# kb

id: medical-textiles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
Medical textiles are numerous fiber-based materials intended for medical purposes. Medical textile is a sector of technical textiles that emphasizes fiber-based products used in health care applications such as prevention, care, and hygiene. The spectrum of applications of medical textiles ranges from simple cotton bandages to advanced tissue engineering. Common examples of products made from medical textiles include dressings, implants, surgical sutures, certain medical devices, healthcare textiles, diapers, menstrual pads, wipes, and barrier fabrics. Medical textiles include many fiber types, yarns, fabrics, non-woven materials, woven, braided, as well as knitted fabrics. Physical and chemical alterations of fiber architectures, the use of functional finishes, and the production of stimuli-sensitive materials are major approaches for developing innovative medical textiles. Advances in textile manufacturing and medical technologies have made medical healthcare an important industry in textiles. Textiles are used in the production of a variety of medical devices, including replacements for damaged, injured, or non-functioning organs. The manufacture of medical textiles is a growing sector. There are many reasons for its growth, such as new technology in both textiles and medicine; ageing populations; growing populations; changes in lifestyles; and longer life expectancies. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic generated higher demand for certain medical textile


id: medical-textiles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
==== Overview ==== Medical devices are commonly made in whole or part from fibers. A medical device is defined as any device intended for medical purposes. It could be a machine, a reagent for use in the lab, software, an appliance, an instrument, or an implant. For medical use, fiber selection is based on certain criteria of intended use. Primarily, fibers are chosen on the basis of their biodegradability or non-biodegradability. Other than biodegradability, strength, elasticity, and absorbency are also considered. ==== Natural fibers ==== Natural fibers such as cotton, silk, and viscose (a regenerated cellulosic fiber) are used in hygiene and healthcare products, as well as non-implantable materials. Polyester, nylon, polypropylene, glass, and carbon are all examples of synthetic fibers used in Medical textiles. Fibers absorbed within three months by our biological system are considered biodegradable, and fibers that require more than six months to absorb are called non-biodegradable. These fibers are categorized as below: ==== PLA and PGA fibers ==== Polylactic acid, also called PLA, is a biodegradable, biosorbable or bioabsorbable polymer used in producing many type of implants such as naturally dissolving stents. Polyglycolide or polyglycolic acid, also called PGA, is a biodegradable and thermoplastic polymer. PGA


id: medical-textiles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
It is possible to make meter-long core-shell hydrogel microfibers that contain ECM proteins and mature cells or somatic stem cells in a microfluidic device. and these microfibers have the morphologies and functions of live tissues. The fibers also have the potential to be reeled and spin or weave Electrospinning can produce nanofibers with a range of desired fine microns that is usable to make nano- and submicron-sized fibrous scaffolds from polymer solutions that could be used as cell and tissue substrates. ===== Biomedical scaffolds ===== Hydrogel fibers are used to construct scaffolds for the development of cells and the release of drugs. ==== Antimicrobial dressing ==== Chitosan may function as an inhibitor of bacterial and fungal development. In 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved chitosan-based wound dressings for medical use. Combat medics use Hemcon dressings, which is a dressing with Chitosan, to treat wounds because it stops the blood flow with its hemostasis properties. Chitosan hemostatic agents are salts formed when chitosan is combined with an organic acid (lactic acid, or Succinic acid). The hemostatic agent operates by interacting with the erythrocytes' (negatively charged) cell membrane and the protonated chitosan (positively charged), resulting in platelet involvement and


id: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms-0.md
category: reference
title: Medically unexplained physical symptoms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:49.258781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
summary:
Medically unexplained physical symptoms (MUPS or MUS) are symptoms for which a treating physician or other healthcare providers have found no medical cause, or whose cause remains contested. In its strictest sense, the term simply means that the cause for the symptoms is unknown or disputed—there is no scientific consensus. Not all medically unexplained symptoms are influenced by identifiable psychological factors. However, in practice, most physicians and authors who use the term consider that the symptoms most likely arise from psychological causes. Typically, the possibility that MUPS are caused by prescription drugs or other drugs is ignored. == Prevalence == It is estimated that between 15% and 30% of all primary care consultations are for medically unexplained symptoms. About 1 in 4 people who see a UK GP have physical symptoms that cannot be explained. Women are significantly more likely than men to be diagnosed with Medically Unexplained Symptoms. == Symptoms == A large Canadian community survey revealed that the most common medically unexplained symptoms are musculoskeletal pain, ear, nose, and throat symptoms, abdominal pain and gastrointestinal symptoms, fatigue, and dizziness. Other medically unexplained symptoms are headaches, feeling faint, heart palpitations, fits (seizures), breathlessness, weakness and paralysis, and numbness and


id: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms-1.md
category: reference
title: Medically unexplained physical symptoms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:49.258781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
summary:
The most effective current treatment for some medically unexplained symptoms is a combination of therapeutic approaches tailored to the individual patient. Most MUS patients are in need of psychotherapy, relaxation therapy and physiotherapy under medical supervision. A combined therapeutic approach which is at least twice as effective as other therapeutic modalities published to date is described in Steele RE et al. "A novel and effective treatment modality for medically unexplained symptoms". The next best documented approach is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), with evidence from multiple randomized controlled trials. Antidepressants may also help, but the evidence is "not yet conclusive." The effectiveness of CBT and antidepressants has not been studied for all medically unexplained symptoms, however. Evidence for a positive effect of CBT has been found in trials for fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, unexplained headaches, unexplained back pain, tinnitus, and non-cardiac chest pain. Overall, CBT has been shown to be effective in reducing psychological distress and improving medical status in MUPS patients. However the quality of many CBT studies remains low, and many studies lack an attention-placebo control. As of 2006, CBT had not been tested for menopausal syndrome, chronic facial pain, interstitial cystitis, or chronic pelvic pain.


id: metabolic-flexibility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_flexibility-0.md
category: reference
title: Metabolic flexibility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_flexibility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:50.563120+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metabolic-flexibility-20260505-0
summary:
Metabolic flexibility is the capacity to alter metabolism in response to exercise or available fuel (especially fats and carbohydrates). Metabolic inflexibility was first described as the ability to generate energy through either aerobic or anaerobic respiration or as the inability of muscle to increase glucose oxidation in response to insulin. An organism can also be said to have metabolic flexibility if it is capable of metabolizing either carbohydrate or fat efficiently, depending on availability of those fuels. By this definition, metabolic flexibility can be quantified using respiratory quotient. This form of metabolic flexibility is reduced by insulin resistance. With aging there is a decrease in metabolic flexibility due to a decline in pyruvate dehydrogenase activity which results in pyruvate increasingly being anaerobically converted to lactate rather than aerobically converted to acetyl-CoA. Similarly, a virus-induced cytokine storm can compromise metabolic flexibility by inactivating the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and other enzymes. == See also == Insulin resistance == References ==


id: mhealth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-0.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
mHealth (also written as m-health or mhealth), an abbreviation for mobile health, is the practice of medicine and public health supported by mobile devices. The term is most commonly used in reference to using mobile communication devices, such as mobile phones, tablet computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wearable devices such as smart watches, for health services, information, and data collection. The mHealth field has emerged as a sub-segment of eHealth and digital health, the use of information and communication technology (ICT), such as computers, mobile phones, communications satellite, patient monitors, etc., for health services and information. mHealth applications include the use of mobile devices in collecting community and clinical health data, delivery/sharing of healthcare information for practitioners, researchers and patients, real-time monitoring of patient vital signs, the direct provision of care (via mobile telemedicine) as well as training and collaboration of health workers. In 2019, the global market for mHealth apps was estimated at US$17.92 billion, with a compound annual growth rate of 45% predicted from 2020 to 2027. While mHealth has application for industrialized nations, the field has emerged in recent years as largely an application for developing countries, stemming from the rapid rise of mobile phone


id: mhealth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-1.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Diagnostic support, treatment support, communication and training for healthcare workers === Diagnostic and treatment support systems are typically designed to provide healthcare workers in remote areas advice about diagnosis and treatment of patients. While some projects may provide mobile phone applications—such as a step-by-step medical decision tree systems—to help healthcare workers diagnose, other projects provide direct diagnosis to patients themselves. In such cases, known as telemedicine, patients might take a photograph of a wound or illness and allow a remote physician to diagnose to help treat the medical problem. Both diagnosis and treatment support projects attempt to mitigate the cost and time of travel for patients located in remote areas. mHealth projects within the communication and training for healthcare workers subset involve connecting healthcare workers to sources of information through their mobile phone. This involves connecting healthcare workers to other healthcare workers, medical institutions, ministries of health, or other houses of medical information. Such projects additionally involve using mobile phones to better organize and target in-person training. Improved communication projects attempt to increase knowledge transfer amongst healthcare workers and improve patient outcomes through such programs as patient referral processes. For example, the systematic use of mobile instant messaging for


id: mhealth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-2.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism and concerns == The extensive practice of mhealth research has sparked criticism, for example on the proliferation of fragmented pilot studies in low- and middle-income countries, which is also referred to as "pilotitis." The extent of un-coordinated pilot studies prompted for instance the Ugandan Director General Health Services Dr Jane Ruth Aceng in 2012 to issue a notice that, "in order to jointly ensure that all eHealth efforts are harmonized and coordinated, I am directing that ALL eHealth projects/Initiatives be put to halt." The assumptions that justify mhealth initiatives have also been challenged in recent sociological research. For example, mobile phones have been argued to be less widely accessible and usable than is often portrayed in mhealth-related publications; people integrate mobile phones into their health behavior without external intervention; and the spread of mobile phones in low- and middle-income countries itself can create new forms of digital and healthcare exclusion, which mhealth interventions (using mobile phones as a platform) cannot overcome and potentially accentuate. Mhealth has also been argued to alter the practice of healthcare and patient-physician relationships as well as how bodies and health are being represented. Another widespread concern relates to privacy and data protection, for


id: mhealth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-3.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Healthcare in developed countries === In developed countries, healthcare systems have different policies and goals in relation to the personal and population health care goals. In the US and EU many patients and consumers use their cell phones and tablets to access health information and look for healthcare services. In parallel the number of mHealth applications grew significantly in the last years. Clinicians use mobile devices to access patient information and other databases and resources. Physicians also use mobile devices as an streamlined tool for exchanging patient information, for educational purposes, and as a tool for decision support. == Technology and market == Basic SMS functions and real-time voice communication serve as the backbone and the current most common use of mobile phone technology. The broad range of potential benefits to the health sector that the simple functions of mobile phones can provide should not be understated. The appeal of mobile communication technologies is that they enable communication in motion, allowing individuals to contact each other irrespective of time and place. This is particularly beneficial for work in remote areas where the mobile phone, and now increasingly wireless infrastructure, is able to reach more people, faster. As a result


id: mhealth-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-4.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
Patient monitoring devices Mobile telemedicine/telecare devices Microcomputers Data collection software Mobile Operating System Technology Mobile applications (e.g., gamified/social wellness solutions) Chatterbots ==== Mobile device operating system technology ==== Technologies relate to the operating systems that orchestrate mobile device hardware while maintaining confidentiality, integrity and availability are required to build trust. This may foster greater adoption of mHealth technologies and services, by exploiting lower cost multi purpose mobile devices such as tablets, PCs, and smartphones. Operating systems that control these emerging classes of devices include Google's Android, Apple's iPhone OS, Microsoft's Windows Mobile, and RIM's BlackBerry OS. Operating systems must be agile and evolve to effectively balance and deliver the desired level of service to an application and end user, while managing display real estate, power consumption and security posture. With advances in capabilities such as integrating voice, video and Web 2.0 collaboration tools into mobile devices, significant benefits can be achieved in the delivery of health care services. New sensor technologies such as HD video and audio capabilities, accelerometers, GPS, ambient light detectors, barometers and gyroscopes can enhance the methods of describing and studying cases, close to the patient or consumer of the health care service. This could include diagnosis,


id: mhealth-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-5.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
==== Open mHealth ==== Open mHealth architecture was introduced, fostering innovation in healthcare through facilitating access and harmonization of digital health data from disparate sources using a global community of developers and health tech decision-makers to make sense of that digital health data through an open interoperability standard. 2012 – mHealth app revolution The proliferation of smartphone apps dedicated to health and fitness catalyzed the mHealth revolution, allowing users to track fitness, monitor vitals, access medical information, and engage in telemedicine. Smart Health and Wellbeing (SHB) As a follow-up to the mHealth Evidence Workshop, NSF launched the Smart Health and Wellbeing program to address fundamental technical and scientific issues that would support the much-needed transformation of healthcare from reactive and hospital-centered to preventive, proactive, evidence-based, person-centered, and focused on wellbeing rather than disease. ASSIST Engineering Research Center (ERC) NSF and NIH initiated a joint research program specifically focusing on mHealth, following up on the insights gained from the mHealth Evidence Workshop. The Engineering Research Center ASSIST ERC at NC State University was established to further mHealth research by developing leading-edge systems for high-value applications such as healthcare and IoT by integrating fundamental advances in energy harvesting, low-power electronics, and sensors


id: internal-environment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-0.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
The internal environment (or milieu intérieur in French; French pronunciation: [mi.ljø ɛ̃.te.ʁjœʁ]) was a concept developed by Claude Bernard, a French physiologist in the 19th century, to describe the interstitial fluid and its physiological capacity to ensure protective stability for the tissues and organs of multicellular organisms. == Etymology == Claude Bernard used the French phrase milieu intérieur (internal environment in English) in several works from 1854 until his death in 1878. He most likely adopted it from the histologist Charles Robin, who had employed the phrase "milieu de l’intérieur" as a synonym for the ancient hippocratic idea of humors. Bernard was initially only concerned with the role of the blood but he later included that of the whole body in ensuring this internal stability. He summed up his idea as follows: The fixity of the milieu supposes a perfection of the organism such that the external variations are at each instant compensated for and equilibrated.... All of the vital mechanisms, however varied they may be, have always one goal, to maintain the uniformity of the conditions of life in the internal environment.... The stability of the internal environment is the condition for the free and independent life. Bernard's work


id: internal-environment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-1.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
==== Work in Germany ==== Work in Germany over the last half-century has also focused on the internal communication system, in particular as it relates to the ground system. This work has led to their characterization of the ground system or extracellular matrix interaction with the cellular system as a 'ground regulatory system', seeing therein the key to homeostasis, a body-wide communication and support system, vital to all functions. In 1953 a German doctor and scientist, Reinhold Voll, discovered that points used in acupuncture had different electrical properties from the surrounding skin, namely a lower resistance. Voll further discovered that the measurement of the resistances at the points gave valuable indications as to the state of the internal organs. Further research was done by Dr. Alfred Pischinger, the originator of the concept of the 'system of ground regulation', as well as Drs. Helmut Schimmel, and Hartmut Heine, using Voll's method of electro-dermal screening. This further research revealed that the gene is not so much the controller but the repository of blueprints on how cells and higher systems should operate, and that the actual regulation of biological activities (see Epigenetic cellular biology) lies in a 'system of ground regulation'. This system


id: internal-environment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-2.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
==== Work in the U.S. ==== While the initial work on identifying the importance of the ground regulatory system was done in Germany, more recent work examining the implications of inter and intra-cellular communication via the extra-cellular matrix has taken place in the U.S. and elsewhere. Structural continuity between extracellular, cyst skeletal and nuclear components was discussed by Hay, Berezny et al. and Oschman. Historically, these elements have been referred to as ground substances, and because of their continuity, they act to form a complex, interlaced system that reaches into and contacts every part of the body. Even as early as 1851 it was recognized that the nerve and blood systems do not directly connect to the cell, but are mediated by and through an extracellular matrix. Recent research regarding the electrical charges of the various glycol-protein components of the extracellular matrix shows that because of the high density of negative charges on glycosaminoglycans (provided by sulfate and carboxylate groups of the uronic acid residues) the matrix is an extensive redox system capable of absorbing and donating electrons at any point. This electron transfer function reaches into the interiors of cells as the cytoplasmic matrix is also strongly negatively charged.


id: minimally-invasive-surgeries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgeries-0.md
category: reference
title: Minimally invasive surgeries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgeries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:54.325370+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: minimally-invasive-surgeries-20260505-0
summary:
Minimally invasive surgery (also known as minimally invasive procedure) encompass surgical techniques that limit the size of incisions needed, thereby reducing wound healing time, associated pain, and risk of infection. Surgery by definition is invasive, and many operations requiring incisions of some size are referred to as open surgery. Incisions made during open surgery can sometimes leave large wounds that may be painful and take a long time to heal. Advancements in medical technologies have enabled the development and regular use of minimally invasive procedures. For example, endovascular aneurysm repair, a minimally invasive surgery, has become the most common method of repairing abdominal aortic aneurysms in the US as of 2003. The procedure involves much smaller incisions than the corresponding open surgery procedure of open aortic surgery. Interventional radiologists were the forerunners of minimally invasive procedures. Using imaging techniques, radiologists were able to direct interventional instruments through the body by way of catheters instead of the large incisions needed in traditional surgery. As a result, many conditions once requiring surgery can now be treated non-surgically. Diagnostic techniques that do not involve incisions, puncturing the skin, or the introduction of foreign objects or materials into the body are known as non-invasive


id: multiple-of-the-median-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_of_the_median-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple of the median
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_of_the_median
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:56.807785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-of-the-median-20260505-0
summary:
A multiple of the median (MoM) is a measure of how far an individual test result deviates from the median. MoM is commonly used to report the results of medical screening tests, particularly where the results of the individual tests are highly variable. MoM was originally used as a method to normalize data from participating laboratories of Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) so that individual test results could be compared. 35 years later, it is the established standard for reporting maternal serum screening results. An MoM for a test result for a patient can be determined by the following: M o M ( P a t i e n t ) = R e s u l t ( P a t i e n t ) M e d i a n ( P a t i e n t P o p u l a t i o n ) {\displaystyle MoM(Patient)={\frac {Result(Patient)}{Median(PatientPopulation)}}} As an example, Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) testing is used to screen for a neural tube defect (NTD) during the second trimester of pregnancy. If the median AFP result at 16 weeks of gestation is 30 ng/mL and a pregnant woman's AFP result at that same gestational age is 60


id: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple sex partners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:58.086508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple sex partners (MSP) is the measure and incidence of engaging in sexual activities with two or more people within a specific time period. Sexual activity with MSP can happen simultaneously or serially. MSP includes sexual activity between people of a different gender or the same gender. MSP describes the behavior in clinical terms only. A similar term, promiscuity, may imply a moral judgement. The term polyamorous describes a behavior and not a measure of multiple sexual relationships at the same time. A complete medical history includes a patient's social history and an assessment of the number of sexual partners they have had within a certain time period. Young people having MSP in the past year is an indicator used by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in evaluating risky sexual behavior in adolescents and a tool for monitoring HIV/AIDS infection rates and deaths worldwide. == Definitions and quantification == Epidemiologists and clinicians who quantify risks associated with MSP do so to identify those who have had sexual intercourse with more than one partner in the past 12 months. For the purposes of the World Health Organization (WHO)'s effort to eliminate HIV infection, quantifying measures progress


id: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners-1.md
category: reference
title: Multiple sex partners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:58.086508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
summary:
== Prevalence == A Durex Global Sex Survey found that men in New Zealand had claimed an average of 44 sex partners over their lifetime. In a 2019 survey, data showed that the average number of partners varies, with men and women reporting different averages (6.4 for men, 7 for women). The average "body count" for adults aged 30–44 is approximately 8 for both men and women, with over half (56–58%) having more than five partners. While averages vary by region—around 10–11 in the U.S.. Turkey leads in some reports, with an average of 14.5 to 18.5, followed by Australia (13.3), New Zealand (13.2), and Iceland (13.0). Other countries with high averages include Finland (12.4), Norway (12.1), and Italy/Sweden (11.8). An analysis of the National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5) conducted between 2019 and 2021 by the International Institute for Population Sciences, Indian men were found to have the highest mean number of lifetime sexual partners in India. In Jamaica, a 2004 Behavioral Surveillance Survey demonstrated that 89 percent of males and 78 percent of females aged 15 to 24 had sex with a nonmarital or noncohabitating partner in the preceding 12 months. Fifty-six percent of males and 16 percent of


id: multiplexed-point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexed_point-of-care_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiplexed point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexed_point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:59.380296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiplexed-point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
Multiplexed point-of-care testing (xPOCT) is a more complex form of point-of-care testing (POCT), or bedside testing. Point-of-care testing is designed to provide diagnostic tests at or near the time and place that the patient is admitted. POCT uses the concentrations of analytes to provide the user with information on the physiological state of the patient. An analyte is a substance, chemical or biological, that is being analyzed using a certain instrument. While point-of-care testing is the quantification of one analyte from one in vitro (e.g., blood, plasma or urine) sample, multiplexed point-of-care testing is the simultaneous on-site quantification of various analytes from a single sample. Processing of one biological sample to yield multiple biomarker results allows for POCT testing to be done for patients who may have conditions that require the confirmation of multiple biomarkers and tests before diagnosis (e.g., many types of cancers). xPOCT has important emerging applications in resource-limited settings (e.g., in the developing countries, in doctor's practices, or at home by non experts) and has recently become more important for in vitro diagnostics. == Background == Historically, medical testing has been a tedious, long, and expensive process in a clinical setting. It usually involves taking a large


id: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Narrative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:00.701624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Narrative medicine is the discipline of applying the skills used in analyzing literature to interviewing patients. The premise of narrative medicine is that how a patient speaks about his or her illness or complaint is analogous to how literature offers a plot (an interconnected series of events) with characters (the patient and others) and is filled with metaphors (picturesque, emotional, and symbolic ways of speaking), and that becoming conversant with the elements of literature facilitates understanding the stories that patients bring. Narrative Medicine is a diagnostic and comprehensive approach that utilizes patients' narratives in clinical practice, research, and education to promote healing. Beyond attempts to reach accurate diagnoses, it aims to address the relational and psychological dimensions that occur in tandem with physical illness. Narrative medicine aims not only to validate the experience of the patient, it also encourages creativity and self-reflection in the physician. == History and development == In 1910, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching created the Flexner Report, which set out to redefine medical educational practices. The report argues that the goal of medicine is "an attempt to fight the battle against disease most advantageously to the patient." Flexner wrote that "the practitioner deals


id: narrative-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Narrative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:00.701624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Columbia University has developed educational programs in the field of narrative medicine. Interprofessional Education: The Division of Narrative Medicine at Columbia University Irving Medical Center collaborates with all clinical programs at the medical center, in addition to leading the Interprofessional Education programming. Rounds and Workshops: The division hosts events and trainings, including "monthly rounds and weekend intensive workshops" for the public. Master of Science: Columbia University created the "Master of Science in Narrative Medicine" program in 2009, making it the first graduate program devoted to narrative medicine. Textbook: In 2016, the first textbook in narrative medicine was published: "The Principles and Practice of Narrative Medicine." Certification Program: In 2017, an asynchronous online "Certification program in Narrative Medicine" began. In 2016, the Lewis Katz School of Medicine launched a Narrative Medicine Program run by Mike Vitez, a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, and Naomi Rosenberg, an Emergency Medicine physician. The program's goal is to protect, support, and nourish the humanism that brings physicians into the profession, and to teach the skills of narrative that help at the bedside and beyond. The program has curricular and extracurricular components. Reflective writing forms a significant component of the Professional Identity Formation thread in the MD curriculum.


