. Later that year, Wagner published a second paper that expanded on his criticisms. He argued that science and faith occupy separate domains, and that science alone could neither prove nor disprove religious beliefs. He explained that while physiologists can describe the structure and function of physical organs, their findings can be interpreted in different ways. Materialists use these observations to argue that mental functions are based on physical processes, while dualists believe the body interacts with an immaterial soul. Wagner maintained that physiology cannot determine which interpretation is correct. He


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Reactions in the 19th century == === Philosophy of neo-Kantianism === Materialism, as promoted by scientists like Carl Vogt, Jakob Moleschott, and Ludwig Büchner, was presented as a direct consequence of empirical scientific research. Following the decline of German idealism, many saw academic philosophy—especially as taught in universities—as disconnected from reality and reduced to speculative thought. Even philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach, once aligned with idealist traditions, placed his trust in the natural sciences to answer longstanding philosophical questions such as the relationship between body and soul. However, a strong philosophical critique of materialism did not emerge until the 1860s, with the rise of Neo-Kantianism. In 1865, Otto Liebmann published Kant und die Epigonen (Kant and His Followers), a work that sharply criticized major post-Kantian thinkers—from German idealists to Arthur Schopenhauer. Liebmann famously ended each chapter with the refrain: "So we must go back to Kant!". The following year,Friedrich Albert Lange published Geschichte des Materialismus (History of Materialism), in which he aligned himself with the Neo-Kantian position. Lange accused the scientific materialists of “philosophical dilettantism”, claiming that they overlooked central insights of Kantian thought. At the core of Kant’s philosophy, particularly in the Critique of Pure Reason, is the question: What


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Even Ludwig Büchner, initially one of the most prominent advocates of materialism, eventually distanced himself from the term. In a letter to Haeckel dated 1875, he wrote:I ... have therefore never used the term 'materialism', which evokes a completely one-sided idea, for my school of thought and only accepted it here and there later out of necessity because the general public knew no other word for the whole movement ... . The term 'monism' that you suggest is very good in itself, but it is very doubtful whether it will be accepted by the general public. === Political and ideological impact === Although scientific materialism gained considerable popularity among the general public in 19th-century Germany, its proponents—Carl Vogt, Jakob Moleschott, and Ludwig Büchner—faced significant political opposition. All three lost their academic positions largely because of their outspoken advocacy of materialism. Vogt’s revolutionary materialism, in particular, failed to gain traction in the reactionary political climate following the revolutions of 1848. Scientific materialism also struggled to influence broader political movements, in part due to ideological conflicts with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marx disparaged Vogt as a “small-university beer bouncer and misguided Barrot of the Reich", and personal denunciations escalated between the


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-5.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Primary literature === Beiser, Frederick C. (2014). After Hegel: German philosophy 1840-1900. Princeton, NJ Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17371-9. Büchner, Ludwig (1932). Kraft und Stoff (in German) (Pocket ed.). Leipzig: Kröner Verlag. Du Bois-Reymond, Emil; Wollgast, Siegfried (1974). Vorträge über Philosophie und Gesellschaft. Philosophische Bibliothek. Hamburg: F. Meiner. ISBN 978-3-7873-0320-5. Daum, Andreas W. (2002). Wissenschaftspopularisierung im 19. Jahrhundert. Bürgerliche Kultur, naturwissenschaftliche Bildung und die deutsche Öffentlichkeit 1848–1914 (in German) (2 ed.). Munich: Oldenbourg. Feuerbach, Ludwig (1967). Gesammelte Werke (in German). Vol. 3. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. Haeckel, Ernst (1908). Die Welträthsel (in German). Leipzig: Kröner. Helmholtz, Hermann (2003). "Ueber das Sehen des Menschen". Gesammelte Schriften (in German). Vol. 1. Hildesheim: Olms. Lange, Friedrich Albert (1920) [1866]. Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der Gegenwart (in German). J. Baedeker. Marx, Karl (1961). Herr Vogt. Marx-Engels-Werke (in German). Vol. 14. Berlin: Dietz. Vogt, Carl (1856). Köhlerglaube und Wissenschaft. Eine Streitschrift gegen Hofrasth Rudolph Wagner in Göttingen (in German) (4th ed.). Gießen: Rickersche Buchhandlung. Vogt, Carl (1874). Physiologische Briefe (in German) (14 ed.). Gießen: Rickersche Buchhandlung. Wagner, Rudolf (1854a). Menschenschöpfung und Seelensubstanz. Ein anthropologischer Vortrag (in German). Göttingen: G.H. Wigand. Wagner, Rudolf (1854b). Ueber Wissen und Glauben. Mit besonderer Beziehung


id: math-wars-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-0.md
category: reference
title: Math wars
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:56.523902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: math-wars-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, math wars are debates over modern mathematics education, textbooks and curricula that were triggered by the publication in 1989 of the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and subsequent development and widespread adoption of a new generation of mathematics curricula inspired by these standards. While the discussion about math skills has persisted for many decades, the term "math wars" was coined by commentators such as John A. Van de Walle and David Klein. The debates focus on traditional mathematics versus reform mathematics philosophy and curricula, which differ significantly in approach and content. == Advocates of reform == The largest supporter of reform in the US has been the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. They call for a more inquiry-based approach that emphasizes real-world problem solving and understanding the underlying steps, as opposed to merely applying formulas to arrive at a correct answer. Successful implementation of this approach requires a great deal of expertise in educators; some parents and other stakeholders blame educators saying that failures occur because of this lacking expertise rather than a fundamental design flaw in the curriculum. A backlash, which advocates call


id: math-wars-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-1.md
category: reference
title: Math wars
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:56.523902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: math-wars-20260505-0
summary:
Mathland (no longer offered) Investigations in Numbers, Data, and Space, criticized for not containing explicit instruction of the standard algorithms Core-Plus Mathematics Project, criticized for failing "to convey critical mathematical concepts and ideas that should and can be within reach for high school students", downplaying "algebraic structure and skills" and "inability to build geometry up from foundations in a mathematically sound and coherent way". Connected Mathematics, criticized for not explicitly teaching children standard algorithms, formulas or solved examples Everyday Mathematics, criticized for putting emphasis on non-traditional arithmetic methods. Critics of reform textbooks say that they present concepts in a haphazard way. Critics of the reform textbooks and curricula support methods such as Singapore math, which emphasizes direct instruction of basic mathematical concepts, and Saxon math, which emphasizes frequent cumulative review. Reform educators have responded by pointing out that research tends to show that students achieve greater conceptual understanding from standards-based curricula than traditional curricula and that these gains do not come at the expense of basic skills. In fact students tend to achieve the same procedural skill level in both types of curricula as measured by traditional standardized tests. More research is needed, but the current state of research seems


id: national-character-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character-0.md
category: reference
title: National character
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:57.753313+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-character-20260505-0
summary:
National character refers to a characteristic common personality of the people of a nation. National character has been studied within the fields of anthropology, sociology, and psychology. The question of whether analysis and descriptions of national characters express meaningful content, as opposed to comprising inaccurate stereotypes, is controversial. Most of the research on national character has focused on the content, stability, accuracy, and origins of national character stereotypes. A 1985 cross-national study of national character found fundamental differences between the psychological profiles of the respective national populations of France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and the United States. Some studies comparing national character stereotypes with assessed personality traits find a moderate relationship between stereotype and reality, while others have found perceptions of national character to be unfounded and poorly related. Academic interest in national character peaked around World War II, with two anthropologists in 1969 identifying 1935 to 1945 as the field's seminal period, and declined in the decades that followed due to changes in academic thought. Jerome Braun wrote in 2014 that "the study of national character nowadays is considered somewhat old-fashioned because the most famous period devoted to this study, the period immediately after World War II, eventually


id: near-death-experience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-0.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
A near-death experience (NDE) is a profound personal experience associated with death or impending death, which researchers describe as having similar characteristics. When positive, which most, but not all reported experiences are, such experiences may encompass a variety of sensations including detachment from the body, feelings of levitation, total serenity, security, warmth, joy, the experience of absolute dissolution, review of major life events, the presence of a light, and seeing dead relatives. While there are common elements, people's experiences and their interpretations of these experiences generally reflect their cultural, philosophical, or religious beliefs. NDEs usually occur during reversible clinical death. Explanations for NDEs vary from scientific to religious. Neuroscience research hypothesizes that an NDE is a subjective phenomenon resulting from "disturbed bodily multisensory integration" that occurs during life-threatening events. Some transcendental and religious beliefs about an afterlife include descriptions similar to NDEs. == Etymology == The equivalent French term expérience de mort imminente ("experience of imminent death") was proposed by French psychologist and epistemologist Victor Egger as a result of discussions in the 1890s among philosophers and psychologists concerning climbers' stories of the panoramic life review during falls. In 1892, a series of subjective observations by workers falling from scaffolds,


id: near-death-experience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-1.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
==== Assertions of phenomenological diversity ==== The 2022 guidelines stress that the themes of authentic death experiences have little in common with mislabeled NDEs, except perhaps for shallow similarities, like mentioning religious symbols or saying the experience felt peaceful. The physiological context of patients near-death or experiencing death (as defined by cardiopulmonary criteria) leads to a decline in mental clarity and consciousness and, in extreme cases, complete loss of detectable cerebral function. Paradoxically, genuine/authentic near death experiences—characterized by coherence, meaning, purpose, and lucid life review—arise during this state, not under normal conditions of preserved brain metabolism and function. According to the 2022 guidelines, experiences termed "NDE-like" including those induced by ketamine or DMT, reliably display features unlike recalled experiences of death: distorted body sensations, inflated or self-centered perspectives, and varied imagery such as elves, celebrities, geometric forms, aliens, or bright neon scenes. Likewise, dreams and seizures exhibit unrelated, non-authentic NDE themes. ==== Claims of common elements ==== Another author instead claims that similar traits have been identified despite the differences among populations being studied and these include: 50% awareness of being dead. 56% a sense of peace, well-being, painlessness, bliss, euphoria and other positive emotions. 24% an out-of-body experience (OBE).


id: near-death-experience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-2.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Patients' management and after-effects === Moody described the correct approach to an NDE patient is to "Ask, Listen, Validate, Educate, and Refer". Due to the potential confusion or shock attributed to those who experience near-death experiences, it is important to treat them in a calm and understanding way right after their return from the NDE. NDEs are associated with changes in personality and outlook on life. Ring has identified a consistent set of value and belief changes associated with people who have had an NDE. Among these changes, he found a greater appreciation for life, higher self-esteem, greater compassion for others, less concern for acquiring material wealth, a heightened sense of purpose and self-understanding, desire to learn, elevated spirituality, greater ecological sensitivity and planetary concern, a feeling of being more intuitive, no longer worrying about death, and claiming to have witnessed an afterlife. Although people who have experienced NDEs become more spiritual, it does not mean they become necessarily more religious. Not all after-effects are beneficial, and Greyson describes circumstances in which changes in attitudes and behavior can lead to psychosocial and psychospiritual problems. == Establishment of research framework == To establish a rigorous research framework for the study


id: near-death-experience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-3.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Near Death Experience Research Foundation (NDERF) === American radiation oncologist Jeffrey Long has amassed a large database of NDEs through the Near Death Experience Research Foundation (NDERF). 835 out of 1,122 people who had experienced NDE seemed to feel an increase in alertness and consciousness although studies proved no sign of electrical brain activity. His second line of evidence studies the increase of accuracy developed by NDErs defining their resuscitation process with a 97.6% accuracy rate. Long documented seven more lines of evidence that all point to realism in NDE experiences, yet not all of them verifiable or defined by today's medical advances and technology. Having such an abnormally large amount (95.6% of 1,000 participants) of those who had experienced NDE proclaiming NDEs as real experiences, he concludes that although NDE are medically inexplicable, they are most probably a real phenomenon. === Recognition and criticism === According to literature, the field of near-death studies is associated with discovery, challenges, and controversy. Cant and colleagues note that "curiosity about the origin and prevalence of NDEs has escalated as technology and resuscitation techniques have improved". The topic attracts a lot of interest, which is reflected in search engine results, medical


id: near-death-experience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-4.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Awareness during resuscitation (AWARE) study === While at the University of Southampton, Parnia was the principal investigator of the AWARE Study, which was launched in 2008.[13] The study, which concluded in 2012, included 33 investigators across 15 medical centers in the UK, Austria and the US and tested consciousness, memories and awareness during cardiac arrest. The accuracy of claims of visual and auditory awareness was examined using specific tests. One such test consisted of installing shelves, bearing a variety of images and facing the ceiling, hence not visible to hospital staff, in rooms where cardiac-arrest patients were more likely to occur. The results of the study were published in October 2014. A review article analyzing the results reports that, out of 2,060 cardiac arrest events, 101 of 140 cardiac arrest survivors could complete the questionnaires. Of these 101 patients, 9% could be classified as near-death experiences. Two more patients (2% of those completing the questionnaires) described "seeing and hearing actual events related to the period of cardiac arrest". These two patients' cardiac arrests did not occur in areas equipped with ceiling shelves, hence no images could be used to objectively test for visual awareness claims. One of the two


id: near-death-experience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-5.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
==== Expectancy model ==== Another psychological theory is called the expectancy model. It has been suggested that although these experiences could appear very real, they had actually been constructed in the mind, either consciously or subconsciously, in response to the stress of an encounter with death (or perceived encounter with death), and did not correspond to a real event. In a way, they are similar to wish-fulfillment: because someone thought they were about to die, they experienced certain things in accordance with what they expected or wanted to occur. Imagining a heavenly place was, in effect, a way for them to soothe themselves through the stress of knowing that they were close to death. Subjects use their own personal and cultural expectations to imagine a scenario that would protect them against an imminent threat to their lives. Subjects' accounts often differed from their own "religious and personal expectations regarding death", which contradicts the hypothesis they may have imagined a scenario based on their cultural and personal background. Although the term NDE was first coined in 1975 and the experience first described then, recent descriptions of NDEs do not differ from those reported earlier than 1975. The only exception is the


id: near-death-experience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-6.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
==== Neurochemical models ==== Some theories explain reported NDE experiences as resulting from drugs used during resuscitation (in the case of resuscitation-induced NDEs) ─ for example, ketamine ─ or from endogenous chemicals (neurotransmitters) that transmit signals between brain cells: In the early 1980s, Daniel Carr wrote that the NDE has characteristics that are suggestive of a limbic lobe syndrome and that the NDE can be explained by the release of endorphins and enkephalins in the brain. Endorphins are endogenous molecules "released in times of stress and lead to a reduction in pain perception and a pleasant, even blissful, emotional state." Judson and Wiltshaw (1983) noted how the administration of endorphin-blocking agents such as naloxone had been occasionally reported to produce "hellish" NDEs. This would be coherent with endorphins' role in causing a "positive emotional tone of most NDEs". Morse et al. (1989) proposed a model arguing that serotonin played a more important role than endorphins in generating NDEs, "at least with respect to mystical hallucinations and OBEs". A 2019 large-scale study found that ketamine, Salvia divinorum, and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) are linked to near-death experiences. While ketamine, and other endogenous chemicals can be a source for NDE,


id: near-death-experience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-7.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
After-death communication – Spiritual practicePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Beyond and Back – 1978 film Cognitive science of religion – Study of religious thought and behavior Deathbed phenomena – Range of experiences reported by dying people Deism – Belief in a god based on rational thought Form constant – Recurringly observed geometric pattern Lazarus syndrome – Medical phenomenon Near-birth experience – Alleged recollected event which occurred before or during one's own birth Neurotheology – Attempts to explain religious experience in neuroscientific termsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Out-of-body experience – Phenomenon in which the soul (astral body) is said to exit the physical body Pam Reynolds case – Reported near-death experience Passage (Willis novel) – 2001 novel by Connie Willis Proof of Heaven – 2012 nonfiction book by Eben Alexander Psychedelic experience – Altered state of consciousness Resurrection – Concept of coming back to life Saved by the Light – 1994 book by Dannion Brinkley Terminal lucidity – Sign of impending death Zendegi Pas Az Zendegi – Iranian reality TV series (2020–2023) == References == == Further reading == Alcock, James (1979). "Psychology and Near-Death Experiences". Skeptical Inquirer. 3: 25–41. Lee Worth Bailey; Jenny Yates. (1996). The


id: new-family-structures-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-0.md
category: reference
title: New Family Structures Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:00.306505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-family-structures-study-20260505-0
summary:
The New Family Structures Study (abbreviated NFSS) is a sociological study of family structures conducted by sociologist Mark Regnerus of the University of Texas at Austin. The study surveyed over 15,000 Americans of ages 18 to 39. The first research article based on data from the study was published in July 2012 in Social Science Research. The article concluded that people who had had a parent who had been in a same-gender relationship were at a greater risk of several adverse outcomes, including "being on public assistance, being unemployed, and having poorer educational attainment". The study was met with considerable criticism from many academics, scholarly organizations, and medical journals. Of note, only two children in the study (of the 236 counted as having gay parents) had actually lived with homosexually partnered parents for their entire childhoods. Thus, negative outcomes or events cannot be attributed to having same-sex parents, because many of these children also spent their childhoods with opposite-sex parents, and experienced family disruption and parental divorce. A 2015 reanalysis raised serious questions about the validity of the study, finding misclassification of families, inconsistency in answers suggesting mischief, and evidence that many respondents did not live with their non-heterosexual parents.


id: new-family-structures-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-1.md
category: reference
title: New Family Structures Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:00.306505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-family-structures-study-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversy and reanalysis == Cynthia Osborne, who is on the UT-Austin faculty along with Regnerus, argued the study was unable to show "whether same-sex parenting causes the observed differences". She also said that "Children of lesbian mothers might have lived in many different family structures, and it is impossible to isolate the effects of living with a lesbian mother from experiencing divorce, remarriage or living with a single parent." Similarly, Gary Gates of the Williams Institute argued that the study's comparison of children of lesbian mothers was a less fair comparison than, for instance, comparing "children of heterosexual or same-sex couples who were raised in similar homes". Regnerus's former mentor Christian Smith has described the public and academic reaction to the New Family Structures Study as a "witch hunt" and said that the "push-back" to Regnerus's article "is coming simply because some people don't like where the data led". This backlash, Smith argues in his book The Sacred Project of American Sociology, is a result of the content of sociology's "sacred project" (of mitigating oppression, inequality, etc.); Smith holds that the critical reaction, e.g. on methodological issues, displays a set of double standards insofar as work by other scholars


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-0.md

summary:
During his first term as president of the United States (2017–2021), Donald Trump and his administration repeatedly politicized science by pressuring or overriding health and science agencies to change their reporting and recommendations so as to conform to his policies and public comments. This was particularly true with regard to the COVID-19 pandemic, but also included suppressing research on climate change and weakening or eliminating environmental regulations. Trump and his appointees pressured federal health and science agencies to take particular actions that Trump favored and to support his public pronouncements. He sometimes claimed that there was a "deep state" conspiracy among federal scientists, whose members delayed approval of COVID-19 vaccines and treatments because they wanted to hurt him politically or prevent his re-election. == Background == Trump, inaugurated as president on January 20, 2017, did not name a Science Advisor to the President until July 2018, when he appointed meteorologist Kelvin Droegemeier to the position. Science advisory committees at multiple agencies including the Department of the Interior, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Food and Drug Administration were disbanded. Many of Trump's first cabinet picks were people with a history of opposition to the agency they were named

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-1
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-1.md

summary:
=== Suppressing and altering communications from health agencies === On February 25, 2020, in the earliest days of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, a senior official with the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) said publicly that the spread of the virus in the U.S. was inevitable. This contradicted Trump's more optimistic predictions, and the CDC was largely banned from giving briefings on the coronavirus for the next six months. In April 2020 political strategist and lobbyist Michael Caputo was appointed by the White House as assistant secretary for public affairs of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), in control of the department's communications strategy. Caputo appointed Paul Alexander, a Ph.D. health researcher, as his top advisor. They and other HHS officials attempted to control the content of information coming from the CDC whenever it was deemed to contradict or undermine what Trump was saying publicly. In May 2020, according to documents released in April 2022 by the United States House Select Oversight Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis, the Trump administration overruled the CDC's proposed guidelines for religious organizations. The CDC had warned that houses of worship were hot spots for coronavirus spread, but the White House

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-2
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-2.md

summary:
On June 20, 2020, Alexander sent a message to CDC Director Redfield, criticizing a CDC report about risks to pregnant women from COVID-19. Alexander said that the report, whose limitations the CDC had acknowledged, would "frighten women" and give the impression that "the President and his administration can't fix this and it is getting worse". He said that in his "opinion and sense" the CDC was "undermining the president by what they put out". On September 16, after the political influence over the CDC was reported, Caputo took a 60-day medical leave of absence and Alexander was fired. In an interview with the Toronto-based Globe and Mail after his departure from HHS, Alexander defended his actions, stating that he had wanted the CDC to make their reports "more upbeat so that people would feel more confident going out and spending money", and that he "did not think agencies should contradict any president's policy". In September, Democrats on the House Oversight and Reform Select Committee on the Coronavirus Crisis launched an investigation into political interference with the CDC's reports and recommendations regarding the coronavirus. Charlotte Kent, the editor of MMWR, told the panel in December that she had been ordered to

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-3
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-3.md

summary:
=== U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic === ==== COVID-19 testing ==== At a campaign rally in Tulsa, Oklahoma on June 20, 2020, Trump claimed he had instructed his administration to slow down COVID-19 testing in order to keep the number of confirmed cases down. In August 2020, Trump announced the appointment of radiologist Scott Atlas as a White House advisor on the coronavirus. According to task force official Deborah Birx, Atlas wanted to change testing guidelines to say that people without symptoms did not need to be tested. On August 24, 2020, the testing guidelines on the CDC web page were quietly changed from their earlier recommendation that testing is recommended for anyone who has come into contact with someone who has COVID-19; the new message said that such people do not need to be tested if they do not have symptoms. Multiple public health experts expressed alarm at the new guideline, because people can be contagious even if they have no symptoms, and early testing of exposed people is considered essential to track and suppress the spread of the virus. On September 17, it was reported that the new guidelines had been written by the White


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-4
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-4.md

summary:
In September, the CDC drafted an order that would require passengers and employees to wear masks on all forms of public and commercial transportation in the United States, including airplanes, trains, buses, subways, and transit hubs. Transportation unions had requested a federal mandate for mask wearing, citing the difficulty of working under a patchwork of rules. HHS Secretary Azar and CDC Director Redfield strongly supported the order. However, the White House's coronavirus task force, which is supposed to sign off on all coronavirus actions, rejected the order, saying that such orders should be left up to states and local governments. ==== Advice on reopening ==== The CDC intended to release on May 1 a 17-page report called Guidance for Implementing the Opening Up America Again Framework, with detailed guidelines for the reopening of businesses, public transit, restaurants, religious organizations, schools, and other public places which had been ordered closed during the pandemic. However, the Trump administration shelved the document; CDC staffers were told the recommendations "would never see the light of day." An unauthorized copy was published by the Associated Press in late April. Six flowcharts were ultimately published on May 15, and a sixty-page set of guidelines was released


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-5
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-5.md

summary:
==== Vaccine development and approval ==== Trump stressed the need for a COVID-19 vaccine as soon as possible, and said one is being developed at "warp speed" (see Operation Warp Speed). He repeatedly suggested that a COVID-19 vaccine would be available before the end of 2020, possibly before the November 3 election. In mid-September 2020, Trump's chief of staff Mark Meadows predicted that 100 million doses of a vaccine would be available by the end of October, though CDC Director Robert Redfield told the Senate that the public should not expect vaccine distribution before mid-2021. Other federal scientists including Operation Warp Speed chief scientist Moncef Slaoui and NIAID director Fauci also said that Meadows' prediction was unlikely, given the time frame needed for clinical trials. Trump dismissed or contradicted these comments. When Redfield told a congressional committee that wearing a mask could be more effective in halting the spread of the disease than a vaccine, and that a vaccine would not be generally available to the public until the second or third quarter of 2021, Trump said that Redfield had "made a mistake" and that his vaccine prediction was "just incorrect information." Republican allies of the president endorsed Trump's comments;


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-6
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-6.md

summary:
=== Department of Agriculture === The Trump administration marginalized the role of science at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and oversaw the mass departure of career USDA scientists. In July 2019, two USDA agencies—the Economic Research Service (ERS) and the National Institute of Food and Agriculture—were directed to move from the USDA's headquarters in Washington, D.C. to the Kansas City metropolitan area. Two-thirds of the USDA employees reassigned chose to quit rather than accept relocation. Current and former employees of the ERS were strongly critical of the relocation to Kansas City and other Trump administration policies, and the exodus of scientific and economic talent and disruption to federal research (especially on climate change and food security) that they had caused. The move to Kansas City area resulted in an attrition rate particularly high in the Resource and Rural Economics Division (90%) and in the Food Economics Division (up to 89%). ERS economists said that the Trump administration's moves were retaliation against the agency for publishing research reports detailing the negative economic effects of Trump's policies, including tariffs and Republican tax legislation, on U.S. agriculture. In April 2018, Agriculture Secretary Sonny Perdue's office ordered ERS and other research components of


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-7
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-7.md

summary:
On January 24, 2017, it was reported that the Trump administration froze grants and contracts to the EPA, along with employees being unable to speak to reporters or post on social media accounts. In a May 2018 survey, the EPA inspector general's office found that nearly 400 science-related employees said they had experienced, but did not report, potential violations of the EPA's scientific integrity policy. More than 250 employees said their concern was that a manager or senior leader had possibly interfered with science, and nearly 175 said they had experienced "suppression or delay of release of scientific report or information." Commenters said they had observed "suppression, changes, manipulation, or exclusion of scientific information, results, or research." They said people in senior positions, particularly political appointees, often do not understand or adequately consider science in their decisions, and they expressed a belief that their leadership is "greatly influenced by political, industry, state, or regulated groups." ==== Climate change policy ==== Before his election Trump promised to trim the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). At a Republican primary debate in Detroit on March 3, 2016, he said: "Department of Environmental Protection: We are going to get rid of it in almost every