id: neo-hippocratism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Hippocratism-0.md
category: reference
title: Neo-Hippocratism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Hippocratism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:01.854843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neo-hippocratism-20260505-0
summary:
Neo-Hippocratism was an influential movement and was the subject of numerous conversations and theorizations between the seventeenth and mid-nineteenth centuries. The movement saw a revival in popularity with physicians after the First World War. It sought to reappraise the role of Hippocrates and Hippocratic medicine and was closely associated with the idea of the holistic treatment of the patient. The popularity of neo-Hippocratism has been seen as a reaction to the growing systematisation and professionalism of medicine which some physicians saw as reductionist and failing to treat the whole person. Neo-Hippocratism is described as a rational and methodical method of seeing the body as a whole. Of examining a human in their entirety and “considers all medical and or internistic therapeutic agents- psychical, dietetic, chemical, biological, and physical- and applies them according to the indications of the individual patient under severe control of the continuous diagnosis of the person. == History == The expression, neo-hippocratism is said to been first coined by Arturo Castiglioni in 1926. One of the movement's principal promoters was Alexander Polycleitos Cawadias (1884–1971). == References ==


id: neointima-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neointima-0.md
category: reference
title: Neointima
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neointima
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:03.124624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neointima-20260505-0
summary:
Neointima typically refers to scar tissue that forms within tubular anatomical structures such as blood vessels, as the intima is the innermost lining of these structures. Neointima can form as a result of vascular surgery such as angioplasty or stent placement. Formation of neointima occurs due to proliferation of smooth muscle cells as well as macrophages. == References ==


id: list-of-nerves-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nerves_of_the_human_body-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nerves of the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nerves_of_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:05.522585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nerves-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of nerves in the human body: == Location == Structure of the nervous system Development of the nervous system The spinal cord or medulla spinalis The brain or encephalon The hindbrain or rhombencephalon The midbrain or mesencephalon The forebrain or prosencephalon Composition and central connections of the spinal nerves Pathways from the brain to the spinal cord The meninges of the brain and medulla spinalis The cerebrospinal fluid The cranial nerves The olfactory nerves The optic nerve The oculomotor nerve The trochlear nerve The trigeminal nerve The abducens nerve The facial nerve The vestibulocochlear nerve The glossopharyngeal nerve The vagus nerve The accessory nerve The hypoglossal nerve The spinal nerves The posterior divisions The anterior divisions The thoracic nerves The lumbosacral plexus The sacral and coccygeal nerves The sympathetic nerves The cephalic portion of the sympathetic system The cervical portion of the sympathetic system The thoracic portion of the sympathetic system The abdominal portion of the sympathetic system The pelvic portion of the sympathetic system The great plexuses of the sympathetic system == Alphabetical list == Abdominal aortic plexus Abducens nerve Accessory nerve Accessory obturator nerve Alderman's nerve Anococcygeal nerve Ansa cervicalis Anterior interosseous nerve


id: neuroangiogenesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroangiogenesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroangiogenesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroangiogenesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:06.848068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroangiogenesis-20260505-0
summary:
Neuroangiogenesis is the coordinated growth of nerves and blood vessels. The nervous and blood vessel systems share guidance cues and cell-surface receptors allowing for this synchronised growth. The term neuroangiogenesis only came into use in 2002 and the process was previously known as neurovascular patterning. The combination of neurogenesis and angiogenesis is an essential part of embryonic development and early life. It is thought to have a role in pathologies such as endometriosis, brain tumors, and Alzheimer's disease. == Physiology == === Neurovascular patterning === Neurovascular development is the parallel emergence and patterning of the nervous system and the vascular system during embryogenesis and early life. Neurovascular congruency appears to be determined by shared molecular patterning mechanism involving axon guidance that involves axonal guidance molecules such as sema3A (semaphorin 3A) and (neuropilin). === Mechanisms === Neuroangiogenic and axonal guidance molecules act on both neuronal growth cones and endothelial tip cells in order to guide growth. Neuronal growth cones are situated on the tips of nerve cells and are responsive to different factors, both positive and negative. Growth of the neuron occurs by an extension of the actin (red in image) and microtubule (green in image) cytoskeleton. Tip cells found at


id: neurocristopathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocristopathy-0.md
category: reference
title: Neurocristopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocristopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:08.133460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neurocristopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Neurocristopathy is a diverse class of pathologies that may arise from defects in the development of tissues containing cells commonly derived from the embryonic neural crest cell lineage. The term was coined by Robert P. Bolande in 1974. After the induction of the neural crest, the newly formed neural crest cells (NCC) delaminate from their tissue of origin and migrate from the entire neural axis of the vertebrate embryo to specific locations where they will give rise to different cell derivatives. The formation of this cell population therefore requires a timely and spatially controlled interplay of inter- and intra-cellular signals. An alteration in the occurrence and timing of these signals leads to a set of syndromes called Neurocristopathies (NCP), which comprises a broad spectrum of congenital malformations affecting an appreciable percentage of newborns. Moreover, since NCC migrate along the embryo, they are susceptible to subtle changes in the environment both during their migration and upon arrival at their destination. This means that even little modifications, either genetically or environmentally caused, in the external cues that modulate NCC migration have a deep effect on the normal migration and differentiation of these cells, thus becoming a causative factor for the development of


id: neuron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
A neuron (American English), neurone (British English), or nerve cell, is a cell that is excitable, firing electric signals called action potentials across a neural network in the nervous system, mainly in the central nervous system, and helps to receive and conduct impulses. Neurons communicate with other cells via synapses, which are specialized connections that commonly use minute amounts of chemical neurotransmitters to pass the electric signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell through the synaptic gap. Neurons are the main components of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and placozoans. Plants and fungi do not have nerve cells. Molecular evidence suggests that the ability to generate electric signals first appeared in evolution some 700 to 800 million years ago, during the Tonian period. Predecessors of neurons were the peptidergic secretory cells. They eventually gained new gene modules which enabled cells to create post-synaptic scaffolds and ion channels that generate fast electrical signals. The ability to generate electric signals was a key innovation in the evolution of the nervous system. Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function. Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect the cells of


id: neuron-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
The soma is the body of the neuron. As it contains the nucleus, most protein synthesis occurs here. The nucleus can range from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter. The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches. This overall shape and structure are referred to metaphorically as a dendritic tree. The branches form fractal patterns that repeat at multiple size scales. This fractal tree is where the majority of input to the neuron occurs via the dendritic spine. The axon is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon primarily carries nerve signals away from the soma and carries some types of information back to it. Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon may—and usually will—undergo extensive branching, enabling communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is called the axon hillock. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock also has the greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes it the most easily excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon. In electrophysiological


id: neuron-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons vary in shape and size and can be classified by their morphology and function. The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further classified by the location of the soma. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by a myelin sheath. The dendritic tree wraps around the cell body and receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching axon terminals that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron. === Structural classification === ==== Polarity ==== Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as: Unipolar: single process. Unipolar cells are exclusively sensory neurons. Their dendrites receive sensory information, sometimes directly from the stimulus itself. The cell bodies of unipolar neurons are always found in ganglia. Sensory reception is a peripheral function, so the cell body is in the periphery, though closer to the CNS in


id: neuron-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-3.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers passed from one neuron to another neuron or to a muscle cell or gland cell. Cholinergic neurons – acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft. It acts as a ligand for both ligand-gated ion channels and metabotropic (GPCRs) muscarinic receptors. Nicotinic receptors are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels composed of alpha and beta subunits that bind nicotine. Ligand binding opens the channel causing the influx of Na+ depolarization and increases the probability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A. Adrenergic neurons – noradrenaline. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) is released from most postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic nervous system onto two sets of GPCRs: alpha adrenoceptors and beta adrenoceptors. Noradrenaline is one of the three common catecholamine neurotransmitters, and the most prevalent of them in the peripheral nervous system; as with other catecholamines, it is synthesized from tyrosine. GABAergic neurons – gamma aminobutyric acid. GABA is one of two neuroinhibitors in the central nervous system (CNS), along with glycine. GABA has a homologous function to ACh, gating anion channels that allow Cl− ions to enter the post synaptic neuron. Cl− causes hyperpolarization within the neuron, decreasing the probability of an


id: neuron-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-4.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where either the axon terminal of one cell contacts another neuron's dendrite, soma, or, less commonly, axon. Neurons such as Purkinje cells in the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of thousands of other cells; other neurons, such as the magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic nucleus, have only one or two dendrites, each of which receives thousands of synapses. Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory, either increasing or decreasing activity in the target neuron, respectively. Some neurons also communicate via electrical synapses, which are direct, electrically conductive junctions between cells. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium ions to enter the terminal. Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. High cytosolic calcium in the axon terminal triggers mitochondrial calcium uptake, which, in turn, activates mitochondrial energy metabolism to produce ATP to support continuous neurotransmission. An autapse is a synapse in which a neuron's axon connects to its dendrites. The human brain has some


id: neuron-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-5.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an all-or-none response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation, like brighter image/louder sound, does not produce a stronger signal but can increase firing frequency. Receptors respond in different ways to stimuli. Slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to a steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. Tonic receptors most often respond to increased stimulus intensity by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light where greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) requires more photons, as the photons cannot become "stronger" for a specific frequency. Other receptor types include quickly adapting or phasic receptors, where firing decreases or stops with a steady stimulus; examples include skin which, when touched causes neurons to fire, but if the object maintains even pressure, the neurons stop firing. The neurons of the skin and muscles that are responsive to pressure and vibration have filtering accessory structures that aid their function. The pacinian corpuscle is one such structure. It has concentric layers like an


id: neuron-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-6.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
== Neurons in the brain == The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species. In a human, there are an estimated 10–20 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex and 55–70 billion neurons in the cerebellum. By contrast, the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans has just 302 neurons, making it an ideal model organism as scientists have been able to map all of its neurons. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, a common subject in biological experiments, has around 100,000 neurons and exhibits many complex behaviors. Many properties of neurons, from the type of neurotransmitters used to ion channel composition, are maintained across species, allowing scientists to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental systems. == Neurological disorders == Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (CMT) is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of nerves (neuropathy) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs extending to the hands and arms in advanced stages. Presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited neurological disorders, affecting 36 in 100,000 people. Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known simply as Alzheimer's, is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining


id: neuron-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-7.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons develop through the process of neurogenesis, in which neural stem cells divide to produce differentiated neurons. Once fully differentiated they are no longer capable of undergoing mitosis. Neurogenesis primarily occurs during embryonic development. Neurons initially develop from the neural tube in the embryo. The neural tube has three layers – a ventricular zone, an intermediate zone, and a marginal zone. The ventricular zone surrounds the tube's central canal and becomes the ependyma. Dividing cells of the ventricular zone form the intermediate zone which stretches to the outermost layer of the neural tube called the pial layer. The gray matter of the brain is derived from the intermediate zone. The extensions of the neurons in the intermediate zone make up the marginal zone when myelinated becomes the brain's white matter. Differentiation of the neurons is ordered by their size. Large motor neurons are first. Smaller sensory neurons together with glial cell differentiate at birth. Adult neurogenesis can occur and studies of the age of human neurons suggest that this process occurs only for a minority of cells and that the vast majority of neurons in the neocortex form before birth and persist without replacement. The extent to which adult neurogenesis


id: never-event-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_event-0.md
category: reference
title: Never event
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_event
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:10.544218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: never-event-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a never event is the "kind of mistake (medical error) that should never happen". According to the Leapfrog Group never events are defined as "adverse events that are serious, largely preventable, and of concern to both the public and health care providers for the purpose of public accountability." A 2012 study reported there may be as many as 1,500 instances of one never event, a retained foreign object, per year in the United States. The same study suggests an estimated total of surgical mistakes at just over 4,000 per year in the United States, but these statistics are extrapolations from small samples rather than actual event counts. == United States == A list of events was compiled by the National Quality Forum and updated in 2012. The NQF’s report recommends a national state-based event reporting system to improve the quality of patient care. Artificial insemination with the wrong donor sperm or donor egg Unintended retention of a foreign body in a patient after surgery or other procedure Patient death or serious disability associated with patient elopement (disappearance) Patient death or serious disability associated with a medication error (e.g., errors involving the wrong drug, dose, patient, time, rate, preparation


id: nothing-by-mouth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_by_mouth-0.md
category: reference
title: Nothing by mouth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_by_mouth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:11.785494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nothing-by-mouth-20260505-0
summary:
Nothing by mouth is an American medical instruction meaning to withhold food and fluids. It is also known as nil per os (npo or NPO), a Latin phrase that translates to English as "nothing through the mouth". Nil by mouth is the term used in the UK (NBM), nihil/non/nulla per os, or complete bowel rest. A liquid-only diet may also be referred to as bowel rest. NPO is one of the abbreviations that is not used in AMA style; "nothing by mouth" is spelled out instead. == Purpose == The typical reason for NPO instructions is the prevention of aspiration pneumonia, e.g. in those who will undergo general anesthesia, or those with weak swallowing musculature, or in case of gastrointestinal bleeding, gastrointestinal blockage, or acute pancreatitis. Alcohol overdoses that result in vomiting or severe external bleeding also warrant NPO instructions for a period. == Duration == Pre-surgery NPO orders are typically between 6 and 12 hours prior to surgery, through recovery suite discharge, but may be longer if long acting medications or oral post-meds were administered. It is not uncommon for the food NPO period to be longer than that for liquid, as the American Board of Anesthesiology advises against


id: nocebo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo-0.md
category: reference
title: Nocebo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:12.972595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nocebo-20260505-0
summary:
A nocebo effect is said to occur when a patient's expectations for a treatment cause the treatment to have a worse effect than it otherwise would have. For example, when a patient anticipates a side effect of a medication, they can experience that effect even if the "medication" is actually an inert substance. The complementary concept, the placebo effect, is said to occur when expectations improve an outcome. More generally, the nocebo effect is falling ill simply by consciously or subconsciously anticipating a harmful event. This definition includes anticipated events other than medical treatment. It has been applied to Havana syndrome, where purported victims were anticipating attacks by foreign adversaries. This definition also applies to cases of electromagnetic hypersensitivity. Both placebo and nocebo effects are presumably psychogenic but can induce measurable changes in the body. One article that reviewed 31 studies on nocebo effects reported a wide range of symptoms that could manifest as nocebo effects, including nausea, stomach pains, itching, bloating, depression, sleep problems, loss of appetite, sexual dysfunction, and severe hypotension. == Etymology and usage == Walter Kennedy coined the term nocebo (Latin nocēbō, "I shall harm", from noceō, "I harm") in 1961 to denote the counterpart of


id: nocebo-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo-1.md
category: reference
title: Nocebo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:12.972595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nocebo-20260505-0
summary:
== Ambiguity of medical usage == Stewart-Williams and Podd argue that using the contrasting terms "placebo" and "nocebo" for inert agents that produce pleasant, health-improving, or desirable outcomes and unpleasant, health-diminishing, or undesirable outcomes (respectively) is extremely counterproductive. For example, precisely the same inert agents can produce analgesia and hyperalgesia, the first of which, on this definition, would be a placebo, and the second a nocebo. A second problem is that the same effect, such as immunosuppression, may be desirable for a subject with an autoimmune disorder, but undesirable for most other subjects. Thus, in the first case, the effect would be a placebo, and in the second a nocebo. A third problem is that the prescriber does not know whether the relevant subjects consider the effects they experience desirable or undesirable until some time after the drugs have been administered. A fourth is that the same phenomena are generated in all the subjects, and generated by the same drug, which is acting in all of the subjects through the same mechanism. Yet because the phenomena in question have been subjectively considered desirable to one group but not the other, the phenomena are now being labeled in two mutually exclusive


id: non-pharmacological-intervention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-pharmacological_intervention-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-pharmacological intervention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-pharmacological_intervention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:14.294367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-pharmacological-intervention-20260505-0
summary:
A non-pharmacological intervention (NPI) is any type of healthcare intervention which is not primarily based on medication. Some examples include exercise, sleep improvement, and dietary habits. Non-pharmacological interventions may be intended to prevent or treat (ameliorate or cure) diseases or other health-related conditions, or to improve public health. They can be educational and may involve a variety of lifestyle or environmental changes. Complex or multicomponent interventions use multiple strategies, and they often involve the participation of several types of care providers. Non-pharmacological interventions can call on various fields of expertise, such as surgery, medical devices, rehabilitation, psychotherapy, and behavioral interventions. == Examples == === Hypertension === The first line of treatment for hypertension is lifestyle changes, including dietary changes, physical exercise, and weight loss. Although these have all been recommended in scientific advisories, a Cochrane systematic review of available relevant studies found that although weight-loss diets did reduce body weight and blood pressure, beneficial effects of those changes could not be demonstrated, owing to the small number of participants and studies, and that therefore the impact of weight loss on mortality and morbidity is unknown. Their potential effectiveness is similar to and at times exceeds a single medication. If the


id: nosokinetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosokinetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Nosokinetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosokinetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:15.487225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nosokinetics-20260505-0
summary:
Nosokinetics is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems. Nosokinetics brings together the Greek words for noso: disease and kinetics: movement. Black box models are currently used to plan changes in health and social care systems. These input-output models overlook the process of inpatient care, as a result suboptimal decisions are made. Nosokinetics, (analogous to Pharmacokinetics), seeks to develop dynamic methods which measure and model the process of inpatient care. The aim is to develop a scientific base to underpin the planning of sustainable health and social care systems. == Establishment == Nosokinetics is a new science that was established in the UK in the early 1990s by Prof Peter H Millard after publishing his PhD thesis. In 2004 Nosokinetics group newsletter was established. == Origin == Prof Peter H Millard writes about Nosokinetics : "If the random forces of wind and tide can make such a beautiful statue (referring to an iceberg), how much better could mankind do if a new science was developed which explains the complex processes of health and social care. Until new methods of planning health and social care services to meet the needs of an


id: nosology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosology-0.md
category: reference
title: Nosology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:16.804017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nosology-20260505-0
summary:
Nosology (from Ancient Greek νόσος (nosos) 'disease' and -λογία (-logia) 'study of') is the branch of medical science that deals with the classification of diseases. Fully classifying a medical condition requires knowing its cause (and that there is only one cause), the effects it has on the body, the symptoms that are produced, and other factors. For example, influenza is classified as an infectious disease because it is caused by a virus, and it is classified as a respiratory infection because the virus infects and damages certain tissues in the respiratory tract. The more that is known about the disease, the more ways the disease can be classified nosologically. Nosography is a description whose primary purpose is enabling a diagnostic label to be put on the situation. As such, a nosographical entity need not have a single cause. For example, inability to speak due to advanced dementia and an inability to speak due to a stroke could be nosologically different but nosographically the same. == Types of classification == Diseases may be classified by cause, pathogenesis (mechanism by which the disease progresses), or by symptom(s). Alternatively, diseases may be classified according to the organ system involved, though this is often


id: not-otherwise-specified-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_otherwise_specified-0.md
category: reference
title: Not otherwise specified
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_otherwise_specified
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:18.001904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: not-otherwise-specified-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, not otherwise specified (NOS) is a subcategory in systems of disease/disorder classification such as ICD-9, ICD-10, or DSM-IV. It is generally used to note the presence of an illness where the symptoms presented were sufficient to make a general diagnosis, but where a specific diagnosis was not made. The DSM-IV, for example, "applies the term not otherwise specified (NOS) to a disorder or disturbance that does not meet the criteria for the specific disorders already discussed". The term was introduced because "it is sometimes impossible for the practitioner completing the diagnostic assessment to categorize all the symptoms that a client is experiencing into one diagnostic category". In the context of mental health diagnoses, four situations have been outlined for which such a diagnosis may be considered appropriate: Client meets the general guidelines for a disorder, yet not all of the criteria are met, or the ones present are not considered clinically significant. Significant behaviors are noted affecting social and occupational functioning, but are not considered part of the usual presentation for a disorder. Uncertainty about etiology or the cause of the disorder exists. This is especially important when it is suspected that the disorder may be related to


id: npu-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: NPU terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:19.220321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: npu-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
NPU terminology (NPU; Nomenclature for Properties and Units) is a patient-centered clinical laboratory terminology for use in the clinical laboratory sciences. Its function is to enable results of clinical laboratory examinations to be used safely across technology, time and geography. To achieve this, the NPU terminology supplies: Unique identifiers for types of examined properties of the patient, supporting structured communication and storage of laboratory data in e.g. clinical laboratory reports or electronic health records Stable and unambiguous definitions of the types of examined properties, expressed using international nomenclatures, and in accordance with international standards Specification of measurement units where relevant A structure allowing for secure translation of the definitions into other languages == Purpose == The purpose of the NPU terminology is to enable patient examination data to be safely transmitted between laboratory information systems, recognized, compared, reused in calculations, extracted for research or statistics, and stored for documentation, without loss of meaning. It does not cover sampling procedures or methodologies used for determining these data, which may both vary over time. The terminology adheres to international standards of metrology, terminology, and health informatics, in particular the International System of Quantities (ISQ) and the International Systems of Units (SI units).


id: npu-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: NPU terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:19.220321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: npu-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Translation of NPU definitions == The English NPU definition structure allows for easy and reliable translation of the NPU definitions into other languages; translating each term in the structured NPU definition into another language will produce a valid definition in that language. The concept behind each term in the definition can be determined and agreed on by accessing the international code assigned to that term. The place of the concept in the syntax assigns the specific meaning of the concept in relation to the examination result. Translations of the NPU terminology are directly available in Danish and Swedish. The terminology has been structured such that translations into other languages is straightforward. == NPU foundations == C-NPU has been managing the development of structured definitions for laboratory result information for the IFCC and IUPAC and making recommendations through papers, recommendations, and technical reports. These mostly joint documents are available from the old IUPAC website [Y]. While these documents formed the foundation for NPU entries applying to each scientific discipline, subsequent additions in the last decade have consisted primarily of "User driven" requests. The day-to-day administration of the NPU Terminology has for many years been carried out by representatives from the


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
An ocular prosthesis, artificial eye or glass eye is a type of craniofacial prosthesis that replaces an absent natural eye following an enucleation, evisceration, or orbital exenteration. Someone with an ocular prosthesis is altogether blind on the affected side and has monocular (one sided) vision. The prosthesis fits over an orbital implant and under the eyelids. The ocular prosthesis roughly takes the shape of a convex shell and is made of medical grade acrylic plastic. A few ocular prostheses today are made of cryolite glass. A variant of the ocular prosthesis is a very thin hard shell known as a scleral shell which can be worn over a damaged or eviscerated eye. Makers of ocular prosthetics are known as ocularists. Ocularists are surprisingly rare: as of 2025, there were fewer than 200 certified practitioners in the United States, and only around three dozen in India. Visual prosthesis are currently in research which could provide vision to the artificial eye. == History == The earliest known evidence of the use of ocular prosthesis is that of a woman found in Shahr-I Sokhta, Iran dating back to 2900–2800 BC. It has a hemispherical form and a diameter of just over 2.5 cm


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Integrated implants (porous) === The porous nature of integrated implants allows fibrovascular ingrowth throughout the implant and thus also insertion of pegs or posts. Because direct mechanical coupling is thought to improve artificial eye motility, attempts have been made to develop so-called 'integrated implants' that are directly connected to the artificial eye. Historically, implants that directly attached to the prosthesis were unsuccessful because of chronic inflammation or infection arising from the exposed nonporous implant material. This led to the development of quasi-integrated implants with a specially designed anterior surface that allegedly better transferred implant motility to the artificial eye through the closed conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule. In 1985, the problems associated with integrated implants were thought to be largely solved with the introduction of spherical implants made of porous calcium hydroxyapatite. This material allows for fibrovascular ingrowth within several months. Porous enucleation implants currently are fabricated from a variety of materials including natural and synthetic hydroxyapatite, aluminium oxide, and polyethylene. The surgeon can alter the contour of porous implants before insertion, and it is also possible to modify the contour in situ, although this is sometimes difficult. ==== Hydroxyapatite (HA) ==== Hydroxyapatite implants are spherical and made in a


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
==== Conical orbital implant (COI) and multipurpose conical orbital implant (MCOI) ==== The safe and effective sphere (still popular and easy to use) was supplemented with the pyramid or COI implant. The COI has unique design elements that have been incorporated into an overall conical shape, including a flat anterior surface, superior projection and preformed channels for the rectus muscles. 5-0 Vicryl suture needles can be passed with slight difficulty straight through the implant to be tied on the anterior surface. In addition, this implant features a slightly recessed slot for the superior rectus and a protrusion to fill the superior fornix. As of 2005 the newest model is the multipurpose conical orbital implant (MCOI), which was designed to address the issues of the postoperative anophthalmic orbit being at risk for the development of socket abnormalities including enophthalmos, retraction of the upper eyelid, deepening of the superior sulcus, backward tilt of the prothesis, and stretching of the lower eyelid after evisceration or enucleation. These problems are generally thought to be secondary to orbital volume deficiencies which is also addressed by MCOIs. The conical shape of the MCOI more closely matches the anatomic shape of the orbit than a spherical implant.


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
The rubbing force between the posterior surface of the artificial eye and the conjunctiva that covers the implant may cause the artificial eye to move. Because this force is likely to be approximately equal in all directions, it would cause comparable horizontal and vertical artificial eye amplitudes. An artificial eye usually fits snugly in the conjunctival space (possibly not in the superior fornix). Therefore, any movement of the conjunctival fornices will cause a similar movement of the artificial eye, whereas lack of movement of the fornices will restrict its motility. Imbrication of the rectus muscles over a nonintegrated implant traditionally was thought to impart movement to the implant and prosthesis. Like a ball-and-socket joint, when the implant moves, the prosthesis moves. However, because the so-called ball and socket are separated by layers of Tenon's capsule, imbricated muscles, and conjunctiva, the mechanical efficiency of transmission of movement from the implant to the prosthesis is suboptimal. Moreover, the concern is that imbrication of the recti over nonintegrated implants actually can result in implant migration. The recent myoconjuctival technique of enucleation is an alternative to muscle imbrication. Although it is generally accepted that integrating the prosthesis to a porous implant with peg insertion


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-4.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
The conjunctival peritomy is performed at the corneal limbus, preserving as much healthy tissue as possible. Anterior Tenon's fascia is separated from the sclera. Blunt dissection in the four quadrants between the rectus muscles separates deep Tenon's fascia. Sutures may be passed through the rectus muscles before their disinsertion from the globe. Some surgeons also suture one or both oblique muscles. Traction sutures or clamps may be applied to the horizontal rectus muscle insertions to assist in rotating and elevating the globe during the ensuing dissection. Tenon's capsule may be opened posteriorly to allow visualization of the optic nerve. The vortex veins and posterior ciliary vessels may be cauterized before dividing the nerve and removing the eye. Alternatively, the optic nerve may be localized with a clamp before transection. Hemostasis is achieved with either cautery or digital pressure. The orbital implant is inserted at the time of enucleation. An appropriately sized implant should replace the volume of the globe and leave sufficient room for the ocular prosthesis. Enucleation implants are available in a variety of sizes that may be determined by using sizing implants or calculated by measuring globe volume or axial length of the contralateral eye. In the past,


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-5.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Notable people with prosthetic eyes == Bhumibol Adulyadej – King of Thailand; lost his eye in a 1948 car crash (right eye) Baz Bastien – Canadian ice hockey player, coach (right eye) Mokhtar Belmokhtar – Algerian smuggler, kidnapper, weapons dealer, and terrorist; lost his eye mishandling explosives (left eye) Sammy Davis Jr. – American entertainer (left eye) Peter Falk – American actor (right eye) Tex Avery – American animation director (left eye) Ry Cooder – American musician best known for his slide guitar work (left eye) Nick Griffin – British National Party leader (left eye) Jay Horwitz (born 1945), American executive for the New York Mets baseball team (right eye) Leo McKern – Actor (left eye) Carl Ouellet – Canadian professional wrestler (right eye) Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg – German career army officer and resistance leader (left eye) Robert Thurman – Writer (left eye) Mo Udall – American politician (right eye) Fetty Wap - American rapper (left eye) Gordon Brown - Former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (left eye) Helmut Marko - Formula 1 racing driver (left eye) Leo Fender - Inventor (left eye) Jeff Healey - Guitarist (both eyes) == References == == External links ==


id: opengalen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGALEN-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenGALEN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGALEN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:21.712290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opengalen-20260505-0
summary:
OpenGALEN is a not-for-profit organisation that provides an open source medical terminology. This terminology is written in a formal language called GRAIL (GALEN Representation And Integration Language) and also distributed in OWL. == Background == The GALEN technologies were developed with research funding provided by the European Community Framework III (GALEN Project) and Framework IV (GALEN-In-Use Project) programmes. Early phases of the GALEN Programme developed the GRAIL concept modelling language, experimented with different structures for the GALEN Common Reference Model, and, in parallel, tested the usefulness of the approach with a series of clinical demonstrator projects. Later phases of the GALEN Programme, during the late 1990s, have concentrated on robust implementations of GRAIL and the Terminology Server, development of the GALEN Common Reference Model in both scope and detail, and development of tools and techniques to enable the further development, scaling-up and maintenance of the model. An important additional focus has been in developing tools and techniques with which we can map the information found in existing coding and Medical classification schemes to the GALEN Common Reference Model. OpenGALEN has been set up as a not-for-profit Dutch Foundation by the universities of Manchester and Nijmegen to make the results of


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-0.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Ophthalmic drug administration is the administration of a drug to the eyes, most typically as an eye drop formulation. Topical formulations are used to combat a multitude of diseased states of the eye. These states may include bacterial infections, eye injury, glaucoma, and dry eye. However, there are many challenges associated with topical delivery of drugs to the cornea of the eye. == Eye drop formulations == Two of the largest challenges faced when using topicals to treat pathological states of the eye include patient compliance and ineffective absorbance of drugs into the cornea due to short contact times, solution drainage, tears turnover, and dilution or lacrimation. In fact, researchers in this field of drug delivery agree that less than 7% of drugs delivered to the eye reach and penetrate the corneal barrier, therefore, increasing the frequency of dosing used for topicals. This is one of the fundamental problem associated with using topicals to deliver drugs to the cornea and therefore leads to the increased demand for patient compliance. Together, these two factors drive a need in the field of scientific research and engineering for a way to better deliver drugs to the cornea of the eye while decreasing dosing