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-8
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-8.md

summary:
=== Anthony Fauci === After Trump left office, Dr. Anthony Fauci, the director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) since 1984, spoke of the difficulties that he and other scientists faced under the Trump administration. He described working under the Biden administration as "a refreshing experience", said that he felt "uncomfortable" when Trump publicly made statements that "were not based on scientific fact", and indicated that he had felt silenced under Trump. Fauci, who has served under seven presidents, told The Atlantic, "With every other president, whether they were conservative, moderate, or liberal, the guidepost for everything was a deep respect for science. That was always the case. When I got involved with Trump, it went into a different world, the likes of which I had not experienced. I was used to being in the White House because of my work in previous administrations, but the White House became a different place in the Trump administration." Fauci said that Scott Atlas, brought into the coronavirus task force by Trump, was "a complete foil to poor Debbie Birx" and said, "I felt so bad for her, because he completely undermined her. He didn't undermine me, because I


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-9
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-9.md

summary:
In May 2020, the House Energy and Commerce Committee heard testimony from Rick Bright, a career scientist who was removed from his position as director of the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) for warning about problems with the administration's response to the coronavirus. Bright had filed a whistleblower complaint with the Office of Special Counsel. In the complaint, Bright said that his ouster and demotion were illegal retaliation by the Trump administration due to his warnings about the virus, his opposition to political interference in decision-making, and his objections to the promotion of hydroxychloroquine as a COVID-19 treatment without scientific evidence. The U.S. Office of Special Counsel determined that there were "reasonable grounds to believe" that the Trump administration's HHS had unlawfully retaliated against Bright, in violation of the Whistleblower Protection Act, "because he made protected disclosures in the best interest of the American public." The office recommended that Bright be reinstated as head of BARDA while the investigation is undertaken. However, the recommendation was not binding on HHS, and was not honored by the agency. On October 6, 2020, Bright resigned from the government. In an addendum to his whistleblower complaint, Bright stated that, following his demotion,


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-0.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Discussions of race and intelligence—specifically regarding claims of differences in intelligence along racial lines—have appeared in both popular science and academic research since the modern concept of race was first introduced. With the inception of IQ testing in the early 20th century, differences in average test performance between racial groups have been observed, though these differences have fluctuated and in many cases steadily decreased over time. Complicating the issue, modern science has concluded that race is a socially constructed phenomenon rather than a biological reality, and there exist various conflicting definitions of intelligence. In particular, the validity of IQ testing as a metric for human intelligence is disputed. Today, the scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain differences in IQ test performance between groups, and that observed differences are environmental in origin. Pseudoscientific claims of inherent differences in intelligence between races have played a central role in the history of scientific racism. The first tests showing differences in IQ scores between different population groups in the United States were those of United States Army recruits in World War I. In the 1920s, groups of eugenics lobbyists argued that these results demonstrated that African Americans and certain immigrant groups were


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-1.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pioneer Fund and The Bell Curve === In 1937, Draper founded the Pioneer Fund with the mission "to advance the scientific study of heredity and human differences". This fund would become a central driver of research into race and intelligence. The Southern Poverty Law Center lists the Pioneer Fund as a hate group, and numerous scholars have criticized it for promoting scientific racism, eugenics and white supremacy. As the desegregation of the United States gained traction in the 1950s, debate about black intelligence resurfaced. Audrey Shuey, funded by the Pioneer Fund, published a new analysis of Yerkes' tests, concluding that black people really were of inferior intellect to white people. This study was used by segregationists to argue that it was to the advantage of black children to be educated separately from the superior white children. In the 1960s, the debate was revived when William Shockley publicly defended the view that black children were innately unable to learn as well as white children. Arthur Jensen expressed similar opinions in his Harvard Educational Review article, "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?," which questioned the value of compensatory education for African-American children. He suggested that poor educational performance


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-2.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
The consensus view among geneticists, biologists and anthropologists is that race is a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one, a view supported by considerable genetics research. Race is a social construct based on folk ideologies that differentiate groups based on social disparities and superficial physical characteristics. A 2023 consensus report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine stated: "In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between groups." The concept of human "races" as natural and separate divisions within the human species has also been rejected by the American Anthropological Association. The official position of the AAA, adopted in 1998, is that advances in scientific knowledge have made it "clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups" and that "any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations [is] both arbitrary and subjective." A more recent statement from the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (2019) declares that "Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation. It was never accurate in the past, and


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-3.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, Asians on average score higher than White people, who tend to score higher than Hispanics, who tend to score higher than African Americans. There is more variation in IQ scores within each racial group, such as when they are divided by income, than between different ethnic groups when compared as a whole against each other. A 2001 meta-analysis of the results of 6,246,729 participants tested for cognitive ability or aptitude found a difference in average scores between black people and white people of 1.1 standard deviations. Consistent results were found for college and university application tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (N = 2.4 million) and Graduate Record Examination (N = 2.3 million), as well as for tests of job applicants in corporate settings (N = 0.5 million) and in the military (N = 0.4 million). In response to the controversial 1994 book The Bell Curve, the American Psychological Association (APA) formed a task-force of eleven experts, which issued a report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" in 1996. Regarding group differences, the report reaffirmed the consensus that differences within groups are much wider than differences between groups, and that claims of ethnic differences in intelligence should


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-4.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental factors including childhood lead exposure, low rates of breast feeding, and poor nutrition are significantly correlated with poor cognitive development and functioning. For example, childhood exposure to lead — associated with homes in poorer areas — correlates with an average IQ drop of 7 points, and iodine deficiency causes a decline, on average, of 12 IQ points. Such impairments may sometimes be permanent, but in some cases they be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth. The first two years of life are critical for malnutrition, the consequences of which are often irreversible and include poor cognitive development, educability, and future economic productivity. Mackintosh points out that, for American black people, infant mortality is about twice as high as for white people, and low birth weight is twice as prevalent. At the same time, white mothers are twice as likely to breastfeed their infants, and breastfeeding is directly correlated with IQ for low-birth-weight infants. In this way, a wide number of health-related factors which influence IQ are unequally distributed between the two groups. The Copenhagen consensus in 2004 stated that lack of both iodine and iron has been implicated in impaired brain development, and this can affect enormous


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-5.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Socioeconomic environment === Different aspects of the socioeconomic environment in which children are raised have been shown to correlate with part of the IQ gap, but they do not account for the entire gap. According to a 2006 review, these factors account for slightly less than half of one standard deviation. Other research has focused on different causes of variation within low socioeconomic status (SES) and high SES groups. In the US, among low SES groups, genetic differences account for a smaller proportion of the variance in IQ than among high SES populations. Such effects are predicted by the bioecological hypothesis—that genotypes are transformed into phenotypes through nonadditive synergistic effects of the environment. Nisbett et al. (2012a) suggest that high SES individuals are more likely to be able to develop their full biological potential, whereas low SES individuals are likely to be hindered in their development by adverse environmental conditions. The same review also points out that adoption studies generally are biased towards including only high and high middle SES adoptive families, meaning that they will tend to overestimate average genetic effects. They also note that studies of adoption from lower-class homes to middle-class homes have shown that such


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-6.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Geneticist Alan R. Templeton argued that the question about the possible genetic effects on the test score gap is muddled by the general focus on "race" rather than on populations defined by gene frequency or by geographical proximity, and by the general insistence on phrasing the question in terms of heritability. Templeton pointed out that racial groups neither represent sub-species nor distinct evolutionary lineages, and that therefore there is no basis for making claims about the general intelligence of races. He argued that, for these reasons, the search for possible genetic influences on the black–white test score gap is a priori flawed, because there is no genetic material shared by all Africans or by all Europeans. Mackintosh (2011), on the other hand, argued that by using genetic cluster analysis to correlate gene frequencies with continental populations it might be possible to show that African populations have a higher frequency of certain genetic variants that contribute to differences in average intelligence. Such a hypothetical situation could hold without all Africans carrying the same genes or belonging to a single evolutionary lineage. According to Mackintosh, a biological basis for the observed gap in IQ test performance thus cannot be ruled out on


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-7.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Spearman's hypothesis states that the magnitude of the black–white difference in tests of cognitive ability depends entirely or mainly on the extent to which a test measures general mental ability, or g. The hypothesis was first formalized by Arthur Jensen, who devised the statistical "method of correlated vectors" to test it. If Spearman's hypothesis holds true, then the cognitive tasks that have the highest g-load are the tasks in which the gap between black and white test takers are greatest. Jensen and Rushton took this to show that the cause of g and the cause of the gap are the same—in their view, genetic differences. Mackintosh (2011, pp. 338–39) acknowledges that Jensen and Rushton showed a modest correlation between g-loading, heritability, and the test score gap, but does not agree that this demonstrates a genetic origin of the gap. Mackintosh argues that it is exactly those tests that Rushton and Jensen consider to have the highest g-loading and heritability, such as the Wechsler test, that have seen the greatest increases in black performance due to the Flynn effect. This likely suggests that they are also the most sensitive to environmental changes, which undermines Jensen's argument that the black–white gap is


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-8.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Racial admixture studies === Most people have ancestry from different geographical regions. In particular, African Americans typically have ancestors from both Africa and Europe, with, on average, 20% of their genome inherited from European ancestors. If racial IQ gaps have a partially genetic basis, one might expect black people with a higher degree of European ancestry to score higher on IQ tests than black people with less European ancestry, because the genes inherited from European ancestors would likely include some genes with a positive effect on IQ. Geneticist Alan Templeton has argued that an experiment based on the Mendelian "common garden" design, where specimens with different hybrid compositions are subjected to the same environmental influences, are the only way to definitively show a causal relation between genes and group differences in IQ. Summarizing the findings of admixture studies, he concludes that they have shown no significant correlation between any cognitive ability and the degree of African or European ancestry. Studies have employed different ways of measuring or approximating relative degrees of ancestry from Africa and Europe. Some studies have used skin color as a measure, and others have used blood groups. Loehlin (2000) surveys the literature and argues that


id: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration-0.md
category: reference
title: Science policy of the second Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:06.653419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-0
summary:
During the second presidency of Donald Trump, the US government has seen broad funding freezes and cuts (or proposed cuts). Broad research areas targeted so far have included addiction, climate change, cancer research, vaccine hesitancy, HIV/AIDS research, COVID-19, mental health, and mRNA. The administration has notably paused research funding related to LGBTQ and other gender issues, diversity, equity, and inclusion, race and ethnicity, and other topics deemed "woke". Some of the funding freezes have been used to apply pressure to universities on non-science related matters. For example the University of San Diego, a school that contains a massive research program for students. Due to the budget cuts from the Trump administration, the university experienced a decrease in funding. == Early actions == Early Trump executive orders led to government organizations removing or modifying over 8,000 web pages and approximately 3,000 datasets, many of them science-related. In addition, there were freezes in scientific funding and purges of data related to LGBTQ issues, gender, climate change, and racial diversity. There were also mass firings across federal scientific agencies. The National Science Foundation (NSF) ceased paying out its grants to researchers leaving many without a salary. Grant review panels—in which scientists decide which


id: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration-1.md
category: reference
title: Science policy of the second Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:06.653419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-0
summary:
The Trump administration ordered a suspension of National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant funding on January 27, which froze much of its $47 billion budget. The order was blocked by courts after legal challenges but continued when the government exploited a loophole in which they refused to publish the agency's meeting plans in the Federal Register. The NIH announced on February 7 that it would cap support for indirect costs in grants to institutions at 15% of a grant's value. Indirect costs cover expenses that are not directly related to research but are necessary to support it, such as rent for facilities, utilities like heat and electricity, or janitorial and administrative staff. Indirect costs typically range from 30% to 70%, and the cuts represent "tens to hundreds of millions of dollars" in lost funding for research institutes that could lead to layoffs, hiring freezes, and ending research projects. The cuts had previously been outlined in Project 2025 to combat what it characterized as subsidies for "leftist agendas" and diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts. In response, 22 state attorneys general filed a lawsuit and the cuts were paused on February 10. The NIH fired 1,000 to 1,200 workers on February 15.


id: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration-2.md
category: reference
title: Science policy of the second Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:06.653419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-0
summary:
== Budget plans == In April 2025, budget planning documents within the Trump administration indicated the intention to reduce funding for a variety of science agencies in Fiscal Year 2026, which begins on October 1, 2025: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: reduce funding from $9.2 billion to $5.2 billion, a 44% cut. National Aeronautics and Space Administration science directorate: reduce funding from $7.5 billion to $3.9 billion, a 52% cut. National Institutes of Health: reduce funding from $47 billion to $27 billion, a 40% cut. Eliminate National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities and the National Institute of Nursing Research. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: reduce funding from $6.1 billion to $4.5 billion, a 26% cut. Eliminate the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. National Science Foundation: reduce funding from $9 billion to $4, a 55% cut. These budget plans were reported in the press at the "passback" stage, at which the Office of Management and Budget sends its preferred revisions to agency budget requests. These cuts were formalized in the administration's FY 2026 budget, released on May 2. == Scientific publishing == Multiple scientific journals received letters in April 2025 from the Department of Justice under interim


id: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Skeptical Environmentalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:09.107276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-0
summary:
The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World (Danish: Verdens sande tilstand, lit. 'The True State of the World') is a book by Danish author and statistician Bjørn Lomborg which focuses on the author's view of environmental economics and issues. It was first published in Danish in 1998 by Centrum, and in English by Cambridge University Press in 2001. Lomborg was inspired by an interview with economist Julian Lincoln Simon to undertake an assessment of publicly available data, and published his findings as a series of articles in Politiken. These formed the basis of the book, in which Lomborg argues against a range of what he considers overly pessimistic claims about environmental issues and their impact on human prosperity. Lomborg argues that environmentalists' concerns over pollution, environmental degradation, decline in natural resources, and climate change are overstated, and outlines his opposition to policy responses like the Kyoto Protocol, deeming them insufficient and causing more harm than good based on cost–benefit analysis. He argues in favour of focus instead being channelled to poverty reduction and combating diseases. The book generated great controversy and negative reviews upon its release. Lomborg's assertions, methodology and representation of sources were criticised by scientists


id: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist-1.md
category: reference
title: The Skeptical Environmentalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:09.107276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-0
summary:
Human prosperity from an economic and demographic point of view. He argues prosperity, life expectancy, food and hunger and health have improved over the past centuries in most parts of the world, despite ongoing challenges such as HIV/AIDS. He dismisses Thomas Malthus' theory that increases in the world's population lead to widespread hunger. Human prosperity from an ecological point of view. Lomborg examines the state of natural resources and draws a conclusion that contrasts to that of the well known report The Limits to Growth. He argues that food is increasing, with the exception of fish which is depleting. He argues that there is no indication of widespread deforestation, and economic growth is a solution to the issue in developing countries. Lomborg asserts that rare materials and oil are not being depleted as fast as is claimed, and that improvements of technology will provide people with fossil fuels for years to come. Lomborg says that water conflicts will not take place because they are not cost-effective, and argues in favour of better water management. Pollution as a threat to human prosperity. He connects air pollution and water pollution with economic growth, and argues that faster economic growth will reduce their


id: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist-2.md
category: reference
title: The Skeptical Environmentalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:09.107276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-0
summary:
The Union of Concerned Scientists published a critique of the book, highlighting reviews by Peter Gleick, Jerry D. Mahlman, Thomas Lovejoy, Norman Myers, Jeffrey Harvey, E. O. Wilson and Stuart Pimm. They concluded that the book fits squarely in a tradition of contrarian environmental works, which may gain temporary prominence but ultimately fail to stand up to scientific scrutiny. Harvey compared the book unfavourably to University undergraduate quality, and added "ecology is the most complex of sciences and Lomborg has never done a shred of work in the field". In a letter, Wilson said that the greatest regret he had about the book was "the time wasted by scientists correcting the misinformation created." In January 2002, a heading from Scientific American read, "Misleading Math about the Earth" and contained set of essays written by scientists on the book. The article concluded that The Skeptical Environmentalist misrepresented both scientific evidence and opinion. The journal also refused Lomborg's request of publishing a defense print of 32 pages, rather a page in the later May issue in 2002. The magazine later published his complete rebuttal on its website, along with the counter rebuttals of John Rennie and John P. Holdren. Nature also published


id: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist-3.md
category: reference
title: The Skeptical Environmentalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:09.107276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-0
summary:
I am neither a statistician nor a scientist, and I lack the skill to judge Lomborg's reworkings of the statistics of conventional wisdom. But I am worried that on virtually every topic he touches, he reaches conclusions radically different from almost everybody else. That seems to suggest that most scientists are wrong, short-sighted, naïve, interested only in securing research funds, or deliberately dancing to the campaigners' tune. Most I know are honest, intelligent and competent. So it beggars belief to suppose that Professor Lomborg is the only one in step, every single time. Kirby's first concern was not with the extensive research and statistical analysis, but the conclusions drawn from them, concluding: "In the rational world that Bjørn Lomborg thinks we all inhabit, we would manage problems sensibly, one by one. But the real world is messier, more unpredictable—and more impatient." === Reception of media coverage === Shortly after its release, the World Resources Institute and World Wide Fund for Nature published a nine-point critique of Lomborg's work and credentials specifically targeted at journalists, advising them to "proceed with caution" in their coverage of the book. One critical article, "The Skeptical Environmentalist: A Case Study in the Manufacture of News",


id: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist-4.md
category: reference
title: The Skeptical Environmentalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptical_Environmentalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:09.107276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-skeptical-environmentalist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation review and response === On 13 February 2003, Lomborg filed a complaint against the DCSD's decision with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MSTI), which oversees the group. On 17 December, the Ministry released a report identifying a number of procedural errors had made, although did not refute any criticisms of the book. It criticised the DCSD for not identifying specific areas of error and for not providing an opportunity for Lomborg to respond before the report's publication. The Ministry then remitted the case to the DCSD, and instructed the DCSD to decide whether to reinvestigate. On 12 March 2004, the Committee formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that renewed scrutiny would, in all likelihood, result in the same conclusion. == Legacy == Jim Giles wrote a 2003 retrospective on the book in Nature, saying it was "packed with facts and figures, yet it was the emotional response that it inspired that will be best remembered," and argued that it would have little long-lasting influence. Giles suggested the intense critical reaction from scientists and environmental groups was driven by fears that the book's talking points would be adopted


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Soon and Baliunas controversy involved the publication in 2003 of a review study titled Proxy climatic and environmental changes of the past 1000 years, written by aerospace engineer Willie Soon and astronomer Sallie Baliunas and published in the journal Climate Research. In the review, the authors expressed disagreement with the hockey stick graph and argued that historical temperature changes were related to solar variation rather than greenhouse gas emissions as was the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and other researchers. The publication was quickly taken up by the George W. Bush administration as a basis for amending the first Environmental Protection Agency's Report on the Environment. The paper was strongly criticized by numerous scientists for its methodology and for its misuse of data from previously published studies, which prompted concerns about the peer review process of the paper. The controversy resulted in the resignation of half of the editors of the journal and in the admission by its publisher, Otto Kinne, that the paper should not have been published as it was. The article and responses to it featured in further global warming controversy, including questions about funding of the paper. == Background == === IPCC


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Publication == Chris de Freitas, as an editor at Climate Research, accepted the paper written by Soon and Baliunas and it was published in the small refereed journal on 31 January 2003 under the title Proxy climatic and environmental changes of the past 1000 years. The article reviewed 240 previously published papers and tried to find evidence for temperature anomalies in the last thousand years such as the Medieval warm period (MWP) and the Little Ice Age (LIA). The authors pointed out their disagreement with the Mann, Bradley, and Hughes hockey stick studies; "Our results suggest a different interpretation of the multiproxy climates compared to recent conclusions of Mann et al. (1998, 1999, 2000)." Their abstract concluded that "Across the world, many records reveal that the 20th century is probably not the warmest or a uniquely extreme climatic period of the last millennium". The paper acknowledged funding support from the American Petroleum Institute, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and NASA, while stating that the views were those of the authors and were independent of the sponsoring agencies. In the Spring of 2003, Soon and Baliunas, with three additional co-authors, published a longer version of the paper in


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Responses from other scientists, political intervention == Initially, the scientists whose work was being disputed by Soon and Baliunas felt it was one of a series of sceptical papers that, in Mann's words, "couldn't get published in a reputable journal". In March he wrote to Phil Jones that "I believed our only choice was to ignore this paper. They've already achieved what they wanted, the claim of a peer-reviewed paper. There is nothing we can do about that now, but the last thing we want is to bring attention to the paper." Jones replied "I think the sceptics will use this paper to their own ends and it will set paleo back a number of years if it goes unchallenged. I will be emailing the journal to tell them I'm having nothing more to do with it until they rid themselves of this troublesome editor", referring to de Freitas. At the time the second Soon et al. paper was publicised, Mann emailed Fred Pearce to say that it "was absurd, almost laughable (if it wasn't, as is transparently evident, being used as a policy–and politics–driven publicity stunt to support the dubious positions on climate change of some prominent American


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Response of journal editors == On 20 June 2003 the publisher of Climate Research, Otto Kinne, agreed to ask de Freitas for copies of the reviewer's evaluations: after studying the response, he advised the editors of his "Conclusions: 1) The reviewers consulted (4 for each ms) by the editor presented detailed, critical and helpful evaluations. 2) The editor properly analyzed the evaluations and requested appropriate revisions. 3) The authors revised their manuscripts accordingly. Summary: Chris de Freitas has done a good and correct job as editor." The journal had 10 editors, who at that time each independently received and accepted manuscripts from authors. One of the editors, Clare Goodess, recalled that many of them were "somewhat confused and still very concerned about what had happened". The paper "had apparently gone to four reviewers none of whom had recommended rejection", and "The review process had apparently been correct, but a fundamentally flawed paper had been published." She and fellow editor Hans von Storch knew of three earlier papers edited by de Freitas where concerns had been raised about the review process. To meet the concerns, Kinne proposed to adopt the more common system where instead of editors acting fully independently,


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Subsequent resignations == In a Climate Research editorial pre-published on 5 August 2003, its publisher Otto Kinne expressed regrets about the resignations of von Storch, Goodess, and a third editor, Mitsuru Ando. Kinne described the main conclusions of the Soon and Baliunas paper; that the late 20th century was probably not the warmest period nor uniquely extreme in the last 2,000 years, and most of the proxy records had warmer anomalies at earlier times. He wrote "While these statements may be true, the critics point out that they cannot be concluded convincingly from the evidence provided in the paper. CR should have requested appropriate revisions of the manuscript prior to publication." Kinne told the New York Times that "I have not stood behind the paper by Soon and Baliunas. Indeed: the reviewers failed to detect methodological flaws." On 19 August 2003, Tom Wigley wrote to a colleague that "I have had papers that I refereed (and soundly rejected), under De Freitas’s editorship, appear later in the journal — without me seeing any response from the authors. As I have said before to others, his strategy is first to use mainly referees that are in the anti-greenhouse community, and second,