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-1.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Fundamental Concept Understanding: A simple analogy to this is a crowded versus an uncrowded area while it is raining outside. When individuals are packed tightly the rain falls and lands on people, making its way to the ground slowly but surely in a scattered way. In an uncrowded area, the rain can fall and land on the ground easily and without interference from the people. In this analogy, the rain is analogous to light and the people are analogous to drugs being loaded in a contact lens. The more drugs added to the contact lens, the less light that can penetrate without being randomly scattered. Random scattering of the light can result in unclear and unfocused sight. Researchers have noted that by using the nanoparticle loading technique, the transparency decreases by nearly 10%. Conversely, researchers have confirmed that by using the molecular imprinting and supercritical soaking methods of drug loading, the lens transparency of the contact lenses has stayed at or above the lens transparency of the contact lenses currently approved by the FDA. === Oxygen permeability === Oxygen permeability is another important feature of all contact lenses and much be optimized to the largest degree possible when creating drug


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-2.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
=== Drug release kinetics === The most important factor that must be taken into account when designing any type of drug delivery device, and specifically ocular devices, is the release rate of a drug. As discussed previously, the deliver rate and kinetics associated with drugs to the eye can reach levels that are toxic to the eye or could even cause undesirable side effects. The rate of release of a drug is also important because too slow of a release could have no beneficial outcome for the patient and a release that is too quick could result in negative side effects. Thus, it is important to balance the factors that govern the release of drugs from contact lenses as potential drug delivery devices. Researchers such as C. Alvarez-Lorenzo have tested (with animal models) and have data which supports that molecularly imprinted contact lenses release drugs in a sustained and long period of time. It has also been supported by researchers that the rate of drug release can be controlled by incorporating vitamin E within the hydrogen matrix. === Systemic side effects === Over time, it has been reported that many of the same drugs and eye drops used to treat


id: opioid-rotation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid_rotation-0.md
category: reference
title: Opioid rotation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid_rotation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:24.152953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opioid-rotation-20260505-0
summary:
Opioid rotation or opioid switching is the process of changing one opioid to another to improve pain control or reduce unwanted side effects. This technique was introduced in the 1990s to help manage severe chronic pain and improve the opioid response in cancer patients and non-cancer patients. In order to obtain adequate levels of pain relief, patients requiring chronic opioid therapy may require an increase in the original prescribed dose for a number of reasons, including increased pain or a worsening disease state. Over the course of long-term treatment, an increase in dosage cannot be continued indefinitely as unwanted side effects of treatment often become intolerable once a certain dose is reached, even though the pain may still not be properly managed. One strategy used to address this is to switch the patient between different opioid drugs over time, usually every few months. Opioid rotation requires strict monitoring in patients with ongoing levels of high opioid doses for extended periods of time, since long term opioid use can lead to a patient developing tolerance to the analgesic effects of the drug. Patients may also not respond to the first opioid prescribed to them at all, therefore needing to try another


id: oral-administration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_administration-0.md
category: reference
title: Oral administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:25.383618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oral-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Oral administration is a route of administration whereby a substance is taken through the mouth, swallowed, and then processed via the digestive system. This is a common route of administration for many medications. Oral administration can be easier and less painful than other routes of administration, such as injection. However, the onset of action is relatively low, and the effectiveness is reduced if it is not absorbed properly in the digestive system, or if it is broken down by digestive enzymes before it can reach the bloodstream. Some medications may cause gastrointestinal side effects, such as nausea or vomiting, when taken orally. Oral administration can also only be applied to conscious patients, and patients able to swallow. == Terminology == Per os (; P.O.) is an adverbial phrase meaning literally from Latin "through the mouth" or "by mouth". The expression is used in medicine to describe a treatment that is taken orally (but not used in the mouth such as, caries prophylaxis). The abbreviation P.O. is often used on medical prescriptions. == Scope == Enteral administration includes: Buccal, dissolved inside the cheek Sublabial, dissolved under the lip Sublingual administration (SL), dissolved under the tongue, but due to rapid absorption many


id: oral-myology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_myology-0.md
category: reference
title: Oral myology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_myology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:26.614785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oral-myology-20260505-0
summary:
Oral myology (also known as "orofacial myology") is the field of study that involves the evaluation and treatment (known as "orofacial myofunctional therapy") of the oral and facial musculature, including the muscles of the tongue, lips, cheeks, and jaw. == Use == Orofacial myofunctional therapy treatment is most commonly used to retrain oral rest posture, swallowing patterns in the oral phase, and speech. === Tongue thrust and thumb sucking === A major focus of the field of oral myology and treatment of orofacial myofunctional disorders include tongue posture and establishing equilibrium between the tongue, lips and the cheek muscles. Tongue exercise proved to be successful in treating tongue thrust. Tongue exercise alone was reported to be successful in cessation of thumb sucking and treatment of anterior open bite malocclusion. When the tongue rests against the palate it begins to expand the maxilla by applying a slow and consistent force to the lingual (tongue side) surfaces of the teeth. This may aid in the treatment of crooked teeth and under-developed face. === Sleep apnea and snoring === Oral myology plays also an important role in the management of patients with sleep breathing disorders and snoring where oropharyngeal exercises were found to


id: orphan-patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_patient-0.md
category: reference
title: Orphan patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:27.839139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orphan-patient-20260505-0
summary:
In health care, an orphan patient is a patient who has been "lost" within the system or has no primary provider overseeing their care. Usually, the primary provider is a general practitioner who takes care of some of the basic health needs and then refers to a specialist for complicated medical problems. Thus, orphan patients are sometimes referred to as "no-family-doctor" patients. The view from insiders and health care providers is that orphan patients tend to receive inferior care compared to those who have a "gatekeeper" coordinating the medicine. The Wordspy entry for this phrase is as follows [1]: A hospital patient who doesn't have a family doctor. Also known as an unattached patient. Example Citation: Dr. Tom Dickson, chief of staff at the William Osler Health Centre in Brampton, Ont., said the FP [family physician] shortage is so severe in the ring of suburbs surrounding Toronto — the '905 belt' — that dozens of orphan patients are arriving at local community hospitals every day. —Patrick Sullivan, "Enter the hospitalist: new type of patient creating a new type of specialist," Canadian Medical Association Journal, May 2, 2000 Earliest Citation: Recent media reports have identified a growing problem in Ontario's health


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Overdiagnosis is the diagnosis of disease that will never cause symptoms or death during a patient's ordinarily expected lifetime and thus presents no practical threat regardless of being pathologic. Overdiagnosis is a side effect of screening for early forms of disease. Although screening saves lives in some cases, in others it may turn people into patients unnecessarily and may lead to treatments that do no good and perhaps do harm. Given the tremendous variability that is normal in biology, it is inherent that the more one screens, the more incidental findings will generally be found. For a large percentage of them, the most appropriate medical response is to recognize them as something that does not require intervention; but determining which action a particular finding warrants ("ignoring", watchful waiting, or intervention) can be very difficult, whether because the differential diagnosis is uncertain or because the risk ratio is uncertain (risks posed by intervention, namely, adverse events, versus risks posed by not intervening). Overdiagnosis occurs when a disease is diagnosed correctly, but the diagnosis is irrelevant. A correct diagnosis may be irrelevant because treatment for the disease is not available, not needed, or not wanted. Some people contend that the term "overdiagnosis"


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Evidence for overdiagnosis in cancer == The phenomenon of overdiagnosis is most widely understood in prostate cancer. A dramatic increase in the number of new cases of prostate cancer was observed following the introduction of the PSA (prostate specific antigen) screening test. Because of the problem of overdiagnosis, most organizations recommend against prostate cancer screening in men with limited life expectancy—generally defined as less than 10 years (see also prostate cancer screening). Overdiagnosis has been identified in mammographic screening for breast cancer. Long-term follow-up of the Malmo randomized trial of mammography found a persistent excess of 115 breast cancers in the screened group 15 years after the trial was completed (a 10% rate of overdiagnosis). In a letter to the editor, authors not associated with the original study of the data from the randomized clinical trial argued that one-quarter of mammographically detected breast cancers represent overdiagnosis. A systematic review of mammography screening programs reported an overdiagnosis rate of around 50%, which is the same of saying that a third of diagnosed cases of breast cancer are overdiagnosed. Overdiagnosis has also been identified in chest x-ray screening for lung cancer. Long-term follow-up of the Mayo Clinic randomized trial of screening


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Removing cancer from names of low-risk diagnoses === It has been proposed that some conditions that are indolent (i.e., unlikely to cause appreciable harm during the patient's lifetime) should have the words "cancer" or "carcinoma" removed from their accepted/preferred medical name. Such a proposal is to name conditions as indolent lesions of epithelial origin or IDLE. == Medical complexity == If a person is medically complex (multiple comorbidities) and may expect to live for less than ten years, then there may be a net harm (benefit less harm) in diagnosing and treating one or more of their morbidities, eg prostate cancer. The principal, however, can apply to all cancers and other illnesses. == See also == Disease mongering – Pejorative term for expanding a disease's market for treatment False positive – Types of error in data reportingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Medicalization – Categorization of human problems as medical Interventionism (medicine) Patient education – Teaching or training of patients concerning their own health needs Schooliosis – Misdiagnosis of scoliosis Screening (medicine) – Brief medical evaluation to detect unnoticed health problems == References == == Further reading == Welch, H. Gilbert, Schwartz, Lisa. Overdiagnosed: Making People Sick in


id: oxygen-saturation-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Oxygen saturation (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:31.562690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oxygen-saturation-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Oxygen saturation is the fraction of oxygen-saturated hemoglobin relative to total hemoglobin (unsaturated + saturated) in the blood. The human body requires and regulates a very precise and specific balance of oxygen in the blood. Normal arterial blood oxygen saturation levels in humans are 96–100 percent. If the level is below 90 percent, it is considered low and called hypoxemia. Arterial blood oxygen levels below 80 percent may compromise organ function, such as the brain and heart, and should be promptly addressed. Continued low oxygen levels may lead to respiratory or cardiac arrest. Oxygen therapy may be used to assist in raising blood oxygen levels. Oxygenation occurs when oxygen molecules (O2) enter the tissues of the body. For example, blood is oxygenated in the lungs, where oxygen molecules travel from the air and into the blood. Oxygenation is commonly used to refer to medical oxygen saturation. == Definition == In medicine, oxygen saturation, commonly referred to as "sats", measures the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites in the bloodstream occupied by oxygen. At low partial pressures of oxygen, most hemoglobin is deoxygenated. At around 90% (the value varies according to the clinical context) oxygen saturation increases according to an oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation


id: pain-out-of-proportion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_out_of_proportion-0.md
category: reference
title: Pain out of proportion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_out_of_proportion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:32.847967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pain-out-of-proportion-20260505-0
summary:
Pain out of proportion or pain out of proportion to physical examination is a medical sign where apparent pain in the individual does not correspond to other signs. It is found in a number of conditions, including: Necrotizing fasciitis Compartment syndrome Mesenteric ischemia Mueller-Weiss disease Also used in reference to the medical diagnosis of Malingering ICD-10 Z76.5 as in "Pain out of proportion to symptoms". == References ==


id: palsy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsy-0.md
category: reference
title: Palsy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:34.180713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palsy-20260505-0
summary:
Palsy is a medical term which refers to various types of paralysis or paresis, often accompanied by weakness and the loss of feeling and uncontrolled body movements such as shaking. The word originates from the Anglo-Norman paralisie, parleisie et al., from the accusative form of Latin paralysis, from Ancient Greek παράλυσις (parálusis), from παραλύειν (paralúein, "to disable on one side"), from παρά (pará, "beside") + λύειν (lúein, "loosen"). The word is longstanding in the English language, having appeared in the play Grim the Collier of Croydon, reported to have been written as early as 1599: Rob. I'll have thee come, I say. Why tremblest thou? Grim. No sir, not I; 'tis a palsy I have still. In some editions, the Bible passage of Luke 5:18 is translated to refer to "a man which was taken with a palsy". More modern editions simply refer to a man who is paralysed. Although the term has historically been associated with paralysis generally, it "is now almost always used in connection to the word cerebral—meaning the brain". Specific kinds of palsy include: Bell's palsy, partial facial paralysis Bulbar palsy, impairment of cranial nerves Cerebral palsy, a neural disorder caused by intracranial lesions Conjugate gaze


id: pannus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannus-0.md
category: reference
title: Pannus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:35.450829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pannus-20260505-0
summary:
Pannus is an abnormal layer of fibrovascular tissue or granulation tissue. Common sites for pannus formation include over the cornea, over a joint surface (as seen in rheumatoid arthritis), or on a prosthetic heart valve. Pannus may grow in a tumor-like fashion, as in joints where it may erode articular cartilage and bone. In common usage, the term pannus is often used to refer to a panniculus (a hanging flap of tissue). == Pannus in rheumatoid arthritis == The term "pannus" is derived from the Latin for "tablecloth". Chronic inflammation and exuberant proliferation of the synovium leads to formation of pannus and destruction of cartilage, bone, tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels. Pannus tissue is composed of aggressive macrophage- and fibroblast-like mesenchymal cells, macrophage-like cells and other inflammatory cells that release collagenolytic enzymes. In people suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, pannus tissue eventually forms in the joint affected by the disease, causing bony erosion and cartilage loss via release of IL-1, prostaglandins, and substance P by macrophages. == Pannus in ophthalmology == In ophthalmology, pannus refers to the growth of blood vessels into the peripheral cornea. In normal individuals, the cornea is avascular. Chronic local hypoxia (such as that occurring with overuse


id: paresis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresis-0.md
category: reference
title: Paresis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:36.779117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paresis-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, paresis () is a condition typified by a weakness of voluntary movement, or by partial loss of voluntary movement or by impaired movement. When used without qualifiers, it usually refers to the limbs, but it can also be used to describe the muscles of the eyes (ophthalmoparesis), the stomach (gastroparesis), and also the vocal cords (vocal cord paresis). Neurologists use the term paresis to describe weakness, and plegia to describe paralysis in which all voluntary movement is lost. The term paresis comes from the Ancient Greek: πάρεσις 'letting go' from παρίημι 'to let go, to let fall'. == Types == === Limbs === Monoparesis – One leg or one arm Paraparesis – Both legs Hemiparesis – The loss of function to only one side of the body Triparesis – Three limbs. This can either mean both legs and one arm, both arms and a leg, or a combination of one arm, one leg, and face Double hemiparesis – All four limbs are involved, but one side of the body is more affected than the other Tetraparesis – All four limbs Quadriparesis – All four limbs, equally affected These terms frequently refer to the impairment of motion in multiple


id: past-medical-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_medical_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Past medical history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_medical_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:37.940913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: past-medical-history-20260505-0
summary:
In a medical encounter, a past medical history (abbreviated PMH) is the total sum of a patient's health status prior to the presenting problem. == Questions to include == Different sources include different questions to be asked while conducting a PMH, but in general, they include the following: General state of health: e.g. excellent, good, fair, poor. Note any significant change from previous state. Past illnesses: e.g. cancer, heart disease, hypertension, diabetes. Hospitalizations: including all medical, surgical, and psychiatric hospitalizations. Note the date, reason, duration for the hospitalization. Injuries, or accidents: note the type and date of injury. Surgeries: note the type of procedure, date, hospital, surgeon, and any complications. Current medications: note name, dosage, frequency of any medication, including any over-the-counter medications and herbal remedies. Note whether patient is taking the medications according to the prescribed instructions. Allergies: note any environmental, food, or drug allergies, as well as the specific type of reaction, e.g. anaphylaxis, rash, itching. Immunizations: take a careful record of all immunizations, including tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, polio, Hepatitis B, measles, mumps, rubella, Haemophilus influenzae type B, influenza. Substance abuse: note any alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use, include type, amount, and duration, as well as any


id: pathognomonic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomonic-0.md
category: reference
title: Pathognomonic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomonic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:39.255891+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pathognomonic-20260505-0
summary:
Pathognomonic (synonym pathognomic) is a term, often used in medicine, that means "characteristic for a particular disease". A pathognomonic sign is a particular sign whose presence means that a particular disease is present beyond any doubt. The absence of a pathognomonic sign does not rule out the disease. Labelling a sign or symptom "pathognomonic" represents a marked intensification of a "diagnostic" sign or symptom. The word is an adjective of Greek origin derived from πάθος pathos 'disease' and γνώμων gnomon 'indicator' (from γιγνώσκω gignosko 'I know, I recognize'). == Practical use == While some findings may be classic, typical or highly suggestive in a certain condition, they may not occur uniquely in this condition and therefore may not directly imply a specific diagnosis. A pathognomonic sign or symptom has very high positive predictive value and high specificity but does not need to have high sensitivity: for example it can sometimes be absent in a certain disease, since the term only implies that, when it is present, the doctor instantly knows the patient's illness. The presence of a pathognomonic finding allows immediate diagnosis, since there are no other conditions in the differential diagnosis. Singular pathognomonic signs are relatively uncommon. Examples of


id: patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient-0.md
category: reference
title: Patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:40.560918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-20260505-0
summary:
A patient is any recipient of health care services that are performed by healthcare professionals. The patient is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a medical doctor, nurse, optometrist, dentist, veterinarian, or other health care provider. == Etymology == The word patient originally meant 'one who suffers'. This English noun comes from the Latin word patiens, the present participle of the deponent verb, patior, meaning 'I am suffering', and akin to the Greek verb πάσχειν (paskhein 'to suffer') and its cognate noun πάθος (pathos). This language has been construed as meaning that the role of patients is to passively accept and tolerate the suffering and treatments prescribed by the healthcare providers, without engaging in shared decision-making about their care. == Outpatients and inpatients == An outpatient (or out-patient) is a patient who attends an outpatient clinic with no plan to stay beyond the duration of the visit. Even if the patient will not be formally admitted with a note as an outpatient, their attendance is still registered, and the provider will usually give a note explaining the reason for the visit, tests, or procedure/surgery, which should include the names and titles of the participating personnel,


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-0.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
In the healthcare industry, pay for performance (P4P), also known as "value-based purchasing", is a payment model that offers financial incentives to physicians, hospitals, medical groups, and other healthcare providers for meeting certain performance measures. Clinical outcomes, such as longer survival, are difficult to measure, so pay for performance systems usually evaluate process quality and efficiency, such as measuring blood pressure, lowering blood pressure, or counseling patients to stop smoking. This model also penalizes health care providers for poor outcomes, medical errors, or increased costs. Integrated delivery systems where insurers and providers share in the cost are intended to help align incentives for value-based care. Professional societies in the United States have given qualified approval to incentive programs, but express concern with the validity of quality indicators, patient and physician autonomy and privacy, and increased administrative burdens. == Studies and trends == Pay for performance systems link compensation to measures of work quality or goals. Current methods of healthcare payment may actually reward less-safe care, since some insurance companies will not pay for new practices to reduce errors, while physicians and hospitals can bill for additional services that are needed when patients are injured by mistakes. However, early studies showed


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-1.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === In France, P4P in ambulatory care was introduced as individual contracts between physicians and statutory health insurance in 2009 and termed CAPI (Contrat d'Amélioration des Pratiques Individuelles). Fourteen months later, 14,800 contracts were signed, representing one third of eligible GPs. They were signed on a voluntary basis for a three-year period and could be broken at any time on the GP's demand. The additional payment took into account the size of the population and the achievements for a number of indicators (clinical care, prevention, generic prescription), for which final as well as intermediate targets were defined. Depending on the baseline measures for the GP's practice, either final or intermediate targets were considered in determining the level of remuneration. There were no penalties for GPs who did not achieve the targets. With effect in 2012, CAPI were renamed ROSP (Rémunération sur Objectifs de Santé Publique) and incorporated into the collective agreements between doctors and statutory health insurance, with an expanded list of objectives and an extension to specialties such as cardiology. === United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service (NHS) began a major pay for performance initiative in 2004, known as the Quality and


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-2.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== VBP and VBP Levels ==== Value-Based Purchasing (VBP) Linking provider payments to improved performance by health care providers. This form of payment holds health care providers accountable for both the cost and quality of care they provide. It attempts to reduce inappropriate care and to identify and reward the best-performing providers. VBP Levels 1, 2, and 3 describe the level of risk providers choose to share with the MCO. GBUACO is a level 2 VBP. VBP risk levels allow providers to gradually increase the level of risk in their contracts. Levels of risk offer a flexible approach for providers in moving to VBP. Level 1 VBP: FFS with upside-only shared savings available when outcome scores are sufficient. Has only an upside. Receives FFS Payments. Level 2 VBP: FFS with risk sharing (upside available when outcome scores are sufficient). Has upside and downside risk. Receives FFS Payments. Level 3 VBP: (feasible after experience with Level 2; requires mature contractors) Prospective capitation PMPM or Bundle (with outcome-based component). Has upside and downside risk. Prospective total budget payments. ==== California ==== Responding to public backlash to managed care in the 1990s, California health care plans and physician groups developed a set of


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-3.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Multiple providers for complex disorders ==== Pay for performance programs often target patients with serious and complex illnesses; such patients commonly interact with multiple healthcare providers and facilities. However, pilot programs now underway focus on simple indicators such as improvement in lab values or use of emergency services, avoiding areas of complexity such as multiple complications or several treating specialists. A 2007 study analyzing Medicare beneficiaries' healthcare visits showed that a median of two primary care physicians and five specialists provide care for a single patient. The authors doubt that pay-for-performance systems can accurately attribute responsibility for the outcome of care for such patients. The American College of Physicians Ethics has expressed concern: Pay-for-performance initiatives that provide incentives for good performance on a few specific elements of a single disease or condition may lead to neglect of other, potentially more important elements of care for that condition or a comorbid condition. The elderly patient with multiple chronic conditions is especially vulnerable to this unwanted effect of powerful incentives. ==== Deselection, ethical issues ==== Present pay-for-performance systems measure performance based on specified clinical measurements, such as reductions in glycohemoglobin (HbA1c) for patients with diabetes. Healthcare providers who are monitored by


id: perinatal-mortality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perinatal_mortality-0.md
category: reference
title: Perinatal mortality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perinatal_mortality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:44.093784+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perinatal-mortality-20260505-0
summary:
Perinatal mortality (PNM) is the death of a fetus or neonate and is the basis for calculation of the perinatal mortality rate. Perinatal means "relating to the period starting a few weeks before birth and including the birth and a few weeks after birth." Variations in the precise definition of the perinatal mortality exist, specifically concerning the issue of inclusion or exclusion of early fetal and late neonatal fatalities. The World Health Organization defines perinatal mortality as the "number of stillbirths and deaths in the first week of life per 1,000 total births, the perinatal period commences at 22 completed weeks (154 days) of gestation, and ends seven completed days after birth", but other definitions have been used. The UK figure is about 8 per 1,000 and varies markedly by social class, with the highest rates seen in Asian women. Globally, an estimated 2.6 million neonates died in 2013 before the first month of age, down from 4.5 million in 1990. == Causes == Preterm birth is the most common cause of perinatal mortality, causing almost 30 percent of neonatal deaths. Infant respiratory distress syndrome, in turn, is the leading cause of death in preterm infants, affecting about 1% of


id: periodic-breathing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_breathing-0.md
category: reference
title: Periodic breathing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_breathing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:45.426022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: periodic-breathing-20260505-0
summary:
Periodic breathing is clusters of breaths separated by intervals of apnea or near-apnea. As opposed to normal breathing, which is usually regular, periodic breathing is defined as three or more episodes of central apnea lasting at least 4 seconds, separated by no more than 30 seconds of normal breathing. Periodic breathing was originally thought to arise from serious neurologic or cardiovascular disease and therefore to carry a poor outlook. It is now known that periodic breathing also tends to occur during sleep, it can occur in healthy persons, and the apnea in periodic breathing is usually central sleep apnea rather than obstructive sleep apnea. Periodic breathing during sleep occurs typically in adult patients with congestive heart failure. Periodic breathing is also a normal variation of breathing found in premature and full term infants. It occurs when the infant has pauses in breathing for no more than 10 seconds at a time followed by a series of rapid, shallow breaths. Then the breathing returns to normal without any stimulation or intervention. These pauses in breathing may be accompanied by minor oxygen desaturation and bradycardia. It usually occurs when the infant is sleeping deeply, but may occur with light sleep or even


id: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension-0.md
category: reference
title: Permissive hypotension
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:46.615676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
summary:
Permissive hypotension or hypotensive resuscitation is the use of restrictive fluid therapy, specifically in the trauma patient, that increases systemic blood pressure without reaching normotension (normal blood pressures). The goal blood pressure for these patients is a mean arterial pressure of 40-50 mmHg or systolic blood pressure of less than or equal to 80. This goes along with certain clinical criteria. Following traumatic injury, some patients experience hypotension (low blood pressure) that is usually due to blood loss (hemorrhage) but can be due to other causes as well (for example, blood leaking around an abdominal aortic aneurysm). In the past, physicians were very aggressive with fluid resuscitation (giving fluids such as normal saline or lactated Ringer's through the vein) to try to bring the blood pressure to normal values. Recent studies have found that there is some benefit to allowing specific patients to experience some degree of hypotension in certain settings. This concept does not exclude therapy by means of i.v. fluid, inotropes or vasopressors, the only restriction is to avoid completely normalizing blood pressure in a context where blood loss may be enhanced. When a person starts to bleed (big or small) the body starts a natural coagulation process


id: permissive-hypotension-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension-1.md
category: reference
title: Permissive hypotension
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:46.615676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
summary:
== Pathophysiology == Following injury, the otherwise healthy individual has a natural ability to clot off bleeding. The higher the pressure in your vessels, the harder it is for the bleeding to stop, since the fluid essentially "pushes" the clot out and consequently the bleeding resumes. In more technical terms: hypotension facilitates in vivo coagulation. This is especially true in patients who still have active bleeding. Attempts to normalize blood pressure in case of uncontrolled bleeding as in patients with penetrating trauma, may result in increased blood loss and worse outcomes. In this context, restriction of fluid resuscitation may actually improve outcomes. This concept has been supported by animal studies that have demonstrated aggressive fluid resuscitation increases the volume of hemorrhaging fluid to a significant level as well as increased mortality. Another issue with aggressive fluid resuscitation is the potential for hypothermia if fluids that are stored at room temperature are used. If these fluids are not warmed prior to infusion (which sometimes time does not permit), this can result in a significant drop in core body temperature. Hypothermia is associated with many problems including a bleeding disorder, organ failure, and hypotension, and is one of the three components in


id: phonagnosia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonagnosia-0.md
category: reference
title: Phonagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:47.797123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phonagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
Phonagnosia (from Ancient Greek φωνή phone, "voice" and γνῶσις gnosis, "knowledge") or voice blindness is a type of agnosia, or loss of knowledge, that involves a disturbance in the recognition of familiar voices and the impairment of voice discrimination abilities in which the affected individual does not suffer from comprehension deficits. Phonagnosia is an auditory agnosia, an acquired auditory processing disorder resulting from brain damage. Other auditory agnosias include cortical deafness and auditory verbal agnosia also known as pure word deafness. Since people suffering from phonagnosia do not suffer from aphasia, it is suggested that the structures of linguistic comprehension are functionally separate from those of the perception of the identity of the speaker who produced it. == History == Phonagnosia is the auditory equivalent of prosopagnosia. Unlike prosopagnosia, investigations of phonagnosia have not been extensively pursued. Phonagnosia was first described by a study by Van Lancker and Cantor in 1982. The subjects in this study were asked to identify which of four names or faces matched a specific famous voice. The subjects could not complete the task. Since then, there have been a couple studies done on patients with phonagnosia. The clinical and radiologic findings with computerized tomographic scans


id: phoniatrics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoniatrics-0.md
category: reference
title: Phoniatrics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoniatrics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:49.015177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phoniatrics-20260505-0
summary:
Phoniatrics or phoniatry is the study and treatment of organs involved in speech production, mainly the mouth, throat (larynx), vocal cords, and lungs. Problems treated in phoniatrics include dysfunction of the vocal cords, cancer of the vocal cords or larynx, inability to control the speech organs properly (speech disorders), and vocal loading problems. According to the Union of European Phoniatricians, phoniatrics is "the medical specialty dealing with voice, speech, language, hearing and swallowing disorders". == References == == External links == "Logbook Phoniatrics UEMS 2010" (PDF). Union of the European Phoniatricians. 1 October 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 October 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016.