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-5.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
In November 2009, emails and documents which had been hacked from a server belonging to the University of East Anglia were distributed on the internet. Many of the emails included communication between climatologists in East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit (CRU) and other scientists, including Michael E. Mann. Several of the emails included conversations about Soon and Baliunas' paper as the controversy was ongoing in 2003 and 2004. In an 18 December 2009 column in The Wall Street Journal, Pat Michaels alleged that pressure from Jones and Mann was responsible for the resignations at Climate Research. On 22 December 2009 von Storch responded in the Wall Street Journal that his resignation as editor of Climate Research had nothing to do with any pressure from Jones, Mann, or anyone else, but instead he "left this post on my own, with no outside pressure, because of insufficient quality control on a bad paper—a skeptic's paper, at that." The Independent Climate Change Email Review, an independent review funded by the University of East Anglia and chaired by Sir Muir Russell, examined allegations that the emails showed attempts to undermine normal procedures of publication. Phil Jones gave evidence that he believed the paper showed self-evident


id: walter-w-stewart-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_W._Stewart_(scientist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Walter W. Stewart (scientist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_W._Stewart_(scientist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:11.643469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: walter-w-stewart-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Walter W. Stewart (born c. 1945) is an American biomedical scientist who worked at the National Institute of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. Working at the National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism and Digestive Diseases, he invented Lucifer yellow, a fluorescent dye used for visualizing cells under microscope, in 1979. In 1971, he had also isolated and worked out the chemical structure of tabtoxin, or wildfire toxin, an antibiotic precursor from the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae. He is most popularly known for his efforts in maintaining scientific integrity by fighting against important cases of malpractices. He accompanied James Randi in debunking homeopathic experiment perpetrated by French immunologist Jacques Benveniste in an incidence known as the Benveniste affair in 1988. == The Baltimore case == David Baltimore was a microbiologist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) who received the 1975 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine (along with Howard Temin and Renato Dulbecco) for the "discoveries concerning the interaction between tumor viruses and the genetic material of the cell." Since 1981, he collaborated with Brazilian immunologist Thereza Imanishi-Kari at the Institute for Genetics in University of Cologne, Germany. By the next year, Imanishi-Kari joined him at MIT and worked on mutations in immunoglobulins. In


id: teissier-affair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teissier_affair-0.md
category: reference
title: Teissier affair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teissier_affair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:12.829522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teissier-affair-20260505-0
summary:
The Teissier affair was a controversy that occurred in France in 2001. French astrologer Élizabeth Teissier was awarded a doctorate in sociology by Paris Descartes University for a doctoral thesis in which she argued that astrology was being oppressed by science. Her work was contested by the scientific community within the context of the science wars, and compared to the Sokal hoax. Criticisms included the alleged failure to work within the field of sociology and also lacking the necessary scientific rigour for a doctoral thesis in any scientific field. The university and jury who awarded the degree were harshly criticised, though both they and Teissier had supporters and defenders. == Teissier's doctorate == On April 7, 2001, Elizabeth Teissier defended her thesis entitled Situation épistémologique de l'astrologie à travers l'ambivalence fascination-rejet dans les sociétés postmodernes ("The Epistemological Situation of Astrology in Relation to the Ambivalent Fascination/Rejection of Postmodern Societies") – accounts of the defense have been published. Her studies at the University of Paris Descartes were under the supervision of Michel Maffesoli, an Emeritus Professor of Sociology. The central idea of the thesis was described by The New York Times as being that astrology is being oppressed by science, which


id: tobacco-industry-playbook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook-0.md
category: reference
title: Tobacco industry playbook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:14.046243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tobacco-industry-playbook-20260505-0
summary:
The tobacco industry playbook, also called the tobacco disinformation playbook or simply the tobacco strategy, describes a public relations strategy used by the tobacco industry in the 1950s to protect revenues in the face of mounting evidence of links between tobacco smoke and serious illnesses, primarily cancer. Such tactics were used even earlier, beginning in the 1920s, by the oil industry to support the use of tetraethyllead in gasoline. They continue to be used by other industries, notably the fossil fuel industry, even using the same PR firms and researchers. Much of the playbook is known from industry documents made public by whistleblowers or as a result of the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. These documents are now curated by the UCSF Truth Tobacco Industry Documents project and are a primary source for much commentary on both the tobacco playbook and its similarities to the tactics used by other industries such as the fossil fuel industry. A 1969 R. J. Reynolds internal memorandum noted, "Doubt is our product since it is the best means of competing with the 'body of fact' that exists in the mind of the general public." In Merchants of Doubt, Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway documented the


id: untermassfeld-fossil-site-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untermassfeld_fossil_site-0.md
category: reference
title: Untermassfeld fossil site
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untermassfeld_fossil_site
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:15.266142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: untermassfeld-fossil-site-20260505-0
summary:
The Untermaßfeld fossil site is a palaeontological site in Untermaßfeld, Germany. Excavated continuously since its discovery in 1978, it has produced many fossils dating to the late Early Pleistocene or Epivillafranchian geologic period, approximately 1.2 – 0.9 million years before present (BP). Claims that hominins were also present at the site have sparked a major controversy. == Hominin controversy == In a series of papers published between 2013 and 2017, Günter Landeck and Joan Garcia Garriga claimed to have found evidence of a hominin presence at the site in the form of stone tools and butchery marks on bones. If verified, this would be the earliest known occupation of northern Europe by humans, as previous evidence had indicated that Europe was only sporadically occupied, at southerly latitudes, before 500,000 BP. However, these findings have sparked a major controversy. Questions were immediately asked about the provenance of the material, since neither Landeck nor Garcia Garriga had any connection to the Untermassfeld project and had never worked on the excavations at the site. Further doubts were raised in October 2017, in the preprint of a paper later published in the Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, authored by several palaeontologists and Palaeolithic archaeologists, including


id: who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO-convened_Global_Study_of_Origins_of_SARS-CoV-2-0.md
category: reference
title: WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO-convened_Global_Study_of_Origins_of_SARS-CoV-2
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:16.420960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-20260505-0
summary:
The WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2 or the Joint WHO-China Study was a collaborative study between the World Health Organization and the Government of China on the origins of COVID-19. The study was commissioned by the Director-General of the World Health Organization following a request by the 2020 World Health Assembly in which 122 WHO members proposed a motion, which included a call for a "comprehensive, independent and impartial" study into the COVID-19 pandemic" The WHO disbanded the team and proposed a new panel called Scientific Advisory Group for Origins of Novel Pathogens. == Background == The World Health Organization has declared that finding where SARS-CoV-2 came from is a priority and that it is "essential for understanding how the pandemic started". In May 2020, the World Health Assembly, which governs the World Health Organization (WHO), passed a motion calling for a "comprehensive, independent and impartial" study into the COVID-19 pandemic. A record 137 countries, including China, co-sponsored the motion, giving overwhelming international endorsement to the study. In mid 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) began negotiations with the government of China on conducting an official study into the origins of COVID-19. In November 2020, the WHO published


id: who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO-convened_Global_Study_of_Origins_of_SARS-CoV-2-1.md
category: reference
title: WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO-convened_Global_Study_of_Origins_of_SARS-CoV-2
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:16.420960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == WHO director-general Tedros Adhanom, who was not directly involved with the investigation, said he was ready to dispatch additional missions involving specialist experts and that further research was required. He said in a statement, "Some explanations may be more probable than others, but for now all possibilities remain on the table". He also said, "We have not yet found the source of the virus, and we must continue to follow the science and leave no stone unturned as we do." Tedros also called on China to provide "more timely and comprehensive data sharing" as part of future investigations. News outlets noted that though it was unrealistic to expect quick and huge results from the report, it "offered few clear-cut conclusions regarding the start of the pandemic", "failed to audit the Chinese official position at some parts of the report", and was "biased according to critics". Other scientists praised how the report details the pathways that can shed light on the origin, if explored later. After the publication of the report, politicians, talk show hosts, journalists, and some scientists advanced unsupported claims that SARS-CoV-2 may have come from the WIV. In the United States, calls to investigate a


id: archaeological-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Archaeological science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:19.272223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archaeological-science-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeological science consists of the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites. It is related to methodologies of archaeology. Martinón-Torres and Killick distinguish 'scientific archaeology' (as an epistemology) from 'archaeological science' (the application of specific techniques to archaeological materials). Martinón-Torres and Killick claim that 'archaeological science' has promoted the development of high-level theory in archaeology. However, Smith rejects both concepts of archaeological science because neither emphasize falsification or a search for causality. Marwick demonstrated that archaeologists' publication habits are more like social scientists than hard sciences such as physics. In the United Kingdom, the Natural and Environmental Research Council provides funding for archaeometry separate from the funding provided for archaeology. == Types of archaeological science == Archaeological science can be divided into the following areas: physical and chemical dating methods which provide archaeologists with absolute and relative chronologies artifact studies environmental approaches which provide information on past landscapes, climates, flora, and fauna; as well as the diet, nutrition, health, and pathology of people mathematical methods for data treatment (including computer-based methods) remote-sensing and geophysical-survey techniques for buried features conservation sciences, involving the study of decay processes and the development of new methods of conservation Techniques


id: conversazione-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md
category: reference
title: Conversazione
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:20.470696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversazione-20260505-0
summary:
A conversazione is a "social gathering [predominantly] held by [a] learned or art society" for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature, medicine, and science. It would not be easy to devise a happier way [than the conversazione] of bringing novelties at once under practical criticism—of making the outliers of science acquainted with the centre, of enabling investigators to compare operations and discuss facts and speculations, and of giving occasion for renewal of intercourse and removal of misunderstandings. …[The] tangible gain to science [from the conversazione is that] inventors and experimentalists … hear [directly] what contemporaries say of their schemes and experiments, and much can be said and done with advantage amid the free talk of a general gathering which could not be permitted in the formal meeting of a scientific society. (Nature, 5 May 1870.) == Origin == The writer Horace Walpole is credited with the first recorded English use of conversazione in a letter written (from Italy) on 11 November 1739 to Richard West (1716–1742) in which he writes, "After the play we were introduced to the assembly, which they [viz., the Italians] call the conversazione". == Historical usage in Britain == In Italy, the term generally


id: cultural-environmentalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Cultural environmentalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:21.695832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cultural-environmentalism-20260505-0
summary:
Cultural environmentalism is the movement that seeks to protect the public domain. The term was coined by James Boyle, professor at Duke University and contributor to the Financial Times. The term stems from Boyle's argument that those who seek to protect the public domain are working towards a similar ends as environmentalists. Boyle's contention is that whereas the environmentalist movement illuminated the effects that social decisions can have upon ecology, cultural environmentalists seek to illuminate the effects that intellectual property laws can have upon culture. == References == == External links == Cultural Environmentalism at 10. James Boyle: Cultural environmentalism? A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the Net? An IP Environmentalism for Culture and Knowledge?


id: heritage-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Heritage science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:22.870555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heritage-science-20260505-0
summary:
Heritage science is the interdisciplinary domain of scientific study of cultural and natural heritage. Heritage science draws on diverse humanities, sciences and engineering disciplines. It focuses on enhancing the understanding, care and sustainable use of heritage so it can enrich people's lives, both today and in the future. Heritage science is an umbrella term encompassing all forms of scientific enquiry into human works and the combined works of nature and humans, of value to people. The above definition was developed though a community consultation organised by ICCROM and the European Research Infrastructure for Heritage Science in 2019. The term has become widely used after 2006, when it became increasingly evident that the more traditional terms conservation science or preservation science inadequately reflected the breadth of research into cultural heritage. Heritage scientists in museums, galleries, libraries, archives, universities and research institutions support conservation (often called conservation science), access (e.g. development of new ICT tools), interpretation, including archaeometry and archaeological science (e.g. dating, provenancing, attribution), heritage management (e.g. development of tools and knowledge supporting strategic or environmental management decisions) and wider societal engagement with heritage (e.g. heritage values and ethics). Heritage science is also an excellent vehicle for public engagement with science


id: heritage-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Heritage science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:22.870555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heritage-science-20260505-0
summary:
Heritage science is an increasingly lively science domain. Materials and techniques of the past are often very difficult to study and state-of-the-art techniques and methods need to be employed. Discoveries new to science are often the result of such endeavours, e.g. new antibiotics from bacteria discovered in the Cave of Altamira, in Spain. With its wide definition, heritage science spans a significant variety of scientific activities. In order to support conservation, access, interpretation and management, heritage science must be based on an interdisciplinary palette of knowledge, from fundamental sciences (chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology) to arts and humanities (conservation, archaeology, philosophy, ethics, history, art history etc.), including economics, sociology, computer sciences and engineering. In academia, heritage science is often performed by scientists spending a proportion of their time on heritage-related research. The academic field, judged by the number of academic outputs published annually, is steadily increasing. This could be taken to estimate the domain size – with the number of outputs in 2014 being 6,800 (Source: Web of Science), it could be assumed that there are about 3,000 heritage scientists active in the field (publishing on average 2 academic publications per year). This goes against the generally held view that the


id: heritage-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Heritage science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:22.870555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heritage-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Events == There are major heritage science events including conferences, symposia, and meetings. In addition, conferences organised by the Institute of Conservation, American Institute for Conservation and International Institute for Conservation usually feature heritage science sessions and talks. == Journals == Notable journals often or exclusively publishing academic papers in heritage science include: Heritage Science, open-access & peer-reviewed journal published by SpringerOpen, part of Springer Nature Archaeometry Heritage Journal of Cultural Heritage Journal of the American Institute for Conservation Studies in Conservation == See also == Heritage studies Paleo-inspiration == References == == External links == Heritage science departments Museum Conservation Institute of the Smithsonian Institution, US Department of Conservation and Science of the British Museum, UK Centre for Conservation Research, France Getty Conservation Institute, US Conservation Science Department of the V&A Museum, UK Science Laboratory of the Art Institute of Chicago, US The Netherlands Institute for Conservation, Art and Science, The Netherlands Heritage Science Lab Ljubljana, Slovenia Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione e il Restauro, Italy Opificio delle Pietre Dure, Italy Institute of Heritage Sciences of the National Research Council, Italy Koninklijk Instituut voor het Kunstpatrimonium/Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique, Belgium University of Oxford - Resilient Buildings and


id: independent-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Independent scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:24.082171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: independent-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
An independent scientist (historically also known as gentleman scientist) is a financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study without direct affiliation to a public institution such as a university or government-run research and development body. The term "gentleman scientist" arose in post-Renaissance Europe, but became less common in the 20th century as government and private funding increased. Most independent scientists have at some point in their career been affiliated with some academic institution, such as Charles Darwin, who was affiliated with the Geological Society of London. == History == Self-funded scientists practiced more commonly from the Renaissance until the late 19th century, including the Victorian era, especially in England, before large-scale government and corporate funding was available. Many early fellows of the Royal Society in London were independent scientists. === Modern === Modern-day independent scientists who fund their own research on an independent basis include, for example, Stephen Wolfram who funds his research through the sale of Mathematica software, Julian Barbour, Aubrey de Grey, Barrington Moore, Susan Blackmore, James Lovelock, and John Wilkinson who funds his research on "molecular synergism in nature" by running a regulatory scientific consultancy in natural products. Peter Rich said of Peter D. Mitchell: "I think


id: institute-for-figuring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_For_Figuring-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute For Figuring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_For_Figuring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:25.364701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-figuring-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute For Figuring (IFF) is an organization based in Los Angeles, California that promotes the public understanding of the poetic and aesthetic dimensions of science, mathematics and the technical arts. Founded by Margaret Wertheim and Christine Wertheim, the institute hosts public lectures and exhibitions, publishes books and maintains a website. == Published works == Robert Kaplan The Figure That Stands Behind Figures: Mosaics of the Mind (2004) Margaret Wertheim A Field Guide to Hyperbolic Space (2005) Margaret Wertheim A Field Guide to the Business Card Menger Sponge (2006) Margaret Wertheim, Christine Wertheim Crochet Coral Reef: A Project (2015) == See also == Mathematics and fiber arts European Society for Mathematics and the Arts == References == == External links == Official website


id: the-neurogenderings-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_NeuroGenderings_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: The NeuroGenderings Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_NeuroGenderings_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:26.550012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-neurogenderings-network-20260505-0
summary:
The NeuroGenderings Network is an international group of researchers in neuroscience and gender studies. Members of the network study how the complexities of social norms, varied life experiences, details of laboratory conditions and biology interact to affect the results of neuroscientific research. Working under the label of "neurofeminism", they aim to critically analyze how the field of neuroscience operates, and to build an understanding of brain and gender that goes beyond gender essentialism while still treating the brain as fundamentally material. Its founding was part of a period of increased interest and activity in interdisciplinary research connecting neuroscience and the social sciences. == History == The group, comprising scholars who specialized in feminism, queer theory and gender studies, formed to tackle "neurosexism" as defined by Cordelia Fine in her 2010 book Delusions of Gender: "uncritical biases in [neuroscientific] research and public perception, and their societal impacts on an individual, structural, and symbolic level." Research can suffer from neurosexism by failing to include the social factors and expectations that shape sex differences, which possibly leads to making inferences based on flawed data. By contrast, the network members advocate "neurofeminism", aiming to critically evaluate heteronormative assumptions of contemporary brain research and examine


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:27.837286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific research is concentrated in the developed world, with only a marginal contribution from the rest of the world. Many newly industrialized countries have been trying to establish scientific institutions, but with limited success. There is an insufficient dedicated, inspired and motivated labor pool for science and insufficient investment in science education. == The limited success of Newly Industrialized Countries == The reason that there have been so few scientists, who have made their mark globally, from most NIC's (Newly Industrialized Countries) is partly historical and partly social A true scientist is nurtured from the school upwards to scientific establishments. Only if there are inspired and dedicated school science teachers in abundance, there will be a sufficient number of inspired students who would like to take science as a career option and who may one day become a successful scientist. == The common thread == A common thread can indeed be discerned in the state of science in many NICs. Thus although, most of the science establishments in the major NICs can be said to be doing fairly well, none of them have been as successful as the developed countries. After the Second World War, a small technical elite arose


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:27.837286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
China was a world leader in science and technology until the early years of the Ming dynasty. Chinese discoveries and Chinese innovations such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions) contributed to the economic development in East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. A question that has been intriguing many historians studying China is the fact that China did not develop a scientific revolution and Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic. has argued that China indeed had a scientific revolution in the 17th century and that we are still far from understanding the scientific revolutions of the West and China in all their political, economic and social ramifications. Some like John K. Fairbank are of the opinion that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. Needham argued, and most scholars agreed, that cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature. More recent historians have questioned political and cultural explanations


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:27.837286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
The earliest applications of science in India took place in the context of medicine, metallurgy, construction technology (such as ship building, manufacture of cement and paints) and in textile production and dyeing. But in the process of understanding chemical processes, led to some theories about physical processes and the forces of nature that are today studied as specific topics within the fields of chemistry and physics. Many mathematical concepts today were contributed by Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata. There was really no place for scientists in the Indian caste system. Thus while there were/are castes for the learned brahmins, the warriors kshatriyas, the traders vaishyas and the menial workers shudras, maybe even the bureaucrats (the kayasths) there was/is hardly any formal place in the social hierarchy for a people who discover new knowledge or invent new devices based on the recently discovered knowledge, even though scientific temper has always been in India, in the form of logic, reasoning and method of acquiring knowledge. Its therefore no wonder that some Indians quickly learned to value science, especially those belonging to the privileged Brahmin caste during the British colonial rule that lasted over two centuries. Some Indians did succeed to achieve notable success


id: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Week Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:29.101493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
Science Week Ireland is an annual week-long event in Ireland each November, celebrating science in our everyday lives. Science Week is an initiative of Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) It is the largest science festival in the country, engaging tens of thousands of members of the general public in workshops, science shows, talks, laboratory demonstrations, science walks and other science-related events. Science Week is a collaboration of events involving industry, colleges, schools, libraries, teachers, researchers and students throughout Ireland. Science Week supports Science Foundation Ireland’s mission to catalyse, inspire and guide the best in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) education and public engagement. The ultimate aim of this effort is that Ireland will have the most engaged and scientifically informed public by 2020 as outlined in Science Foundation Ireland’s strategy Agenda 2020. This also aligns to the national science innovation strategy, Innovation 2020. == History == Over the years, Science Week Ireland has grown from a small pilot initiative to a large promotional and event engine to its current identity as a recognised vehicle for regional activity supported by a national promotional campaign. In 1995, a National Science week was organised by the Royal Dublin Society and a number of


id: science-week-ireland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-1.md
category: reference
title: Science Week Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:29.101493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2015 === 2015 marked the 20th anniversary of Science Week, which took place from 8–15 November. The theme was ‘Science Week 2.0 Design Your Future’. It celebrated how science empowers ‘you’ to ‘Design Your Future’. Numerous events were held in every county, and regional festivals took place in Mayo, Sligo, Galway, Waterford, Cork, Limerick and the midlands. === 2016 === Science Week 2016 took place from 13–20 November. The theme was ‘Science Rising’ which looks at how science is key to our success – it is part of our past, an important part of our present and there is endless potential still to be realised. Science Week 2016 reached more people, all over Ireland, across a wider demographic than had been achieved before. Science Week 2016 saw 10 Regional Festivals across the country. === 2017 === Science Week 2017 ran nationwide from 12–19 November 2017. The theme was ‘Believe in Science’. More than 1180 events took place across Ireland. 12 regional science festivals took place in Cavan/Monaghan, Cork, Carlow, Festival of Farming and Food (Teagasc), Galway, Kerry, Limerick, Mayo, the Midlands, Sligo, Southeast and Tipperary. A number of Science Foundation Ireland-funded Science Week events took place throughout the week,


id: world-information-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org-0.md
category: reference
title: World-Information.Org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:31.584117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-information-org-20260505-0
summary:
The World-Information Institute (WII) is an independent cultural institution based in Vienna, Austria, established in 1999 and officially launched in 2000. The institute conducts research and organizes various events, including conferences and exhibitions, focusing on digital culture and information technologies. The World-Information Institute is an international network of partner institutions and experts collaborating in the fields of information and communication technologies and their social implications. WII’s main research areas involve collecting, organizing, and analyzing information about shared resources and in this context, issues related to intellectual property laws, new ways of creating cultural works, how information is searched and organized, surveillance technologies, big data, and data visualization, cultural and media policies. A recent initiative to improve cultural and media policies is the “Netzpolitischer Konvent” (the Convention of Austrian civil society on net politics), where a list of demands was prepared and shared with the public. == Projects == === World-Information.Org series of projects - launched Brussels 2000 === World-Information.Org was launched as the main media project of the European Capital of Culture 2000 in Brussels. The social, cultural, and political dimensions of the new information and communication technologies were discussed. The World-Information exhibition presented objects and research results on topics


id: world-information-org-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org-1.md
category: reference
title: World-Information.Org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:31.584117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-information-org-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wahlkabine.at === Wahlkabine.at was founded in 2002 by the Institute for New Culture Technologies/t0 and was presented for the first time during the National Council elections in the same year. The online polling-booth sees itself as an instrument of political education, which encourages the users to deal with political content playfully and provides factual information and feedback opportunities. Given the fact that increasing personalization nowadays replaces more and more the political content, Wahlkabine.at considers the publication of all party-programs and their scientific contextualization as a fundamental tool for political participation as well as a revealing resource collection for personal reflection on the voting behavior. Wahlkabine.at focuses on elections on Austrian national and regional levels and on EU-level (European Parliament), but also includes elections of the Austrian National Student Union and a few individual cases (e.g. Austrian Economic Chambers / Sector Information and Consulting 2010). In the context of regional elections in Vienna in autumn 2015 (with an electorate of approximately 1.14 million eligible voters) 160,000 users visited the online polling booth. === Future Non Stop === Future Non Stop – started as a project in 2010, online since 2012 – is an extensive archive and an experiment in logics


id: world-information-org-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org-2.md
category: reference
title: World-Information.Org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:31.584117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-information-org-20260505-0
summary:
Public Netbase was initiated by the Institute for New Culture Technologies/t0 in the Vienna Museumsquartier in 1994 as a non-profit internet provider and a platform for the participatory use of information and communication technology. With its WWW-server as well as with its workshops, instruction courses, and educational events for the broad public, Public Netbase contributed continually to the evolution of a lively internet scene and a heightened consciousness for the implications of the new communication and information technologies. As a focal point of European and international art, culture, and media networks, the Viennese net culture institute attempted to develop an understanding for the manifold opportunities and the potential of new communication media, but also to look critically at a society that is increasingly determined by technology. In addition to the series of workshops and discussions the activities of Public Netbase included, among others, projects that combined exhibitions, conferences and workshops (e.g. Synworld playwork:hyperspace (1999) and Free Bitflows (2004)), projects in public space (nikeground (2003) and Basecamp (2001/2002)) and activities that strengthened self-organization of independent media initiatives and demanded further development of cultural and media policies (in Austria, but also on European level, e.g. European Cultural Backbone (1999-2003)). Public Netbase was


id: science-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Science education is the teaching and learning of science to school children, college students, or adults within the general public. The field of science education includes work in science content, science process (the scientific method), some social science, and some teaching pedagogy. The standards for science education provide expectations for the development of understanding for students through the entire course of their K-12 education and beyond. The traditional subjects included in the standards are physical, life, earth, space, and human sciences. == Historical background == The first person credited with being employed as a science teacher in a British public school was William Sharp, who left the job at Rugby School in 1850 after establishing science to the curriculum. Sharp is said to have established a model for science to be taught throughout the British public school system. The British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) published a report in 1867 calling for the teaching of "pure science" and training of the "scientific habit of mind." The progressive education movement supported the ideology of mental training through the sciences. BAAS emphasized separate pre-professional training in secondary science education. In this way, future BAAS members could be prepared. The initial


id: science-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Chemistry education is characterized by the study of science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and the transformations that they undergo. Chemistry is the study of chemicals and the elements and their effects and attributes. Students in chemistry learn the periodic table. The branch of science education known as "chemistry must be taught in a relevant context in order to promote full understanding of current sustainability issues." As this source states chemistry is a very important subject in school as it teaches students to understand issues in the world. As children are interested by the world around them chemistry teachers can attract interest in turn educating the students further. The subject of chemistry is a very practical based subject meaning most of class time is spent working or completing experiments. === Biology education === Biology education is characterized by the study of structure, function, heredity, and evolution of all living organisms. Biology itself is the study of living organisms, through different fields including morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution. Depending on the country and education level, there are many approaches to teaching biology. In the United States, there is a growing emphasis on the ability


id: science-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Preconceptions Prior ideas about how things work are remarkably tenacious and an educator must explicitly address a student's specific misconceptions if the student is to reconfigure his misconception in favour of another explanation. Therefore, it is essential that educators know how to learn about student preconceptions and make this a regular part of their planning. Knowledge organization In order to become truly literate in an area of science, students must, "(a) have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and (c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application." Metacognition Students will benefit from thinking about their thinking and their learning. They must be taught ways of evaluating their knowledge and what they do not know, evaluating their methods of thinking, and evaluating their conclusions. Some educators and others have practiced and advocated for discussions of pseudoscience as a way to understand what it is to think scientifically and to address the problems introduced by pseudoscience. Educational technologies are being refined to meet the specific needs of science teachers. One research study examining how cellphones are being used in post-secondary science teaching settings showed that mobile technologies can


id: science-education-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-3.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
In many U.S. states, K-12 educators must adhere to rigid standards or frameworks of what content is to be taught to which age groups. This often leads teachers to rush to "cover" the material, without truly "teaching" it. In addition, the process of science, including such elements as the scientific method and critical thinking, is often overlooked. This emphasis can produce students who pass standardized tests without having developed complex problem solving skills. Although at the college level American science education tends to be less regulated, it is actually more rigorous, with teachers and professors fitting more content into the same time period. In 1996, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences of the U.S. National Academies produced the National Science Education Standards, which is available online for free in multiple forms. Its focus on inquiry-based science, based on the theory of constructivism rather than on direct instruction of facts and methods, remains controversial. Some research suggests that it is more effective as a model for teaching science. "The Standards call for more than 'science as process,' in which students learn such skills as observing, inferring, and experimenting. Inquiry is central to science learning. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects


id: science-education-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-4.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
==== Next Generation Science Standards ==== Science education curriculum in the United States is outlined by the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) which were released in April 2013. The purpose of the NGSS is to establish a standardized Kindergarten to 12th Grade science curriculum. These standards were instituted in hopes that they would reform the past science education system and foster higher student achievement through improved curriculum and teacher development. The Next Generation Science Standards are made up of three components listed as follows: disciplinary core ideas, science and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts. These are referred to as the three dimensions of the Next Generation Science Standards. Within these standards, there is emphasis on alignment with K-12 Common Core state standards. The dimension entitled "science and engineering practices" focuses on students' learning of the scientific method. This means that this dimension centers around practicing science in a hands-on manner, giving students the opportunity to observe scientific processes, hypothesize, and observe results. This dimension highlights the empirical methods of science. The dimension entitled "crosscutting concepts" emphasizes the understanding of key themes within the field of science. The "crosscutting concepts" are themes that are consistently relevant throughout many different scientific disciplines,


id: science-education-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-5.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Informal science education is the science teaching and learning that occurs outside of the formal school curriculum in places such as museums, the media, and community-based programs. The National Science Teachers Association has created a position statement on Informal Science Education to define and encourage science learning in many contexts and throughout the lifespan. Research in informal science education is funded in the United States by the National Science Foundation. The Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE) provides resources for the informal science education community. Examples of informal science education include science centers, science museums, and new digital learning environments (e.g. Global Challenge Award), many of which are members of the Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC). The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and the Museum of Science (Boston) are the oldest of this type of museum in the United States. Media include TV programs such as NOVA, Newton's Apple, "Bill Nye the Science Guy", "Beakman's World", The Magic School Bus, and Dragonfly TV. Early examples of science education on American television included programs by Daniel Q. Posin, such as "Dr. Posin's Universe", "The Universe Around Us", "On the Shoulders of Giants", and "Out of This World". Examples


id: advancing-secondary-science-education-thru-tetrahymena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advancing_Secondary_Science_Education_thru_Tetrahymena-0.md
category: reference
title: Advancing Secondary Science Education thru Tetrahymena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advancing_Secondary_Science_Education_thru_Tetrahymena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:34.533994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: advancing-secondary-science-education-thru-tetrahymena-20260505-0
summary:
Advancing Secondary Science Education through Tetrahymena (ASSET) is an organization at Cornell University that is dedicated to expanding the use of the protist Tetrahymena in K-12 classrooms. They are funded by the National Institutes of Health through the SEPA (Science Education Partnership Award) Program. Although their name includes the word "secondary," they have worked in recent years to develop materials for students in elementary, middle and high schools. The group develops modules, which are stand-alone labs or lessons that can be inserted into the curriculum of a class at the discretion of the teacher. == Modules == Modules are designed to be stand-alone lessons that fit into and complement a life science curriculum. The ASSET program ships all the equipment that is needed to complete the modules to the teacher in a reusable plastic container, at ASSET's expense. The teacher who requested the materials can use them for up to two weeks. At the end of the two weeks, the teacher uses a pre-paid return label to send the materials back in the same container. Some materials, such as live cells, may be sent separately to provide for a chance for the culture to be established in the teacher's classroom.


id: agricultural-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_communication-0.md
category: reference
title: Agricultural communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:35.765984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agricultural-communication-20260505-0
summary:
Agricultural communication, or agricultural communications, is a field that focuses on communication about agriculture-related information among agricultural stakeholders and between agricultural and non-agricultural stakeholders and is part of a larger field known as Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications typically housed in academic departments in Colleges of Agriculture with other sub-disciplines such as Agricultural Education and Agricultural Leadership. Agriculture is broadly defined in this discipline to include not only farming, but also food, fiber (e.g., cotton), animals, rural issues, and natural resources. Agricultural communication is done formally and informally by agricultural extension, agricultural education teachers, and private communicators and is considered by some to be tangentially related to science communication. However, it is its own professional field pre-dating the formal study of science communications. By definition, agricultural communicators are science communicators that deal exclusively with the diverse, applied science and business that is agriculture. An agricultural communicator is "expected to bring with him or her a level of specialized knowledge in the agricultural field that typically is not required of the mass communicator". Agricultural communication also addresses all subject areas related to the complex enterprises of food, feed, fiber, renewable energy, natural resource management, rural development and others, locally to globally.


id: ap-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_Psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: AP Psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_Psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:37.046059+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ap-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Advanced Placement (AP) Psychology (also known as AP Psych) and its corresponding exam are part of the College Board's Advanced Placement Program. This course is tailored for students interested in the field of psychology and as an opportunity to earn Advanced Placement credit or exemption from a college-level psychology course. It was the shortest AP exam until the AP Physics C exam was split into two separate exams in 2006. AP Psychology is often considered one of the easier AP exams; relative to the other tests, the material is rather straightforward and much easier to self-study. Among all the social studies Advanced Placement exams, the Psych exam had the second-highest passing rate in 2018. == Topics covered == The College Board provides a course of study to help educators prepare their students for the AP Psychology exam. The exam covers the following 5 areas. The percentage indicates the portion of the multiple-choice section of the exam focused on each content area: == Exam == The exam includes two sections: a 90-minute multiple choice section (75 questions) and a 70-minute free response section (2 prompts). The multiple choice provides two-thirds of the grade and the free-response provides the remaining third. Additionally,


id: astronomy-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronomy education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:39.505175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomy-education-20260505-0
summary:
Astronomy education or astronomy education research (AER) refers both to the methods currently used to teach the science of astronomy and to an area of discipline-based education research that seeks to improve those methods. Specifically, AER includes systematic techniques honed in science and physics education to understand what and how students learn about astronomy and determine how teachers can create more effective learning environments. Education is important to astronomy as it impacts both the recruitment of future astronomers and the appreciation of astronomy by citizens and politicians who support astronomical research. Astronomy has been taught throughout much of recorded human history, and has practical application in timekeeping and navigation. Teaching astronomy contributes to an understanding of physics and the origin of the world around us, a shared cultural background, and a sense of wonder and exploration. It includes education of the general public through planetariums, books, and instructive presentations, plus programs and tools for amateur astronomy, and University-level degree programs for professional astronomers. Astronomy organizations provide educational functions and societies in about 100 nation states around the world. In schools, particularly at the collegiate level, astronomy is aligned with physics and the two are often combined to form a Department


id: balsa-wood-bridge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balsa_wood_bridge-0.md
category: reference
title: Balsa wood bridge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balsa_wood_bridge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:40.731876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: balsa-wood-bridge-20260505-0
summary:
The building of balsa-wood bridges is often used as an educational technology. It may be accompanied by a larger project involving varying areas of study. Typically classes which would include a balsa wood bridge cover the subject areas of physics, engineering, static equilibrium, or building trades, although it may be done independently of any of these subjects. Building a balsa wood bridge can be done after completing a section or unit covering a related topic or the process of design and building can be used to guide students to a better understanding of the desired subject area. == Requirements == Although there is great variety between different balsa wood bridge projects, students are in general trying to build a bridge that can withstand the greatest weight before it fails. Other restrictions are often applied, but these vary widely from one contest to another. Sample requirements include: restricting the maximum mass of the bridge requiring a minimum span requiring a minimum height of the roadway restricting the physical dimensions of the bridge restricting the size of individual pieces of balsa wood limiting the amount of glue or balsa wood that can be used requiring a driveable roadway that allows passage of


id: biobus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioBus-0.md
category: reference
title: BioBus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioBus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:41.910845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biobus-20260505-0
summary:
Biobus is a novel concept in science education involving a bus that has been equipped as a self-contained, mobile laboratory used to educate K-12 students in biology basics. The bus may also be used for other audiences such as community organizations. Typically, a school or organization requests a visit, and the bus, staffed by scientists, arrives onsite so that it can involve students in participatory science experiments and presentations. The objective is to demonstrate to young people the fun of actual science, as opposed to textbook learning. The first Biobus program was created in 1999 by Georgia State University (GSU), with grant assistance from the National Science Foundation. Since its founding, the GSU Biobus has made 1,000 visits involving over 286,000 people. The concept has spread beyond Georgia, including New York City. == References == == External links == Georgia State University Biobus Archived 2008-08-28 at the Wayback Machine BioBus, Inc. (NYC) Science Edutainment Inspiring a new generation of nanoscientists (SPIE Professional) Ben Dubin-Thaler & Sarah Weisberg: The BioBus Mobile Science Lab


id: biomedical-research-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_Research_Center-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical Research Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_Research_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:43.231716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-research-center-20260505-0
summary:
The Biomedical Research Center (BRC) is a research center at Qatar University focusing on biomedical research. BRC was founded in 2014, and partners with the Ministry of Public Health (Qatar), and Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC). == History == The incidence of genetic disorders in Qatar is high, with the top three causes of death in the country being cancer, heart diseases, and diabetes. The government saw the creation of BRC as a strategy for proactively preventing diseases to help foster public health. BRC labs received the ISO/IEC - 17025 accreditation from the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA). This research center focus on infectious diseases (virology and microbiology), metabolic disorders, and biomedical omics. == Research == Since its establishment in 2014, the BRC has published over 530 research papers. The centre's research projects encompass a range of areas, including: Antibiotic profiling of antibiotic-resistant microbes in humans and animals. Investigating variations in cases of type 2 diabetes. Studying COVID-19, including the Omicron variant. Conducting genetic sequencing of Qatari falcons, endangered animal species, and the dugong. Exploring nanomedicine as a means of disease prevention. == Zebrafish Research Model == BRC Introduced the use of zebrafish as an animal model in biomedical research


id: body-worlds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-0.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
Body Worlds (German title: Körperwelten) is a traveling exposition of dissected human bodies, animals, and other anatomical structures of the body that have been preserved through the process of plastination. Gunther von Hagens developed the preservation process which "unite[s] subtle anatomy and modern polymer chemistry", in the late 1970s. A series of Body Worlds anatomical exhibitions has toured many countries worldwide, sometimes raising controversies about the sourcing and display of actual human corpses and body parts. Von Hagens maintains that all human specimens were obtained with full knowledge and consent of the donors before they died, but this has not been independently verified, and in 2004 von Hagens returned seven corpses to China because they showed evidence of being executed prisoners. A competing exhibition, Bodies: The Exhibition, openly sources its bodies from "unclaimed bodies" in China, which can include executed prisoners. In addition to temporary traveling exhibitions, permanent Body Worlds exhibits exists in Berlin, Amsterdam, Heidelberg, Guben, and San Jose, CA. == Description == The exhibit states that its purpose and mission is the education of laypeople about the human body, leading to better health awareness. Each Body Worlds exhibition contains approximately 25 full-body plastinates with expanded or selective organs


id: body-worlds-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-1.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === In response to the Paris exhibition of Our Body: The Universe Within, two local human rights groups filed a legal complaint against the owner of the exhibit, Gunther Von Hagens. The groups' lawyer Richard Sedillot argued that the existence of exhibits profiting from the display of human bodies creates a supply demand to produce and traffick more bodies through ethically dubious means to supply the exhibits. Potential scenarios given by the lawyer included structural violence such as neglecting medical patients or incentising an increase in death row convictions in China. Sedillot stated "I am convinced that the exhibition is the last step in a horrible traffic [sic] operation of human bodies originating in China." On Tuesday 21 April 2009, Judge Louis-Marie Raingeard ruled that exhibiting dead bodies for profit was a "violation of the respect owed to them". "Under the law, the proper place for corpses is in the cemetery". Raingeard ordered the exhibition to close within 24 hours or face a fine of €20,000 (over $26,000 USD) for each day it stayed open. The judge also ordered authorities to seize the 17 bodies on display and all of the organs on display from an unknown number


id: body-worlds-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-2.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
==== Hawaii ==== In January 2009, Rep. Marcus Oshiro introduced two bills prompted by presentation of the BODIES Exhibition in that state. HB28 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would add to the prohibition against buying dead human bodies, the selling of dead human bodies and defines the term "dead human body" to include plastinated bodies and body parts. It would increase the fine for buying or selling a dead human body to up to $5,000. HB29 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would prohibit the commercial display of dead human bodies without a permit from the Department of Health. ==== New York ==== In June 2008, New York State Senate passed legislation regulating body exhibits. A bill that was sponsored by Senator Jim Alesi requires anyone showing an exhibit that uses real human bodies in New York museums to produce a permit detailing their origin. BODY WORLDS was hosted at Discovery Times Square in New York City. ==== Pennsylvania ==== Representative Mike Fleck's proposed bill would require evidence of informed consent from the decedent or relatives of all humans whose remains are put on display. BODY WORLDS exhibitions have been hosted in Philadelphia at the Franklin Institute and in Allentown at


id: body-worlds-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-3.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Religious objections === Religious groups, including some rabbis have objected to the display of human remains, stating that it is inconsistent with reverence towards the human body. A group of Catholic Christians voiced their opinions towards the Body Worlds exhibition in a reflection paper written by the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. This was in response to the arrival of the Body Worlds Exhibition in the Milwaukee Public Museum in 2014. The group were largely in favour of the exhibition due to its educational goals. But, the paper also discussed fears surrounding whether the exhibit's educational aims were secondary to the experience of voyeurism. There were also concerns over the display of plastinated fetuses, due to beliefs surrounding abortion. === Sex plastinate === In 2003, while promoting a display in the Hamburg Museum of Erotica, von Hagens announced his intention to create a sex plastinate. In May 2009 he unveiled a plastinate of a couple having sex, intended for a Berlin exhibition. === Lessening donor organ availability === In 2007, the Bishop of Manchester launched a campaign to coincide with the opening of Body Worlds in that city, accusing the exhibitors of being "body snatchers" and "robbing the NHS", arguing that


id: body-worlds-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-4.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Gottfried Bogusch, Renate Graf, Thomas Schnalke. Auf Leben und Tod Beiträge zur Diskussion um die Ausstellung "Körperwelten", Schriften aus dem Berliner Medizinhistorischen Museum, 2003, VII, 136 S. 62 Abb., Softcover ISBN 978-3798514249. Burns, Lawrence (2007). "Gunther Von Hagens' Body Worlds: Selling Beautiful Education". The American Journal of Bioethics. 7 (4): 12–23. doi:10.1080/15265160701220659. PMID 17454986. S2CID 31456090. Archived from the original on 9 December 2008. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: Wissenschaftliche Transzendenz der Körperwelten. Aufhebung der "Beschränkung von Freiheit" durch Leben, Tod und Körper. In: Wolf Gerhard Schmidt (Hg.): Körperbilder in Kunst und Wissenschaft Würzburg 2014, S. 107–138. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: "Ich will in meinem Knochenleben endlich zufrieden und glücklich sein": Eschatologie der Körperwelten. In: Dominik Groß, Brigitte Tag und Christoph Schweikardt (Hg.): Who wants to live forever? Frankfurt, New York 2011, S. 197–218. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: La plastination, une technique d'incarnation des espoirs scientifiques. In : Annette Leibing et Virginie Tournay (Hg.): Les technologies de l'espoir: La fabrique d'une histoire à accomplir. PUL-Presses de l'Université Laval, 2010. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca. Wachsfigur – Mensch – Plastinat. Über die Mitteilbarkeit von Sehen, Nennen und Wissen, Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte (1999), Heft 1. Liselotte Hermes


id: bruce-alberts-award-for-excellence-in-science-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Alberts_Award_for_Excellence_in_Science_Education-0.md
category: reference
title: Bruce Alberts Award for Excellence in Science Education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Alberts_Award_for_Excellence_in_Science_Education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:45.722029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bruce-alberts-award-for-excellence-in-science-education-20260505-0
summary:
The Bruce Alberts Award for Excellence in Science Education is awarded annually by the American Society for Cell Biology. It is awarded to an individual who has demonstrated innovative and sustained contributions to science education, with particular emphasis on the broad local, regional, and/or national impact. == Awardees == 2020 Steven Farber 2020 Jamie Shuda 2019 Mary Pat Wenderoth 2018 Erin Dolan 2017 Kimberly Tanner 2016 David Lopatto 2015 Deborah Harmon Hines 2014 Edison Fowlks 2013 Deborah Allen 2012 L.C. (Cam) Cameron 2011 Peter Bruns 2010 BioQUEST Curriculum Consortium 2009 Manuel Berriozábal and Toby Horn 2008 Wm. David Burns and Karen K. Oates 2007 Patricia J. Pukkila 2006 A. Malcolm Campbell and Sarah C.R. Elgin 2005 Samuel Silverstein 2004 William Wood 2003 Nancy Hutchison 2002 Sandra Mayrand 2001 David Bynum 2000 Virginia Shepherd 1999 Eugenie Scott 1998 Robert DeHaan == References ==


id: canadian-bioinformatics-workshops-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Bioinformatics_Workshops-0.md
category: reference
title: Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Bioinformatics_Workshops
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:46.973813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: canadian-bioinformatics-workshops-20260505-0
summary:
Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops (CBW) are a series of advanced training workshops in bioinformatics offered across Canada since 1999. The program was established in response to a growing need for bioinformatics expertise in the Canadian life sciences sector, identified in policy and workforce reports on biotechnology and computational biology in Canada. The workshops provide intensive short courses combining lectures with hands-on computational training using biological datasets and have trained researchers and students across Canada. == Founding and early workshops in British Columbia (1999–2007) == The Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops series began offering one- and two-week short courses in bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics in 1999, in response to an identified need for a skilled bioinformatics workforce in Canada. In partnership with the Canadian Genetics Diseases Network and Human Resources Development Canada, and under the scientific direction of Director, Francis Ouellette, the CBW series was established. For eight years, the series offered short courses in bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics in various cities across Canada. The courses were taught by top faculty from Canada and the US, and offered small classes and hands-on instruction. == Expansion at the Ontario Institute for Cancer Research (2007–2018) == In 2007, the Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops moved to Toronto and


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-0.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
In 1824 the French military engineer Sadi Carnot laid the foundations of the science of thermodynamics by describing the unsurpassably efficient Carnot engine. His insight has been described as "real genius" and compared to Einstein's, Newton's and Galileo's. Carnot wrote in clear and popular language and meant his theory to be easy to understand. Yet it has been found that, as taught in many academic courses, students have difficulty intuiting his ideas. This article is an introduction for non-specialists. The efficiency of the ideal, or Carnot, engine is surprisingly low. That of real heat engines is worse. == Significance == === Importance === Carnot's innovation has been described as "real genius" and "one of the greatest intellectual achievements of the human mind". For Nobel laureate Richard FeynmanThe science of thermodynamics began with an analysis, by the great engineer Sadi Carnot, of the problem of how to build the best and most efficient engine. In particular it led to the discovery of the Second Law, of which it has been claimed that "Not knowing the Second Law of Thermodynamics is equivalent to never having read a work by Shakespeare". === Clarity === Sadi Carnot died young and published only one work:


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-1.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
== Preliminary outline == Carnot grasped that: all heat engines work by conveying heat from a hotter to a cooler place a heat engine may work in reverse, when it becomes a heat pump the ideally efficient engine would be 100% reversible and it is impossible to have an engine more efficient than that its working substance (steam, air or other fluid) is not critical; on the contrary, the ideal reversible engine's efficiency is limited by its input and output temperatures, and nothing else. He also found the cycle by which the 100% reversible engine could work. It serves as the ideal or benchmark against which all feasible heat engines can be compared. == His reasoning == For Edwin Thompson Jaynes Carnot's reasoning is outstandingly beautiful, because it deduces so much from so little — and with such a sweeping generality that rises above all tedious details — but at the same time with such a compelling logical force. In this respect, I think that Carnot's principle ranks with Einstein's principle of relativity. For historian of science D. S. L. Cardwell, "Nothing unnecessary is included and nothing essential is missed out. It is, in fact, very difficult to think of


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-2.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
The Carnot engine is not one anyone would attempt to build. Its point is that it represents the ideal or extreme limit which cannot be surpassed even in theory. It is a benchmark against which all real engines can be compared. For example, solar cells are heat engines, and "Carnot efficiency appears profusely in the numerous formulae that have been suggested for solar energy conversion". For Carnot, a completely reversible engine has this property. Run forwards as a motor, one cycle can lift a weight a certain distance [generate a certain amount of work] while transferring a certain amount of heat from the hot place to the cool place. Run backwards as a refrigerator, one cycle will exactly restore the original conditions. All real engines fall short of this ideal standard, since along the way they lose a fraction of the heat. The proof is as follows. Suppose there was such a thing as a 'super' engine: one even more efficient than a Carnot engine. Then we could use it to drive a Carnot engine backwards. The Carnot engine would restore the heat from cold to hot place. In effect, the imaginary super engine would be delivering a margin of


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-3.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
For most scientists of Carnot's time the best explanation of heat was the caloric theory. It held that heat is a material fluid that can flow from one place to another: its temperature may vary, but it can never itself be destroyed nor created. The caloric theory was highly developed, mathematically sophisticated, and plausible. The alternative theory, that heat consists in the agitation of a substance's particles — in modern terms, energy — was well known, but did not command much support, mainly for lack of convincing experimental evidence. For historian of science Thomas Kuhn, "To analyze the gas engine Carnot required a developed theory of heat, and in the 1820's the caloric theory was the only one at hand". Several authors have speculated that without the caloric theory and his waterfall analogy Carnot would not have been led to his discovery. Pursuant to this core idea, Carnot taught that all heat entering his engine from the hot source must fall out into the cold sink. But according to new ideas — that were dawning on Carnot himself, and came to be adopted overwhelmingly — this is false. Some of the heat will be consumed on the way: by the


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-4.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
The Carnot cycle as published cannot work since it is wrongly assumed that as much heat should be expelled to the cold sink as came in from the hot source. That is too much: not enough will be left in the engine to complete the cycle. A simple way to correct the mistake was described by James Clerk Maxwell in his Theory of Heat (1871). This was a book meant for "artisans and students" but Maxwell "did not hesitate to include discussions of the latest work in thermodynamics". By that date French engineer Gustave-Adolphe Hirn had confirmed by experiment that, whenever an engine performs mechanical work, less heat emerges from it than goes in. The missing heat is changing into work. But it was easy to see that the quantities (heat in vs. heat out) could not have been equal, said Maxwell. For, supposing they were, how could we explain that the engine, by doing work, can produce yet more heat — e.g. by stirring a liquid to raise its temperature? In that case the engine must somehow be producing more heat than it consumes, contrary to the doctrine that caloric cannot be created. To fix the Carnot cycle, therefore,


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-5.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
Another way to think about entropy is as a measurement of the availability of useful energy in a system. While energy cannot be created or destroyed, as the approaches equilibrium the energy of that system becomes less available for use. The concept entropy, though important in thermodynamics, is not necessary for an intuitive understanding of Carnot's theory. There are many formulations of the Second Law that do not mention entropy at all, including the original Clausius and Thomson versions. == Efficiency == It is sometimes stated that Carnot gave the formula for the efficiency of his engine. He could not have done, since his theory did not embrace the First Law of Thermodynamics, not then known. Carnot himself was able to state that it depended on the temperature difference between the hot source and cold sink, and the temperature of the cold sink.. But he did not give the explicit formula. The efficiency even of the ideal or Carnot engine turns out to be surprisingly poor, and therefore, that of real engines is even worse. It has been said that the Second Law of Thermodynamics imposes an "energy tax", payable to Nature, every time heat is converted to work. ===


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-6.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources == Andrade, E.N. da C (1928). Engines. London: G. Bell. Barnett, Martin K. (1958). "Sadi Carnot and the Second Law of Thermodynamics". Osiris. 13: 327–357. doi:10.1086/368620. JSTOR 301653. Ben-Naim, Arieh (2019). "Entropy and Information Theory: Uses and Misuses". Entropy. 21 (12): 1170. Bibcode:2019Entrp..21.1170B. doi:10.3390/e21121170. PMC 7514515. Ben-Naim, Arieh (2020). "Entropy and time". Entropy. 22 (4): 430.1=430–18. Bibcode:2020Entrp..22..430B. doi:10.3390/e22040430. PMC 7516914. PMID 33286203. Brundage, Mary Jane; Meltzer, David E.; Singh, Chandraleka (2024). "Investigating introductory and advanced students' difficulties with entropy and the second law of thermodynamics using a validated instrument". Physical Review Physics Education Research. 20 (2) 020110. arXiv:2408.00944. Bibcode:2024PRPER..20b0110B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.20.020110. Retrieved 24 April 2026. Bryant, Lynwood (1973). "The Role of Thermodynamics in the Evolution of Heat Engines". Technology and Culture. 14 (2, Part 1): 152–165. doi:10.2307/3102399. JSTOR 3102399. Callendar, H.L. (1912). "The Nature of Heat" (PDF). Science. 36 (924): 321–336. Bibcode:1912Sci....36..321C. doi:10.1126/science.36.924.321. JSTOR 1638548. PMID 17734287. Retrieved 28 March 2026. Čápek, Vladislav; Sheehan, Daniel P. (2005). Challenges to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Theory and Experiment (PDF). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 1-4020-3016-9. Retrieved 23 April 2026. Cardwell, D.S.L (1965). "Power Technologies and the Advance of Science, 1700-1825". Technology and Culture. 6 (2): 188–207. doi:10.2307/3101073. JSTOR 3101073. Cardwell, D.S.L.