id: physical-disorder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_disorder-0.md
category: reference
title: Physical disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:50.252559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physical-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
Physical disorder, as a medical term, is poorly defined, and typically used in contrast to a mental disorder or a genetic disorder. The term mental disorder is heavily used in psychiatric medicine, and is defined in some psychiatric medicine texts, most notably the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). However, the more generic term of medical disorder is poorly defined, and is not mentioned in the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases, nor many common medical textbooks. Attempts have been made to adopt a more universal definition, but there is no widely agreed upon definition. A physical disorder is not easily defined as the term "disorder" itself has not yet been defined by any authoritative medical body. The term "disorder" bears no special clinical relevance, and could be used interchangeably with disease. The use of the term "disorder" likely rests on historical precedent as well as the preference of the field. For example, it is common to find examples of diseases named "disorders" in psychiatry and genetics, such as autosomal dominant disorders, but uncommon in cardiology. In general, diseases called "disorders" have a relatively well understood, narrow pathophysiology, such as bipolar disorder, compared to something more generic,


id: physical-inactivity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity-0.md
category: reference
title: Physical inactivity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:51.505258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physical-inactivity-20260505-0
summary:
Physical inactivity refers to the lack of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in a person's lifestyle. It is distinct from sedentary behavior. == Health effects == The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined physical inactivity as a global public health problem. Each year, approximately 3.2 million people die from causes related to physical inactivity. == Prevalence == Globally, 28% of adults and 80% of adolescents are estimated to be insufficiently active. As of 2008, the WHO identified the Americas and the Eastern Mediterranean as regions with the greatest prevalence of physical inactivity. Nearly half of all women in both of these regions have physical inactivity, as well as 40% of men in the Americas and 36% of men in the Eastern Mediterranean. In contrast, the region with the lowest prevalence of physical inactivity is Southeast Asia. There, 19% of women and 15% of men are physically inactive. In the US, physical inactivity prevalence varies by state and ethnicity. All states and territories had prevalence rates of more than 15% of adults. Colorado, Utah, Oregon, and Washington were the only states with physical inactivity prevalence less than 20%. Seven states and two territories had prevalence greater than 30%: Tennessee, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Alabama, Kentucky,


id: physiological-agonism-and-antagonism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism-0.md
category: reference
title: Physiological agonism and antagonism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:52.749554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiological-agonism-and-antagonism-20260505-0
summary:
Physiological agonism describes the action of a substance which ultimately produces the same effects in the body as another substance—as if they were both agonists at the same receptor—without actually binding to the same receptor. Physiological antagonism describes the behavior of a substance that produces effects counteracting those of another substance (a result similar to that produced by an antagonist blocking the action of an agonist at the same receptor) using a mechanism that does not involve binding to the same receptor. == Examples == === Physiological agonists === Epinephrine induces platelet aggregation, and so does hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). Thus, they are physiological agonists to each other. === Physiological antagonists === There are several substances that have antihistaminergic action despite not being ligands for the histamine receptor. For instance, epinephrine raises arterial pressure through vasoconstriction mediated by A1-adrenergic receptor activation, in contrast to histamine, which lowers arterial pressure. Thus, despite not being true antihistamines because they do not bind to and block the histamine receptor, epinephrine and other such substances are physiological antagonists to histamine. == References ==


id: pilon-fracture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilon_fracture-0.md
category: reference
title: Pilon fracture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilon_fracture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:54.213164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pilon-fracture-20260505-0
summary:
A pilon fracture is a fracture of the distal part of the tibia, involving its articular surface at the ankle joint. Pilon fractures are caused by rotational or axial forces, mostly as a result of falls from a height or motor vehicle accidents. Pilon fractures are rare, comprising 3 to 10 percent of all fractures of the tibia and 1 percent of all lower extremity fractures, but they involve a large part of the weight-bearing surface of the tibia in the ankle joint. Because of this, they may be difficult to fixate and are historically associated with high rates of complications and poor outcome. Pilon is the French word for "pestle" and was introduced into orthopedic literature in 1911 by pioneer French radiologist Étienne Destot. == Classification == Pilon fractures are categorized by two main X-ray schemes, Ruedi-Allgower classification system. and Müller AO Classification of fractures. == Treatment == The treatment of pilon fractures depends on the extent of the injury. This includes the involvement of other bones such as the fibula and the talus, involvement of soft tissue, and the fracture pattern. Treatment strategies and fixation methods used include internal and external fixation, as well as staged approaches, with


id: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: Point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:55.414574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
Point-of-care testing (POCT), also called near-patient testing or bedside testing, is defined as medical diagnostic testing at or near the point of care—that is, at the time and place of patient care. This contrasts with the historical pattern in which testing was wholly or mostly confined to the medical laboratory, which entailed sending off specimens away from the point of care and then waiting hours or days to learn the results, during which time care must continue without the desired information. == Technology overview == Point-of-care tests are simple medical tests that can be performed at the bedside. In many cases, the simplicity was not achievable until technology developed not only to make a test possible at all but then also to mask its complexity. For example, various kinds of urine test strips have been available for decades, but portable ultrasonography did not reach the stage of being advanced, affordable, and widespread until the 2000s and 2010s. Today, portable ultrasonography is often viewed as a "simple" test, but there was nothing simple about it until the more complex technology was available. Similarly, pulse oximetry can test arterial oxygen saturation in a quick, simple, noninvasive, affordable way today, but in earlier


id: point-of-care-testing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing-1.md
category: reference
title: Point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:55.414574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
== Benefits == The coupling of POCT devices and electronic medical records enable test results to be shared instantly with care providers. The use of mobile devices in the health care setting also enable the health care provider to quickly access patient test results sent from a POCT device. A reduction in morbidity and mortality has been associated with such rapid turn around times from a study using the i-STAT to analyze blood lactate levels after congenital heart surgery. POCT has become established worldwide and finds vital roles in public health. Many researchers emphasize POCT as the normal standard of care in disaster situations. Potential operational benefits include more rapid decision making and triage, reduced operating times, high-dependency, postoperative care time, emergency room time, number of outpatient clinic visits, number of hospital beds required, ensuring optimal use of professional time and reduced of antimicrobial medication. At home or POCT tests, providing results within minutes of being administered, would allow for appropriate measures and rapid decisions about dental patients' care process. Characteristics and detection rate of SARS-CoV-2 in alternative sites and specimens related to dentistry has been extensively reviewed. == Regulatory in the U.S. == The Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)


id: posterior-cortex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_cortex-0.md
category: reference
title: Posterior cortex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_cortex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:56.639705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: posterior-cortex-20260505-0
summary:
Posterior cortex usually means the posterior (back) part of the complete cerebral cortex and includes the occipital, parietal, and temporal cortices. In other words, the posterior cortex includes all the cerebral cortex without the frontal cortex. In combination with specific cortical areas, 'posterior cortex' usually refers to the posterior (back) part of that cortical area. For example: the posterior parietal cortex is the posterior part of the parietal cortex and the posterior cingulate cortex is the posterior part of the cingulate cortex. == Function of the posterior cortex == The posterior cortex is the “sensory” cortex, much as the frontal cortex is the “action” cortex. The posterior cortex is responsible for encoding the sensory content (visual, auditory, and tactile) of any experience (both real and imaginary experience). The posterior cortex with the exception of the primary sensory areas (Primary visual cortex (V1), primary auditory cortex, and somatosensory cortex) was called by Christof Koch and colleagues the posterior cortical hot zone for its close association with the minimal neural substrate essential for conscious perception. == References ==


id: postictal-state-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state-0.md
category: reference
title: Postictal state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:57.970186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postictal-state-20260505-0
summary:
The postictal state is the altered state of consciousness after an epileptic seizure. It usually lasts between 5 and 30 minutes, but sometimes longer in the case of larger or more severe seizures, and is characterized by drowsiness, confusion, nausea, hypertension, headache or migraine, and other disorienting symptoms. The ictal period is the seizure itself; the interictal period is the time between seizures, when brain activity is more normal; and the preictal period is the time leading up to a seizure: Ictal period refers to a physiologic state or event such as a seizure, stroke, or headache. The word originates from the Latin word ictus, meaning a blow or a stroke. In electroencephalography (EEG), the recording during a seizure is said to be "ictal". The following definitions refer to the temporal relation with seizures. Pre-ictal refers to the state immediately before the actual seizure, stroke, or headache. Post-ictal refers to the state shortly after the event. Interictal refers to the period between seizures, or convulsions, that are characteristic of an epilepsy disorder. For most people with epilepsy, the interictal state corresponds to more than 99% of their life. The interictal period is often used by neurologists when diagnosing epilepsy since


id: postictal-state-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state-1.md
category: reference
title: Postictal state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:57.970186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postictal-state-20260505-0
summary:
=== Receptor concentration === In studies that stimulate seizures by subjecting rats to electroshock, seizures are followed by unconsciousness and slow waves on an electroencephalogram (EEG), signs of postictal catalepsy. Administering the opiate antagonist naloxone immediately reverses this state, providing evidence that increased responsiveness or concentration of the opiate receptors may be occurring during seizures and may be partially responsible for the weariness humans experience following a seizure. When humans were given naloxone in-between seizures, researchers observed increased activity on their EEGs, suggesting that opioid receptors may also be upregulated during human seizures. To provide direct evidence for this, Hammers et al. did positron emission tomography (PET) scanning of radiolabelled ligands before, during, and after spontaneous seizures in humans. They found that opioid receptors were upregulated in the regions near the focus of the seizure during the ictal phase, gradually returning to baseline availability during the postictal phase. Hammers notes that cerebral bloodflow after a seizure cannot account for the increase in PET activity observed. Regional bloodflow can increase by as much as 70–80% after seizures but normalizes after 30 minutes. The shortest postictal interval in their study was 90 minutes and none of the patients had seizures during the


id: precancerous-condition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precancerous_condition-0.md
category: reference
title: Precancerous condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precancerous_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:59.257697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: precancerous-condition-20260505-0
summary:
A precancerous condition is a condition, tumor or lesion involving abnormal cells which are associated with an increased risk of developing into cancer. Clinically, precancerous conditions encompass a variety of abnormal tissues with an increased risk of developing into cancer. Some of the most common precancerous conditions include certain colon polyps, which can progress into colon cancer, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance, which can progress into multiple myeloma or myelodysplastic syndrome, and cervical dysplasia, which can progress into cervical cancer. Bronchial premalignant lesions can progress to squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. Pathologically, precancerous tissue can range from benign neoplasias, which are tumors which don't invade neighboring normal tissues or spread to distant organs, to dysplasia, a collection of highly abnormal cells which, in some cases, has an increased risk of progressing to anaplasia and invasive cancer which is life-threatening. Sometimes, the term "precancer" is also used for carcinoma in situ, which is a noninvasive cancer that has not grown and spread to nearby tissue, unlike the invasive stage. As with other precancerous conditions, not all carcinoma in situ will become an invasive disease but is at risk of doing so. == Classification == The term precancerous or premalignant condition


id: presentation-medical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_(medical)-0.md
category: reference
title: Presentation (medical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_(medical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:00.373100+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: presentation-medical-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a presentation is the appearance in a patient of illness or disease—or signs or symptoms thereof—before a medical professional. In practice, one usually speaks of a patient as presenting with this or that. Examples include: "...Many depressed patients present with medical rather than psychiatric complaints, and those who present with medical complaints are twice as likely to be misdiagnosed as those who present with psychiatric complaints." "...In contrast, poisonings from heavy metal can be subtle and present with a slowly progressive course." "...Some patients present with small unobstructed kidneys, when the diagnosis is easy to miss." "...A total of 7,870,266 patients presented to a public hospital ED from 1 July 2017 to 30 June 2018." == See also == Presentation (obstetrics) == References == == External links == Search the Merriam Webster Medical Dictionary for presenting and related terms


id: prevention-paradox-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevention_paradox-0.md
category: reference
title: Prevention paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevention_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:01.559023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prevention-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
The prevention paradox describes the situation where the majority of cases of a disease come from a population at low or moderate risk of that disease, and only a minority of cases come from the high risk population (of the same disease). This is because the number of people at high risk is small. The prevention paradox was first formally described in 1981 by the epidemiologist Geoffrey Rose. Especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the term "prevention paradox" was also used to describe the apparent paradox of people questioning steps to prevent the spread of the pandemic because the prophesied spread did not occur. This however is instead an example of a self-defeating prophecy or a preparedness paradox. == Hypothetical case study == For example, Rose describes the case of Down syndrome where maternal age is a risk factor. Yet, most cases of Down syndrome will be born to younger, low risk mothers (this is true at least in populations where most women have children at a younger age). This situation is paradoxical because it is common and logical to equate high-risk populations with making up the majority of the burden of disease. Another example could be seen


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-0.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
Preventive healthcare or prophylaxis is the application of healthcare measures to prevent diseases. Disease and disability are affected by environmental factors, genetic predisposition, disease agents, and lifestyle choices, and are dynamic processes that begin before individuals realize they are affected. Disease prevention relies on anticipatory actions that can be categorized as primal, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Preventative care can include services such as, screening tests to check for diseases, services like vaccines, dental cleanings, and education and counseling to help one make informed health related decisions. Each year, millions of people die of preventable causes. A 2004 study showed that about half of all deaths in the United States in 2000 were due to preventable behaviors and exposures. Leading causes included cardiovascular disease, chronic respiratory disease, unintentional injuries, diabetes, and certain infectious diseases. The study also estimated that 400,000 people die each year in the United States due to poor diet and a sedentary lifestyle. According to estimates made by the World Health Organization (WHO), about 55 million people died worldwide in 2011, and two-thirds of these died from non-communicable diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and chronic cardiovascular and lung diseases. This is an increase from the year 2000, during


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-1.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
===== Access ===== Some groups are at a disadvantage when it comes to health, not because of qualities they're born with but because of socioeconomic factors they experience in life. The 2011 National Health Interview Survey performed by the Centers for Disease Control was the first national survey to include questions about ability to pay for food. Difficulty with paying for food, medicine, or both is a problem facing 1 out of 3 Americans. If better food options were available through food banks, soup kitchens, and other resources for low-income people, obesity and the chronic conditions that come along with it would be better controlled. A food desert is an area with restricted access to healthy foods due to a lack of supermarkets within a reasonable distance. These are often low-income neighborhoods with the majority of residents lacking transportation. There have been several grassroots movements since 1995 to encourage urban gardening, using vacant lots to grow food cultivated by local residents. Mobile fresh markets are another resource for residents in a "food desert", which are specially outfitted buses bringing affordable fresh fruits and vegetables to low-income neighborhoods. ===== Food education and guidance ===== It has been proposed that healthy longevity


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-2.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
== Child mortality == In 2010, 7.6 million children died before reaching the age of 5. While this is a decrease from 9.6 million in 2000, it was still far from the fourth Millennium Development Goal to decrease child mortality by two-thirds by 2015. Of these deaths, about 64% were due to infection including diarrhea, pneumonia, and malaria. About 40% of these deaths occurred in neonates (children ages 1–28 days) due to pre-term birth complications. The highest number of child deaths occurred in Africa and Southeast Asia. As of 2015 in Africa, almost no progress has been made in reducing neonatal death since 1990. In 2010, India, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pakistan, and China contributed to almost 50% of global child deaths. Targeting efforts in these countries is essential to reducing the global child death rate. Child mortality is caused by factors including poverty, environmental hazards, and lack of maternal education. In 2003, the World Health Organization created a list of interventions in the following table that were judged economically and operationally "feasible," based on the healthcare resources and infrastructure in 42 nations that contribute to 90% of all infant and child deaths. The table indicates how many


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-3.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States and Europe and is a major cause of death in other countries. Tobacco is an environmental carcinogen and the major underlying cause of lung cancer. Between 25% and 40% of all cancer deaths and about 90% of lung cancer cases are associated with tobacco use. Other carcinogens include asbestos and radioactive materials. Both smoking and second-hand exposure from other smokers can lead to lung cancer and eventually death. Prevention of tobacco use is paramount to prevention of lung cancer. Individual, community, and statewide interventions can prevent or cease tobacco use. 90% of adults in the U.S. who have ever smoked did so prior to the age of 20. In-school prevention/educational programs, as well as counseling resources, can help prevent and cease adolescent smoking. Other cessation techniques include group support programs, nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), hypnosis, and self-motivated behavioral change. Studies have shown long term success rates (>1 year) of 20% for hypnosis and 10%-20% for group therapy. Cancer screening programs serve as effective sources of secondary prevention. The Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins, and Memorial Sloan-Kettering hospitals conducted annual x-ray screenings and sputum cytology tests and found that


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-4.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Colorectal cancer ==== Colorectal cancer is globally the second most common cancer in women and the third-most common in men, and the fourth most common cause of cancer death after lung, stomach, and liver cancer, having caused 715,000 deaths in 2010. It is also highly preventable; about 80 percent of colorectal cancers begin as benign growths, commonly called polyps, which can be easily detected and removed during a colonoscopy. Other methods of screening for polyps and cancers include fecal occult blood testing. Lifestyle changes that may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer include increasing consumption of whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and reducing consumption of red meat. === Dementia === == Health disparities and barriers to accessing care == Access to healthcare and preventive health services is unequal, as is the quality of care received. A study conducted by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) revealed health disparities in the United States. In the United States, elderly adults (>65 years old) received worse care and had less access to care than their younger counterparts. The same trends are seen when comparing all racial minorities (black, Hispanic, Asian) to white patients, and low-income people to high-income people. Common


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-5.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
== Effectiveness == Preventive healthcare measures increase the quality of life. There are varying views on what constitutes a "good investment." Some argue that preventive health measures should save more money than they cost, when factoring in treatment costs in the absence of such measures. Others have argued in favor of "good value" or conferring significant health benefits even if the measures do not save money. Preventive health services comprise a myriad of different services, each of which can individually lead to net costs, savings, or neither. A 2010 study reported that in the United States, vaccinating children, cessation of smoking, daily prophylactic use of aspirin, and screening of breast and colorectal cancers had the most potential to prevent premature death. Preventive health measures that resulted in savings included vaccinating children and adults, smoking cessation, daily use of aspirin, and screening for issues with alcoholism, obesity, and vision failure. These authors estimated that if usage of these services in the United States increased to 90% of the population, there would be net savings of $3.7 billion, which comprised only about -0.2% of the total 2006 United States healthcare expenditure. Despite the potential for decreasing healthcare spending, utilization of healthcare resources


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-6.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
=== Economics of U.S. preventive care === As of 2009, the cost-effectiveness of preventive care was a highly debated topic. While some economists argue that preventive care is valuable and potentially cost saving, others believe it is a waste of resources. Preventive care is composed of a variety of clinical services and programs including annual doctor's check-ups, annual immunizations, and wellness programs; recent models show that these simple interventions can have significant economic impacts. === Clinical preventive services and programs === Research on preventive care addresses the question of whether it is cost saving or cost effective and whether there is an economics evidence base for health promotion and disease prevention. The need for and interest in preventive care is driven by the imperative to reduce health care costs while improving quality of care and the patient experience. Preventive care can lead to improved health outcomes and cost savings potential. Services such as health assessments/screenings, prenatal care, and telehealth and telemedicine can reduce morbidity or mortality with low cost or cost savings. Specifically, health assessments/screenings have cost savings potential, with varied cost-effectiveness based on screening and assessment type. Inadequate prenatal care can lead to an increased risk of prematurity, stillbirth,


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-7.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Affordable Care Act and preventive healthcare ==== The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, also known as just the Affordable Care Act or Obamacare, was passed and became law in the United States on March 23, 2010. The finalized and newly ratified law was to address many issues in the U.S. healthcare system, which included expansion of coverage, insurance market reforms, better quality, and the forecast of efficiency and costs. Under the insurance market reforms the act required that insurance companies no longer exclude people with pre-existing conditions, allow for children to be covered on their parents' plan until the age of 26, and expand appeals that dealt with reimbursement denials. The Affordable Care Act also banned the limited coverage imposed by health insurances, and insurance companies were to include coverage for preventive health care services. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force has categorized and rated preventive health services as either A or B, as to which insurance companies must comply and present full coverage. Not only has the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force provided graded preventive health services that are appropriate for coverage, they have also provided many recommendations to clinicians and insurers to promote better preventive care


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-8.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Health capital theory ==== The burden of preventable illness extends beyond the healthcare sector, incurring costs related to lost productivity among workers in the workforce. Indirect costs related to poor health behaviors and associated chronic disease costs U.S. employers billions of dollars each year. According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA), medical costs for employees with diabetes are twice as high as for workers without diabetes and are caused by work-related absenteeism ($5 billion), reduced productivity at work ($20.8 billion), inability to work due to illness-related disability ($21.6 billion), and premature mortality ($18.5 billion). Reported estimates of the cost burden due to increasingly high levels of overweight and obese members in the workforce vary, with best estimates suggesting 450 million more missed work days, resulting in $153 billion each year in lost productivity, according to the CDC Healthy Workforce. The health capital model explains how individual investments in health can increase earnings by "increasing the number of healthy days available to work and to earn income." In this context, health can be treated both as a consumption good, wherein individuals desire health because it improves quality of life in the present, and as an investment good because of its