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-7.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
Markvart, Tom (2016). "From steam engine to solar cells: can thermodynamics guide the development of future generations of photovoltaics?". WIREs Energy and Environment. 5 (5): 543–569. Bibcode:2016WIREE...5..543M. doi:10.1002/wene.204. Maxwell, J. Clerk (1871). Theory of Heat (1 ed.). London: Longmans Green. Retrieved 30 March 2026. Mendoza, E. (1961). "A sketch for a history of early thermodynamics" (PDF). Physics Today. 14 (2): 32–42. Bibcode:1961PhT....14b..32M. doi:10.1063/1.3057388. Retrieved 15 March 2026. Meyn, Jan-Peter (2024). "A Contemporary View on Carnot's Réflexions". Entropy. 26 (12: 1002): 1002. Bibcode:2024Entrp..26.1002M. doi:10.3390/e26121002. PMC 11675156. PMID 39766632. Norton, John D. (2022). "How analogy helped create the new science of thermodynamics". Synthese. 200 (4) 269: 1–42. doi:10.1007/s11229-022-03708-9. JSTOR 27324886. Nuvolari, Alessandro; Verspagen, Bart (2005). ""Unravelling the duty": Lean's Engine Reporter and Cornish Steam Engineering". Eindhoven Centre for Innovation Studies Working Paper Series. 200514. Retrieved 4 December 2025. Nuvolari, Alessandro (2010). "The theory and practice of steam engineering in Britain and France, 1800-1850". Documents pour l'histoire des techniques [En ligne]. 19: 189–197. doi:10.4000/dht.1439. hdl:11382/305525. Retrieved 5 December 2025. Ortner, Susan (2023). "A review of structural material requirements and choices for nuclear power plant". Frontiers in Nuclear Engineering. 2 (1253974) 1253974: 1–11. doi:10.3389/fnuen.2023.1253974. Perrin, C.E. (1973). "Lavoisier's Table of the Elements: A Reappraisal".


id: center-for-advanced-materials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Advanced_Materials-0.md
category: reference
title: Center for Advanced Materials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Advanced_Materials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:50.847690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-for-advanced-materials-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Advanced Materials (CAM) is a research center at Qatar University that hosts faculty members and researchers involved in advanced materials research. It provides the opportunities for collaborative research projects between academic and industry experts, as well between faculty members and students. The Center for Advanced Materials works under Qatar University's Office of Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies. CAM's research clusters are broadly grouped into the following areas: Metallurgy, Sustainable Materials, Corrosion, Polymer Materials and Renewable Energy Resources. In 2022, the UNESCO established a Chair on desalination at Qatar University and hosted in CAM to study water security in the Gulf region and to adapt to drought due to climate changes; The Chair contributes to capacity development to meet the UN SDG6. == References == == External links == Qatar University Qatar University Newsroom Center for Advanced Materials WISE Initiative


id: clubes-de-ciencia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubes_de_Ciencia-0.md
category: reference
title: Clubes de Ciencia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubes_de_Ciencia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:52.036098+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clubes-de-ciencia-20260505-0
summary:
Clubes de Ciencia is a non-profit organization founded in 2014 that organizes hands-on week-long workshops in STEM to kids in developing countries at no cost. The instructors are PhD volunteers from top universities, such as Harvard, Princeton, MIT who organizes the workshops. By combining hands-on experimental learning, on-line exercises and mentorship, Clubes de Ciencia takes a unique approach to educating the millennials in developing countries. In two years, Clubes de Ciencia grew past its Mexico program, to also work in Colombia and Bolivia. Currently, it also operates in Brazil, Paraguay, Peru and Spain. == 2014 == The first edition of Science Clubs was organized in Guanajuato, Mexico, in January 2014, with the support of Universidad de Guanajuato. == 2017 == In 2017, Science Clubs expanded to three new countries: Paraguay, Peru and Brazil [1] The first edition of the Brazilian Chapter (Clubes de Ciência Brasil) was held at Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, in Belo Horizonte, in July 2017. Four clubs in the areas of epidemiology, stem cells and gene editing, immunology and entrepreneurship were organized by researchers from top Universities from the US and Brazil, including Harvard, Northeastern and UFMG for 80 students from six different states of the


id: college-of-science-university-of-baghdad-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Science_–_University_of_Baghdad-0.md
category: reference
title: College of Science – University of Baghdad
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Science_–_University_of_Baghdad
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:53.221475+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: college-of-science-university-of-baghdad-20260505-0
summary:
The College of Science is one of the Colleges of the University of Baghdad in Baghdad, Iraq. It was the first scientific college established in Iraq. The main academic activities held in this college vary between pure and applied science. Beside its eight departments, the college also holds two research units. Being one of the earliest academic institutes formed in the Republic of Iraq, the College of Science establishment date marks the Day of Science in Iraq. The college was established on March 27, 1949, with the name of (The College of Arts and Science). The college was established with five scientific departments, namely: (Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Pathology and Anatomy). The Pathology and Anatomy departments were later joined together to form the (Department of Biology). Beside these, another four departments were added during the next fifty years, these are: Department of Geology (1953), Department of Computer Science (1983), Department of Astronomy (1998) and Department of Biotechnology (1999). The eight departments cover a wide range of branches of pure and applied sciences, which attracts many students as well as scientific researchers each year. Therefore, this college is considered as the largest scientific academic institute in the Republic of Iraq. == Departments


id: concept-inventory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_inventory-0.md
category: reference
title: Concept inventory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_inventory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:54.449863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: concept-inventory-20260505-0
summary:
A concept inventory is a criterion-referenced test designed to help determine whether a student has an accurate working knowledge of a specific set of concepts. Historically, concept inventories have been in the form of multiple-choice tests in order to aid interpretability and facilitate administration in large classes. Unlike a typical, teacher-authored multiple-choice test, questions and response choices on concept inventories are the subject of extensive research. The aims of the research include ascertaining (a) the range of what individuals think a particular question is asking and (b) the most common responses to the questions. Concept inventories are evaluated to ensure test reliability and validity. In its final form, each question includes one correct answer and several distractors. Ideally, a score on a criterion-referenced test reflects the degrees of proficiency of the test taker with one or more KSAs (knowledge, skills and/abilities), and may report results with one unidimensional score and/or multiple sub-scores. Criterion-referenced tests differ from norm-referenced tests in that (in theory) the former report level of proficiency relative pre-determined level and the latter reports relative standing to other test takers. Criterion-referenced tests may be used to determine whether a student reached predetermined levels of proficiency (i.e., scoring above some


id: conceptual-question-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_question-0.md
category: reference
title: Conceptual question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:55.784093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conceptual-question-20260505-0
summary:
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperature increases decreases stays the same Impossible to


id: constructivism-in-science-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_in_science_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Constructivism in science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_in_science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:57.029256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructivism-in-science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Constructivism has been considered as a dominant paradigm, or research programme, in the field of science education since the 1980s. The term constructivism is widely used in many fields, and not always with quite the same intention. This entry offers an account of how constructivism is most commonly understood in science education. == Description == Science education is now an established field within education, and worldwide has its own journals, conferences, university departments and so forth. Although a diverse field, a major influence on its development was research considered to be undertaken from a constructivist perspective on learning, and supporting approaches to teaching that themselves became labelled constructivist. Thus, this constructivism was largely of a psychological flavour, often drawing on the work of Jean Piaget, David Ausubel, Robert M. Gagné and Jerome Bruner. One influential group of science education researchers were also heavily influenced by George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory. The work of Lev Vygotsky (since being championed in the West by Jerome Bruner) has also been increasingly influential. These workers from psychology informed the first generation of science education researchers. Active research groups developed in centres like the University of Waikato (New Zealand), University of Leeds (UK) and University


id: contexts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contexts-0.md
category: reference
title: Contexts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contexts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:58.307365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contexts-20260505-0
summary:
Contexts: Understanding People in their Social Worlds is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal and an official publication of the American Sociological Association. It is designed to be a more accessible source of sociological ideas and research and has been inspired by the movement towards public sociology. == Sections of the Journal == Backpage Books Culture Feature From the Editors In brief Q&A Teaching and Learning Trends Viewpoints == History == The journal was established in 2002 by Claude Fischer and is published by SAGE Publications; until 2011, it was published by the University of California Press. Fischer was succeeded by Jeff Goodwin and James M. Jasper, who edited the journal from 2005 to 2007, injecting a certain amount of controversial humor such as New Yorker cartoons and a column written by "Harry Green" (actually Jasper) called "The Fool." The current editors are Seth Abrutyn (University of British Columbia) and Amin Ghaziani (University of British Columbia). == Former Editors == 2002: Claude Fischer 2003: Fischer 2004: Fischer 2005: Jeff Goodwin, James M. Jasper 2006: Goodwin, Jasper 2007: Goodwin, Jasper 2008: Doug Hartmann, Chris Uggen 2009: Hartmann, Uggen 2010: Hartmann, Uggen 2011: Hartmann, Uggen 2012: Jodi O'Brien, Arlene Stein 2013: O'Brien, Stein


id: deaf-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_in_STEM_fields-0.md
category: reference
title: Deaf in STEM fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_in_STEM_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:59.585955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deaf-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
summary:
The deaf/Deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) population is underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and math fields (STEM), despite a history of excellence in these fields. The lack of standard American Sign Language (ASL) vocabulary, engaging hands-on learning environments, and DHH mentors seems to contribute largely to the discrepancy. == History == DHH scientists, inventors, engineers, and mathematicians have contributed greatly to the world. The field of astronomy, in particular, has been blessed with many DHH scholars who have immensely advanced the field, including Robert Aitken, Annie Jump Cannon, John Goodricke, Olaf Hassel, and Henrietta Swan Leavitt. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky was one of the founding fathers of astronautics and rocketry. In addition, the Gallaudet Eleven were Deaf research subjects in the 1950s and 1960s, essential for NASA's study of the effects of weightlessness on humans. == DHH statistics in STEM == The DHH population in the U.S. has fewer associate's and bachelor's degrees than their hearing peers (27.7% vs. 43.3% for associate degrees, 18.8% vs. 34% for bachelor's degrees), and this gap has persisted for the last decade across ages, genders, and races. The difference seems due to lower rates of entry into associate's and bachelor's programs, since DHH students complete their bachelor's


id: developmentally-appropriate-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmentally_appropriate_practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Developmentally appropriate practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmentally_appropriate_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:00.845110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmentally-appropriate-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is a perspective within early childhood education whereby a teacher or child caregiver nurtures a child's social/emotional, physical, and cognitive development. It is also described as a philosophy in child education that is based on child development knowledge where professionals base their instruction and care on research, standards, and recognized theory. == Concept == Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) emphasizes what is known about children and what can be done about individual children as a basis of decision-making when it comes to instruction and care. It recognizes that children's needs and abilities change over time and depend on universal laws governing these to determine the propriety of practice. DAP also holds that children have a natural disposition towards learning; hence, they are capable of constructing their own knowledge through exploration and interaction with others, learning materials, and their environment. For these reasons, early childhood programs look and function differently. The DAP has three core components: knowledge about development and learning; knowledge about individual children; and, knowledge about the social and cultural contexts where children grow and learn. Particularly, the teacher or provider of care bases all practices and decisions on (1) theories of child development, (2) individually


id: dr-rer-nat-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._rer._nat.-0.md
category: reference
title: Dr. rer. nat.
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._rer._nat.
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:02.021358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dr-rer-nat-20260505-0
summary:
Doctor rerum naturalium (Latin for 'Doctor of Natural Sciences', lit. 'Doctor of the Things of Nature'), abbreviated Dr. rer. nat., is a doctoral degree in science awarded by universities in several European countries (e.g., Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic) to graduates in fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, geosciences, computer science, pharmacy, psychology, and other natural sciences. Universities might also award different titles for these fields, depending on the topic of a doctoral thesis and which titles a university can award. In German-speaking Switzerland the equivalent of Dr. rer. nat. is Dr. phil. nat. The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology for example might award a Dr. rer. nat. or a Dr.-Ing. for computer science graduates, differentiating between degrees in theoretical and practical topics. These doctoral degrees are equivalent to the PhD awarded in English-speaking countries. German universities often translate a Dr. rer. nat. to doctorate of natural sciences or Doctor of Science. To start a PhD in Germany, students must typically possess a master's degree in the related field. PhD programs in the natural sciences are often designed to allow graduation in three to five years, with an average graduation time of 4.3 years. The exact requirements for graduation differ


id: earth-sky-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_&_Sky-0.md
category: reference
title: Earth & Sky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_&_Sky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:03.260938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-sky-20260505-0
summary:
Earth & Sky was a daily radio series that presented information about science and nature. It began broadcasting in 1991 and ceased operations in 2013. EarthSky is the ongoing website, serving 21 million users in 2019, according to Google Analytics. == History == Earth & Sky was the creation of producers Deborah Byrd and Joel Block, who were also the hosts. Byrd had previously created the radio program Star Date that began broadcasting in the US in 1978, and Block was Star Date's original host. Several producers researched topics, interviewed scientists and wrote radio scripts for the program through the years, including Jorge Salazar and Marc Airhart. The final episode of Earth & Sky was broadcast on June 2, 2013. President and co-founder Deborah Byrd said that although funding options existed to continue the radio program, a decision was made to stop producing the radio show in order to concentrate on the EarthSky.org website and social media. == Content == Earth & Sky presented 60- and 90-second radio spots (called "modules") on a wide variety of scientific topics, communicating through terrestrial radio as well as satellite radio and internet radio. Earth & Sky was aired one or more times daily


id: ecology-and-evolutionary-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology_and_evolutionary_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecology and evolutionary biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology_and_evolutionary_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:04.439617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecology-and-evolutionary-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Ecology and evolutionary biology is an interdisciplinary field of study concerning interactions between organisms and their ever-changing environment, including perspectives from both evolutionary biology and ecology. This field of study includes topics such as the way organisms respond and evolve, as well as the relationships among animals, plants, and micro-organisms, when their habitats change. Ecology and evolutionary biology is a broad field of study that covers various ranges of ages and scales, which can also help us to comprehend human impacts on the global ecosystem and find measures to achieve more sustainable development. == Examples of current research topics == === Birdsong === There is a number of acoustic research about birds. Birds learn to sing in specific patterns because birdsong conveys information to select partners, which is a result of evolution. However, this evolution is also affected by ecological factors. Research with recorded birdsong of male white-crowned sparrows from different regions found that the birdsongs from the same location have the same traits, while birdsongs from different locations are more likely to have different song types. Birdsongs from areas with dense vegetation tend to only have slow trilling sounds and low frequencies, while birdsongs from more open areas have


id: ecology-and-evolutionary-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology_and_evolutionary_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecology and evolutionary biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology_and_evolutionary_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:04.439617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecology-and-evolutionary-biology-20260505-0
summary:
== Urban evolution == With fast growing cities and high rates of urbanization a whole new kind of environment has emerged. The urban ecosystem is a place of extremities and makes for fast evolution. Higher rates of phenotypic change have been observed in urban areas compared to natural and nonurban anthropogenic systems. A field of study has emerged regarding urban evolution in which the adaptations of animals and plants to urban environments are studied. In tropical regions a certain species of lizards, Anolis cristatellus, lives in both urban and natural areas. These lizards climb on tree trunks, fences and the walls of buildings. In urban areas more slippery and smooth surfaces are found than in natural areas. This creates a higher risk of falling and dying. The lizards in cities were found to have adapted to these slippery surfaces, by developing longer limbs and more lamellae under their feet that help them to run safely on these smooth surfaces. One of the differences between urban areas and natural areas is anthropogenic noise, such as traffic noise. The frequencies of these sounds overlap partly with the frequencies of bird songs. In cities, birds started to sing at higher frequencies than they


id: educational-robotics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_robotics-0.md
category: reference
title: Educational robotics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_robotics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:05.637215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: educational-robotics-20260505-0
summary:
Educational robotics teaches the design, analysis, application and operation of robots. Robots include articulated robots, mobile robots or autonomous vehicles. Educational robotics can be taught from elementary school to graduate programs. Robotics may also be used to motivate and facilitate the instruction other, often foundational, topics such as computer programming, artificial intelligence or engineering design. == Education and training == Robotics engineers design robots, maintain them, develop new applications for them, and conduct research to expand the potential of robotics. Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and high schools, as well as in numerous youth summer camps, raising interest in programming, artificial intelligence and robotics among students. First-year computer science courses at several universities now include programming of a robot in addition to traditional software engineering-based coursework. == Category of Educational robotics == The categories of educational robots seen as having more than one category. It can be alienated into four categories and it is based on their physical design, coding method and educational method is the alienated made. These categories can also be used to determine the type of robot that should be used and it give the needed output for a classroom. Tangibly, coded


id: egg-drop-competition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_drop_competition-0.md
category: reference
title: Egg drop competition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_drop_competition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:06.829862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: egg-drop-competition-20260505-0
summary:
The egg drop contest is an experiment usually performed by college or primary school students. Competitors typically attempt to create a device that can keep a raw chicken egg intact when dropped from a height. Students are asked to build a device made from a limited or unlimited amount of materials to support an egg when dropped from various heights. == Regional competitions == Often schools work together to make larger competitions that pit more students against each other. One of the larger regional egg drop competitions is the Winston-Salem / Forsyth County Egg Drop Competition that takes place during Engineers Week (late February) each year. Egg drop is one of 18 events in the North Carolina Science Olympiad elementary competition. More than 100 teams compete in this annual competition. == Variations == A variation of the egg drop competition is the naked egg drop, in which an exposed raw egg is dropped into a container below that must catch the egg and keep it from breaking. Another common variation is the egg hurl competition, where the containers are thrown by a device such as a trebuchet or air cannon. This variation is often used by schools that lack tall


id: frontiers-for-young-minds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_for_Young_Minds-0.md
category: reference
title: Frontiers for Young Minds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_for_Young_Minds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:09.338182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frontiers-for-young-minds-20260505-0
summary:
Frontiers for Young Minds is an open-access academic journal that publishes articles "edited by kids for kids". Robert T. Knight launched the journal at a 2013 Society for Neuroscience conference. It is published by Frontiers Media. The journal covers STEM research and allows young scientists, from ages 8 to 15 years old, to participate in the publishing process (not as authors). It has won awards for its review process, easy-to-navigate website, informative visual aids including colorful cartoons, and kid-friendly, accessible writing. == Editorial structure == === Editorial process === Established scientists write kid-friendly articles on either core concepts or new discoveries in their fields. To make the scientific research comprehensible for the journal's late elementary and middle school audiences, the articles rely heavily on key words and glossary sections for scientific nomenclature. After the submission passes a preliminary evaluation by an adult editor, subsequently school-aged children decide whether the articles should be published. Alongside a science mentor, a student from the 3rd to 10th grade reviews the articles and provides feedback about the papers' clarity and accessibility. Then, the original writers, science mentors, and adult editors collaborate to revise the article based on the children's comments. According to the journal's


id: fusenet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FuseNet-0.md
category: reference
title: FuseNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FuseNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:10.639429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fusenet-20260505-0
summary:
FuseNet is a nuclear fusion focused educational organization. Between 2008 and 2013 it was funded by a European Union grant under EURATOM: Fusion Energy Research. == The FP7 Project == The purpose of FuseNet is to coordinate and facilitate fusion education, to share best practices, to jointly develop educational tools, to organize educational events. The members of FuseNet have jointly established academic criteria for the award of European Fusion Doctorate and Master Certificates. These criteria are set to stimulate a high level of fusion education throughout Europe. == The Association == FuseNet is the umbrella organization and single voice for the training and education of the next generation fusion engineers and scientists. FuseNet is recognized as such by the European Commission. == References == == External links == FuseNet Website


id: geoscience-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoscience_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Geoscience education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoscience_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:11.849628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoscience-education-20260505-0
summary:
Also known as Earth science education, it is the study of Earth's physical features, processes, and systems, as well as the natural and human-induced events that shape it. It involves disciplines like geology, oceanography, meteorology, climatology, environmental science. Geoscience education is a branch of science education that focuses on the teaching and learning of Earth sciences. It contributes to scientific literacy and environmental awareness, and is associated with sustainable development and the training of future geoscientists, educators and policymakers. The journals on this subject are the Journal of Geoscience education and the Journal of Astronomy and Earth Science Education. == Geoscience education resources and institutions == Geoscience education occurs in formal and informal settings. In addition to classroom-based instruction, learning also takes place in informal environments. Museums, scientific institutions and research groups function as spaces for non-formal education and lifelong learning, providing opportunities for engagement with Earth sciences across different age groups. One example is the Canmore Museum and Geoscience Centre in Canada, which presents exhibits and interactive displays on the geological and cultural history of the Canadian Rockies. The museum includes information on local geology, mining heritage and the history of communities in the region. Another institution in the


id: global-challenge-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Challenge_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Challenge Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Challenge_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:13.004012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-challenge-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Challenge Award is an online science and engineering design program for pre-college school students (e.g. middle school through high school) from all over the world. It is an initiative that started with a partnership with the University of Vermont in collaboration with the National Science Foundation, currently funded by the MacArthur Foundation Digital Media and Learning program as well as other foundations and corporations, wherein students have the opportunity to form teams with international counterparts and work towards a solution to mitigate global warming and help envision the future of renewable energy. The program is an online educational environment that uses game based learning, simulation and Web-based science resources in a global competition. It relies on the personal initiative and creativity of students working in diverse teams. The access to the project via the Web makes it possible for students, parents, homeschooling families, teachers and interested global community members to get involved to help young people with their creative ideas for innovation in new forms of energy, conservation and increased productivity. == History == Founded in 2005 by Craig Deluca and David Rocchio of the Arno Group and Biddle Duke, the publisher of the Stowe Reporter newspaper company


id: global-hands-on-universe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Hands-On_Universe-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Hands-On Universe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Hands-On_Universe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:14.263280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-hands-on-universe-20260505-0
summary:
Global Hands-On Universe (GHOU) is an educational program that enables students to investigate the Universe while applying tools and concepts from science, math, and technology. Using the Internet, GHOU participants request observations from an automated telescope, download images from an image archive, and analyze them with the help of image processing software. == History == The Galileo Teacher Training Program (GTTP) was started by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2009. One important part of GTTP is the Global Hands-On Universe (GHOU). Different regions of the world participate in this program. In Asia, China and Japan are involved under the banner of AS-HOU. In Africa, Kenya leads the AF-HOU part of the program, and they have even begun a new project at a high school in Nairobi. This project is focused on astronomy and astrophysics and it aims to teach students how scientific research works. In Europe, Dr. Ferlet and Dr. A.-L. Melchior lead the Hands-On Universe project. Their work is known as EU-HOU and has received funding from the European Community (EC) between 2004 and 2006 and again from 2008 to 2012. EU-HOU has grown to include 15 European countries, each with their own websites. The educational hub for


id: harlem-children-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Children_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Harlem Children Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Children_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:15.428379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harlem-children-society-20260505-0
summary:
Harlem Children Society (HCS) is a non-profit organization that arranges for students from under-resourced and under-served communities to be placed as interns at academic research labs during a summer research program. In addition to the lab experience, students receive a stipend. Participating institutions include Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York University, and Columbia University. Students undertake their own research, which is presented during a street science fair in their own community, under the guidance of scientists. The students are able to pursue their scientific investigations during the following school semester in an after-school program. Additionally, these students attend weekly lectures on a variety of topics ranging from incorporating science into communities to financing a college education, while also having the option to visit college campuses and to receive help preparing for the SATs. == History and origins == Dr. Sat (Satyajit) Bhattacharya founded HCS on June 5, 2000. By 2010, the program had expanded to 12 countries, serving more than 750 students. Of their mentees in the United States, as of 2010, 40% are African-American, 26% are of Hispanic descent, and 16% are Native Americans. HCS aims to increase awareness in the sciences,


id: huff-and-puff-apparatus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huff_and_puff_apparatus-0.md
category: reference
title: Huff and puff apparatus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huff_and_puff_apparatus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:16.673880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: huff-and-puff-apparatus-20260505-0
summary:
The huff and puff apparatus is used in school biology and chemistry labs to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is a product of respiration. A sample procedure is as follows: A pupil breathes in and out of the middle tube. The glass tubing is arranged in such a way that one flask bubbles as the pupils breathes in, the other as the pupil breathes out. A suitable carbon dioxide indicator, such as limewater, cabbage juice, or bicarbonate indicator shows the increased presence of carbon dioxide in the outgoing breath. This turns the limewater into milky white substance. == See also == Respiration (physiology) == References ==


id: i-look-like-an-engineer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Look_Like_an_Engineer-0.md
category: reference
title: I Look Like an Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Look_Like_an_Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:17.858189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: i-look-like-an-engineer-20260505-0
summary:
The I Look Like an Engineer movement was created in August 2015 by software developer Isis Anchalee (formerly Isis Wenger) as a response to the backlash the OneLogin recruitment ad in which she was featured received. The movement aspired to break the stereotypes and promote diversity around underrepresented groups, particularly women, POC, and LGBTQ+ individuals in engineering fields. Its primary tactic is the use of the hashtag #ILookLikeAnEngineer on social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, along with pictures of engineers or engineering students. The I Look Like an Engineer movement has sparked other similar movements that also seek to break stereotypes in their industry, such as I Look Like a Surgeon, I Look like a Professor and I Look Like a Civil Engineer. == OneLogin campaign == In the summer of 2015 OneLogin, a software company, created a recruitment campaign aimed at attracting engineers to their home office in San Francisco, California. Four employees were invited to participate, including Anchalee. The ads were placed in the BART public transit stations and showed several OneLogin engineers sharing their experience working for the company. The ad featuring Anchalee went viral on several social media sites. A week after the


id: information-deficit-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_deficit_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Information deficit model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_deficit_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:19.092793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-deficit-model-20260505-0
summary:
In studies of science communication, the information deficit model, also known as the deficit model or science literacy/knowledge deficit model, theorizes that scientific literacy can be improved with increased public engagement by the scientific community. As a result, the public may then be able to make more decisions that are science-informed. The model implies that communication should focus on improving the transfer of information from experts to non-experts. Currently, many studies challenge the information deficit model as it ignores the cognitive, social, and affective factors that influence one's formation of attitude and judgements toward science and technology. == Deficit model of science communication == The original term 'deficit model' was believed to be coined in the 1930s, and sometimes attributed to the work of Jon D. Miller, though his widely cited work on scientific literacy does not employ the term. The deficit model sees the general population as the receiver of information and scientific knowledge. The information they receive, through whatever medium, has been prearranged according to what the distributors believe to be in the public's interest. Due to the recent growth of scientific research and subsequent discoveries, the deficit model suggests that this has led to a decrease in


id: information-deficit-model-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_deficit_model-1.md
category: reference
title: Information deficit model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_deficit_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:19.092793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-deficit-model-20260505-0
summary:
=== Evidence for a deficit affecting opinion === A 2008 meta-analysis of 193 studies sought to interpret the link between science knowledge and attitude towards science. The studies included were taken using nonuniform methods across the world between 1989 and 2004 to provide a cross-cultural analysis. Broad and specific science knowledge and attitude categories were correlated. General science and general biology knowledge was gauged using questions similar to those by the National Science Foundation used to capture "civil scientific literacy". Data on general science and biology knowledge was then compared with attitudes towards general science, nuclear power, genetic medicine, genetically modified food, and environmental science. From the raw data, it was found that a small positive correlation exists between general science knowledge and attitude towards science, indicating that increased scientific knowledge is related to a favorable attitude towards a science topic and that this was not related to the socioeconomic or technological status of a country, but rather the number of individuals enrolled in tertiary education. However, some studies have found that high levels of science knowledge may indicate highly positive and highly negative attitudes towards specific topics such as agriculture biotechnology. Thus knowledge may be a predictor of the


id: innovative-technology-experiences-for-students-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovative_Technology_Experiences_for_Students-0.md
category: reference
title: Innovative Technology Experiences for Students
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovative_Technology_Experiences_for_Students
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:20.349361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovative-technology-experiences-for-students-20260505-0
summary:
Funded by the National Science Foundation, the Innovative Technology Experiences for Students and Teachers (ITEST) program was established in 2003 to address the looming shortage of technology workers in the United States. ITEST engages students and teachers in authentic, hands-on learning experiences in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (commonly referred to as 'STEM' or 'SET' [more common in the U.K.]). As of early 2012, the program is in its ninth year. Over 195 individual projects across 43 states have been funded. It has impacted: over 225,800 students, grades 6–12 over 8,000 teachers over 3,000 parents and caregivers The ITEST Learning Resource Center (ITEST LRC) at Education Development Center assists the projects in building bridges between formal and informal learning by facilitating an inclusive community of practice. Findings and lessons learned are shared nationally to improve policy and practice. Visit the website with the link below, or view a 2-page overview (Snapshot). == External links == https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5467 http://itestlrc.edc.org/ http://itestlrc.edc.org/sites/itestlrc.edc.org/files/Snapshot_2012_Final.pdf


id: international-science-festival-in-gothenburg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg-0.md
category: reference
title: International Science Festival in Gothenburg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:21.512443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-science-festival-in-gothenburg-20260505-0
summary:
The International Science Festival in Gothenburg (Swedish: Vetenskapsfestivalen) is an annual festival in Gothenburg with science activities. == About the festival == The International Science Festival in Gothenburg took place for the first time in April 1997 and is since then an annual recurrent event. The purpose is to communicate science to the public and schools in an easy accessible and in a thought provoking manner. Another objective is to create a positive attitude to research and science which is intended to encourage higher education. About 100 000 visitors come each year. This makes it the largest popular science event in Sweden and one of the largest popular science events in Europe. University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology contributes with the knowledge. The International Science Festival in Gothenburg is a member of the European Science Events Association, EUSCEA. == Theme == Each year a special theme that the festival focuses on is chosen: (translated) 2001: Food and eatables 2002: Travel and science expeditions, Life and Medicine 2003: Love and energy 2004: The meaning of life and sustainable development 2005: Design, physics, Finland 2006: Athletics & health 2007: Passion, pistil and personality 2008: Let's play 2009: Civilization in all


id: iron-science-teacher-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Science_Teacher-0.md
category: reference
title: Iron Science Teacher
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Science_Teacher
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:22.808316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iron-science-teacher-20260505-0
summary:
The Iron Science Teacher is a national competition that celebrates innovation and creativity in science teaching. The competition originated at the Exploratorium in San Francisco. Parodying the cult Japanese TV program, “Iron Chef,” this competition showcases science teachers as they devise classroom activities using a particular ingredient — an everyday item such as a plastic bag, milk carton, or nail. Contestants are currently or formally part of the Exploratorium's Teacher Institute and compete before a live audience for the title of "Iron Science Teacher." Shows are also archived on the Exploratorium's site. Astrophysicist Linda Shore, Director of the Exploratorium Teacher Institute and original host of the competition, says one goal of the Iron Science Teacher is to "provide teachers with ideas about how to teach multimillion dollar state and national science teaching standards using, trash, recyclables, and inexpensive materials" as well as "to allow teachers to receive applause for great teaching." == History == Back in 1997, the Exploratorium's Phyllis C. Wattis Webcast Studio was looking for new shows. During a staff brainstorming session, a fan of the popular Food Network television show, The Iron Chef, suggested naming a secret ingredient for science teachers to use in an experiment to


id: the-joy-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Joy_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The Joy of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Joy_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:24.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-joy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Joy of Science is a popular video and audio course series, consisting of 60 lectures, each 30 minutes long, presented by Robert Hazen of the George Mason University and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The course, first introduced in 2001, is part of The Great Courses series, and is produced and distributed by The Teaching Company, located in Chantilly, Virginia, in the United States. == Background == As the Clarence B. Robinson Professor at George Mason University, Robert Hazen developed innovative courses to promote scientific literacy in both scientists and non-scientists. In a collaboration with physicist James Trefil, he wrote three undergraduate textbooks: The Sciences: An Integrated Approach (1993), The Physical Sciences: An Integrated Approach (1995), and Physics Matters: An Introduction to Conceptual Physics (2004). Hazen used these as the basis for a 60-lecture video and audio course called The Joy of Science. == Description == == See also == == References == == Further reading == Akerlof, Karen (3 March 2008). "Professor Searches for the Genesis of Biological Systems in the Earth's Depths". The Mason Gazette. George Mason University. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2018. Bradley, D. C. (23 December 2014). "Mineral


id: laboratory-rotation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_rotation-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory rotation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_rotation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:25.249007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-rotation-20260505-0
summary:
Laboratory rotations are typically a part of first year graduate school (Ph.D.-oriented) in American universities, especially in the research-oriented areas like biology and chemistry where an incoming student is expected to work in 4 to 6 different laboratories (each is called a "rotation") for durations of about 6 to 8 weeks, before making a final decision regarding which group he or she wishes to join. Laboratory rotations are uncommon in the British university system, where a Ph.D. candidate is accepted into a laboratory soon after joining, and that is partly responsible for shorter duration needed for graduating. == References ==


id: laboratory-safety-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Safety_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory Safety Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Safety_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:26.471898+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-safety-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Laboratory Safety Institute (LSI) is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization based in the United States that supports safety in science education. Founded in 1978 by Dr. James Kaufman to provide safety training for secondary school science teachers, LSI has grown to become "An International Center for Health, Safety and Environmental Affairs." LSI members are science educators and administrators as well as corporate hygiene officers, directors of environmental affairs, chemical handling and storage and waste management personnel. LSI publishes articles and newsletters regarding best practices in laboratory safety as well as safety manuals and teaching tools for teachers and laboratory managers.


id: leap-science-and-maths-schools-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEAP_Science_and_Maths_Schools-0.md
category: reference
title: LEAP Science and Maths Schools
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEAP_Science_and_Maths_Schools
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:27.666893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leap-science-and-maths-schools-20260505-0
summary:
LEAP Science and Mathematics Schools or LEAP Schools is a collection of eight low-fee secondary education schools in four provinces in South Africa. The first LEAP school opened in 2004 in rented premises in Observatory, Cape Town and mainly served the township of Langa. LEAP is an independent school mainly funded by small parent contributions, South African Corporates with limited subsidies from the Department of Basic Education. == History == === Langa Education Assistance Program (or LEAP) === John Gilmour was a teacher at Pinelands High School in Cape Town in 1987 when he decided to respond to a call from the South African business community, to contribute to the redress of the devastation of the Bantu Education Act, a segregation law imposed in the education sector by the Apartheid system in 1953. “Africa Week" was then introduced by a team led by John Gilmour to bring black learners under the "Bantu Education" system to spend a week at Pinelands High School, which was then a whites-only school. The program became the precursor for the Langa Education Assistance Program (or LEAP) which aimed at providing one hundred black students from the Langa township with support tuition from Pinelands High teachers


id: learnscapes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learnscapes-0.md
category: reference
title: Learnscapes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learnscapes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:28.837437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: learnscapes-20260505-0
summary:
Learnscapes are defined as “places where a learning program has been designed to permit users to interact with the environment”. Their purpose is to promote and extend environmental awareness, by presenting biodiversity as the basis for environmental conservation and ecologically sustainable development. This is achieved through developing school based curricula that "engage students interactively with their surrounding environment". Ideally, learnscapes incorporate educational, environmental and social outcomes that reflect the character of the community as well as the school site. "A Learnscape feature, whether it be an outdoor classroom, worm farm, bush regeneration, recycling area, frog pond or herb garden, is not a Learnscape itself. It is the collaborative process within which the feature is created and plans for how it will be maintained and used for learning once it is created that make the feature a Learnscape". Learncape programs also have a “calming effect” on classes, by invoking deeper relationships between students and their teachers. == References ==


id: letters-to-a-pre-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters_to_a_Pre-Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Letters to a Pre-Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters_to_a_Pre-Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:30.047492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: letters-to-a-pre-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Letters to a Pre-Scientist (LPS) is a STEM education pen pal program that connects fifth to twelfth grade students in low-income schools with STEM professional volunteers, who write snail mail letters back and forth throughout a school year. The program’s mission is to help students of all backgrounds see themselves as future STEM professionals. As of 2021, the program has reached over 6,000 students in schools across 13 states. == History == Founder Macon Lowman created an informal version of the program in 2010 to help her sixth grade science students connect what they were learning in class to the real world. Together with scientist and co-founder Anna Goldstein, they recruited enough STEM professional pen pals for every student in her class. In 2014, the program expanded to 3 classrooms and has continued to grow, running in 24 classrooms in the 2019-2020 school year. Although the program only runs in U.S. classrooms, STEM professionals living anywhere in the world can participate. The Letters to a Pre-Scientist program became a registered 501(c)(3) non-profit, under the official name Pre-Scientist, Inc. in 2019. == Partnerships == Letters to a Pre-Scientist partnered with Arab Women in STEM during the 2020-2021 school year to increase


id: maker-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Maker education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:31.352143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maker-education-20260505-0
summary:
Maker education (a term coined by Dale Dougherty in 2013) closely associated with STEM learning, is an approach to problem-based and project-based learning that relies upon hands-on, often collaborative, learning experiences as a method for solving authentic problems. People who participate in making often call themselves "makers" of the maker movement and develop their projects in makerspaces, or development studios which emphasize prototyping and the repurposing of found objects in service of creating new inventions or innovations. Culturally, makerspaces, both inside and outside of schools, are associated with collaboration and the free flow of ideas. In schools, maker education stresses the importance of learner-driven experience, interdisciplinary learning, peer-to-peer teaching, iteration, and the notion of "failing forward", i.e. the idea that mistake-based learning is crucial to the learning process and eventual success of a project. == Influences == Maker education is an offshoot of the maker movement, which Time magazine described as "the umbrella term for independent innovators, designers and tinkerers. A convergence of computer hackers and traditional artisans, the niche is established enough to have its own magazine, Make, as well as hands-on Maker Faires that are catnip for DIYers who used to toil in solitude". Dale Dougherty, founder of


id: maker-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Maker education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:31.352143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maker-education-20260505-0
summary:
== Development and expansion == Since 2005, maker education has gained momentum in schools across the United States and around the world. Proponents of the maker movement cite the potential for making to bring more women to STEM fields and close the gender gap. Other potential benefits and goals for making include creating greater educational equity among students in public schools, and the possibility for making to be a driver in educational and societal change. Other educators and innovators have developed offshoot curriculum and technologies related to the intersection of critical thinking and making, called critical making. In school models, such as the Lighthouse Community Charter, a charter school in Oakland, California, Aaron Van der Woorf, the robotics teacher leads the students in Maker Ed. At the Park School, in collaboration with Harvard's Project Zero, students hold a mini maker faire in school that also acts as a fundraiser for the school. Some districts have also adopted maker education district-wide, such as the district of Elizabeth Forward, just south of Pittsburgh, which partnered with Carnegie Mellon to provide professional development for teachers through working with students on Maker Ed. Principals in Albemarle County schools cite Superintendent Pam Moran as instrumental


id: maker-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Maker education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:31.352143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maker-education-20260505-0
summary:
Though maker education has been embraced by thousands of schools and school districts across the United States and abroad, there has also emerged criticism of the movement. Among the critics is Evgeny Morozov, a Belarusian writer and researcher, whose work focuses on the impact, both social and political, of technology. In his article published in The New Yorker, entitled, "Making It: Pick up a spot welder and join the revolution", Morozov criticizes Chris Anderson for "confusing the history of the Web with the history of capitalism and ends by speculating about the future of the maker movement, which, on closer examination, is actually speculation on the future of capitalism". He also criticizes companies and organizations that were once committed to open source software for becoming acquired by for-profit companies and embroiled in copyright and trademark lawsuits. Morozov also criticizes the maker movement's major contributors financial relationship with DARPA, which made a $10 million grant to support maker education for high school students, and $3.5 million to TechShop to establish new makerspaces. While Morozov is one of the more vocal critics of maker education, he is not the only one. Debbie Chachra, associate professor at Olin College of Engineering, in her


id: march-of-progress-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-0.md
category: reference
title: March of Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:32.577516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-of-progress-20260505-0
summary:
The March of Progress, originally titled The Road to Homo Sapiens, is an illustration that presents 25 million years of human evolution. It was created for the Early Man volume of the Life Nature Library, published in 1965, and drawn by the artist Rudolph Zallinger. It has been widely parodied and imitated to create images of progress of other kinds. == Illustration == === Context === The illustration is part of a section of text and images commissioned by Time-Life Books for the Early Man volume (1965) of the Life Nature Library, by F. Clark Howell. The illustration is a foldout entitled "The Road to Homo Sapiens". It shows a sequence of figures, drawn by natural history painter and muralist Rudolph Zallinger (1919–1995). The 15 human evolutionary forebears are lined up as if they were marching in a parade from left to right. The first two sentences of the caption read "What were the stages of man's long march from apelike ancestors to sapiens? Beginning at right and progressing across four more pages are milestones of primate and human evolution as scientists know them today, pieced together from the fragmentary fossil evidence." === Sequence of species === The 15 primate


id: march-of-progress-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-1.md
category: reference
title: March of Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:32.577516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-of-progress-20260505-0
summary:
== Parodies and adaptations == The March of Progress has often been imitated, parodied, or adapted for commercial or political purposes. The cover of the 1972 Doors album Full Circle references the March of Progress, as does the 1985 Supertramp album Brother Where You Bound, while the poster for the 1992 comedy film Encino Man shows an ape evolving into a skateboarder. The December 2005 issue of The Economist depicts hominids progressing up a flight of stairs to transform into a woman in a black dress holding a glass of champagne to illustrate "The Story of Man". == Predecessors == Thomas Henry Huxley's frontispiece to his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature was intended simply to compare the skeletons of apes and humans, but its unintentional left-to-right progressionist sequence has according to the historian Jennifer Tucker "become an iconic and instantly recognizable visual shorthand for evolution". An illustration, with the caption "Evolution", showing two sequences of four images, each illustrating a gradual transformation of an animal into a human, appeared in the 1889 edition of Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. == References == == External links == Media related to March of Progress


id: master-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:33.835488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
A Master of Science (Latin: Magister Scientiae), abbreviated as MS, MSc, SM, or ScM, is a master's degree. It usually focuses on developing advanced knowledge and analytical skills within a specific scientific, technical, or professional field. It typically emphasizes research, quantitative methods, and critical thinking, combining theoretical foundations with practical application to prepare graduates for specialized careers, doctoral study, or professional advancement. The Master of Science degree was first introduced and awarded by the University of Michigan in 1858. == Algeria == Algeria follows the Bologna Process. == Australia == Australian universities commonly have coursework or research-based Master of Science courses for graduate students. They typically run for 1–2 years full-time, with varying amounts of research involved. == Bangladesh == All Bangladeshi private and public universities have Master of Science courses as postgraduate degree. These include most of the major state-owned colleges. A number of private colleges also do offer MS degrees. After passing Bachelor of Science, any student becomes eligible to study in this discipline. == Belgium == Like all EU member states, Belgium follows the Bologna Process. In Belgium, the typical university track involved obtaining two degrees, being a two-year Kandidaat prerequisite track (replaced by Bachelor) followed by


id: master-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:33.835488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== South America == In Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela, the Master of Science or Magister is a postgraduate degree lasting two to four years. The admission to a master's program (Spanish: Licenciatura; Portuguese: Mestrado) requires the full completion of a four to five year long undergraduate degree, bachelor's degree, engineer's degree or a licentiate of the same length. Defense of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees qualify for a doctorate program. Depending on the country, one ECTS credit point can equal on average between 22 and 30 actual study hours. In most of these cases, the number of required attendance hours to the university classes will be at least half of that (one ECTS will mean around 11 to 15 mandatory hours of on-site classes). == Southeastern Europe == In Slavic countries in the European southeast (particularly former Yugoslavian republics), the education system was largely based on the German university system (largely due to the presence and influence of the Austria-Hungary Empire in the region). Prior to the implementation of the Bologna Process, academic university studies comprised a 4–5 year-long graduate diplom program, which could have been followed by a 2–4 year


id: master-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science-2.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:33.835488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Norway == Norway follows the Bologna Process. For engineering, the Master of Science academic degree has been recently introduced and has replaced the previous award forms "Sivilingeniør" (engineer, a.k.a. engineering master) and "Hovedfag" (academic master). Both were awarded after 5 years of university-level studies and required the completion of a scientific thesis. "Siv.ing", is a protected title traditionally awarded to engineering students who completed a five-year education at The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Norwegian: Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, NTNU) or other university programs deemed to be equivalent in academic merit. Historically there was no bachelor's degree involved and today's program is a five years master's degree education. The "Siv.ing" title is in the process of being phased out, replaced by (for now, complemented by) the "M.Sc." title. By and large, "Siv.ing" is a title tightly being held on to for the sake of tradition. In academia, the new program offers separate three-year bachelor and two-year master programs. It is awarded in the natural sciences, mathematics and computer science fields. The completion of a scientific thesis is required. All master's degrees are designed to certify a level of education and qualify for a doctorate program. Master of Science in


id: master-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science-3.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:33.835488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== United Kingdom == The Master of Science (MSc) is typically a taught postgraduate degree, involving lectures, examinations and a project dissertation (normally taking up a third of the program). Master's programs usually involve a minimum of 1 year of full-time study (180 UK credits, of which 150 must be at master's level) and sometimes up to 2 years of full-time study (or the equivalent period part-time). Taught master's degrees are normally classified into Pass, Merit and Distinction (although some universities do not give Merit). Some universities also offer MSc by research programs, where a longer project or set of projects is undertaken full-time; master's degrees by research are normally pass/fail, although some universities may offer a distinction. The more recent Master in Science (MSci) degree (Master of Natural Sciences at the University of Cambridge), is an undergraduate (UG) level integrated master's degree offered by UK institutions since the 1990s. It is offered as a first degree with the first three (four in Scotland) years similar to a BSc course and a final year (120 UK credits) at master's level, including a dissertation. The final MSci qualification is thus at the same level as a traditional MSc. == United States


id: master-of-science-in-information-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Information_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Master of Science in Information Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science_in_Information_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:35.151697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: master-of-science-in-information-technology-20260505-0
summary:
A Master of Science in Information Technology (abbreviated M.Sc.IT, MScIT or MSIT) is a master's degree in the field of information technology awarded by universities in many countries or a person holding such a degree. The MSIT degree is designed for those managing information technology, especially the information systems development process. The MSIT degree is functionally equivalent to a Master of Information Systems Management, which is one of several specialized master's degree programs recognized by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB). One can become a software engineer and data scientist after completing an MSIT degree. == Curriculum == A joint committee of Association for Information Systems (AIS) and Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) members develop a model curriculum for the Master of Science in Information Systems (MSIT). The most recent version of the MSIS Model Curriculum was published in 2016. == Course and variants == The course of study is concentrated around the Information Systems discipline. The core courses are (typically) Systems analysis, Systems design, Data Communications, Database design, Project management and Security. The degree typically includes coursework in both computer science and business skills, but the core curriculum might depend on the school and result in


id: meta-academic-company-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_(academic_company)-0.md
category: reference
title: Meta (academic company)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_(academic_company)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:36.427953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-academic-company-20260505-0
summary:
Meta was a Canadian artificial intelligence company that specialized in analyzing and organizing knowledge from the text of scientific literature using machine learning. Founded in 2010 by siblings Sam Molyneux and Amy Molyneux in Toronto, Canada, and backed by institutional venture capital investors, the company developed AI-powered tools. Meta's assets were later transferred to Facebook Inc. to enable its rebranding to Meta Platforms Inc. in 2021 by the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative and shut down in 2021, effective in 2022. == History == History Founding and Early Development Meta Inc. was founded initially as Sciencescape Inc., in Toronto. The idea for the company emerged from Sam Molyneux's experience as a cancer genomics researcher when he discovered that similar research findings had been published while he was working on related projects. The company initially focused on developing AI-powered knowledge tools to help researchers navigate the overwhelming volume of scientific publications. The platform was designed to address information overload in modern scientific research. === Beginning === Meta Inc., formerly Sciencescape Inc., was founded in 2010 by Sam and Amy Molyneux. Before co-founding Meta, Sam Molyneux studied cancer genomics at the Ontario Cancer Institute at Princess Margaret Hospital in Toronto. The service was developed


id: minibeast-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minibeast-0.md
category: reference
title: Minibeast
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minibeast
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:37.754439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: minibeast-20260505-0
summary:
In the context of ecological literacy, arthropods and other small invertebrates are often referred to by informal names such as minibeasts, bugs, creepy crawlies (-ie and -y in the singular), or minifauna (contrasting with megafauna). The term is used for spiders, insects, woodlice, centipedes, slugs, snails, worms and many other animals. == Definition == The United Kingdom–based Young People's Charitable Trust defines them as "small animals" in a factsheet written for young readers. There is a "Minibeast Zooseum" in Michigan dedicated to invertebrates. Minibeasts, as indicated by their name, are generally miniature compared to pets and livestock that people are more often familiar with. The study of minibeasts is common as part of the primary school curriculum. Studying minibeasts is a very effective way to observe many biological concepts first hand, which is not possible with many larger animals. Life cycles, food chains, and bodily structure and function are just some of the basic elements of biological science which can be easily explained using minibeasts. "Bugs Alive!" at Melbourne Museum features a huge number of live minibeasts with detailed information about them, while services such as "Minibeast Wildlife" and "Travelbugs" take live minibeasts to school and provide educational resources. ==


id: mobile-laboratory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_laboratory-0.md
category: reference
title: Mobile laboratory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_laboratory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:39.038938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mobile-laboratory-20260505-0
summary:
A mobile laboratory is a laboratory that is either fully housed within or transported by a vehicle such as a converted bus, RV, or tractor-trailer. Such vehicles can serve a variety of functions, including: Science education Science research Air, water, and soil analysis and monitoring Biosafety == Mobile Teaching Laboratories == A novel use of the mobile laboratory is in science education. In some cases, the mobile laboratory travels to schools, museums, and other community organizations, providing the schools with educational resources which they otherwise lack. The mobile laboratory coalition is a loose partnership of groups that provide such services. In other cases, students must also travel to the mobile lab, such as when the lab takes the form of a boat or a train. Mobile laboratories have recently been gaining favor from the National Institutes of Health, in the form of the particular mobile laboratories such as the Biobus located in New York and Georgia State University's Bio-Bus Program located in Atlanta, GA and the Boston University MobileLab, as a way to develop knowledge and understanding regarding biotechnology and medicine amongst the United States population. The practice of mobile teaching labs exists outside the USA as well with examples,


id: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-0.md
category: reference
title: Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:40.317102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies named after M.V. Lomonosov (traditional abbreviation "MITHT") is one of the oldest universities in the country that offer training in a wide range of specialties in the field of chemical technology. Currently, there are more than 4,500 students in nine areas of undergraduate, 28 master's programs and 23 scientific specialties for training of candidates and doctors of science. In MITHT there are eight dissertation councils for doctoral and PhD theses. Research and teaching activities are performed by more than 400 professors and 158 scientists, including more than 120 doctors of science and professors. Located in Moscow at Vernadsky Avenue, Building 86 (new building complex) and Malaya Pirogovskaya, Building 1 (historic building). == History == History of the university and its continuing operations as a higher education institution begins 1 July 1900 and covers several stages. === Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Moscow Higher Women Courses (1900–1918) === 1 July (14 July, New Style) 1900 was organized the Moscow Higher Women Courses (MHWC). Their structure originally consisted of two departments: History and Philosophy and Physics and Mathematics. On the last one were soon opened two offices: mathematical and natural, and after a few years