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-9.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
Policies that address the obesity epidemic should be proactive and far-reaching, including a variety of stakeholders both in healthcare and in other sectors. Recommendations from the Institute of Medicine in 2012 suggest that "concerted action be taken across and within five environments (physical activity (PA), food and beverage, marketing and messaging, healthcare and worksites, and schools) and all sectors of society (including government, business and industry, schools, child care, urban planning, recreation, transportation, media, public health, agriculture, communities, and home) in order for obesity prevention efforts to truly be successful." There are dozens of current policies acting at either (or all of) the federal, state, local and school levels. Most states employ a physical education requirement of 150 minutes of physical education per week at school, a policy of the National Association of Sport and Physical Education. In some cities, including Philadelphia, a sugary food tax is employed. This is a part of an amendment to Title 19 of the Philadelphia Code, "Finance, Taxes and Collections", Chapter 19-4100, Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Tax that was approved 2016, which establishes an excise tax of $0.015 per fluid ounce on distributors of beverages sweetened with both caloric and non-caloric sweeteners. Distributors are required to


id: preventive-nutrition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_nutrition-0.md
category: reference
title: Preventive nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:04.138297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
Preventive nutrition is a branch of nutrition science with the goal of preventing, delaying, and/or reducing the impacts of disease and disease-related complications. It is concerned with a high level of personal well-being, disease prevention, and diagnosis of recurring health problems or symptoms of discomfort which are often precursors to health issues. The overweight and obese population numbers have increased over the last 40 years and numerous chronic diseases are associated with obesity. Preventive nutrition may assist in prolonging the onset of non-communicable diseases and may allow adults to experience more "healthy living years." There are various ways of educating the public about preventive nutrition. Information regarding preventive nutrition is often communicated through public health forums, government programs and policies, or nutritional education. For example, in the United States, preventive nutrition is taught to the public through the use of the food pyramid or MyPlate initiatives. == History == Preventive nutrition has been known about for a long time. The philosopher Hippocrates (460-377 BC) believed that nutrition had a significant impact on maintaining health and that the best way to prevent diseases was to "let food be your medicine and medicine be your food." Meyer-Abich (2005) also believed that nutrition


id: preventive-nutrition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_nutrition-1.md
category: reference
title: Preventive nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:04.138297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
== Education == Extreme diets, such as the ketogenic diet, may potentially have adverse effects and lack data on long-term outcomes. Therefore, it should be used as a tool, rather than a long term solution. An alternative to strict diets or to complement dietary approaches, is cultivating nutritional awareness and making proactive food choices. This is a sustainable method for maintaining good health and contributes to preventive nutrition. Being familiar with nutritional labels can inform dietary choices. Reading these labels increases awareness of the food content and our consumption habits, including quantities and macronutrients. In a four-week randomized control trial assessing the impact of three types of nutrition labels on consumer food purchases, the results indicated that "products for which participants viewed the label and subsequently purchased the product during the same shopping episode were significantly healthier than products where labels were viewed but the product was not subsequently purchased." The objective of preventive nutrition is to continually enhance one's awareness of food quantities, ingredients, and how specific foods impact the body. == Athletics == Athletes are held to a higher standard of nutrition and preventive nutrition contributes to injury prevention in athletes. According to a study done by the


id: proarrhythmia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proarrhythmia-0.md
category: reference
title: Proarrhythmia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proarrhythmia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:05.273346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proarrhythmia-20260505-0
summary:
Proarrhythmia is a new or more frequent occurrence of pre-existing arrhythmias, paradoxically precipitated by antiarrhythmic therapy, which means it is a side effect associated with the administration of some existing antiarrhythmic drugs, as well as drugs for other indications. In other words, it is a tendency of antiarrhythmic drugs to facilitate emergence of new arrhythmias. == Types of proarrhythmia == According to the Vaughan Williams classification (VW) of antiarrhythmic drugs, there are 3 main types of Proarrhythmia during treatment with various antiarrhythmic drugs for Atrial Fibrillation or Atrial flutter: === Ventricular proarrhythmia === Torsades de pointes (VW type IA and type III drugs) Sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia (usually VW type IC drugs) Sustained polymorphic ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation without long QT (VW types IA, IC, and III drugs) === Atrial proarrhythmia === Conversion of atrial fibrillation to flutter (usually VW type IC drugs or amiodarone). May be a desired effect. Increase of defibrillation threshold (a potential problem with VW type IC drugs) Provocation of recurrence (probably VW types IA, IC and III drugs). It is rare. === Abnormalities of conduction or impulse formation === Sinus node dysfunction, atrioventricular block (almost all drugs) Accelerate conduction over accessory pathway (digoxin, intravenous verapamil, or


id: procidentia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procidentia-0.md
category: reference
title: Procidentia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procidentia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:06.525615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: procidentia-20260505-0
summary:
Procidentia is a severe prolapse, the falling down of an organ from its normal anatomical position, usually referring to uterine prolapse. == See also == Uterine prolapse (and Female genital prolapse) Rectal prolapse Prolapse == References ==


id: prodromus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus-0.md
category: reference
title: Prodromus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:07.883218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prodromus-20260505-0
summary:
A prodromus ('forerunner' or 'precursor') aka prodrome is a term used in the natural sciences to describe a preliminary publication intended as the basis for a later, more comprehensive work. It is also a medical term used for a premonitory symptom, that is, a symptom indicating the onset of a disease. The origin of the word is from the 19th century: via French from New Latin prodromus, from Greek prodromos, meaning forerunner. Nicolas Steno's De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus, one of the early treatises attempting to explain the occurrence of fossils in solid rock. Ludovico Marracci's Arabic edition and Latin translation of the Qur’an was published in 1698. His ‘Introduction’ (Prodromus) had been published seven years earlier. Other notable prodromi include Prodromus Entomology, Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. == See also == White paper == References ==


id: prognosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prognosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Prognosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prognosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:09.032566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prognosis-20260505-0
summary:
Prognosis (Ancient Greek: πρόγνωσις 'fore-knowing, foreseeing'; pl.: prognoses) is a medical term for predicting the likelihood or expected development of a disease, including whether the signs and symptoms will improve or worsen (and how quickly) or remain stable over time; expectations of quality of life, such as the ability to carry out daily activities; the potential for complications and associated health issues; and the likelihood of survival (including life expectancy). A prognosis is made on the basis of the normal course of the diagnosed disease, the individual's physical and mental condition, the available treatments, and additional factors. A complete prognosis includes the expected duration, function, and description of the course of the disease, such as progressive decline, intermittent crisis, or sudden, unpredictable crisis. When applied to large statistical populations, prognostic estimates can be very accurate: for example the statement "45% of patients with severe septic shock will die within 28 days" can be made with some confidence, because previous research found that this proportion of patients died. This statistical information does not apply to the prognosis for each individual patient, because patient-specific factors can substantially change the expected course of the disease: additional information is needed to determine whether a


id: progression-free-survival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progression-free_survival-0.md
category: reference
title: Progression-free survival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progression-free_survival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:10.257154+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progression-free-survival-20260505-0
summary:
Progression-free survival (PFS) is "the length of time during and after the treatment of a disease, such as cancer, that a patient lives with the disease but it does not get worse". In oncology, PFS usually refers to situations in which a tumor is present, as demonstrated by laboratory testing, radiologic testing, or clinically. Similarly, "disease-free survival" is the length of time after patients have received treatment and have no detectable disease. Time to progression (TTP) does not count patients who die from other causes but is otherwise a close equivalent to PFS (unless there are many such events). The FDA gives separate definitions and prefers PFS. == Background == PFS is widely used as a surrogate endpoint in oncology. The definition of "progression" generally involves imaging techniques (plain radiograms, CT scans, MRI, PET scans, ultrasounds) or other aspects: biochemical progression may be defined on the basis of an increase in a tumor marker (such as CA125 for epithelial ovarian cancer or PSA for prostate cancer). In clinical trials, what precisely constitutes an "event" in PFS (an event being either disease progression or death) may vary depending on the specific disease and/or the toxicological characteristics of the treatments in the


id: progressive-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Progressive disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:11.479868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progressive-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Progressive disease or progressive illness is a disease or physical ailment whose course in most cases is the worsening, growth, or spread of the disease. This may happen until death, serious debility, or organ failure occurs. Some progressive diseases can be halted and reversed by treatment (surgical, dietary, or lifestyle interventions). Many can be slowed by medical therapy. Some cannot be altered by current treatments. Though the time distinctions are imprecise, diseases can be rapidly progressive (typically days to weeks) or slowly progressive (months to years). The time course of a disease affects whether it is considered acute or chronic. By definition, virtually all slowly progressive diseases are also chronic diseases. Biologically, many of these are also referred to as degenerative diseases due to the cellular changes. Not all chronic diseases are progressive: a chronic, non-progressive disease may be referred to as a static condition. Progressive disease can also be a clinical endpoint i.e. an endpoint in a clinical trial. A progressive disease should not be confused with a terminal disease, the difference being that a terminal disease invariably leads to death. == Examples == There are examples of slowly and rapidly progressive diseases affecting all organ systems and parts


id: protocol-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Protocol system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:12.693353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: protocol-system-20260505-0
summary:
A computer-based protocol system is a paradigm providing a set of tools which allow health care providers access to current guidelines which they can apply in practice. Studies have shown that protocols can aid in optimising patient care. There are two types of protocol systems: passive and active. In a healthcare setting, a protocol, also called a medical guideline, is a set of instructions which describe a process to be followed to investigate a particular set of findings in a patient, or the method which should be followed to control a certain disease. == Protocol systems == Passive Passive protocol systems are a source of information which health care providers have the freedom to choose to consult or not; they are not intrinsically incorporated into the healthcare process. The purpose of a passive protocol system is to give healthcare providers access to information which may remind healthcare providers of steps during patient care which may otherwise be forgotten or changed. Active Active protocol systems are specific guidelines for healthcare providers to follow. They are a central way which healthcare is delivered. Examples of active protocol systems include trigger-automated order entry systems and appointment scheduling. Active protocol systems may provide an


id: proximodistal-trend-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximodistal_trend-0.md
category: reference
title: Proximodistal trend
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximodistal_trend
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:14.007881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proximodistal-trend-20260505-0
summary:
The proximodistal trend is the tendency for more general functions of limbs to develop before more specific or fine motor skills. It comes from the Latin words proxim- which means "close" and "-dis-" meaning "away from", because the trend essentially describes a path from the center outward. == References ==


id: pulmonary-consolidation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_consolidation-0.md
category: reference
title: Pulmonary consolidation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_consolidation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:15.280779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pulmonary-consolidation-20260505-0
summary:
A pulmonary consolidation is a region of normally compressible lung tissue that has been filled with liquid instead of air. The condition is marked by induration (swelling or hardening of normally soft tissue) of a normally aerated lung. It is considered a radiologic sign. Consolidation occurs through accumulation of inflammatory cellular exudate in the alveoli and adjoining ducts. The liquid can be pulmonary edema, inflammatory exudate, pus, inhaled water, or blood (from bronchial tree or hemorrhage from a pulmonary artery). Consolidation must be present to diagnose pneumonia: the signs of lobar pneumonia are characteristic and clinically referred to as consolidation. == Signs == Signs that consolidation may have occurred include: Expansion of the thorax on inspiration is reduced on the affected side Vocal fremitus is increased on the affected side Percussion note is impaired in the affected area Breath sounds are bronchial Possible medium, late, or pan-inspiratory crackles Vocal resonance is increased. Here, the patient's voice (or whisper, as in whispered pectoriloquy) can be heard more clearly when there is consolidation, as opposed to the healthy lung where speech sounds muffled. A pleural rub may be present. A lower PAO2 than calculated in the alveolar gas equation == Diagnosis ==


id: pulmonary-drug-delivery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_drug_delivery-0.md
category: reference
title: Pulmonary drug delivery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_drug_delivery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:16.581186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pulmonary-drug-delivery-20260505-0
summary:
Pulmonary drug delivery is a route of administration in which patients use an inhaler to inhale their medications and drugs are absorbed into the bloodstream via the lung mucous membrane. This technique is most commonly used in the treatment of lung diseases, for example, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Different types of inhalers include metered-dose inhalers (MDI), dry powder inhalers (DPI), soft mist inhalers (SMI) and nebulizers. The rate and efficacy of pulmonary drug delivery are affected by drug particle properties, breathing patterns and respiratory tract geometry. Pulmonary drug delivery minimizes systemic side effects and increases bioavailability owing to the localised absorption through the lung. The disadvantages include possible drug irritation to the lung, limited drug dissolution, relatively high drug clearance, and the drug effectiveness depends on the inhaler techniques and patients' compliance. Drug formulation can be challenging since the drug has to bypass the defence mechanisms in the respiratory tract. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug in elderly patients can also be particularly difficult to predict due to age-related changes in body composition. Ongoing developments in inhaler device engineering, technology and drug formulations may improve the efficacy and overcome the challenges of pulmonary drug delivery. Recent advancements


id: pulmonary-drug-delivery-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_drug_delivery-1.md
category: reference
title: Pulmonary drug delivery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_drug_delivery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:16.581186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pulmonary-drug-delivery-20260505-0
summary:
=== Drug particle properties === Particle diameter and particle density significantly affect the drug deposition pattern in the respiratory tract, and are the most common considerations for formulation of pulmonary drugs. Drug particles with diameter larger than 5 μm, predominantly deposit on the upper respiratory tract, limiting the amount of drug particles reaching the lung. Moderate-size drug particles with diameter between 2 μm to 5 μm, primarily deposit on the central and small airways. Small drug particles with diameter smaller than 2 μm, predominantly deposit on the alveolar sacs. Other factors affecting deposition of drugs include particle electrostatic charge, particle shape and particle volatility. Electrostatic charge of the drug particles enhances deposition due to the formation of electrostatic force on the wall of the respiratory tract. Non-spherical particle shape has a different entry pathway compared to that of the spherical particles, causing a change in deposition pattern. Particle volatility affects particle diameter due to the change of particle diameter during condensation and evaporation. === Breathing patterns === Drug particle deposition is associated with mean residence time and tidal volume. An increase in mean residence time or tidal volume enhances drug deposition in lungs, while an increase in air flow decreases


id: pulmonary-wedge-pressure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure-0.md
category: reference
title: Pulmonary wedge pressure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:17.755342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pulmonary-wedge-pressure-20260505-0
summary:
The pulmonary wedge pressure, also called pulmonary arterial wedge pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, pulmonary artery occlusion pressure, or cross-sectional pressure, is the pressure measured by wedging a pulmonary artery catheter with an inflated balloon into a small pulmonary arterial branch. It estimates the left atrial pressure. Pulmonary venous wedge pressure is not synonymous with the above; it has been shown to correlate with pulmonary artery pressures in studies, albeit unreliably. Physiologically, distinctions can be drawn among pulmonary artery pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, pulmonary venous pressure and left atrial pressure, but not all of these can be measured in a clinical context. Noninvasive estimation techniques have been proposed. == Clinical significance == Because of the large compliance of pulmonary circulation, it provides an indirect measure of the left atrial pressure. For example, it is considered the gold standard for determining the cause of acute pulmonary edema; this is likely to be present at a pulmonary wedge pressure of greater than 20mmHg. It has also been used to diagnose severity of left ventricular failure and mitral stenosis, given that elevated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure strongly suggests failure of left ventricular output. Traditionally, it was believed that pulmonary edema with normal


id: pursed-lip-breathing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursed-lip_breathing-0.md
category: reference
title: Pursed-lip breathing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursed-lip_breathing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:19.004998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pursed-lip-breathing-20260505-0
summary:
Pursed-lip breathing (PLB) is a breathing technique that consists of exhaling through tightly pressed (pursed) lips and inhaling through the nose with the mouth closed. == Uses == Pursed-lip breathing can help to ease shortness of breath in people with a variety of lung problems. It can be used effectively during asthma attacks to slow breathing and reduce the work of breathing. Physicians, nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, and respiratory therapists teach this technique to their patients to ease shortness of breath and to promote deep breathing, also referred to as abdominal or diaphragmatic breathing. The purpose of PLB is to create back-pressure inside airways to splint them open; moving air thus takes less work. Breathing through pursed lips on both exhalation and inhalation is one of the signs that health workers use to detect possible chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in patients. COPD Canada suggests that using PLB has positive effects in treating stress- and anxiety-related disorders. == Mechanism of action == Pursed-lip breathing increases positive pressure generated in the conducting branches of the lungs. This can hold open bronchioles in patients with high lung compliance, such as those with emphysema. Pursed-lip breathing also accesses the parasympathetic nervous system,


id: pus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pus-0.md
category: reference
title: Pus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:20.218358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pus-20260505-0
summary:
Pus is an exudate, typically white-yellow, yellow, or yellow-brown, formed at the site of inflammation during infections, regardless of cause. An accumulation of pus in an enclosed tissue space is known as an abscess, a visible collection of pus within or beneath the epidermis is known as a pustule, pimple or spot, and a similar collection of pus around a hair follicle, is known as a boil. == Terminology == Suppuration is the formation or discharge of pus or may refer to pus itself. The adjectives purulent and suppurative describe the characteristic of containing, relating to, consisting of, or being pus or being related to suppuration. For example, purulent discharge is synonymous with pus while mucopurulent discharge refers to exudate containing both mucus and pus. Seropurulent fluid or discharge contains both serum and pus. A wound or lesion may be described as suppurative or purulent if contains or expresses pus. Pyogenic means producing, generating, or characterized by the expression of pus. The term is often used to describe pyogenic bacteria, organisms whose infections frequently result in pus formation. A pyogenic infection is an infection that is characterized by severe local inflammation, usually with pus formation, generally caused by one of


id: pyonephrosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyonephrosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Pyonephrosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyonephrosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:21.494633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pyonephrosis-20260505-0
summary:
Pyonephrosis (from Greek pyon 'pus' and nephros 'kidney') is a dangerous kidney infection that is characterized by pus accumulation in the renal collecting system. It is linked to renal collecting system blockage and suppurative renal parenchymal destruction, which result in complete or nearly complete kidney failure. == Signs and symptoms == Clinical symptoms in patients with pyonephrosis can range from frank sepsis (15%) to asymptomatic bacteriuria. Upon physical examination, the hydronephrotic kidney may be linked to a palpable abdominal mass. On rare occasions, the hydronephrotic kidney infection may burst spontaneously into the peritoneal cavity, resulting in diffuse peritonitis and sepsis in certain patients. == Cause == Pyonephrosis can result from an upper urinary tract infection combined with blockage and hydronephrosis. == Diagnosis == When a patient has suspected pyonephrosis, the initial workup should consist of a complete blood count, serum chemistry with blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine, blood cultures, and urinalysis with culture It is generally not recommended to perform routine radiographic imaging on patients who have simple urinary tract infections. When patients do not improve quickly with appropriate antibiotics, however, appropriate radiographic studies help diagnose pyonephrosis, emphysematous pyelonephritis, and renal and/or perirenal abscesses. == Treatment == Together with


id: pyramidalis-anterior-pubic-ligament-adductor-longus-complex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramidalis–anterior_pubic_ligament–adductor_longus_complex-0.md
category: reference
title: Pyramidalis–anterior pubic ligament–adductor longus complex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramidalis–anterior_pubic_ligament–adductor_longus_complex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:22.613323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pyramidalis-anterior-pubic-ligament-adductor-longus-complex-20260505-0
summary:
The Pyramidalis–anterior pubic ligament–adductor longus complex, or the PLAC, is an anatomical concept in Sports medicine. The PLAC concept is used as a basis to classify type of adductor longus avulsions. The PLAC concept was developed in order to provide consistency in the diagnose of different injury patterns seen with adductor longus avulsions in athletes. The PLAC injury classification explains the symptoms and clinical presentation seen with acute adductor avulsions. The PLAC classification doesn't determine whether surgery should be performed, but it informs the surgical repair strategy if operative treatment is chosen. It is a tool for future research comparing surgical and conservative management outcomes through consistent anatomical classification. For MRI imaging the PLAC classification captures the structural complexity of adductor longus avulsions and provides a standardised anatomical framework for describing the related injuries. The MRI imaging protocol was developed to consistently and accurately define the injury patterns seen with adductor longus avlusions, replacing the outdated grading system. PLAC injuries are most often seen in professional athletes, in sports such as association football, rugby, martial arts and ice hockey, and often the sole cause of pubalgia in athletes, and/or associated with sports hernias. The PLAC concept was defined by Belgian


id: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)-0.md
category: reference
title: Quality of life (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:23.761946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
In healthcare, quality of life is an assessment of how the individual's well-being may be affected over time by a disease, disability or disorder. == Measurement == Early versions of healthcare-related quality of life measures referred to simple assessments of physical abilities by an external rater (for example, the patient is able to get up, eat and drink, and take care of personal hygiene without any help from others) or even to a single measurement (for example, the angle to which a limb could be flexed). The current concept of health-related quality of life acknowledges that subjects put their actual situation in relation to their personal expectation. The latter can vary over time, and react to external influences such as length and severity of illness, family support, etc. As with any situation involving multiple perspectives, patients' and physicians' rating of the same objective situation have been found to differ significantly. Consequently, health-related quality of life is now usually assessed using patient questionnaires. These are often multidimensional and cover physical, social, emotional, cognitive, work- or role-related, and possibly spiritual aspects as well as a wide variety of disease related symptoms, therapy induced side effects, and even the financial impact of medical


id: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)-1.md
category: reference
title: Quality of life (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:23.761946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
CDC HRQOL–14 "Healthy Days Measure": A questionnaire with four base questions and ten optional questions used by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (https://www.cdc.gov/hrqol/hrqol14_measure.htm). Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36, SF-12, SF-8): One example of a widely used questionnaire assessing physical and mental health-related quality of life. Used in clinical trials and population health assessments. Suitable for pharmacoeconomic analysis, benefiting healthcare rationing. EQ-5D a simple quality of life questionnaire (https://euroqol.org). AQoL-8D a comprehensive questionnaire that assesses HR-QoL over 8 domains - independent living, happiness, mental health, coping, relationships, self-worth, pain, senses (https://www.aqol.com.au). Disease, disorder or condition specific instruments King's Health Questionnaire (KHQ) International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire-Short Form (ICIQ-SF) in urinary incontinence, the LC -13 Lung Cancer module from the EORTC Quality of Life questionnaire library, or the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) ). Manchester Short Assessment of Quality of Life: 16-item questionnaire for use in psychiatric populations. ECOG, most commonly used to evaluate the impact of cancer on people. NYHA scale, most commonly used to evaluate the impact of heart disease on individuals. EORTC measurement system for use in clinical trials in oncology. These tools are robustly tested and validated and translated. A large amount of reference data


id: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)-2.md
category: reference
title: Quality of life (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:23.761946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research === Research revolving around Health Related Quality of Life is extremely important because of the implications that it can have on current and future treatments and health protocols. Thereby, validated health-related quality of life questionnaires can become an integral part of clinical trials in determining the trial drugs' value in a cost-benefit analysis. For example, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is using their health-related quality of life survey, Healthy Day Measure, as part of research to identify health disparities, track population trends, and build broad coalitions around a measure of population health. This information can then be used by multiple levels of government or other officials to "increase quality and years of life" and to "eliminate health disparities" for equal opportunity. Within the field of childhood cancer, quality of life is often measured both during and after treatment. International comparisons of both outcomes and predictors are hindered by the use of a large number of different measurements. Recently, a first step for a joint international consensus statement for measuring quality of survival for patients with childhood cancer has been established. === Ethics === The quality of life ethic refers to an ethical principle that uses


id: quaternary-prevention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_prevention-0.md
category: reference
title: Quaternary prevention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_prevention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:25.016088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quaternary-prevention-20260505-0
summary:
Quaternary prevention means avoiding unnecessary medical interventions. They are the actions taken to identify an individual at risk of overmedicalisation, to protect them from new medical invasion, and to suggest interventions which are ethically acceptable. The term was coined by the Belgian general practitioner Marc Jamoulle, Quaternary prevention is the set of activities to mitigate or avoid the consequences of unnecessary or excessive intervention of the health system, i.e.iatrogenic damage. == Definition == The Wonca International Dictionary for General/Family Practice defines it as "action taken to identify patient at risk of overmedicalisation, to protect him from new medical invasion, and to suggest to him interventions, which are ethically acceptable". Alternatively, quaternary prevention has been defined as an "action taken to protect individuals from medical interventions that are likely to cause more harm than good." == Per Jamoulle == Jamoulle divided medical situations into four quadrants based on if the patient was experiencing illness (i.e. if the patient experienced subjective poor health) and if a health care provider had identified disease (constructed based on diagnostic criteria), with a different type of prevention happening in each: Primary prevention when both illness and disease are absent Secondary prevention when illness is absent but


id: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation-0.md
category: reference
title: Radiofrequency ablation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:26.338818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-0
summary:
Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is a medical procedure in which heat generated from medium frequency alternating current (in the range of 350–500 kHz) is used to selectively destroy dysfunctional tissue such as malfunctioning parts in the electrical conduction system of the heart, tumors, and sensory nerves. RFA is generally conducted in the outpatient setting, using either a local anesthetic or twilight anesthesia. When it is delivered via catheter, it is called radiofrequency catheter ablation. RFA also forms the basis behind electrosurgery. Two advantages of medium frequency current (over previously used low frequency AC or pulses of DC) are that it does not directly stimulate nerves or heart muscle, and therefore can often be used without the need for general anesthesia, and that it is specific for treating the desired tissue without significant collateral damage. Due to this, RFA is an alternative for eligible patients who have comorbidities or do not want to undergo surgery. Documented benefits have led to RFA becoming widely used during the 21st century. RFA procedures are performed under image guidance (such as X-ray screening, CT scan or ultrasound) by an interventional pain specialist (such as an anesthesiologist), interventional radiologist, otolaryngologists, a gastrointestinal or surgical endoscopist, or a


id: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation-1.md
category: reference
title: Radiofrequency ablation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:26.338818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-0
summary:
== Aesthetics dermatology == Radiofrequency ablation is also used in dermatosurgical applications in the form of electrosurgery. Depending on the output waveform used, different modes of ablation can be achieved, including are electrosection (cutting), electrocoagulation, electrodessication and fulguration. The use of radiofrequency ablation has obtained importance as it can be used to treat most of the skin lesions with minimal side effects and complications. == Varicose veins == Radiofrequency ablation is a minimally invasive procedure used in the treatment of varicose veins. It is an alternative to the traditional stripping operation. Under ultrasound guidance, a radiofrequency catheter is inserted into the abnormal vein and the vessel treated with radio-energy, resulting in closure of the involved vein. Radiofrequency ablation is used to treat the great saphenous vein, the small saphenous vein, and the perforator veins. The latter are connecting veins that transport blood from the superficial veins to the deep veins. Branch varicose veins are then usually treated with other minimally invasive procedures, such as ambulatory phlebectomy, sclerotherapy, or foam sclerotherapy. Currently, the VNUS ClosureRFS stylet is the only device specifically cleared by FDA for endovenous ablation of perforator veins. The possibility of skin burn during the procedure is very small,


id: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation-2.md
category: reference
title: Radiofrequency ablation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:26.338818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-0
summary:
== Barrett's esophagus == Radiofrequency ablation has been shown to be a safe and effective treatment for Barrett's esophagus. The balloon-based radiofrequency procedure was invented by Robert A. Ganz, Roger Stern and Brian Zelickson in 1999 (System and Method for Treating Abnormal Tissue in the Human Esophagus). While the person is sedated, a catheter is inserted into the esophagus and radiofrequency energy is delivered to the diseased tissue. This outpatient procedure typically lasts from fifteen to thirty minutes. Two months after the procedure, the physician performs an upper endoscopic examination to assess the esophagus for residual Barrett's esophagus. If any Barrett's esophagus is found, the disease can be treated with a focal RFA device. Between 80 and 90% or greater of people in numerous clinical trials have shown complete eradication of Barrett's esophagus in approximately two to three treatments with a favorable safety profile. The treatment of Barrett's esophagus by RFA is durable for up to 5 years. == Thyroid nodules == Radiofrequency ablation has been used successfully on benign thyroid nodules for decades, most notably in Europe, South America and Korea. In the United States, the FDA approved the use of RFA techniques for thyroid nodules in 2018. Since


id: rapid-antigen-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_antigen_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Rapid antigen test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_antigen_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:27.654819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rapid-antigen-test-20260505-0
summary:
A rapid antigen test (RAT), sometimes called a rapid antigen detection test (RADT), antigen rapid test (ART), or loosely just a rapid test, is a rapid diagnostic test suitable for point-of-care testing that directly detects the presence or absence of an antigen. RATs are a type of lateral flow test detecting antigens, rather than antibodies (antibody tests) or nucleic acid (nucleic acid tests). Rapid tests generally give a result in 5 to 30 minutes, require minimal training or infrastructure, and have significant cost advantages. Rapid antigen tests for the detection of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, have been commonly used since the COVID-19 pandemic. For many years, an early and major class of RATs—the rapid strep tests for streptococci—were so often the referent when RATs or RADTs were mentioned that the two latter terms were often loosely treated as synonymous with those. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, awareness of RATs is no longer limited to health professionals and COVID-19 has become the expected referent, so more precise usage is required in other circumstances. RATs are based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction. They detect antigens (generally a protein on the surface of a virus). A linear chromatography substrate (a porous


id: rapid-diagnostic-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Rapid diagnostic test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:28.836706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rapid-diagnostic-test-20260505-0
summary:
A rapid diagnostic test (RDT) is a medical diagnostic test that is quick and easy to perform. RDTs are suitable for preliminary or emergency medical screening and for use in medical facilities with limited resources. They also allow point-of-care testing in primary care for things that formerly only a laboratory test could measure. They provide same-day results within two hours, typically in approximately 20 minutes. The European Union defines that a rapid test means qualitative or semi-quantitative in vitro-diagnostic medical devices, used singly or in a small series, which involve non-automated procedures and have been designed to give a fast result. Lateral flow tests are probably the most known type of rapid diagnostic tests, similar to pregnancy tests, but there exist other systems as dipsticks, vertical flow, etc. Anything that can be used at bedside (point-of-care) of the patient. Emerging lateral flow technology, the Cornell FeverPhone, has been validated to differentiate causes of acute febrile illness such as Dengue Virus, Chikugunya Virus and Malaria using a single drop of blood in about 15 minutes. == Examples == Some examples of RDTs are listed below: Rapid antibody tests Rapid HIV test Rapid plasma reagin Rapid antigen tests Rapid COVID-19 test Rapid