id: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-1.md
category: reference
title: Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:40.317102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology (1930–92) === 18 April 1930 by order of the People's Commissariat second MSU was reorganized into three independent institutions: Medical (now RSMU them. Pirogov) Pedagogical (now MPSU), and Chemical Technology (now MITHT). Last transferred to the jurisdiction of the Vsehimprom VSNKh USSR. In addressing this issue directly involved Sergo Ordzhonikidze. 10 May 1931 Chemical and Pharmaceutical Faculty became an independent and received a new name – the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology (MITHT). Historically, the name of the institute is due to the nature of objects that are studied by students: they were small capacity chemical and pharmaceutical technology, technology of platinum group metals and rare-earth elements. From this moment begins a new stage of development of the institution, which is quickly becoming one of the leading universities in the chemical industry. Front of it set the goal of training for high-tech industries of chemical technology. In MITHT the first time in the country began to train engineers on the technology of thin inorganic products, synthetic rubber, thin organic produce synthetic liquid fuels, organometallic compounds and a number of other specialties. In the process of restructuring of education at the institute have


id: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-2.md
category: reference
title: Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:40.317102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology named after M. V. Lomonosov (1992–2011) === In 1992, the Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology named after M. V. Lomonosov has received a new, higher educational status – status of the academy. With the name change has changed the status and range of activities of the institute along with old technology, new specialty Humanitarian – Management Profile: "Economics and Management (chemical industry)", "Environmental Protection", "Standardization and Certification". These specialties are subject to major technologies and solve their narrow-profile tasks. Before the transition to a tiered structure the education of students was carried out in one direction, "Chemical Technology and Biotechnology", which consists of seven specialties. After the transition academy led training in seven areas of undergraduate, graduate five areas (including 26 master's programs) and 13 majors (including 25 majors) in full-time and part-correspondence courses, and conducted post-graduate education in 24 specialties and additional education in primary educational programs MITHT. To implement in MITHT a tiered system of higher education were opened new training units. Along with main faculties teaching of students was performed at the Faculty of Natural Science, Faculty of Humanities, Faculty of Management, Economics and Environment, Faculty of Engineering,


id: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies-3.md
category: reference
title: Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University_of_Fine_Chemical_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:40.317102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moscow-state-university-of-fine-chemical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science === Beregov, Valery Vasilievich (b. 27 February 1942) – Corresponding Member of RAMS, now head of the department in MSMU them. Sechenov. Wolfson, Nicholai Sigizmundovich (18 October 1914, Moscow, Russian Empire – 4 March 1994) – a Russian chemist who developed methods for the synthesis of vitamin A, P, K and chemicals color cinematography. Gekhman, Alexander Efimovich (b. 29 September 1949, Moscow) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Glushkov, Robert Georgievich (b. 10 September 1929) – Academy of Medical Sciences, the leading scientist in the field of chemistry of drugs, laureate of the State Prize of the USSR (1981). Dumaev, Cyril Michailovich (b. 1931) – Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Evstigneeva, Rima Porfirievna (12 February 1925, Egorevsk – 7 July 2003, Moscow) – a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, an expert in the chemistry of natural compounds, the winner of the State Prize of the USSR (1985). Developed the technology of synthesis of vitamins E and K1. Eremenko, Igor Leonidovich (b. 1950) – Academician of Russian Academy of Sciences. Karabash, Alex Georgievich. (10 February 1912 – 2003, Obninsk, Kaluga region, Russia) – Soviet and Russian chemist, inventor. One of the


id: the-naked-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naked_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: The Naked Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naked_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:41.518039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-naked-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The Naked Scientists is a one-hour audience-interactive science radio talk show broadcast live by the BBC nationally on BBC Radio 5 Live (until 12 January 2025), and internationally on Friday nights on ABC Radio National, Australia; it is also distributed globally as a podcast. The programme was created and is edited by Cambridge University consultant virologist Dr Chris Smith. Former Naked Scientists line-up members include producers Phil Sansom, Adam Murphy, and Katie Haylor, with Peter Cowley adding ad-hoc technology perspectives. == History == Dr Chris Smith launched The Naked Scientists in 2001, rebranding the programme from a previous incarnation created in 2000 called ScienceWorld. Initially on commercial local radio, the show moved to the BBC's eastern region local radio network in 2003 where it was aired on Sundays on all 8 stations across the region. In August 2012, BBC East in response to national changes to local radio provision announced an impending change to the Sunday schedule which would have seen the show discontinued. In response to public reaction, the head of BBC East, Mick Rawsthorne, was interviewed on national radio about the decision to end the programme. Rawsthorne explained that the Naked Scientists did not fit the station's core


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
Nanotechnology education involves a multidisciplinary natural science education with courses such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, and molecular biology. It is being offered by many universities around the world. The first program involving nanotechnology was offered by the University of Toronto's Engineering Science program, where nanotechnology could be taken as an option. Here is a partial list of universities offering nanotechnology education, and the degrees offered (Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, or PhD in Nanotechnology). == Africa == === Egypt === Nile University - master's The American University in Cairo - master's Zewail City of Science and Technology - B.Sc Cairo University - Faculty of Engineering - Masters of Science == Asia == === Hong Kong === Hong Kong University of Science and Technology - MPhil, PhD === India === VIT University, Vellore, Center for Nanotechnology Research, M.Tech. in Nanotechnology Srinivas Institute of Technology, Mangaluru, Karnataka [Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE] - B.E. Nano Technology Desh Bhagat School of Engineering, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab Desh Bhagat University - B.Tech & M.Tech with Nanotechnology Tezpur Central University, Napam, Tezpur (M.Sc & Ph.D in nanoscience and technology) Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore IITs - B.Tech & M.Tech with Nanotechnology Delhi Technological


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pakistan === University of the Punjab, Lahore, Centre of Excellence in Solid State Physics, M.S./Ph.D Program in Nanotechnology Preston Institute Of Nanoscience And Technology (PINSAT), Islamabad, B.S. Nanoscience and Technology University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, Introductory Short Courses Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, master's degree research projects Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad, National Centre for Nanotechnology COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Islamabad, Center for Micro and Nano Devices National University of Science & Technology (NUST), Islamabad, M.S. and Ph.D Nanoscience & Engineering National Institute of Bio Genetic Engineering (NIGBE), Faisalabad, Research Projects Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering & Technology (GIKI), TOPI, KPK, master's/Ph.D degree program Baha-ud-din Zakaria University, Multan Government College University (GCU), Lahore University of Sind, Karachi Peshawar University, Peshawar International Islamic University Bachelor & Master of Science in Nanotechnology === Singapore === National University of Singapore - B.Eng in Engineering Science with Nanoscience & Nanotechnology options, master's and PhD in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Specialization === Sri Lanka === Sri Lanka Institute of Nanotechnology (SLINTEC) - Ph.D & M.Phil === Thailand === Chulalongkorn University - bachelor's degree in engineering (Nano-Engineering) Mahidol University - Center of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology - Master Program Kasetsart University


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Russia === Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology - bachelor's Moscow State University - bachelor's, master's Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) National Research University of Electronic Technology (MIET) - bachelor's, master's Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (PFUR) - master's in engineering & technology: "Nanotechnology and Microsystem Technology" National University of Science and Technology MISIS - bachelor's, master's Samara State Aerospace University - bachelor's, master's Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (TUSUR) Ural Federal University (UrFU) - bachelor's (master's) of Engineering & Technology: "Nanotechnology and Microsystem Technology", "Electronics and Nanoelectronics" (profiles: "Physical Electronics", "Functional Materials of micro-, opto-and nanoelectronics") === Spain === DFA.ua.es, Master en Nanociencia y Nanotecnologia Molecular - master's Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, bachelor's in nanoscience and nanotechnology Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, master's in nanotechnology Rovira i Virgili at Tarragona, master's in nanoscience and nanotechnology === Sweden === KTH Royal Institute of Technology - master's Linköping University - master's Lund University - bachelor's, master's Chalmers University of Technology - bachelor's, master's === Switzerland === Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Zurich - master's, Ph.D University of Basel - bachelor's, master's, Ph.D === United Kingdom === Bangor University - master's University of Birmingham - Ph.D University


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-3.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === Arizona State University - Professional Science master's (PSM) in Nanoscience Boston University - Concentration in Nanotechnology, Minor in Nanotechnology Engineering. [1] Chippewa Valley Technical College - associate degree Cinano.com, International Association of Nano and California Institute of Nano, (CNCP) Certified Nano and Clean technology Professional-Nanotechnology Experience for Engineers College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering - B.S., M.S., Ph.D in Nanoscale Science, Nanoscale Engineering Dakota County Technical College - associate degree Danville Community College - A.A.S. in Nanotechnology Forsyth Technical Community College - Associate of Science George Mason University (Virginia) - Graduate certificate Hudson Valley Community College - associate degree, Electrical Technology: Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana - Associate of Science in Nanotechnology. [2] Johns Hopkins University - M.S. in Materials Science and Engineering with Nanotechnology Option Louisiana Tech University - B.S. Nanosystems Engineering, M.S. Molecular Sciences & Nanotechnology, Ph.D (Micro/Nanotechnology and Micro/Nanoelectronics Emphasis) North Dakota State College of Science - associate degree Northern Illinois University - Certificate in Nanotechnology Oklahoma State University–Okmulgee Institute of Technology - Associate of Technology Penn State University - Minor in Nanotechnology, M.S. Nanotechnology Portland State University - undergraduate/graduate course in support of a Ph.D program in Applied


id: nanotechnology-education-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education-4.md
category: reference
title: Nanotechnology education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:42.729236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nanotechnology-education-20260505-0
summary:
The National Science Teacher Association, which has published a number of textbooks for nanotechnology in K-12 education, including a teacher's guide and an activity manual for hands-on experiences. Nano-Link, a notable program of the Dakota County Technical College, which has developed a variety of nanotech-related hands-on activities supported by toolkits to teach concepts in nanotechnology throughout direct lab experience. Omni Nano, which is developing comprehensive educational resources specifically designed to support a two-semester high school course, both online and in classrooms. Omni Nano also discusses issues in nanotechnology education on its dedicated blog. Nano4Me, which has a good amount of resources for K-12 education, although their program is intended for higher education. Their K-12 resources include introductory level modules and activities, interactive multimedia, and a collection of experiments and hands-on activities. Nanoscale Informal Science Education Network (NISE Network), which has a website of educational products designed to engage the public in nano science, engineering, and technology. The NISE Network also organizes NanoDays, a nationwide festival of educational programs about nanoscale science and engineering and its potential impact on the future. In Egypt, in2nano is a high school outreach program aiming to increase scientific literacy and prepare students for the sweeping


id: nasa-360-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_360-0.md
category: reference
title: NASA 360
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_360
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:44.016580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nasa-360-20260505-0
summary:
NASA 360 is a half-hour vodcast developed by NASA in partnership with the National Institute of Aerospace. The show premiered in August 2008. It has aired on more than 450 TV stations across the country, is available on air and cruise lines, and is consistently one of the top-downloaded programs on the NASA.gov website. It is currently in its tenth season. == Description == NASA 360 is one of four programs in NASA's award-winning eClips suite of web-based shows designed to encourage careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. NASA 360 is written, produced, and edited by Timothy J. Allen, Tom Shortridge, and Scott Bednar; Rebecca Jaramillo is the Senior Educator and Project Coordinator for NASA 360, and Harla Sherwood the Principal Investigator - all of the National Institute of Aerospace. NASA 360 shows how NASA has changed and continues to change life on Earth by examining how technologies developed by or for NASA are being used in everything from space exploration to everyday consumer products. These include lithium-ion batteries, medical innovations, sporting equipment, and automotive and aircraft safety and efficiency, among many more. NASA 360 is shot on-location at NASA centers across the country, as well as at other


id: national-dinosaur-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Dinosaur_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: National Dinosaur Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Dinosaur_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:45.277460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-dinosaur-museum-20260505-0
summary:
National Dinosaur Museum, located in Gold Creek Village, Nicholls, Canberra, is Australia's largest permanent display of prehistoric specimens. Established in 1993, the museum has grown into one of Canberra's premier tourist attractions. The museum's exhibition takes visitors on a journey through the evolution of life, with a particular focus on dinosaurs. It features captivating indoor and outdoor exhibits with life-size replica dinosaur models, real and replica skeletons, bones, fossils, crystals, meteorites and more.The museum is believed to house the biggest fossil display in the southern hemisphere. The museum provides an engaging and educational experience for visitors of all ages, complemented by a gift shop, Dinosaur garden, and plenty of photo opportunities. With an annual patronage of 100,000 visitors, the museum is one of the most popular attractions in the Australian Capital Territory. The museum is based around the school curriculum and caters for guided tours for school groups, focusing on an interactive "touch and feel" experience. National Dinosaur Museum additionally host birthday parties, dances with dinosaurs, events for young children, private parties, corporate functions and dinosaur sleep overs during school holiday periods. Events are regularly posted to the Museum Facebook page. The National Dinosaur Museum offers an engaging and educational


id: native-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Native Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:46.584743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: native-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
Native Scientists is a non-profit organisation operating in various European countries to broaden the horizons of underserved children (6 to 16 years). It develops and implements programs that establish meaningful connections between pupils and scientists to promote science and language literacy. Other aims include inspiring migrant young people to consider careers in STEM and training scientists to communicate their work to non-scientists. According to their latest internal report, the organization has managed to establish over 20,000 connections (i.e meaningful interactions) between children and scientists through its different programs. == History == Native Scientists was founded in 2013 by two Portuguese scientists, Joana Moscoso, a biologist, and Tatiana Correia, a physicist, who met while studying in the UK. The organization was created to reduce inequalities affecting underserved children in the access to higher education and STEM subjects. In a recent publication in the OECD “The Forum Network”, Joana Moscoso, one of the founders, revealed that this motivation was rooted in personal history: “The odds for me to become a scientist were very slim. I was born a girl in the ‘80s, I grew up in a village far away from scientific or higher education institutions, my native language was not English,


id: nature-exchange-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Exchange-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature Exchange
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Exchange
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:47.871083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-exchange-20260505-0
summary:
The Nature Exchange is a specialized learning environment that encourages people to explore nature and actively observe, collect, study and share the world around them. It is a turn-key exhibit, now used in nature-based institutions around North America. Developed by Science North and AldrichPears Associates, the Nature Exchange is an interactive forum where visitors trade ethically collected natural objects and information about them to learn and engage with the natural world. Visitors earn points for each trade, based on criteria such as quality, rarity and their knowledge of the item. Science centers, nature centers and zoos use Nature Exchanges to raise awareness of key issues in the natural world, and, through personal interaction, changes attitudes and behavior. == Locations == Telus World of Science - Edmonton, Edmonton, Alberta Canadian Bushplane Heritage Centre, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario Chattahoochee Nature Center, Roswell, Georgia BC Wildlife Park, Kamloops, British Columbia Las Vegas Springs Preserve, Nevada Zoomazium, Woodland Park Zoo – Seattle, Washington - CLOSED Tulsa Zoo, Tulsa, Oklahoma Kidspace Children's Museum, Pasadena, California Exploration Place – Prince George, British Columbia Lacerte Family Children's Zoo, Dallas Zoo, Dallas, Texas Science North, Sudbury, Ontario Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, California John P.


id: next-generation-science-standards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_Science_Standards-0.md
category: reference
title: Next Generation Science Standards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_Science_Standards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:49.110151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: next-generation-science-standards-20260505-0
summary:
The Next Generation Science Standards is a multi-state effort in the United States to create new education standards that are "rich in content and practice, arranged in a coherent manner across disciplines and grades to provide all students an internationally benchmarked science education." The standards were developed by a consortium of 26 states and by the National Science Teachers Association, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Research Council, and Achieve, a nonprofit organization that was also involved in developing math and English standards. The public was also invited to review the standards, and organizations such as the California Science Teachers Association encouraged this feedback. The final draft of the standards was released in April 2013. == Goal == The purposes of the standards include; Improve the level of scientific literacy among citizens Creating common standards for teaching in the U.S. Making science and engineering relevant for and accessible to all students Developing greater interest in science among students so that more of them choose to major in science and technology in college. Overall, the guidelines are intended to; Help students deeply understand core scientific concepts, Develop proficiency in the scientific process of developing and testing ideas,


id: one-two-three-infinity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity-0.md
category: reference
title: One Two Three... Infinity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:50.333289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-two-three-infinity-20260505-0
summary:
One Two Three... Infinity: Facts and Speculations of Science is a popular science book by theoretical physicist George Gamow, first published in 1947, but still (as of 2020) available in print and electronic formats. The book explores a wide range of fundamental concepts in mathematics and science, written at a level understandable by middle school students up through "intelligent layman" adults. The book includes many handmade illustrations by Gamow. == Synopsis == The 340-page book has four parts (marked I, II, III, and IV) and eleven chapters. In the preface, the shortness of the last part is attributed to the prior coverage in Gamow's previous books The Birth and Death of the Sun and Biography of the Earth. There are 128 illustrations that Gamow drew, "topologically transformed" from works by "numerous artists and illustrators", thanked by Gamow in the preface. A four-page index is included. In 1961 a new edition was published. In its preface, Gamow says that by luck the 1947 edition was "written just after a number of important scientific advances", so that "relatively few changes and additions were necessary". For example, Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley Williams separated tobacco mosaic virus into lifeless molecules and then recombined them


id: one-two-three-infinity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity-1.md
category: reference
title: One Two Three... Infinity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:50.333289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-two-three-infinity-20260505-0
summary:
Part III is the longest (150 pages) and begins with the "descending staircase" and the classical elements. "Plants take the largest part of the material used in the growth of their bodies ... from the air." Rust is oxidation of iron. The question "How large are the atoms?" calls for an experiment to obtain an oil film just one molecule thick. "1 cu mm of oil can cover 1 sq m of water." The law of definite proportions is stated in plain English (p. 123) as a "fundamental law of chemistry". The molecular structure of matter was uncovered with molecular beams by Otto Stern, and Lawrence Bragg invented "atomic photography" with X-rays. The section "Dissecting the atom" begins by considering oxygen to be doughnut-shaped, fitting the atoms of hydrogen forming water. Dismissing the notion, Gamow asserts that atoms are "complex mechanisms with a large number of moving parts". Through ionization, and reference to J. J. Thomson, the electron is introduced, having mass 1/1840 of the mass of a hydrogen atom. The Rutherford model of the atom, an analogy to the Solar System, is supported with reference to the percentage of mass at the center: 99.87% for the Sun and 99.97%


id: out-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_in_Science,_Technology,_Engineering,_and_Mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Out in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_in_Science,_Technology,_Engineering,_and_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:51.627257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: out-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Out in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, Inc., abbreviated oSTEM, is a 501(c)(3) non-profit professional society dedicated to LGBTQ+ individuals within the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) community. == History == In October of 2005. IBM sponsored a focus group where students from across the United States convened at the Human Rights Campaign headquarters in Washington, D.C. These students discussed topics relevant to LGBTQ+ communities at their colleges and universities. They debated how to structure an organization that serves students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Founded in 2009, the organization was granted 501(c)(3) status in 2010. oSTEM currently consists of more than 100 chapters across the United States and the United Kingdom. == Mission == oSTEM strives to identify, address, and advocate for the needs of LGBTQ+ students and professionals within the STEM fields. oSTEM fulfills these needs by providing networking opportunities, mentorship connections, strategic collaborations, and professional/leadership development, as well as an annual global conference. == Activities == === Conferences === oSTEM hosts annual conferences that discuss LGBTQ+ topics in STEM as well as intelligence fields. Topics discussed include inclusion, outreach, and diversity within the workplace. The goal of workshops, talks, and networking events for LGBTQ+ people


id: out-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_in_Science,_Technology,_Engineering,_and_Mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: Out in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_in_Science,_Technology,_Engineering,_and_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:51.627257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: out-in-science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Region A New Jersey, New York (state), Pennsylvania Region B Delaware, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Ohio, Virginia, Washington, D.C., West Virginia Region C Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia (U.S. state), Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee Region D Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin Region E Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah, Wyoming Region F Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Washington (state) Region G Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont, Toronto, United Kingdom Grad region All graduate student chapters, regardless of geographic location === Professional Chapters === Professional chapters are currently being tested. Given that the organization was founded for students, it is not yet certain that professionals will find a "good fit" within oSTEM. == See also == List of LGBT-related organizations and conferences List of LGBT events == References == == External links == Shawn Wasserman, "National Conference Discusses Being Out in STEM" Archived 2017-09-23 at the Wayback Machine 11/10/2014 Hal Marz, University Programs, "oSTEM 2013 at the Google NYC Office" 2/6/2014 Camille Crittenden, Contributor, "Tech Pride: Celebrations and Challenges for LGBT Members of the Tech Community" 6/19/2017 Sarah Scoles, Science, "HOW QUEER SCIENTISTS ARE SHAPING THEIR FUTURE


id: out-to-innovate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_to_Innovate-0.md
category: reference
title: Out to Innovate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_to_Innovate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:52.864228+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: out-to-innovate-20260505-0
summary:
Out to Innovate, previously known as the National Organization of Gay and Lesbian Scientists and Technical Professionals (NOGLSTP), is a professional society for professionals in science, technology, mathematics, and engineering. Each year, Out to Innovate gives the Walt Westman Award to members who helped make significant contributions to the association's mission. == History == The organization was organized along the lines of earlier organizations of gay scientists in Los Angeles and the Research Triangle area of North Carolina, and arose out of a session at the 1980 American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) meeting. It was formally organized in 1983 and incorporated in California in 1991. The foundation of the organization was in response to issues such as gay scientists not being able to get visas to immigrate to the United States or security clearances to work in government laboratories, the lack of research on LGBT health issues, and loss of productivity due to the stress of stigmatization. Much of the organization's early work related to increasing the visibility of LGBT scientists and opposing homophobia. In the 1990s, it focused on encouraging corporations to adopt nondiscrimination policies and assisted in a 1995 Government Accounting Office report that recommended


id: project-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Project Exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:54.159384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Project Exploration is a not-for-profit educational program whose goal is to "change the face of science" by encouraging interest in science among students—especially girls and minorities—who traditionally have not found effective career routes into scientific disciplines. Its primary method is to create intensive collaborative relationships between students and working field researchers through structured programs involving the University of Chicago and other institutions. In January 2010, it received a Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics and Engineering Mentoring. The organization, founded in 1999, is based in Chicago, Illinois, USA. == Activities == Project Exploration currently serves nearly 1,000 students. It began as an after-school and summer program when Gabrielle Lyon, a teacher at Fiske Elementary School on the South Side of Chicago, decided that students underrepresented in the sciences, primarily girls and minorities, should be given opportunities to collaborate with actual scientists and participate in real-life scientific research. Students design research projects and test them in the field, or work summers at museums demonstrating science to young children. Sisters4Science Sisters4Science is a year-round after-school and field program that combines science exploration with leadership development for approximately 100 minority middle school girls. Girls participate in hands-on science activities led by women


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:55.401778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Public awareness of science (PAS) is a comprehensive concept encompassing all aspects of the awareness, attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and activities that comprise the relations between the general public or lay society as a whole and scientific knowledge and organization. This concept is also known as public understanding of science (PUS), or more recently, public engagement with science and technology (PEST). This approach is a recent development in the field of science communication research, which aims to explore the intricate relationships and interconnections between science, technology, and innovation on the one hand, and the general public on the other. Initially, research in this domain concentrated on enhancing the public's understanding of scientific subjects, adhering to the principles of the information deficit model of science communication. However, this model has since been largely disregarded by researchers in the field of science communication. Instead, there is an increasing emphasis on understanding how the public chooses to use scientific knowledge and on the development of interfaces to mediate between expert and lay understandings of an issue. Newer frameworks of communicating science include the dialogue and the participation models. The dialogue model aims to create spaces for conversations between scientists and non-scientists to occur while


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:55.401778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Civic science model === Some scholars have identified a new era of "post-normal science" (PNS) in which many scientific discoveries carry high stakes if risks are estimated incorrectly within a broader social context that has a high degree of uncertainty. This PNS era requires a new approach to public engagement efforts and requires a reevaluation of the underlying assumptions of "public engagement", especially with emerging science and technology issues, like CRISPR gene editing, that have the potential to become "wicked problems". These "wicked" issues often require regulatory and policy decisions that have no single correct solution and often involve numerous interest groups – none of whom are clearly positioned to decide and resolve the problem. Policy and regulatory decisions around these scientific issues are inherently political and must balance trade-offs between the scientific research, perceptions of risk, societal needs, and ethical values. While scientists can provide factual answers to research questions and mathematical estimates of risk, many considerations surrounding these wicked science and technology issues have no factual answer. The unidirectional deficit model of simply educating the public on theses issues is insufficient to address these complex questions, and some scholars have proposed scientists adopt a culture of civic


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:55.401778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Project example == Government and private-led campaigns and events, such as Dana Foundation's "Brain Awareness Week", are becoming a strong focus of programmes which try to promote public awareness of science. The UK PAWS Foundation dramatically went as far as establishing a Drama Fund with the BBC in 1994. The purpose was to encourage and support the creation of new drama for television, drawing on the world of science and technology. The Vega Science Trust was set up in 1994 to promote science through the media of television and the internet with the aim of giving scientists a platform from which to communicate to the general public. The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science chair at The University of Oxford was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. Mathematician Marcus du Sautoy has held the chair since Dawkins' retirement in 2008. Similar professorships have since been created at other British universities. Professorships in the field have been held by well-known academics including Richard Fortey and Kathy Sykes at the University of Bristol, Brian Cox at Manchester University, Tanya Byron at Edge Hill University, Jim Al-Khalili at the University of Surrey,


id: researchchannel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ResearchChannel-0.md
category: reference
title: ResearchChannel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ResearchChannel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:57.875837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: researchchannel-20260505-0
summary:
ResearchChannel was an American educational cable television network operated by a consortium of universities, foundations, government agencies, corporations, and learned societies. It began broadcasting in 1996, and discontinued operations in 2010. == History == ResearchChannel was established in 1996 under the name Research TV by a group of American universities. Its studios were physically located at the University of Washington's Kane Hall throughout its existence. Participating institutions produced and provided original programming highlighting their research and innovations to air on the station and also provided funding. During its early existence, a period which predated YouTube, ResearchChannel partnered with Google to make its programs available for free download. It also collaborated with companies such as Microsoft to help advance what were then new video technologies, such as high definition web streaming. In March 2010 the University of Washington – which had heavily subsidized the network by providing its physical space, satellite uplink, website maintenance, and studio staff – announced it would end its support of ResearchChannel. The network went off-air at the end of August 2010. == Availability == ResearchChannel was carried on channel 9400 of the Dish Network as well as cable television channels in select American markets. It also


id: richard-dawkins-foundation-for-reason-and-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins_Foundation_for_Reason_and_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins_Foundation_for_Reason_and_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:56:59.075578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-dawkins-foundation-for-reason-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science (RDFRS or RDF) is a division of Center for Inquiry (CFI) founded by British biologist Richard Dawkins in 2006 to promote scientific literacy and secularism. Originally a non-profit based in Washington, D.C., the organization merged with CFI in 2016. == History == After Richard Dawkins' success with the book The God Delusion, he created the foundation with its headquarters in the United States to work toward a world in which religion no longer interferes with the advance of science and in which people use their critical thinking skills to evaluate theist claims about the nature of reality. Dawkins complained of the difficulty he faced in gaining tax-free status, which he attributes to the secular nature of the organization. In contrast to the presumption by officials that religious organizations benefit humanity without evidence (for instance Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption), he points to a letter he received from the British Charity Commission requesting evidence for the claim that the advancement of science is connected to the public good. Theist author Marion Ledwig suggests that the foundation may have been set up as an atheist counterpart to the John Templeton Foundation, an organization which


id: robot-combat-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-0.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Robot combat is a type of robot competition in which custom-built machines fight using various methods to incapacitate each other. The machines have generally been remote-controlled vehicles rather than autonomous robots. Robot combat competitions have been made into television series, including Robot Wars in the United Kingdom and BattleBots in the United States. These shows were originally broadcast in the late 1990s to early 2000s and experienced revivals in the mid-2010s. As well as televised competitions, smaller robot combat events are staged for live audiences such as those organized by the Robot Fighting League. Robot builders are generally hobbyists and the complexity and cost of their machines can vary substantially. Robot combat uses weight classes, with the heaviest robots able to exert more power and destructive capabilities. The rules of competitions are designed for the safety of the builders, operators, and spectators while also providing an entertaining spectacle. Robot combat arenas are generally surrounded by a bulletproof screen. Competitor robots come in a variety of designs, with different strategies for winning fights. Robot designs typically incorporate weapons for attacking opponents, such as axes, hammers, flippers, and spinning devices. Rules almost always prohibit gun-like weapons as well as other strategies not


id: robot-combat-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-1.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
== Rules == Robot combat involves remotely controlled robots fighting in a purpose-built arena. A robot loses when it is immobilized, which may be due to damage inflicted by the other robot, being pushed into a position where it cannot drive (though indefinite holds or pins are typically not permitted), or being removed from the arena. Fights typically have a time limit, after which, if no robot is victorious, a judge or judges evaluate the performances to decide upon a winner. === Weight classes === Similar to human combat sports, robot combat is conducted in weight classes though with maximum limits even in the heaviest class. Heavier robots can exert more power and have stronger armor and are generally more difficult and expensive to build. Class definitions vary between competitions. The below table shows classifications for two organizations: the UK-based Fighting Robots Association (FRA) and the North American SPARC. There are also competitions specifically for Lego combat robots. Most televised events are heavyweights. It's worth noting that the definitions of each weight category have changed over time - with European (FRA) rules for heavyweights advancing from 80 kg, to 100 kg, to 110 kg over time. Currently Battlebots has a


id: robot-combat-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-2.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Rammer – Robots employing high-power drive trains and heavy armour can use their speed and manoeuvrability to crash into their opponent repeatedly with the hope of damaging weapons and vital components. Their pushing power may also be used to shove their opponent into arena traps. Rammers (AKA 'Bricks') typically have four or six wheels for traction and stability and are often designed to be fully operational when inverted. Because many modern rulesets require all robots to have a moving weapon, modern rammers are often equipped with other weapon types. Robot Wars Series 6 champion Tornado and Series 7 runner-up Storm II were effective rammers. The former used interchangeable weaponry (usually a small spinning drum) while the latter opted for a lifting arm to avoid disqualification. Battlebots 3.0 superheavyweight champion Vladiator was a rammer armed with a small lifting spike. Wedge – Similar in concept to a rammer, the wedge uses a low-clearance inclined ramp or scoop to move in under an opponent and break its contact with the arena floor – decreasing its mobility and rendering it easy to push off into a wall or trap. The wedge is also useful in deflecting attacks by other robots. Small wedge-lets are


id: robot-combat-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-3.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Vertical Spinner – A vertical disc or bar spinner consists of a thick circular disc or flat bar mounted on a horizontal axis. Rather than many small teeth to cut like a saw, most spinners have few large teeth to catch opponents and either throw them into the air or rip off chunks of armour. Vertical spinners are ubiquitous at all levels of competition, especially in the US. A majority of BattleBots competitors use spinning vertical discs or bars, and it is the most successful weapon type in the show. Notable robots using vertical spinners include 1.0 lightweight champion Backlash, its heavyweight brother Nightmare, 2018 and 2019 champion Bite Force, and 2021 champion End Game, among many others. 2022 BattleBots champion Tantrum bears a "puncher", with a small vertical spinner mounted on a sliding mechanism. Vertical spinners are less common in Robot Wars, with Series 5–6 competitor S3, Series 7 grand-finalist X-Terminator, and Series 9–10 competitor Aftershock as three notable exceptions. Drum Spinner – Drum spinners are a variant of vertical spinners, consisting of a thick, short cylinder resembling a steamroller's wheel with teeth spinning on a horizontal axis. Drum spinners can accelerate faster than vertical discs or bars, but


id: robot-combat-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-4.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Horizontal Spinner – Horizontal spinners rotate around a vertical axis, with the rotating blade or disc typically mounted below, under, or at mid-height on the front of the robot. Undercutters have a spinner low enough almost to scrape the ground. Thanks to their broad reach, horizontal spinners can impart large impacts and may throw other robots across the arena floor. Tombstone, a spinner armed with a horizontal bar, was the champion of BattleBots 2016, and its sister machine Last Rites has been a renowned competitor in RoboGames since 2005. Notable British horizontal spinners include Hypno-Disc (a grand finalist in Robot Wars series 3–5) and Carbide (champion of Robot Wars series 9). Some robots have a bar-shaped horizontal spinner mounted above the center of a low rectangular chassis. Horizontal spinners with this design include three-time BattleBots middleweight champion Hazard, American mid–late 2000s competitor Brutality, and modern Battlebots competitors Icewave and Bloodsport. Full Body Spinner – Taking the concept of the spinner to the extreme, a full-body spinner rotates a massive horizontally spinning mechanism around the entire circumference of the robot as a stored energy weapon. Other robot components (batteries, weapon motor casing) may be attached to the shell to increase the


id: robot-combat-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-5.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Flipper – Although mechanically resembling a lifter, the flipper uses much higher levels of pneumatic power to launch a lifting arm or panel upward at high acceleration similar to a catapult. An effective flipper can throw opponents end-over-end through the air, causing damage from the landing impact or, in Robot Wars, toss it completely out of the arena. Flippers use a large volume of compressed gas and often have a limited number of effective attacks before their supply runs low. CO2-powered flippers are among the most abundant weapon types in UK heavyweight competitions. The two-time Robot Wars champion Chaos 2 used a flipping plate powerful enough to throw other robots out of the arena. Other successful Robot Wars flippers include Series 5 runner-up Bigger Brother, Series 8 champion Apollo, and Series 10 champion Eruption, among many others. Behemoth, armed with a flipping scoop, has been competing continuously since Series 2 in 1998 and finally reached joint 3rd place in Series 10 in 2017. Some British flippers have been significantly more successful in untelevised competitions, such as Ripper, Kronic, and the Iron Awe series. British flippers have also competed in China, including Vulcan (from Team Apollo) and Tánshè (TIFR runner-up, from


id: robot-combat-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-6.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
=== Interchangeable weaponry === It is increasingly common for robots to have interchangeable weaponry or other modular components, allowing them to adapt to a wide range of opponents and increasing their versatility; such robots are often referred to as "Swiss army bots", in reference to Swiss army knives. Arguably the earliest example was Robot Wars Series 1 contestant Plunderbird, which could change between a pneumatic spike and a circular saw on an extendable arm. Successful Swiss army bots include Robot Wars Series 6 champion Tornado, BattleBots 2016 runner-up Bombshell, Battlebots 2020 quarterfinalist and 2023 semifinalist Ribbot, and top-ranked US Beetleweight Silent Spring. Sometimes, robots that were not originally Swiss army bots have had their weapons changed or altered on the fly, typically due to malfunctions. In BattleBots 2015, Ghost Raptor's spinning bar weapon broke in its first fight; builder Chuck Pitzer then improvised new weapons for each following fight, including a "De-Icer" arm attachment which it used to unbalance and defeat bar spinner Icewave in the quarter-finals. === Prohibited weaponry === Since the first robot combat competitions, some types of weapons have been prohibited either because they violated the spirit of the competition or they could not be safely used.


id: robot-combat-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-7.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
SRiMech – Many robots are incapable of driving inverted (upside-down), due to their shape, weaponry, or both. However, others risk immobilization if turned over off of their wheels. A SRiMech (self-righting mechanism) is not inherently a form of weaponry, but rather a design element that returns an inverted robot to mobility in the upright state. The SRiMech is typically an electric or pneumatic arm or extension on the upper surface of the robot which pushes against the arena floor to roll or flip the robot upright. Most flippers, some lifters, and even some carefully designed axes or vertical spinners can double as SRiMechs. Team Nightmare's lightweight vertical spinner Backlash was designed such that when flipped it would hit the ground with the spinning disc and kick back upright (though this never worked). The first successful unaided use of an SRiMech in competition was at the 1997 U.S. Robot Wars, when the immobilized Vlad the Impaler used a dedicated pneumatic device to pop back upright in a match against Biohazard. The first competitor to use a SRiMech in a televised competition was Cassius, using its front-hinged flipping arm to right itself in Robot Wars series 2. Entangling weapons – Several early


id: robot-combat-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-8.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
== Unusual propulsion == The great majority of combat robots roll on wheels, which are very effective on the smooth surfaces used for typical robot combat competition. Other propulsion strategies do pop-up with some frequency.


id: robot-combat-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-9.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
Tank treads – Numerous combat robots have used treads or belts in place of wheels in an attempt to gain additional traction. Treads are generally heavier and more vulnerable to damage than a wheeled system and offer no particular traction advantage on the types of surfaces common in robot combat. Most uses of treads are for their striking appearance. The Robot Wars competitors Track-tion, 101 and Mortis along with the BattleBots super heavyweight Ronin used treads. Biteforce, the winner of the 2015 Battlebots Competitions, originally used magnets embedded in its treads in an attempt to gain extra downforce without extra weight. Current users of treads include 2022–2023 NHRL champion and BattleBots contestant Emulsifier and BattleBots fan-favorite Rusty. Walking – The spectacle of a multi-legged robot walking across the arena into combat is a big audience favorite. Robot combat rules typically have given walking robots an additional weight allowance to offset their slower speed, the complexity of the mechanism, and to encourage their construction. What the event organizers had in mind was something like the spider-legged robot Mechadon, but what most often was produced were simple rule-shaving propulsion systems that attempted to save as much of the extra weight allowance as


id: robot-combat-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat-10.md
category: reference
title: Robot combat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_combat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:00.314687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-combat-20260505-0
summary:
To move, the robot would rely on rapidly braking its spinning ring, which was around the entire robot, while simultaneously turning off five of the six magnets. This, in turn, would force the robot to pivot around the one magnet still on. Hopping – Using pneumatic legs or spikes, robots such as the featherweight Spazhammer were capable of moving around the arena by repeatedly stabbing the floor. Propeller – No Fly Zone, an antweight competing at RoboGames since 2015, drives forwards using thrust generated by a diagonal spinning bar on the front of the robot, similar to an airplane propeller. There is only a single wheel on the back of the robot, used for steering rather than forward movement. A similar heavyweight machine, Crossfire, competed in the first season of King of Bots. == Robot-sumo == Robot-sumo is a related sport where robots try to shove each other out of a ring rather than destroy or disable each other. Unlike remote-controlled combat robots, machines in these competitions are often automated. == See also == CTF 2187 National Havoc Robot League BattleBots Robotica (TV series) RoboGames RoboMaster "I, (Annoyed Grunt)-bot" – episode of The Simpsons featuring robot combat. Model Warship Combat


id: scale-up-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCALE-UP-0.md
category: reference
title: SCALE-UP
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCALE-UP
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:01.557258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scale-up-20260505-0
summary:
SCALE-UP, Student-Centered Active Learning Environment with Upside-Down Pedagogies, is a classroom specifically created to facilitate active, collaborative learning in a classroom. The spaces are carefully designed to facilitate interactions between teams of students who work on short, interesting tasks revolving around specific content. Some people think the rooms look more like restaurants than classrooms. == History == Originally developed in 1997 by Robert Beichner at North Carolina State University to help with large enrollment physics courses. At this time, SCALE-UP stood for 'Student-Centered Activities for Large Enrollment Undergraduate Physics.' Although originated at North Carolina State University, more than five hundred colleges across the US and around the world are known to have directly adopted the SCALE-UP model and adapted it to their particular needs. When SCALE-UP was incorporated in different disciplines then the name was changed to 'Student-Centered Active Learning Environment for Undergraduate Programs.' Now, because of the increasing number of pre-college installations, plus to draw attention to the instruction pedagogy as well as the space, the name has become "Student-Centered Active Learning Environment with Upside-down Pedagogies." The basic idea is that students are given something interesting to investigate. While they work in teams on these "tangibles" (hands-on measurements or


id: r-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R/science-0.md
category: reference
title: R/science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R/science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:02.838884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: r-science-20260505-0
summary:
r/science is an Internet forum on Reddit where the community of participants discuss science topics. A popular feature of the forum is "Ask Me Anything" (AMA) public discussions. As of 2014, r/science attracted 30,000–100,000 visitors per day, making it the largest community-managed science forum and an attractive place to host discussions. It has over 33 million members as of 2024. == History == === Nathan Allen === Nathan Allen is an American chemist. While working as a chemist at Dow Chemical Company, Allen began to imagine that scientists could use Reddit's "ask me anything" (AMA) interview format to create discussions between scientists and the public. Allen became a forum moderator there and has since been prominent in guiding the culture of the community there and as a spokesperson for the forum. Allen has advocated that chemists should be more active in communicating with the public in online forums such as reddit. === AMA series === As of 2014, r/science attracted 30,000–100,000 visitors per day, making it the largest community-managed science forum and an attractive place to host discussions. In January 2014 Allen began the r/science AMA series with the goal of raising the visibility of scientists who are producing groundbreaking


id: science-advice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_advice-0.md
category: reference
title: Science advice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_advice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:04.075625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-advice-20260505-0
summary:
Science advice is the process, structures and institutions through which governments and politicians consider science, technology and innovation information in policy- and decision- making. Across different national governments and international bodies, there are a variety of structures and institutions for scientific advice. They reflect distinctive cultures and traditions of decision-making, which Sheila Jasanoff has termed the 'civic epistemology' through which expert claims are constructed, validated or challenged in a given society. Science advice can also be called "science for policy", indicating the flow of information from scientific to policy domains with the intention of informing decisions. This is distinct from "policy for science", the institutions, rules and norms governing how science is funded, conducted, and communicated. At the national level, countries have diverse models for how to connect scientists and policymakers. In some countries, the president of the National academy, an elected organization of distinguished researchers in natural and social sciences, engineering, medicine, and the humanities, serves as a government science advisor, while other countries have an advisory committee or civil servants perform this role. National academies are often commissioned to write reports advising government on the state of scientific knowledge to inform policy-relevant questions, such as the risk from


id: science-and-engineering-challenge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Engineering_Challenge-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Engineering Challenge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Engineering_Challenge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:05.258251+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-engineering-challenge-20260505-0
summary:
The Science and Engineering Challenge (SEC) is a non-profit, STEM outreach program run throughout the schools year in Australia. The goal of the program is to challenge student’s perception of science and engineering and experience aspects of those fields that they normally would not encounter in a school environment. The SEC focuses on inspiring students in year 10 to consider a future career in science and engineering by choosing to study science and mathematics in years 11 and 12. The SEC also includes other events such as Discovery Days and the S.M.A.R.T outreach program. == History == The SEC began at the University of Newcastle as an initiative of the Faculties of Engineering and Built Environment, and Science and Information Technology. Initially, information nights were conducted aimed at giving students and parents from rural areas the opportunity to find out about careers in science and engineering. Based on the success of these information nights, the first SEC event was held on the Central Coast in the year 2000, as an activity for National Science Week. Throughout 2001, events were held around the Newcastle area and other parts of NSW. 2002 saw the first Challenge Days held outside of NSW, this


id: science-capital-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_capital-0.md
category: reference
title: Science capital
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_capital
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:06.554767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-capital-20260505-0
summary:
Science capital is a conceptual tool developed by Louise Archer and colleagues at King's College London. It uses the theoretical frameworks created by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu to summarise an individual’s science-related habitus and capital. It can be used to help understanding how social class affects people's aspirations and involvement in science. The concept comes from research in education but is also used more broadly in practice and policy, for instance in the work of the Science and Technology Committee of the House of Commons in the UK. == Definition == Science capital can be defined as the sum of all the science-related knowledge, attitudes, experiences and resources that an individual builds up through their life. This includes what science they know about, what they think about science, the people they know who have an understanding of science, and the day-to-day engagement they have with science. Science capital is made up of science related cultural and social capital (institutionalized and/or embodied through knowledge, consumption, credentials, and social networks) as well as habitus. Researchers have suggested that science capital does not exist in isolation but has its value determined by someone's wider context and environment. Science capital has been framed around


id: science-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-0.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
Science communication encompasses a wide range of activities that connect science and society. Common goals of science communication include informing non-experts about scientific findings, raising the public awareness of and interest in science, influencing people's attitudes and behaviors, informing public policy, and engaging with diverse communities to address societal problems. The term "science communication" generally refers to settings in which audiences are not experts on the scientific topic being discussed (outreach), though some authors categorize expert-to-expert communication ("inreach" such as publication in scientific journals) as a type of science communication. Examples of outreach include science journalism and health communication. Since science has political, moral, and legal implications, science communication can help bridge gaps between different stakeholders in public policy, industry, and civil society with trust-building playing a central role in this process. Science communicators are a broad group of people: scientific experts, science journalists, science artists, medical professionals, nature center educators, science advisors for policymakers, and everyone else who communicates with the public about science. They often use entertainment and persuasion techniques including humour, storytelling, and metaphors to connect with their audience's values and interests. Science communication also exists as an interdisciplinary field of social science research on topics such


id: science-communication-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-1.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
Science popularization figures such as Carl Sagan and Neil deGrasse Tyson are partly responsible for the view of science or a specific science discipline within the general public. However, the degree of knowledge and experience a science popularizer has can vary greatly. Because of this, some science communication can depend on sensationalism. Another point in the controversy of popular science is the idea of how public debate can affect public opinion. A relevant and highly public example of this is climate change. A science communication study appearing in The New York Times proves that "even a fractious minority wields enough power to skew a reader's perception of a [science news] story" and that even "firmly worded (but not uncivil) disagreements between commenters affected readers' perception of science." This causes some to worry about the popularizing of science in the public, questioning whether the further popularization of science will cause pressure towards generalization or sensationalism. Marine biologist and film-maker Randy Olson published Don't Be Such a Scientist: Talking Substance in an Age of Style. In the book he describes how there has been an unproductive negligence when it comes to teaching scientists to communicate. Don't be Such a Scientist is written


id: science-communication-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-2.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
However, Einsiedel goes on to suggest both views of the public are "monolithic" in their own way; they both choose to declare what something called the public is. Some promoters of public understanding of science might have ridiculed publics for their ignorance, but an alternative "public engagement with science and technology" romanticizes its publics for their participatory instincts, intrinsic morality or simple collective wisdom. As Susanna Hornig Priest concluded in her 2009 introduction essay on science's contemporary audiences, the job of science communication might be to help non-scientists feel they are not excluded as opposed to always included; that they can join in if they want, rather than that there is a necessity to spend their lives engaging. The process of quantifiably surveying public opinion of science is now largely associated with the public understanding of science movement (some would say unfairly). In the US, Jon Miller is the name most associated with such work and well known for differentiating between identifiable "attentive" or "interested" publics (that is to say science fans) and those who do not care much about science and technology. Miller's work questioned whether the American public had the following four attributes of scientific literacy: knowledge of


id: science-communication-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-3.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
=== Inclusive communication and cultural differences === Inclusive science communication seeks to build equity by prioritizing communication that is built with and for marginalized groups that are not reached through typical top-down science communication. Science communication is affected by the same implicit inequities embedded in the production of science research. It has traditionally centered Western science and communicated in Western language. Māori researcher Linda Tuhiwai Smith details how scientific research is "inextricably linked to European imperialism and colonialism". The field's focus on Western science results in publicizing "discoveries" by Western scientists that have been known to Indigenous scientists and communities for generations, continuing the cycle of colonial exploitation of physical and intellectual resources. Collin Bjork notes that science communication is linked to oppression because European colonizers "employed both the English language and western science as tools for subjugating others". Today, English is still considered the international language of science and 80% of science journals in Scopus are published in English. As a result, most science journalism also communicates in English or must use English sources, limiting the audience that science communication can reach. Just as science has historically excluded communities of Black, Indigenous and people of color, LGBTQ+ communities and


id: science-communication-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-4.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
As the audience for scientific texts expanded, the interest in public science did as well. "Extension lectures" were installed in some universities, like Oxford and Cambridge, which encouraged members of the public to attend lectures. In America, traveling lectures were a common occurrence in the nineteenth century and attracted hundreds of viewers. These public lectures were a part of the lyceum movement and demonstrated basic scientific experiments, which advanced scientific knowledge for both the educated and uneducated viewers. Not only did the popularization of public science enlighten the general public through mass media, but it also enhanced communication within the scientific community. Although scientists had been communicating their discoveries and achievements through print for centuries, publications with a variety of subjects decreased in popularity. Alternatively, publications in discipline-specific journals were crucial for a successful career in the sciences in the nineteenth century. As a result, scientific journals such as Nature or National Geographic possessed a large readership and received substantial funding by the end of the nineteenth century as the popularization of science continued. === Science communication in contemporary media === Science can be communicated to the public in many different ways. According to Karen Bultitude, a science communication lecturer


id: science-communication-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-5.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
==== Online interaction ==== The third category is online interaction; for example, websites, blogs, wikis and podcasts can be used for science communication, as can other social media or forms of artificial intelligence like AI-Chatbots. Online methods of communicating science have the potential to reach huge audiences, can allow direct interaction between scientists and the public, and the content is always accessible and can be somewhat controlled by the scientist. Additionally, online communication of science can help boost scientists' reputation through increased citations, better circulation of articles, and establishing new collaborations. Online communication also allows for both one-way and two-way communication, depending on the audience's and the author's preferences. However, there are disadvantages in that it is difficult to control how content is picked up by others, and regular attention and updating is needed. When considering whether or not to engage in science communication online, scientists should review what science communication research has shown to be the potential positive and negative outcomes. Online communication has given rise to movements like open science, which advocates for making science more accessible. However, when engaging in communication about science online, scientists should consider not publicizing or reporting findings from their research until it


id: science-communication-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication-6.md
category: reference
title: Science communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:07.866073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-20260505-0
summary:
"Public understanding of science", "public awareness of science" and "public engagement with science and technology" are all terms coined with a movement involving governments and societies in the late 20th century. During the late 19th century, science became a professional subject and influenced by governmental suggestions. Prior to this, public understanding of science was very low on the agenda. However, some well-known figures such as Michael Faraday ran lectures aimed at the non-expert public, his being the famous Christmas Lectures which began in 1825. The 20th century saw groups founded on the basis they could position science in a broader cultural context and allow scientists to communicate their knowledge in a way that could reach and be understood by the general public. In the UK, The Bodmer Report (or The Public Understanding of Science as it is more formally known) published in 1985 by The Royal Society changed the way scientists communicated their work to the public. The report was designed to "review the nature and extent of the public understanding of science in the United Kingdom and its adequacy for an advanced democracy". Chaired by the geneticist Sir Walter Bodmer alongside famous scientists as well as broadcaster Sir David


id: science-education-at-the-crossroads-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Education_at_the_Crossroads-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Education at the Crossroads
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Education_at_the_Crossroads
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:57:09.117364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-at-the-crossroads-20260505-0
summary:
Science Education at the Crossroads is an annual national academic conference, initially funded by the National Science Foundation, designed to enable and upskill stakeholders in science education to confer in a productive manner. The conference also claims to offer alternatives to the standard model of conferring and professional development. The conference was created by John Settlage of the University of Connecticut, and Adam Johnston of Weber State University. == Philosophy == There are many organizations and conferences that exist for science educators, including the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST), the Association for Science Teacher Education (ASTE), and many others dedicated to specific fields (e.g., physics and chemistry) within science education. These organizations focus on presenting research results or sharing innovations in teaching. Crossroads uses a different approach for conference sessions, the Vexation and Venture. This format has been described as an "incubator forum" which allows for an interactive, discussion-based, and dynamic intersection of views. This mode of interaction has been shown to engage presenters and participants in a way that new ideas and problems can be proposed, and the group takes on responsibility for a generative session. In this format, problems