id: rapid-strep-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_strep_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Rapid strep test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_strep_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:30.077360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rapid-strep-test-20260505-0
summary:
The rapid strep test (RST) is a rapid antigen detection test (RADT) that is widely used in clinics to assist in the diagnosis of bacterial pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci (GAS), sometimes termed strep throat. There are currently several types of rapid strep test in use, each employing a distinct technology. However, they all work by detecting the presence of GAS in the throat of a person by responding to GAS-specific antigens on a throat swab. == Medical use == A rapid strep test may assist a clinician in deciding whether to prescribe an antibiotic to a person with pharyngitis, a common infection of the throat. Viral infections are responsible for the majority of pharyngitis, but a significant proportion (20% to 40% in children and 5% to 15% in adults) is caused by bacterial infection. The symptoms of viral and bacterial infection may be indistinguishable, but only bacterial pharyngitis can be effectively treated by antibiotics. Since the major cause of bacterial pharyngitis is GAS, the presence of this organism in a person's throat may be seen as a necessary condition for prescribing antibiotics. GAS pharyngitis is a self-limiting infection that will usually resolve within a week without medication. However,


id: regression-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Regression (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:31.331934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regression-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Regression in medicine is the partial or complete reversal of a disease's signs and symptoms. Clinically, regression generally refers to a decrease in severity of symptoms without completely disappearing. At a later point, symptoms may return. These symptoms are then called recidive. In cancer, regression refers to a specific decrease in the size or extent of a tumour. In histopathology, histological regression is one or more areas within a tumor in which neoplastic cells have disappeared or decreased in number. In melanomas, this means complete or partial disappearance from areas of the dermis (and occasionally from the epidermis), which have been replaced by fibrosis, accompanied by melanophages, new blood vessels, and a variable degree of inflammation. == References ==


id: relapsing-remitting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relapsing–remitting-0.md
category: reference
title: Relapsing–remitting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relapsing–remitting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:32.477854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relapsing-remitting-20260505-0
summary:
Relapsing–remitting is a medical term referring to a presentation of disease symptoms that become worse over time (relapsing), followed by periods of less severe symptoms that do not completely cease (partial remitting). The term is used to describe a type of multiple sclerosis called relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis, where unpredictable relapses are followed by remission for months to years. The term is also used to describe palindromic rheumatism in the context of rheumatoid arthritis, catatonia, lupus, mental disorders, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. == References ==


id: remission-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remission_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Remission (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remission_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:33.706636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: remission-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Remission is either the reduction or disappearance of the signs and symptoms of a disease. The term may also be used to refer to the period during which this reduction occurs. A remission may be considered a partial remission or a complete remission. Each disease, type of disorder, or clinical trial can have its own definition of a partial remission. For example, a partial remission for cancer may be defined as a 50% or greater reduction in the measurable parameters of tumor growth as may be found on physical examination, radiologic study, or by biomarker levels from a blood or urine test. A complete remission, also called a full remission, is a total disappearance of the signs and symptoms of a disease. A person whose condition is in complete remission may be considered cured or recovered. Relapse is a term to describe returning symptoms of the disease after a period of remission. In cancer-treatment, doctors usually avoid the term "cured" and instead prefer the term "no evidence of disease" (NED) to refer to a complete remission of cancer, which does not rule out the possibility of relapse. In mental disorders, there is generally no distinction between partial remission and complete


id: responsible-drug-use-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use-0.md
category: reference
title: Responsible drug use
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:34.912036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: responsible-drug-use-20260505-0
summary:
Responsible drug use seeks to maximize the benefits and minimize the risks associated with psychoactive drug use. For illegal psychoactive drugs that are not diverted prescription controlled substances, some critics believe that illegal recreational drug use is inherently irresponsible, due to the unpredictable and unmonitored strength and purity of the drugs and the risks of addiction, infection, and other side effects. Nevertheless, harm reduction advocates claim that the user can be responsible by employing the same general principles applicable to the use of alcohol: avoiding hazardous situations, excessive doses, and hazardous combinations of drugs; avoiding injection; and not using drugs at the same time as activities that may be unsafe without a sober state. Drug use can be thought of as an activity that is potentially beneficial but also potentially risky. Similar to other risky activities such as skydiving or mountain climbing, the varied risks of drug use can be minimized by using harm-reduction strategies such as education, caution, and common sense. These advocates also point out that government action (or inaction) makes responsible drug use more difficult by artificially increasing risks, such as by making drugs of known purity and strength unavailable due to prohibition. == Harm reduction ==


id: responsible-drug-use-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use-1.md
category: reference
title: Responsible drug use
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:34.912036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: responsible-drug-use-20260505-0
summary:
understanding and educating oneself on the effects, risks, side effects and legal status of the drug they are taking measuring accurate dosages, and take other precautions to reduce the risk of overdose when taking drugs where an overdose is possible if possible, drug checking all substances before use to determine their purity and strength attempting to gain the most pure and high-quality drugs, laced with no cutting agent at best such as by buying on darknet markets using drugs only in relaxed and responsible social situations as altered consciousness can be inappropriate in potentially dangerous or unknown settings avoiding driving, operating heavy machinery, or otherwise situate themselves directly or indirectly responsible for the safety or care of another person while intoxicated and discouraging persons from operating a motor vehicle while intoxicated having a trip sitter (or "copilot") when taking hallucinogenic drugs taking a small dose first when taking a new drug ("start low and go slow") taking the smallest dose of a recreational drug that will produce the desired effects using recreational drugs in moderation, setting reasonable limits on the consumption and not allowing drug use to overshadow other aspects of their life (i.e. financial and social responsibilities) avoiding mixing


id: responsible-drug-use-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use-2.md
category: reference
title: Responsible drug use
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:34.912036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: responsible-drug-use-20260505-0
summary:
== Organizations == Many organizations exist to promote responsible drug use and harm reduction throughout the world. Some, such as Students for Sensible Drug Policy or Drug Policy Alliance, are primarily activist groups concerned with drug policy reform, promoting scientific research on drugs, and opposing stigma and misinformation about drug use and drug users. Others exist primarily as drug testing services for drug users (e.g. Energy Control or DrugsData), or as supervised injection services (e.g. Insite), or as informational sources (e.g. Bluelight or Erowid). Governments have begun to address responsible drug use within their respective jurisdictions. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services addresses harm reduction through the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration as a part of the department's Overdose Prevention Strategy. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Zinberg, N. E. (1984) Drug, Set, And Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use (New Haven: Yale University Press) ISBN 0-300-03110-6 == External links == Fact sheets on responsible recreational drug use Towards a Culture of Responsible Psychoactive Drug Use Fundamentals of Responsible Psychoactive Use, Erowid === Harm reduction === The History of Harm Reduction SOM.NIT // Risk reduction associated with recreational drug consumption


id: review-of-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: Review of systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:36.064738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: review-of-systems-20260505-0
summary:
A review of systems (ROS), also called a systems enquiry or systems review, is a technique used by healthcare providers for eliciting a medical history from a patient. It is often structured as a component of an admission note covering the organ systems, with a focus upon the subjective symptoms perceived by the patient (as opposed to the objective signs perceived by the clinician). Along with the physical examination, it can be particularly useful in identifying conditions that do not have precise diagnostic tests. == Examples == Whatever system a specific condition may seem restricted to, it may be reasonable to review all the other systems in a comprehensive history. Different sources describe slightly different systems of organizing the organ systems. However, the following are examples of what can be included. Unspecified and other symptoms can't consider for both HPI and ROS: There are 14 systems recognized by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services: The questions may be asked of the patient in a "head to toe" manner. == Relationship to history == For CMS, a "problem pertinent" ROS is limited to the problem(s) identified in the HPI; an "extended" ROS covers an additional 2 to 9 systems, and


id: right-atrial-pressure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_atrial_pressure-0.md
category: reference
title: Right atrial pressure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_atrial_pressure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:37.358360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: right-atrial-pressure-20260505-0
summary:
Right atrial pressure (RAP) is the blood pressure in the right atrium of the heart. RAP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart to pump the blood into the arterial system. RAP is often nearly identical to central venous pressure (CVP), although the two terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the venae cavae and the right atrium. CVP and RAP can differ when venous tone (i.e the degree of venous constriction) is altered. This can be graphically depicted as changes in the slope of the venous return (VR) plotted against right atrial pressure (where central venous pressure (CVP) increases, but right atrial pressure (RAP) stays the same; VR = CVP − RAP). == Factors affecting RAP == Factors that increase RAP include: Hypervolemia Forced exhalation Tension pneumothorax Heart failure Pleural effusion Decreased cardiac output Cardiac tamponade Mechanical ventilation and the application of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) Pulmonary Hypertension Pulmonary Embolism Left to right shunted Atrial Septal Defect Factors that decrease RAP include: Hypovolemia Deep inhalation Distributive shock == See also == Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure Jugular venous pressure Central venous pressure == References == == External


id: right-to-left-shunt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-to-left_shunt-0.md
category: reference
title: Right-to-left shunt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-to-left_shunt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:38.670025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: right-to-left-shunt-20260505-0
summary:
A right-to-left shunt is a cardiac shunt which allows blood to flow from the right heart to the left heart. This terminology is used both for the abnormal state in humans and for normal physiological shunts in reptiles. == Clinical Significance == A right-to-left shunt occurs when: there is an opening or passage between the atria, ventricles, and/or great vessels; and, right heart pressure is higher than left heart pressure and/or the shunt has a one-way valvular opening. Small physiological, or "normal", shunts are seen due to the return of bronchial artery blood and coronary blood through the Thebesian veins, which are deoxygenated, to the left side of the heart. === Causes === Congenital defects can lead to right-to-left shunting immediately after birth: Persistent truncus arteriosus (minimal cyanosis) Transposition of great vessels Tricuspid atresia Tetralogy of Fallot Total anomalous pulmonary venous return A mnemonic to remember the conditions associated with right-to-left shunting involves the numbers 1-5, as follows: 1 Combination Vessel: Persistent truncus arteriosus (minimal cyanosis) 2 Vessels involved: Transposition of great vessels 3 Leaflets: Tricuspid atresia 4 Tetra- prefix: Tetralogy of Fallot 5 Words: Total anomalous pulmonary venous return A mainstem intubation with an endotracheal tube can lead to


id: risk-of-infection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_of_infection-0.md
category: reference
title: Risk of infection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_of_infection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:39.833246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: risk-of-infection-20260505-0
summary:
Risk of infection is a nursing diagnosis which is defined as the state in which an individual is at risk to be infected by an opportunistic or pathogenic agent (e.g., viruses, fungi, bacteria, protozoa, or other parasites) from endogenous or exogenous sources. The diagnosis was approved by NANDA in 1986. Although anyone can become infected by a pathogen, patients with this diagnosis are at an elevated risk and extra infection controls should be considered. == Endogenous sources == The risk of infection depends on a number of endogenous sources. Chronic blood loss leads to iron and nutrient deficiencies essential for immune cell production and function, thereby decreasing the body’s resistance to infection and placing the patient at increased risk for infection. == Assessment == The patient should be asked about a history of repeated infections, symptoms of infection, recent travel to high-risk areas, and their immunization history. They should also be assessed for objective signs such as the presence of wounds, fever, or signs of nutritional deficiency == Intervention == The specific nursing interventions will depend on the nature and severity of the risk. Patients should be taught how to recognize the signs of infection and how to reduce their


id: risk-of-mortality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_of_mortality-0.md
category: reference
title: Risk of mortality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_of_mortality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:41.068791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: risk-of-mortality-20260505-0
summary:
The risk of mortality (ROM) provides a medical classification to estimate the likelihood of in-hospital death for a patient. The ROM classes are minor, moderate, major, and extreme. The ROM class is used for the evaluation of patient mortality. == See also == Case mix index Diagnosis codes Severity of illness == References == Alemi, F., J. Rice, and R. Hankins. 1990. "Predicting In-Hospital Survival of Myocardial Infarction." Medical Care 28 (9): 762–75. Averill, R. F., J. H. Muldoon, J. C. Vertrees, N. I. Goldfield, R. L. Mullin, E. C. Fineran, M. Z. Zhang, B. Steinbeck, and T. Grant, The Evolution of Casemix Measurement Using Diagnosis Related Groups (DRGs) 3M HIS Working Paper. Wallinford, CT: 3M Health Information Systems, 1997 Iezzoni, L. I., M. Shwartz, A. S. Ash, J. S. Hughes, J. Daley, and Y. D. Mackiernan, Severity Measurement Methods and Judging Hospital Death Rates for Pneumonia, Medical Care 34 (1): 11–28, 1996


id: risky-sexual-behavior-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risky_sexual_behavior-0.md
category: reference
title: Risky sexual behavior
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risky_sexual_behavior
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:42.273338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: risky-sexual-behavior-20260505-0
summary:
Risky sexual behavior is the description of the activity that will increase the probability that a person engaging in sexual activity with another person infected with a sexually transmitted infection will be infected, become unintentionally pregnant, or make a partner pregnant. It can mean two similar things: the behavior itself, and the description of the partner's behavior. The behavior could be unprotected vaginal, oral, anal, or non-penetrative manual intercourse. The partner could be a non-exclusive sexual partner, HIV-positive, and/or an intravenous drug user. == Factors == Risky sexual behaviors can include: Sex and drugs such as alcohol or methamphetamine. Barebacking, i.e. sex without using condoms. Mouth-to-genital contact. Starting sexual activity at a young age. Having multiple sexual partners. Having a high-risk partner, someone who has multiple sexual partners and/or infections. Anal sex without using condoms and proper lubrication. Sex with a partner who has ever injected drugs. Engaging in sex work. Consumption of pornographic materials (which can encourage other risky sexual behaviors) Risky sexual behavior includes unprotected intercourse, multiple sexual partners, and illicit drug use. The use of alcoholic drinks and illicit drugs greatly increases the risk of gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, hepatitis B, and HIV/AIDS. Trauma from penile-anal sex has


id: sari-screening-tool-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARI_Screening_Tool-0.md
category: reference
title: SARI Screening Tool
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARI_Screening_Tool
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:43.480584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sari-screening-tool-20260505-0
summary:
SARI Screening Tool also known as the SARI score is a tool developed by the Ministry of Health in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It is a visual triage used to identify those with the potential to have COVID-19. The tools was also used to screen for MERS. It has been modified multiple times and the weights of each symptom have been changed over time as well. == References ==


id: sclerosis-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerosis_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sclerosis (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerosis_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:44.831503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sclerosis-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Sclerosis (from Ancient Greek σκληρός (sklērós) 'hard') is the stiffening of a tissue or anatomical feature, usually caused by a replacement of the normal organ-specific tissue with connective tissue. The structure may be said to have undergone sclerotic changes or display sclerotic lesions, which refers to the process of sclerosis. Common medical conditions whose pathology involves sclerosis include: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis—also known as Lou Gehrig's disease or motor neurone disease—a progressive, incurable, usually fatal disease of motor neurons. Atherosclerosis, a deposit of fatty materials, such as cholesterol, in the arteries which causes hardening. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis is a disease that attacks the kidney's filtering system (glomeruli) causing serious scarring and thus a cause of nephrotic syndrome in children and adolescents, as well as an important cause of kidney failure in adults. Hippocampal sclerosis, a brain damage often seen in individuals with temporal lobe epilepsy. Lichen sclerosus, an inflammatory skin disease that most often affects the vulva and the penis. Multiple sclerosis, or focal sclerosis, is a central nervous system disease which affects coordination. Osteosclerosis, a condition where the bone density is significantly increased, resulting in decreased lucency on radiographs. Otosclerosis, a disease of the ears. Primary lateral sclerosis, progressive muscle


id: screen-time-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time-0.md
category: reference
title: Screen time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:46.015001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screen-time-20260505-0
summary:
Screen time is the amount of time spent using an electronic device with a display screen such as a smartphone, computer, television, video game console, or tablet. The concept is under significant research with related concepts in digital media use and mental health. Screen time is correlated with mental and physical harm in child development. The positive or negative health effects of screen time on a particular individual are influenced by levels and content of exposure. Screen time increases dopamine. To prevent harmful excesses of screen time, some governments have placed regulations on usage. == History == === Statistics === The first electronic screen was the cathode ray tube (CRT), which was invented in 1922. CRTs were the most popular choice for display screens until the rise of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) in the early 2000s. Screens are now an essential part of entertainment, advertising, and information technologies. Since their popularization in 2007, smartphones have become ubiquitous in daily life. In 2023, 85% of American adults reported owning a smartphone. An American survey in 2016 found a median of 3.7 minutes per hour screen use per citizen. All forms of screens are frequently used by children and teens. Nationally representative


id: screen-time-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time-1.md
category: reference
title: Screen time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:46.015001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screen-time-20260505-0
summary:
Increased use of screens in children has also been shown to have an association with adverse effects on the quality of sleep in children. A 2010 review concluded that "the use of electronic media by children and adolescents does have a negative impact on their sleep, although the precise effects and mechanisms remain unclear", with the most consistent results associating excessive media use with shorter sleep duration and delayed bed times. A 2016 meta-analysis found that "Bedtime access and use of media devices was significantly associated with inadequate sleep quantity; poor sleep quality; and excessive daytime sleepiness". This relationship is because much of the time spent on screens for children is at night, which can cause them to go to sleep later in addition to the blue light from the screens making it more difficult to sleep. However, the relationship between screen use and sleep may not be the same across neurotypical and neurodivergent children. There are reasons to believe that autistic children, for example, may be more interested in screens than their neurotypical peers, and less able to disengage from them. A 2025 systematic review found that a causal link between screen-time use and sleep in autistic children could


id: screen-time-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time-2.md
category: reference
title: Screen time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:46.015001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screen-time-20260505-0
summary:
=== Brain development === An increase in screen time has been associated with negative cognitive outcomes for children between 0 and 4. A study on Korean children aged 24–30 months old found that toddlers with 3 hours of TV viewing per day were three times as likely to experience a language delay. Toddlers with higher TV time also scored lower on school readiness tests, which measured vocabulary, number knowledge, and classroom engagement. The same outcomes are not present in children older than 4. Children who watched more TV were found to have less brain connectivity between language, visual and cognitive control regions of the brain than their peers who watched less TV. An ongoing study reported from the National Institutes of Health concluded that preteens who spent over 7 hours on screens a day and children who spend less than 7 hours a day had noticeably different development of their cerebral cortex. This part of the brain usually thins as people mature but the accelerated decrease could potentially be linked to amounts spent on screens. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends a screen time no longer than 1 hour per day for children aged 3–5. According to a study published


id: screen-time-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time-3.md
category: reference
title: Screen time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:46.015001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screen-time-20260505-0
summary:
Research shows that children who lack guidance from their mothers are more likely to overuse screen time and also to struggle academically. Those with more prevalent maternal interference in their online activities tend to have more controlled screen time. These children also watched more educational content when online versus their counterparts with less parental control. Educational content consumed during time allotted for digital use is shown to be positively associated with academic achievement. On the other hand, those who only consumed violent media or leisurely video games on school nights, showed a negative associated with academic achievement. Their lower academic performances were marked by decreases in grade averages and in their ability to adjust to a school or academic environment. Inability to adjust to these situations resulted in a negative effect on school performance. == Environmental effects == More screen time generally leads to less time spent in nature and therefore a weaker connection to it. Studies show nature-inspired activities simultaneously decrease for youth in financially stabilized countries with mental health issues increasing, drawing a connection to higher screen time levels. However, the higher the count in activities spent experiencing the outdoors produced positive results in mental health among adolescents.


id: screening-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Screening (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:47.287610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screening-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, screening is a strategy used to look for as-yet-unrecognised conditions or risk markers. This testing can be applied to individuals or to a whole population without symptoms or signs of the disease being screened. Screening interventions are designed to identify conditions which could at some future point turn into disease, thus enabling earlier intervention and management in the hope to reduce mortality and suffering from a disease. Although screening may lead to an earlier diagnosis, not all screening tests have been shown to benefit the person being screened- overdiagnosis, misdiagnosis, and creating a false sense of security are some potential adverse effects of screening. Additionally, some screening tests can be inappropriately overused. For these reasons, a test used in a screening program, especially for a disease with low incidence, must have good sensitivity in addition to acceptable specificity. Several types of screening exist: universal (population-based) screening involves testing of all individuals in a certain category (for example, all children of a certain age). Case finding involves testing a smaller group of people based on the presence of risk factors (for example, because a family member has been diagnosed with a hereditary disease). When delivered to large numbers of


id: screening-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Screening (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:47.287610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screening-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Screening for social determinants of health === The social determinants of health are the economic and social conditions that influence individual and group differences in health status. Those conditions may have adverse effects on their health and well-being. To mitigate those adverse effects, certain health policies like the United States Affordable Care Act (2010) gave increased traction to preventive programs, such as those that routinely screen for social determinants of health. Screening is believed to a valuable tool in identifying patients' basic needs in a social determinants of health framework so that they can be better served. ==== Policy background in the United States ==== When established in the United States, the Affordable Care Act was able to bridge the gap between community-based health and healthcare as a medical treatment, leading to programs that screened for social determinants of health. The Affordable Care Act established several services with an eye for social determinants or an openness to more diverse clientele, such as Community Transformation Grants, which were delegated to the community in order to establish "preventive community health activities" and "address health disparities". ==== Clinical programs ==== Social determinants of health include social status, gender, ethnicity, economic status, education


id: screening-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)-2.md
category: reference
title: Screening (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:47.287610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screening-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Screening may identify abnormalities that would never cause a problem in a person's lifetime. An example of this is prostate cancer screening; it has been said that "more men die with prostate cancer than of it". Autopsy studies have shown that between 14 and 77% of elderly men who have died of other causes are found to have had prostate cancer. Aside from issues with unnecessary treatment (prostate cancer treatment is by no means without risk), overdiagnosis makes a study look good at picking up abnormalities, even though they are sometimes harmless. Overdiagnosis occurs when all of these people with harmless abnormalities are counted as "lives saved" by the screening, rather than as "healthy people needlessly harmed by overdiagnosis". So it might lead to an endless cycle: the greater the overdiagnosis, the more people will think screening is more effective than it is, which can reinforce people to do more screening tests, leading to even more overdiagnosis. Raffle, Mackie and Gray call this the popularity paradox of screening: "The greater the harm through overdiagnosis and overtreatment from screening, the more people there are who believe they owe their health, or even their life, to the programme"(p56 Box 3.4) The screening


id: screening-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)-3.md
category: reference
title: Screening (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:47.287610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screening-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Not everyone will partake in a screening program. There are factors that differ between those willing to get tested and those who are not. If people with a higher risk of a disease are more likely to be screened, for instance women with a family history of breast cancer are more likely than other women to join a mammography program, then a screening test will look worse than it really is: negative outcomes among the screened population will be higher than for a random sample. Selection bias may also make a test look better than it really is. If a test is more available to young and healthy people (for instance if people have to travel a long distance to get checked) then fewer people in the screening population will have negative outcomes than for a random sample, and the test will seem to make a positive difference. Studies have shown that people who attend screening tend to be healthier than those who do not. This has been called the healthy screenee effect, which is a form of selection bias. The reason seems to be that people who are healthy, affluent, physically fit, non-smokers with long-lived parents are more likely


id: secondary-malignant-neoplasm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_malignant_neoplasm-0.md
category: reference
title: Secondary malignant neoplasm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_malignant_neoplasm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:48.442724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secondary-malignant-neoplasm-20260505-0
summary:
Secondary malignant neoplasm is a malignant tumor whose cause is the treatment (usually radiation or chemotherapy) which was used for a prior tumor. It must be distinguished from Metastasis from the prior tumor or a relapse from it since a secondary malignant neoplasm is a different tumor. == References ==


id: secretomotor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretomotor-0.md
category: reference
title: Secretomotor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretomotor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:49.703071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secretomotor-20260505-0
summary:
The adjective secretomotor refers to the capacity of a structure (often a nerve) to induce a gland to secrete a substance (usually mucus or serous fluid). Secretomotor nerve endings are frequently contrasted with sensory neuron endings and motor nerve endings. An example of secretomotor activity can be seen with the lacrimal gland, which secretes the aqueous layer of the tear film. The lacrimal branch of the ophthalmic nerve (itself a branch of trigeminal nerve V1) supplies secretomotor innervation to the lacrimal gland, stimulating its secretion of the aqueous layer. However, these nerves fibers originate from the facial nerve (VII) and only travel briefly with fibers from the trigeminal nerve. Secretomotor neurons in the intestines and gall bladder control the movement of fluid and electrolytes. == References ==


id: sedentary-lifestyle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle-0.md
category: reference
title: Sedentary lifestyle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:51.056809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sedentary-lifestyle-20260505-0
summary:
Sedentary lifestyle is a lifestyle type, in which one is physically inactive and does little or no physical movement and/or exercise. A person living a sedentary lifestyle is often sitting or lying down while engaged in an activity like socializing, watching TV, playing video games, reading or using a mobile phone or computer for much of the day. A sedentary lifestyle contributes to poor health quality, diseases as well as many preventable causes of death. Sitting time is a common measure of a sedentary lifestyle. A global review representing 47% of the global adult population found that the average person sits down for 4.7 to 6.5 hours a day with the average going up every year. Screen time is a term for the amount of time a person spends looking at a screen such as a television, computer monitor, or mobile device. Excessive screen time is linked to negative health consequences. == Definition == Sedentary behavior is not the same as physical inactivity: sedentary behavior is defined as "any waking behavior characterized by an energy expenditure less than or equal to 1.5 metabolic equivalents (METs), while in a sitting, reclining or lying posture". Spending most waking hours sitting does not


id: sedentary-lifestyle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle-1.md
category: reference
title: Sedentary lifestyle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:51.056809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sedentary-lifestyle-20260505-0
summary:
Adults and children spend long amounts of time sitting in a workplace or at a school, which is why interventions have been focused in these two areas. Mass media campaigns might also be able to reduce the amount of time spent sitting or lying down and positively affect the intention to be active physically. Recent innovations in AI technology have led to the development of exercise prescription systems designed to reduce sedentary behavior. These systems deliver personalized exercise plans by analyzing individual health metrics, potentially decreasing the prevalence of a sedentary lifestyle and its associated health risks. === In urban spaces === Some evidence has been found of a negative association between exposure to an existing urban motorway and moderate to vigorous physical activity. The proportion of physically active individuals was higher in high- versus low-walkability neighborhoods. Rising rates of being overweight, obesity, and physical inactivity in China's rapidly growing cities and urban populations have been due to urban development practices and policies. === In a work environment === Occupational sedentary behaviour accounts for a significant proportion of sitting time for many adults. Some workplaces have implemented exercise classes at lunch, walking challenges among coworkers, or allowing employees to stand


id: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Self-diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:52.335800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Self-diagnosis is the process of diagnosing, or identifying, medical conditions in oneself. It may be assisted by medical dictionaries, books, resources on the Internet, past personal experiences, or recognizing symptoms or medical signs of a condition that a family member previously had or currently has. Depending on the nature of an individual's condition and the accuracy of the information they access, self-diagnoses can vary greatly in their safety. Due to self-diagnoses' varied accuracy, public attitudes toward self-diagnosis include denials of its legitimacy and applause of its ability to promote healthcare access and allow for individuals to find solidarity and support. Furthermore, external influences such as marketing, social media trends, societal stigma around disease, and to which demographic population one belongs greatly affect the use of self-diagnosis. == Appropriate use == Self-diagnosis is prone to error and may be potentially dangerous if inappropriate decisions are made, which can stem from broad or inaccurately applied symptoms as well as confirmation bias. Because of the risks, self-diagnosis is officially discouraged by physicians and patient care organizations. Physicians are also discouraged from engaging in self-diagnosis due to potential lack of objectivity. An inaccurate self-diagnosis—a misdiagnosis—can result in improper health care, including using the wrong


id: self-diagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Self-diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:52.335800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Self-diagnosis itself is becoming a more lucrative industry given the popularity of self-testing kits. While these are most commonly associated with COVID-19, self-testing kits exist for a wide range of conditions, such as prostate cancer, Alzheimers, and menopause. Though healthcare professionals warn of their potential to be unreliable, these kits appeal to the public due to their easy use, convenience, and inexpensiveness. Despite the fact that doctors warn that they cannot necessarily conclusively diagnose a condition nor encapsulate a disease's full complexity, the industry creating these tests is growing in profitability. ==== Smartphone applications ==== Developers of medical diagnosis applications can also be fueled by commercial interests. A number of applications receive monetary returns for acting as referrals to health insurance companies, doctor's offices, and pharmacies. These forms of monetary compensation are often not mentioned in the app's contents or general overview. === The role of stigma === ==== Public stigma ==== Though self-diagnosis may work to counter the stigma associated with disease, it faces its own share of public disapproval. Those who publish posts encouraging self-diagnosis do not always have verified medical credentials even though they often present their posts as providing expert advice. As a result, self-diagnoses are


id: self-diagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Self-diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:52.335800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
==== Use of chatbots ==== A recent technology that has started to take hold in the realm of self-diagnosis is the utilization of chatbot-based symptom checker (CSC) applications. CSCs were designed to combat the problem of extended wait times to see a doctor and the unavailability of punctual medical advice. Patients have also utilized chatbots to determine severity of their potential diagnosis before going through the process of seeing a doctor and incurring the financial strain that can come with it. Chatbots utilize artificial intelligence (AI) in order to assist patients in their medical concerns during all hours of the day. The operational mechanism of CSCs is a text-to-text system, where the chatbot asks a series of health-related questions in order to determine a diagnosis. The effectiveness of chatbots in the process of self-diagnosis is still highly debated among researchers. Studies have found that users have varying opinions on the required input for chatbot websites and applications. In some cases, chatbots offer limited space to input multiple symptoms and locations of symptoms for diagnosis determination. Interfaces have presented users with a "pre-structured symptom selection list" which has forced users to be more general with their responses than they would prefer.


id: self-diagnosis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis-3.md
category: reference
title: Self-diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:52.335800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
==== The benefits and costs for vulnerable demographics ==== This trend of turning to self-diagnosis among minorities can be potentially dangerous, given the unfiltered and unauthorized information online. A report from Psychreg criticizes self-diagnosis for its potentially hazardous nature, reporting that 61% of the advice on social media (specifically, TikTok) is incorrect. The Camber Mental Health Organization also notes the potential danger of online self-diagnosis, indicating that influencers without proper license offer public advice that can further jeopardize the vulnerable demographics. Other studies present non-dangerous aspects of self-diagnosis for these populations. A new study published by the Department of Public Health and Primary Care at Leiden University Medical Centre explains that patients use the internet to find reliable medical information about minor ailments and thus prevent symptoms from worsening if immediate health care cannot be provided. After surveying 1,372 participants, the study finds that most patients utilize this symptom-based approach. Suppose the patients expect the potential diagnosis to be more lethal. In that case, they tend to conduct further research on the internet to verify their suspicions about their condition. === Age === Younger generations are more likely to perform self-diagnosis. Kwakernaak explains their findings of a positive correlation between


id: sequela-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequela-0.md
category: reference
title: Sequela
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequela
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:04.576198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequela-20260505-0
summary:
A sequela (UK: , US: ; usually used in the plural, sequelae ) is a pathological condition resulting from a disease, injury, therapy, or other trauma. Derived from the Latin word meaning "sequel", it is used in the medical field to mean a complication or condition following a prior illness or disease. A typical sequela is a chronic complication of an acute condition—in other words, a long-term effect of a temporary disease or injury—which follows immediately from the condition. Sequelae differ from late effects, which can appear long after—even several decades after—the original condition has resolved. In general, non-medical usage, the terms sequela and sequelae mean consequence and consequences. == Examples and uses == Chronic kidney disease, for example, is sometimes a sequela of diabetes; "chronic constipation" or more accurately "obstipation" (that is, inability to pass stool or gas) is a sequela to an intestinal obstruction; and neck pain is a common sequela of whiplash or other trauma to the cervical vertebrae. Post-traumatic stress disorder may be a psychological sequela of one or more traumatic events. Sequelae of traumatic brain injury include headache, dizziness, anxiety, apathy, depression, aggression, cognitive impairments, personality changes, mania, and psychosis. COVID-19 is also known to


id: sequence-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sequence (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:05.738246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequence-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a sequence is a series of ordered consequences due to a single cause. It differs from a syndrome in that seriality is more predictable: if A causes B, and B causes C, and C causes D, then D would not be seen if C is not seen. However, in less formal contexts, the term "syndrome" is sometimes used instead of sequence. Examples include: Oligohydramnios sequence (also known as Potter sequence) Pierre Robin sequence Poland sequence == References ==


id: seton-stitch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seton_stitch-0.md
category: reference
title: Seton stitch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seton_stitch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:07.036799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seton-stitch-20260505-0
summary:
A seton or seton stitch is a procedure used to aid the healing of fistulae (abnormal connections between two epithelium-lined organs or vessels). The word "seton" comes from the Medieval Latin sētōn, itself derived from sēta (meaning "bristle" or "hair") and the suffix -ōn. == Techniques == The procedure involves running a surgical-grade cord (eg, silk suture) through the fistula tract so that the cord creates a loop that joins up outside the fistula. The cord provides a path that allows the fistula to drain continuously while it is healing, rather than allowing the exterior of the wound to close over. Keeping the fistula tract open can help prevent the trapping of pus or other infectious material in the wound. The procedure was mentioned by Hippocrates. Setons can be tied tightly or loosely and with different materials, depending on the anatomical location of the fistulae and what may be medically required. A seton might be tied loosely as a palliative measure to avoid septic and painful exacerbations, or as temporary measure before surgical excision as in fistulotomy or fistulectomy. In some types of fistulae, a seton may be tied with more tension and tightened periodically. In this case, the seton


id: sever-s-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sever's_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Sever's disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sever's_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:08.325773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sever-s-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Sever's disease, also known as calcaneal apophysitis, is an inflammation at the back of the heel (or calcaneus) growth plate in growing children. The condition is thought to be caused by repetitive stress at the heel. This condition is benign and common and usually resolves when the growth plate has closed or during periods of less activity. It occurs in both males and females. There are a number of locations in the body that may get apophysitis pain. Another common location is at the front of the knee which is known as apophysitis of the tibial tuberosity or Osgood–Schlatter disease. == Symptoms == Children with calcaneal apophysitis commonly complain of pain at the back of the heel. This pain increases with jumping and some running sports. Sometimes, the pain makes children limp and may result in poor sports performance or them not wanting to participate in some sports. The back of the heel is never swollen or red, unless there has been shoe rubbing. When the back of the heel is squeezed from the inside and outside, children with calcaneal apophysitis will report pain. Foot radiographs are not needed to diagnose calcaneal apophysitis as the growth plate can look similar


id: severity-of-illness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severity_of_illness-0.md
category: reference
title: Severity of illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severity_of_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:09.477032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: severity-of-illness-20260505-0
summary:
Severity of illness (SOI) is defined as the extent of organ system derangement or physiologic decompensation for a patient. It gives a medical classification into minor, moderate, major, and extreme. The SOI class is meant to provide a basis for evaluating hospital resource use or to establish patient care guidelines. Patients are assigned their SOI based on their specific diagnoses and procedures performed during their medical encounter, which is generally an inpatient hospital stay. Patients with higher SOI (e.g. major or extreme) are more likely to consume greater healthcare resources and stay longer in hospitals than patients with lower SOI in the same diagnosis-related group (DRG). The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services considered the 3M APR-DRG and SOI system as a potential evolution to the DRG system in 2006, but received such negative feedback from the industry that in March 2007 decided to adopt another internally developed system evolved from the DRG. SOI is still commonly used throughout the United States to adjust for patient complexity, so that physicians and other groups can compare resource utilization, complication rates, and length of stay. == See also == Diagnosis-related group (DRG) Risk of mortality (ROM) Case mix index (CMI) Diagnosis code


id: sham-surgery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery-0.md
category: reference
title: Sham surgery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:10.758867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sham-surgery-20260505-0
summary:
Sham surgery (or placebo surgery) is a faked surgical intervention that omits the step thought to be therapeutically necessary. In clinical trials of surgical interventions, sham surgery is an important scientific control. This is because it isolates the specific effects of the treatment as opposed to the incidental effects caused by anesthesia, the incisional trauma, pre- and postoperative care, and the patient's perception of having had a regular operation. Thus sham surgery serves an analogous purpose to placebo drugs, neutralizing biases such as the placebo effect. == Human research == A number of studies done under Institutional Review Board-approved settings have delivered important and surprising results. With the progress in minimally invasive surgery, sham procedures can be more easily performed as the sham incision can be kept small similarly to the incision in the studied procedure. A review of studies with sham surgery found 53 such studies: in 39 there was improvement with the sham operation and in 27 the sham procedure was as good as the real operation. Sham-controlled interventions have therefore identified interventions that are useless but had been believed by the medical community to be helpful based on studies without the use of sham surgery. === Examples


id: shit-life-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shit_life_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Shit life syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shit_life_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:12.064135+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shit-life-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
Shit life syndrome (SLS) is a phrase used by physicians in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia for the effect that a variety of poverty or abuse-induced disorders can have on patients. == History == Sarah O'Connor's 2017 article for the Financial Times "Left behind: can anyone save the towns the economy forgot?" on shit life syndrome in the English coastal town of Blackpool won the 2018 Orwell Prize for Exposing Britain's Social Evils. O'Connor wrote that Blackpool exports healthy skilled people and imports the unskilled, the unemployed and the unwell. As people overlooked by the modern economy wash up in a place that has also been left behind, the result is a quietly unfolding health crisis. More than a tenth of the town's working-age inhabitants live on state benefits paid to those deemed too sick to work. Antidepressant prescription rates are among the highest in the country. Life expectancy, already the lowest in England, has recently started to fall. Doctors in places such as this have a private diagnosis for what ails some of their patients: "Shit Life Syndrome" ... People with SLS really do have mental or physical health problems, doctors say. But they believe the


id: simultanagnosia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia-0.md
category: reference
title: Simultanagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:13.374979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simultanagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
Simultanagnosia (or simultagnosia) is a rare neurological disorder characterized by the inability of an individual to visually perceive more than a single object at a time. This type of visual attention problem is one of three major components (the others being optic ataxia and optic apraxia) of Bálint's syndrome, an uncommon and incompletely understood variety of severe neuropsychological impairments involving space representation (visuospatial processing). The term "simultanagnosia" was first coined in 1924 by Wolpert to describe a condition where the affected individual could see individual details of a complex scene but failed to grasp the overall meaning of the image. Simultanagnosia can be divided into two different categories: dorsal and ventral. Ventral occipito-temporal lesions cause a mild form of the disorder, while dorsal occipito-parietal lesions cause a more severe form of the disorder. == Description == Patients with simultanagnosia, a component of Bálint's syndrome, have a restricted spatial window of visual attention and cannot see more than one object at a time in a scene that contains more than one object. For instance, if presented with an image of a table containing both food and various utensils, a patient will report seeing only one item, such as a spoon. If


id: simultanagnosia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia-1.md
category: reference
title: Simultanagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:13.374979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simultanagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Restricted visual attention === In 1909, Rezső Bálint published one of the earliest descriptions of simultanagnosia. He studied a patient who easily identified single objects, regardless of size, but claimed that he could only see one object when presented with a complex display of numerous items. This patient also exhibited ocular apraxia, an impairment of voluntary eye movements despite intact oculomotor reflexes, and optic ataxia, or the impairment of visually guided hand movements. This collection of symptoms would later be called Bálint's syndrome. Because the size of the object did not affect his patient's ability to perceive an item, Bálint argued that his patient did not have a narrowing of the sensory field. Therefore, Bálint concluded that the patient's attention would always be as narrow as the size of the item being observed. In other words, the attentional window of a simultanagnosic patient is limited to one object. In contrast to Bálint's hypothesis, Thaiss and De Bleser studied a patient who had a physical restriction of her attentional window. The patient's ability to perceive multiple objects and identify global structures significantly improved as the size of the presented image decreased. Thus, complex stimuli could be processed as wholes so


id: simultanagnosia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia-2.md
category: reference
title: Simultanagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:13.374979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simultanagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spatial indexing deficits === Finally, simultanagnosia may result from deficits in spatial indexing. Several studies have noted that a pre-attentive stage of processing exists during which visual features are obtained from the visual field in parallel. Once these features have been extracted, they can be indexed, which allows them to function as anchor points for additional visual routines; visual routines are sequences of elemental operations, such as visual search or texture segregation, which define the spatial relationships among objects as well as their properties. Saliency of a feature facilitates the ease with which it can be indexed. For example, the greater the difference between a specific feature and surrounding ones, the more easily it can be indexed. The indexed features, or anchor points, can serve as a "spotlight" that directs focal attention to certain objects, which can then channel visual information to specialized systems for space and shape analysis. Deficits in the spatial indexing mechanism would result in symptoms of simultanagnosia because interpretation of a complex scene requires rapid shifting of attention to various elements, and impairments in spatial indexing lead to the inability to index multiple visual features rapidly. In addition, perception is slowed, and low-level visual processing


id: skull-bossing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_bossing-0.md
category: reference
title: Skull bossing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_bossing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:14.539213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skull-bossing-20260505-0
summary:
Skull bossing is a descriptive term in medical physical examination indicating a protuberance of the skull, most often in the frontal bones of the forehead ("frontal bossing"). Although prominence of the skull bones may be normal, skull bossing may be associated with certain medical conditions, including nutritional, metabolic, hormonal, and hematologic disorders. == Frontal bossing == Frontal bossing is the development of an unusually pronounced forehead which may also be associated with a heavier than normal brow ridge. It is caused by enlargement of the frontal bone, often in conjunction with abnormal enlargement of other facial bones, skull, mandible, and bones of the hands and feet. Frontal bossing may be seen in a few rare medical syndromes such as acromegaly – a chronic medical disorder in which the anterior pituitary gland produces excess growth hormone (GH). Frontal bossing may also occur in diseases resulting in chronic anemia, where there is increased hematopoiesis and enlargement of the medullary cavities of the skull. == Associated medical disorders == Rickets Achondroplasia Acromegaly Basal cell nevus syndrome Congenital syphilis Cleidocranial dysostosis Crouzon syndrome Cryopyrin-Associated Periodic Syndrome (CAPS – PFS) Ectodermal dysplasia Extramedullary hematopoiesis Fragile X syndrome Hurler syndrome Osteopathia Striata with Cranial Sclerosis Pfeiffer


id: slipped-capital-femoral-epiphysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipped_capital_femoral_epiphysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipped_capital_femoral_epiphysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:15.712162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slipped-capital-femoral-epiphysis-20260505-0
summary:
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE, or skiffy), or slipped upper femoral epiphysis (SUFE, or souffy), or coxa vara adolescentium, is a medical term referring to a fracture through the growth plate (physis), which results in slippage of the overlying end of the femur (metaphysis). Normally, the head of the femur, called the caput femoris in Latin, should sit squarely on the femoral neck. Abnormal movement along the growth plate results in the slip. The term slipped capital femoral epiphysis is actually a misnomer, because the epiphysis (end part of a bone) remains in its normal anatomical position in the acetabulum (hip socket) due to the ligamentum teres femoris. It is actually the metaphysis (neck part of a bone) which slips in an anterior direction with external rotation. SCFE is the most common hip disorder in adolescence. SCFEs usually cause groin pain on the affected side, but sometimes cause knee or thigh pain. One in five cases involves both hips, resulting in pain on both sides of the body. SCFE occurs slightly more commonly in adolescent males, especially young black males, although it also affects females. Whilst it can occur in any child, the major risk factor is childhood obesity. Symptoms


id: slipped-capital-femoral-epiphysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipped_capital_femoral_epiphysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipped_capital_femoral_epiphysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:15.712162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slipped-capital-femoral-epiphysis-20260505-0
summary:
The diagnosis requires x-rays of the pelvis, with anteriorposterior (AP) and frog-leg lateral views. The appearance of the head of the femur in relation to the shaft likens that of a "melting ice cream cone", visible with Klein's line. The severity of the disease can be measured using the Southwick angle. === Classification === Atypical/Typical Loder classification Stable Unstable, practically defined as when the patient is unable to ambulate even with crutches Temporal Acute Chronic Acute-on-chronic Radiological Grade I = 0–33% slippage Grade II = 34–50% slippage Grade III = >50% slippage == Treatment == The disease can be treated with external in-situ pinning or open reduction and pinning. Consultation with an orthopaedic surgeon is necessary to repair this problem. Pinning the unaffected side prophylactically is not recommended for most patients, but may be appropriate if a second SCFE is very likely. Once SCFE is suspected, the patient should be non-weight bearing and remain on strict bed rest. In severe cases, after enough rest the patient may require physical therapy to regain strength and movement back to the leg. A SCFE is an orthopaedic emergency, as further slippage may result in occlusion of the blood supply and avascular necrosis (risk


id: slips-and-capture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slips_and_capture-0.md
category: reference
title: Slips and capture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slips_and_capture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:16.969113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slips-and-capture-20260505-0
summary:
A slips and capture error is a type of human error in the psychology of routine task performance, where a person inadvertently performs one action while intending to do another, often under high-stress conditions. It is a specific subset of action slips, which encompass a broader range of errors in automatic behaviors caused by lapses in attention, habitual actions, or environmental design. The term "slips and capture" became more widely known in the early 21st century in the United States, after being referred to by law enforcement in two prominent fatal police shooting cases in 2009 and 2015. In both cases, the police officer claimed to have shot a suspect while intending to use a Taser. == Background and history == The concept of "slips and capture" has been studied in the psychology of human error, and efforts to prevent error. It was thoroughly described in 1990 by James Reason. The concept has been addressed in efforts to improve business, including computer and program design, and medical practices in order to avoid preventable error. Both terms are used in error terminology: slips are defined as "errors in the performance of skill-based behaviors, typically when our attention is diverted;" and capture


id: soap-note-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP_note-0.md
category: reference
title: SOAP note
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP_note
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:18.158983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soap-note-20260505-0
summary:
The SOAP note (an acronym for subjective, objective, assessment, and plan) is a method of documentation employed by healthcare providers to write out notes in a patient's chart, along with other common formats, such as the admission note. Documenting patient encounters in the medical record is an integral part of practice workflow starting with appointment scheduling, patient check-in and exam, documentation of notes, check-out, rescheduling, and medical billing. Additionally, it serves as a general cognitive framework for physicians to follow as they assess their patients. The SOAP note originated from the problem-oriented medical record (POMR), developed nearly 50 years ago by Lawrence Weed, MD. It was initially developed for physicians to allow them to approach complex patients with multiple problems in a highly organized way. Today, it is widely adopted as a communication tool between inter-disciplinary healthcare providers as a way to document a patient's progress. SOAP notes are commonly found in electronic medical records (EMR) and are used by providers of various backgrounds. Generally, SOAP notes are used as a template to guide the information that physicians add to a patient's EMR. Prehospital care providers such as emergency medical technicians may use the same format to communicate patient information


id: soap-note-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP_note-1.md
category: reference
title: SOAP note
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP_note
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:18.158983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soap-note-20260505-0
summary:
=== Plan component === The plan is what the health care provider will do to treat the patient's concerns—such as ordering further labs, radiological work up, referrals given, procedures performed, medications given and education provided. The plan will also include goals of therapy and patient-specific drug and disease-state monitoring parameters. This should address each item of the differential diagnosis. For patients who have multiple health problems that are addressed in the SOAP note, a plan is developed for each problem and is numbered accordingly based on severity and urgency for therapy. A note of what was discussed or advised with the patient as well as timings for further review or follow-up are generally included. Often the Assessment and Plan sections are grouped together. == An example == A very rough example follows for a patient being reviewed following an appendectomy. This example resembles a surgical SOAP note; medical notes tend to be more detailed, especially in the subjective and objective sections. The plan itself includes various components: Diagnostic component: continue to monitor labs Therapeutic component: advance diet Referrals: follow up with Cardiology within three days of discharge for stress testing as an out-patient. Patient education component: that is progressing well


id: social-history-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_history_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Social history (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_history_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:19.336796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-history-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a social history (abbreviated "SocHx") is a portion of the medical history (and thus the admission note) addressing familial, occupational, and recreational aspects of the patient's personal life that have the potential to be clinically significant. == Components == Components can include inquiries about: Substances Alcohol Tobacco (pack years) illicit drugs occupation sexual behavior (increased risk of various infections among prostitutes, people who have sex with people for money, and males engaging in anal-receptive intercourse) prison (especially if tuberculosis needs to be ruled out) travel exercise diet Firearms in household (especially if children or persons with cognitive impairment are present) == Relation to history == == References ==


id: social-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Social medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:20.577714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Social medicine is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on the interplay between socio-economic factors and individual health outcomes. Rooted in the challenges of the Industrial Revolution, it seeks to: Understand how specific social, economic, and environmental conditions directly impact health, disease, and the delivery of medical care. Promote conditions and interventions that address these determinants, aiming for a healthier and more equitable society. Social medicine as a scientific field gradually began in the early 19th century in Europe, during the Industrial Revolution and the subsequent increase in poverty and disease among workers raised concerns about the effect of social processes on the health of the poor. The field of social medicine is most commonly addressed today by efforts to understand what are known as social determinants of health. == Scope == The major emphasis on biomedical science in medical education, health care, and medical research has resulted into a gap with our understanding and acknowledgement of far more important social determinants of health and individual disease: social-economic inequalities, war, illiteracy, detrimental life-styles (smoking, obesity), discrimination because of race, gender and religion. Farmer et al. (2006) gave the following explanation for this gap: The holy grail of modern medicine remains the


id: social-prescribing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_prescribing-0.md
category: reference
title: Social prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:21.908886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
Social prescribing (also known as community referral) is a process through which a person is referred to non-medical, community-based resources or activities, typically involving nature, art, movement, and service. In the UK, a Social Prescribing Link Worker may engage with a patient to support them with a plan which can be a series of signposting or referrals to support in the community, in order to improve their health and wellbeing. The concept has gained support in the NHS organisations of the United Kingdom as well as in Ireland and the Netherlands and forms part of the NHS Long Term Plan. The referral mechanisms, target groups, services offered through social prescribing vary across settings. However, the process usually involves screening for non-medical needs and referrals to support services that are typically offered by community-based organizations. The goals of social prescribing are to reduce the rise of healthcare costs and easing pressure of general practice clinics. A 2015 Commission in the UK estimated that about 20% of patient consultations were for social problems rather than medical problems. Reporting finds social prescribing has been effective for treating symptoms of depression, ADHD, anxiety, chronic pain, dementia, type 2 diabetes, loneliness, and more. == Definition


id: social-emotional-agnosia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social-emotional_agnosia-0.md
category: reference
title: Social-emotional agnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social-emotional_agnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:23.093741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-emotional-agnosia-20260505-0
summary:
Social-emotional agnosia, also known as emotional agnosia or expressive agnosia, is the inability to perceive facial expressions, body language, and voice intonation. A person with this disorder is unable to non-verbally perceive others' emotions in social situations, limiting normal social interactions. The condition causes a functional blindness to subtle non-verbal social-emotional cues in voice, gesture, and facial expression. People with this form of agnosia have difficulty in determining and identifying the motivational and emotional significance of external social events, and may appear emotionless or agnostic (uncertainty or general indecisiveness about a particular thing). Symptoms of this agnosia can vary depending on the area of the brain affected. Social-emotional agnosia often occurs in individuals with schizophrenia and autism. It is difficult to distinguish from, and has been found to co-occur with, alexithymia. == Presentation == Damage to the right temporal occipital region in humans has been associated with the inability to recognize the faces of loved ones, friends, and pets (considered a form of prosopagnosia). This limits the ability to appropriately interact with familiar people, potentially severely damaging interpersonal relationships. People with social-emotional agnosia may distance themselves from interacting with other people and prefer isolation. Maternal behavior is also severely affected,


id: sopor-sleep-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopor_(sleep)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sopor (sleep)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopor_(sleep)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:24.253907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sopor-sleep-20260505-0
summary:
Sopor is a condition of abnormally deep sleep, similar to a stupor but not as severe, from which it is difficult to rouse a person. It involves a profound depression of consciousness, which is manifested by drowsiness, while maintaining coordinated defensive reactions to stimuli such as pain, harsh sound, and bright light, and preserving vital functions. Sopor may be caused by a drug; such drugs are deemed soporific. A stupor is more severe than a sopor. The name is derived from Latin sopor (cognate with the Latin noun somnus and the Greek noun ὐπνος, hypnos). == Causes and symptoms == Soporous states can be caused by traumatic, vascular, inflammatory, neoplastic, or toxic lesions of the brain. Symptoms include lack of response to the environment and inability to perform any tasks or respond to questions. The ability to swallow is maintained. Examination will reveal decreased muscle tone of the extremities and depression of tendon reflexes. Pupillary reaction to light may be sluggish, but the corneal reflexes are preserved. Paresis and Babinski sign may be present. == References ==


id: speech-language-pathology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech–language_pathology-0.md
category: reference
title: Speech–language pathology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech–language_pathology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:25.561268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: speech-language-pathology-20260505-0
summary:
Speech–language pathology, also known as speech and language pathology or logopedics, is a healthcare and academic discipline concerning the evaluation, treatment, and prevention of communication disorders, including expressive and mixed receptive-expressive language disorders, voice disorders, speech sound disorders, speech disfluency, pragmatic language impairments, and social communication difficulties, as well as swallowing disorders across the lifespan. The field of speech-language pathology is practiced by a clinician known as a speech–language pathologist (SLP) or a speech and language therapist (SLT). It is an allied health profession regulated by professional state licensing boards in the United States of America, and Speech Pathology Australia. The American Speech–Language–Hearing Association (ASHA) monitors state laws, lobbies, and advocates for SLPs. == History == The development of speech-language pathology into a profession took different paths in the various regions of the world. Three identifiable trends influenced the evolution of speech-language pathology in the United States during the late 19th century to early 20th century: the elocution movement, scientific revolution, and the rise of professionalism. Groups of "speech correctionists" formed in the early 1900s. The American Academy of Speech Correction was founded in 1925, which became ASHA in 1978. == Profession == Speech–language pathologists (SLPs) provide a wide range


id: speech-language-pathology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech–language_pathology-1.md
category: reference
title: Speech–language pathology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech–language_pathology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:25.561268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: speech-language-pathology-20260505-0
summary:
Following ASHA's 2005 approval of the delivery of speech/language services via video conference or telepractice, SLPs in the United States have begun to use this service model. Children with speech, language, and communication needs (SLCN) are particularly at risk of not being heard because of communication challenges. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) can explain the significance of supporting communication as a tool for the child to shape and influence choices available to them in their lives, even though it is advised that children with SLCN can and should be actively involved as equal partners in decision-making about their communication needs. Building these skills is especially crucial for SLPs working in settings related to traditional education. === Research === SLPs conduct research related to communication sciences and disorders, swallowing disorders, or other upper aerodigestive functions. Experimental, empirical, and scientific methodologies that build on hypothesis testing and logical, deductive reasoning have dominated research in speech-language pathology. Other types of research in the field are complemented by qualitative research. === Education and training === ==== United States ==== In the United States, speech–language pathologists must hold a master's degree from an ASHA-accredited program. Following graduation and passing a nation-wide board exam, SLPs typically begin their


id: speech-language-pathology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech–language_pathology-2.md
category: reference
title: Speech–language pathology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech–language_pathology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:25.561268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: speech-language-pathology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Adults === Adults with aphasia Adults with mild, moderate, or severe eating, feeding and swallowing difficulties, including dysphagia Adults recovering from significant tumors in the bronchus, lung, oropharynx, breast, and brain Adults with mild, moderate, or severe language difficulties as a result of: Motor neuron diseases, Alzheimer's disease, Dementia, Huntington's disease, Hearing loss Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Traumatic brain injury, Mental health issues Stroke Progressive neurological conditions such as cancer of the head, neck and throat (including laryngectomy) Aphasic Adults seeking transgender-specific voice training, including voice feminization and voice masculinization == See also == == References == == Further reading == Fisher, S. E.; Scharff, C. (April 2009). "FOXP2 as a molecular window into speech and language". Trends in Genetics. 25 (4): 166–77. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2009.03.002. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-CA31-7. PMID 19304338. "Discussion Meeting Issue 'Language in developmental and acquired disorders: converging evidence for models of language representation in the brain' - Table of Contents". Royal Society Publishing. 2014. Retrieved 31 December 2013. Nelson, H. D. (1 February 2006). "Screening for Speech and Language Delay in Preschool Children: Systematic Evidence Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force". Pediatrics. 117 (2): e298–e319. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1467. PMID 16452337. Howell, Peter (2011). Recovery from stuttering. New York: Psychology


id: spikes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPIKES-0.md
category: reference
title: SPIKES
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPIKES
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:26.854955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spikes-20260505-0
summary:
The SPIKES protocol is a method used in clinical medicine to break bad news to patients and families. As receiving emotionally distressing information can cause distress and anxiety, clinicians need to deliver the news carefully. Using the SPIKES method is an acronym for introducing and communicating information to patients and their families, can aid in the presentation of the material. The SPIKES method is helpful in providing an organized manner of communication during situations that are typically complex and difficult to communicate. This method has received praises and criticism, while majorly influencing clinician-patient communication. According to research related to the SPIKES method, important factors to consider when using this protocol involve empathy, acknowledgement, culture, and validation of feelings, providing information about intervention and treatment, and ensuring that the patient clearly understands the news being delivered. The protocol was first published in 2000 by Baile et al, in the context of oncology. == Steps == The name SPIKES is an acronym, where the letters stand for: S: setting, i.e. setting up the consultation appropriately: → The patient should only be provided with the bad news when they are in a private setting that contains little to no distractions to ensure the


id: spinnbarkeit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinnbarkeit-0.md
category: reference
title: Spinnbarkeit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinnbarkeit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:28.059365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spinnbarkeit-20260505-0
summary:
Spinnbarkeit (English: spinnability), also known as fibrosity, is a biomedical rheology term which refers to the stringy or stretchy property found to varying degrees in mucus, saliva, albumen and similar viscoelastic fluids. The term is used especially with reference to cervical mucus at the time just prior to or during ovulation. Under the influence of estrogens, cervical mucus becomes abundant, clear, and stretchable, and somewhat like egg white. The stretchability of the mucus is described by its spinnbarkeit, from the German word for the ability to be spun. Only such mucus appears to be able to be penetrated by sperm. After ovulation, the character of cervical mucus changes, and under the influence of progesterone it becomes thick, scant, and tacky. Sperm typically cannot penetrate it. Saliva does not always exhibit spinnbarkeit, but it can under certain circumstances. The thickness and spinnbarkeit of nasal mucus are factors in whether or not the nose seems to be blocked. Mucociliary transport depends on the interaction of fibrous mucus with beating cilia. == See also == Mucorrhea == References ==


id: spontaneous-breathing-trial-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_breathing_trial-0.md
category: reference
title: Spontaneous breathing trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_breathing_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:29.264970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spontaneous-breathing-trial-20260505-0
summary:
A spontaneous breathing trial (SBT) is a test for patients on mechanical ventilation, before they can be extubated and liberated from mechanical ventilation, i.e. return to normal breathing. SBTs are daily tests performed on intubated patients to determine if they meet criteria for extubation. The SBT involves placing the patient on minimal ventilatory support for a set period, typically 30–120 minutes, and under close monitoring. There are two common methods: In a T-Piece Trial, the ventilator is completely removed, and the patient breathes through a T-piece connected to the endotracheal tube and supplied with humidified oxygen. Because no ventilatory support is provided, this provides a pure test of the patient’s ability to breathe independently, and is more challenging. More commonly, low-level pressure support ventilation can be used, providing some inspiratory pressure (typically 5-8 cmH₂O) with or without Positive End-Expiratory Pressure (PEEP) (usually ≤5 cmH₂O). Automatic tube compensation (ATC) or minimal PSV helps patients overcome the added resistance of the endotracheal tube. This method is easier than a T-piece trial and is commonly used in ICU settings. Patients are more likely to be successfully extubated after a PSV trial compared to a T-piece trial. Spontaneous breathing trials (SBT) are often combined


id: spontaneous-remission-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission-0.md
category: reference
title: Spontaneous remission
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:30.611981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spontaneous-remission-20260505-0
summary:
Spontaneous remission, also called spontaneous healing or spontaneous regression, is an unexpected improvement or cure from a disease that usually progresses. These terms are commonly used for unexpected transient or final improvements in cancer. Spontaneous remissions concern cancers of the haematopoietic system (blood cancer, e.g., leukemia), while spontaneous regressions concern palpable tumors; however, both terms are often used interchangeably. == Definition == The spontaneous regression and remission from cancer was defined by Everson and Cole in their 1966 book as "the partial or complete disappearance of a malignant tumour in the absence of all treatment, or in the presence of therapy which is considered inadequate to exert significant influence on neoplastic disease." == Frequency of spontaneous regression in cancer == It has long been assumed that spontaneous regressions, let alone cures, from cancer are rare phenomena, and that some forms of cancer are more prone to unexpected courses (melanoma, neuroblastoma, lymphoma) than others (carcinoma). Frequency was estimated to be about 1 in 100,000 cancers; however, this proportion might be an under- or an overestimate. For one, not all cases of spontaneous regression can be apprehended, either because the case was not well documented or the physician was not willing to


id: status-cribrosum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_cribrosum-0.md
category: reference
title: Status cribrosum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_cribrosum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:31.884759+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: status-cribrosum-20260505-0
summary:
Status cribrosum (French: état criblé) is a term used in neuropathology and neuroimaging for diffuse widening of perivascular (Virchow–Robin) spaces, most often in the basal ganglia, producing a "sieve-like" (cribriform) appearance of the affected brain tissue. == Appearance == In the brain, perivascular spaces are fluid-filled compartments that accompany small penetrating vessels as they course from the subarachnoid space into the brain parenchyma. Dilated perivascular spaces most often occur in characteristic locations (for example, along the lenticulostriate arteries in the basal ganglia) and have signal characteristics identical to cerebrospinal fluid on routine MRI sequences. When perivascular spaces are numerous and markedly enlarged in the basal ganglia, the resulting cribriform appearance is termed status cribrosum (état criblé). Status cribrosum is most often recognized on MRI. They are often seen along lenticulostriate vessels bilaterally and symmetrically, showing CSF-like signal without restricted diffusion. == Epidemiology == MRI-visible perivascular spaces are common in older adults. Status cribrosum represents an extreme pattern. In the population-based 3C-Dijon study of 1,826 elderly participants, status cribrosum was reported in 1.3% of participants. == Clinical significance == Status cribrosum is frequently an incidental imaging finding and its direct clinical correlates remain uncertain. When the cribriform appearance is especially prominent


id: stenosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stenosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Stenosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stenosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:33.001290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stenosis-20260505-0
summary:
Stenosis (from Ancient Greek στενός (stenós) 'narrow') is the abnormal narrowing of a blood vessel or other tubular organ or structure such as foramina and canals. It is also sometimes called a stricture (as in urethral stricture). Stricture as a term is usually used when narrowing is caused by contraction of smooth muscle (e.g. achalasia, Prinzmetal angina); stenosis is usually used when narrowing is caused by lesion that reduces the space of lumen (e.g. atherosclerosis). The term coarctation is another synonym, but is commonly used only in the context of aortic coarctation. Restenosis is the recurrence of stenosis after a procedure. == Examples == Examples of vascular stenotic lesions include: Intermittent claudication (peripheral artery stenosis) Angina (coronary artery stenosis) Carotid artery stenosis which predispose to (strokes and transient ischemic episodes) Renal artery stenosis == Types == === Vascular Stenosis === Arterial stenosis Carotid artery stenosis Coronary artery stenosis Renal artery stenosis Peripheral artery stenosis Vertebral artery stenosis Cerebral artery stenosis Pulmonary artery stenosis Congenital or acquired abnormal narrowing of pulmonary arteries along any portion of the pulmonary artery tree Venous stenosis Jugular venous stenosis Central venous stenosis === Cardiac Valve Stenosis === In order from most to least common: Aortic


id: subclinical-infection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclinical_infection-0.md
category: reference
title: Subclinical infection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclinical_infection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:34.231364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subclinical-infection-20260505-0
summary:
A subclinical infection—sometimes called a preinfection or inapparent infection—is an infection by a pathogen that causes few or no signs or symptoms of infection in the host. Subclinical infections can occur in both humans and animals. Depending on the pathogen, which can be a virus or intestinal parasite, the host may be infectious and able to transmit the pathogen without ever developing symptoms; such a host is called an asymptomatic carrier. Many pathogens, including HIV, typhoid fever, and coronaviruses such as COVID-19 spread in their host populations through subclinical infection. Not all hosts of asymptomatic subclinical infections will become asymptomatic carriers. For example, hosts of Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria will only develop active tuberculosis in approximately one-tenth of cases; the majority of those infected by Mtb bacteria have latent tuberculosis, a non-infectious type of tuberculosis that does not produce symptoms in individuals with sufficient immune responses. Because subclinical infections often occur without eventual overt sign, in some cases their presence is only identified by microbiological culture or DNA techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests. == Transmission == === In humans === Many pathogens are transmitted through their host populations by hosts with few or no symptoms, including sexually transmitted


id: subluxation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subluxation-0.md
category: reference
title: Subluxation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subluxation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:35.434206+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subluxation-20260505-0
summary:
A subluxation is an incomplete or partial dislocation of a joint or organ. According to the World Health Organization, a subluxation is a "significant structural displacement" and is therefore visible on static imaging studies, such as X-rays. Unlike real subluxations, the pseudoscientific concept of a chiropractic "vertebral subluxation" may or may not be visible on x-rays. The term is used in the fields of medicine, dentistry, and chiropractic. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of chiropractic subluxations or proof they or their treatment have any effects on health. == Medical == === Joints === A subluxation of a joint is where a connecting bone is partially out of the joint. In contrast to a luxation, which is a complete separation of the joint, a subluxation often returns to its normal position without additional help from a health professional. An example of a joint subluxation is a nursemaid's elbow, which is the subluxation of the head of the radius from the annular ligament. Other joints that are prone to subluxations are the shoulders, fingers, kneecaps, ribs, wrists, ankles, and hips affected by hip dysplasia. A spinal subluxation is visible on X-rays and can sometimes impinge on spinal nerve roots,


id: sudden-unexpected-death-in-epilepsy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_unexpected_death_in_epilepsy-0.md
category: reference
title: Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_unexpected_death_in_epilepsy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:36.743907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sudden-unexpected-death-in-epilepsy-20260505-0
summary:
Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is the sudden, unexpected death of a person with epilepsy that is not the result of trauma, drowning, or an identified medical condition. In most cases, no structural or toxicological cause of death is found at autopsy. SUDEP can occur with or without evidence of a preceding seizure, and is often unwitnessed, especially during sleep. The exact mechanisms underlying SUDEP remain unclear but are believed to be multifactorial. Potential contributors include seizure-related disruptions in breathing, heart rhythm, or brain function, often in combination. SUDEP is estimated to affect approximately 1 in 1,000 adults and 1 in 4,500 children with epilepsy each year. It accounts for 7% to 17% of epilepsy-related deaths overall, and up to 50% in those with refractory epilepsy. Deaths caused by status epilepticus or accidents such as drowning are classified separately. == Definition == To improve consistency in clinical reporting and research, a unified classification system for SUDEP has been proposed. It defines SUDEP as a sudden, unexpected, nontraumatic, and nondrowning death in a person with epilepsy, occurring in benign circumstances, with or without evidence of a seizure, and without a known structural or toxicological cause identified on postmortem examination. Deaths


id: sudden-unexpected-death-in-epilepsy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_unexpected_death_in_epilepsy-1.md
category: reference
title: Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_unexpected_death_in_epilepsy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:36.743907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sudden-unexpected-death-in-epilepsy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cardiac mechanisms === Seizure-related cardiac abnormalities, including ictal arrhythmias, have been implicated in some cases of SUDEP. Ictal asystole, defined as seizure-related cessation of cardiac activity, is rare but well-documented, particularly in individuals with temporal lobe epilepsy. However, most seizure-related arrhythmias are transient and self-limiting. While arrhythmias can occur during seizures, most evidence suggests that in SUDEP, cardiac arrest typically results from respiratory failure. In monitored cases, including those from the MORTEMUS study, bradycardia and asystole consistently followed the onset of postictal apnea; no cases showed cardiac arrest preceding respiratory arrest. This pattern supports a neurogenic origin for SUDEP, with respiratory failure triggering secondary cardiac arrest rather than a primary cardiac event. === Central and autonomic nervous system dysfunction === Dysfunction of central and autonomic nervous system pathways may contribute to SUDEP by impairing the regulation of breathing, cardiac rhythm, and arousal. The brainstem plays a key integrative role in coordinating these functions, and seizure-related disruption of its regulatory circuits is believed to underlie many fatal cases. One proposed marker of cerebral dysfunction is postictal generalized EEG suppression (PGES), a transient period of low-amplitude activity on electroencephalography following a generalized seizure. PGES has been interpreted as evidence of widespread


id: sudomotor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudomotor-0.md
category: reference
title: Sudomotor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudomotor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:37.926561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sudomotor-20260505-0
summary:
Sudomotor function refers to the autonomic nervous system control of sweat gland activity in response to various environmental and individual factors. Sweat production is a vital thermoregulatory mechanism used by the body to prevent heat-related illness as the evaporation of sweat is the body's most effective method of heat reduction and the only cooling method available when the air temperature rises above skin temperature. In addition, sweat plays key roles in grip, microbial defense, and wound healing. == Physiology == Human sweat glands are primarily classified as either eccrine or apocrine glands. Eccrine glands open directly onto the surface of the skin, while apocrine glands open into hair follicles. Eccrine glands are the predominant sweat gland in the human body with numbers totaling up to 4 million. They are located within the reticular dermal layer of the skin and distributed across nearly the entire surface of the body with the largest numbers occurring in the palms and soles. Eccrine sweat is secreted in response to both emotional and thermal stimulation. Eccrine glands are primarily innervated by small-diameter, unmyelinated class C-fibers from postganglionic sympathetic cholinergic neurons. Increases in body and skin temperature are detected by visceral and peripheral thermoreceptors, which send


id: sudomotor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudomotor-1.md
category: reference
title: Sudomotor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudomotor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:37.926561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sudomotor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test === The quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test (QSART) was developed in 1983 by Phillip Low as a quantitative method for the identification of localized postganglionic sudomotor dysfunction. Three-compartment sweat capsules are placed on the forearm, proximal and distal leg, as well as the dorsum of the foot. The outer compartment of the capsule is filled with a 10% acetylcholine solution, while nitrogen gas is released steadily onto the skin within the inner compartment. The middle compartment acts as a buffer between the inner and outer compartments to prevent direct stimulation of sweat glands or leakage of the acetylcholine solution. The outflow humidity of the nitrogen gas after passing across the skin is measured by a hygrometer. Once a stable baseline of outflow humidity is reached, iontophoresis of the acetylcholine fluid is initiated by using a 2mA electric current to deliver the acetylcholine into the dermal skin layers. The acetylcholine binds to sweat glands (direct sweat response), and nicotinic and muscarinic receptors on the sudomotor nerve terminals, which transmit the action potential antidromically to axon branch points and then orthodromically to adjacent sudomotor nerves and glands (indirect sweat response). Sweat production is measured as the


id: sudomotor-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudomotor-2.md
category: reference
title: Sudomotor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudomotor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:37.926561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sudomotor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Silicone imprint method === Like QSART, silicone imprint utilizes the principles of iontophoresis to measure the axon-reflex sweat response; however, unlike QSART, it allows for spatial but not temporal resolution of the sweat response. Following iontophoresis of a cholinergic agonist, a thin layer of silicone is applied to the tested skin area until polymerization is complete (about 5 minutes). The silicone imprints are then analyzed, either by microscope or computer-assisted analysis, for sweat droplet size, number, and distribution, and compared to lower limits of normal. The silicone imprint method is relatively inexpensive and can be performed in non-specialized testing centers; however, the method is prone to artifacts caused by residual hair and dirt, as well as skin surface texture and air bubble formation; the accuracy of the results depends on the silicone material used; the processing of the sweat impressions is time consuming; and the technique requires standardization. === Quantitative direct and indirect test === The quantitative direct and indirect test (QDIRT) was developed in 2008 by Christopher Gibbons and colleagues as a means for the evaluation of postganglionic sudomotor function outside of specialized autonomic testing centers. It combines elements of TST, QSART, and the silicone imprint method. Similar


id: sudomotor-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudomotor-3.md
category: reference
title: Sudomotor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudomotor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:37.926561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sudomotor-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Sweat gland Eccrine sweat gland Electrochemical skin conductance == References == == Further reading == Agashe, Shruti; Petak, Steven (2018). "Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy in Diabetes Mellitus". Methodist DeBakey Cardiovascular Journal. 14 (4): 251–256. doi:10.14797/mdcj-14-4-251. PMC 6369622. PMID 30788010. Itch, Hiroshi; Uebori, Seiji; Asai, Mahito; Kashiwaya, Tagui; Atoh, Keita; Making, Isao (2003). "Early Detection of Orthostatic Hypotension by Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test (QSART) in Type 2 Diabetic Patients". Internal Medicine. 42 (7): 560–564. doi:10.2169/internalmedicine.42.560. PMID 12879946. Yajnik, C.S.; Kantikar, V.; Pande, A.; Deslypere, J.-P.; Dupin, J.; Calvet, J.-H.; Bauduceau, B. (April 2013). "Screening of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in patients with diabetes using non-invasive quick and simple assessment of sudomotor function". Diabetes & Metabolism. 39 (2): 126–131. doi:10.1016/j.diabet.2012.09.004. PMID 23159130. Gerrett, Nicola; Griggs, Katy; Redortier, Bernard; Voelcker, Thomas; Kondo, Narihiko; Havenith, George (1 August 2018). "Sweat from gland to skin surface: production, transport, and skin absorption" (PDF). Journal of Applied Physiology. 125 (2): 459–469. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00872.2017. PMID 29745799. S2CID 13675424. Quinton, Paul M. (June 2007). "Cystic Fibrosis: Lessons from the Sweat Gland". Physiology. 22 (3): 212–225. doi:10.1152/physiol.00041.2006. PMID 17557942. Gibbons, Christopher H; Wang, Ningshan; Freeman, Roy (December 2010). "Capsaicin Induces Degeneration of Cutaneous Autonomic Nerve Fibers". Annals of


id: suicide-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Suicide terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:39.761747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: suicide-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Historically, suicide terminology has been rife with issues of nomenclature, connotation, and outcomes, and terminology describing suicide has often been defined differently depending on the purpose of the definition (e.g., medical, legal, administrative). A lack of agreed-upon nomenclature and operational definitions has complicated understanding. In 2007, attempts were made to reach some consensus. There is controversy regarding the phrase "to commit suicide" as some view it as implying negative moral judgment and having an association with criminal or sinful activity. In 2020, a meta-analysis of studies on the effects of media coverage of suicide found that "Reporting of deaths of celebrities by suicide appears to increase the number of suicides by 8-18% in the next 1-2 months, and information on method of suicide was associated with an increase of 18-44% in the risk of suicide by the same method." == Terminology == === Origin === The word suicide (latin: suicidio) was coined by the Spanish cistercian monk Juan Caramuel in their work Theologia moralis fundamentalis of 1652 === Ideations === Suicidal ideation is any self-reported thoughts of engaging in suicide-related behavior. Subtypes of suicide-related ideations depend on the presence or absence of suicidal intent. To have suicidal intent is to


id: suicide-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Suicide terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:39.761747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: suicide-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== "Committing" suicide == According to Fairbairn in his philosophical study of suicide published in 1995, "The most common way of speaking about suicide is to talk of its being 'committed'." An article published in 2011 stated that, although committed suicide or similar descriptions continued to be the norm in the English language, the term committed associates death by suicide, or more accurately, death by mental illness, with criminal or sinful actions. Research has pointed out that this phrasing has become so entrenched in English vocabulary that it has gained "a naturalness which implies a deceptive harmlessness." Per reportingonsuicide.org,Certain phrases and words can further stigmatize suicide, spread myths, and undermine suicide prevention objectives such as "committed suicide" or referring to suicide as "successful," "unsuccessful" or a "failed attempt." Instead use, "died by suicide" or "killed him/herself." While common, Lebacqz & Englehardt argue that referring to suicide as an act "committed" is hazardous to ethical clarity. Others have also argued in favour of alternative language regarding suicide, both in the interest of moral and ethical precision, as well as scientific and clinical clarity. A United States Navy report urges against the use of the term committed suicide on similar grounds, asserting


id: surgical-sieve-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_sieve-0.md
category: reference
title: Surgical sieve
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_sieve
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:40.958811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surgical-sieve-20260505-0
summary:
The surgical sieve is a thought process in medicine. It is a typical example of how to organise a structured examination answer for medical students and physicians when they are challenged with a question. It is also a way of constructing answers to questions from patients and their relatives in a logical manner, and structuring articles and reference texts in medicine. Some textbooks put emphasis on using the surgical sieve as a basic structure of diagnosis and management of illnesses. == Overview == Although there are several versions around the world with slight variations, the surgical sieve usually consist of the following types of process in the human body in any particular order: Congenital Acquired Vascular Infective Traumatic Autoimmune Metabolic Inflammatory Neurological Neoplastic Degenerative Environmental Unknown A more extensive, and perhaps more concise mechanism of employing the surgical sieve is using the mnemonic MEDIC HAT PINE: Metabolic (conditions relating to metabolism, biochemistry, and the like) Endocrinological (conditions relating to the various secretory systems within the body) Degenerative (conditions relating to age-related destruction of tissue, or stress-related destruction of tissue) Inflammatory/Infective (conditions that primarily present in a way that involves the profane activation of the immune system) Congenital (conditions present at


id: surgical-smoke-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_smoke-0.md
category: reference
title: Surgical smoke
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_smoke
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:42.265114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surgical-smoke-20260505-0
summary:
Surgical smoke is the by-product produced by electrosurgery, laser tissue ablation, or other surgical techniques. Surgical smoke, as a health threat to those exposed to it, has become a growing concern. Studies have demonstrated, depending on several factors, it may contain carcinogens, mutagens, irritant chemicals, live viruses and bacteria, and viable malignant cells. These all pose a theoretical and demonstrable risk of harming patients or operating room personnel upon exposure. Other names for surgical smoke are cautery smoke, plume, diathermy plume, or, sometimes, aerosols produced during surgery, vapor contaminants, or air contaminants. Electrosurgery and laser ablation are the most common sources of surgical smoke. Heat generated during surgery causes cell membranes to heat and rupture, releasing cellular debris alongside water vapor. Surgical smoke is composed of 95% water and the remaining 5% contains byproducts of combustion and cellular debris. The negative health effects due to exposure of surgical smoke is attributed to what is contained in the 5%. The size of particles within the plume of smoke varies depending on the device that generated it. On average electrosurgery produces particles that are .07 μm, while laser ablation generates larger particles that are .31 μm on average. Particles smaller than 2


id: surrogate-decision-maker-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker-0.md
category: reference
title: Surrogate decision-maker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:43.576285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surrogate-decision-maker-20260505-0
summary:
A surrogate decision maker, also known as a health care proxy or as agents, is an advocate for incompetent patients. If a patient is unable to make decisions for themselves about personal care, a surrogate agent must make decisions for them. If there is a durable power of attorney for health care, the agent appointed by that document is authorized to make health care decisions within the scope of authority granted by the document. If people have court-appointed guardians with authority to make health care decisions, the guardian is the authorized surrogate. == Background == At the 1991 Annual Meeting of the American Medical Association, the AMA adopted the report of the Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs known as, "Decisions to Forgo Life-Sustaining Treatment for Incompetent Patients." The recommendations of the report were the basis for amendments to Opinion 2.20 known as, "Withholding or Withdrawing Life-Sustaining Medical Treatment." The report itself provides guidelines for physicians who may have to identify a surrogate decision maker, assist a surrogate (proxy) in making decisions for incompetent patients, and resolve conflicts that may arise between decision makers, or between the decision maker's choice and medically appropriate options. Since the first incorporation of these


id: surrogate-decision-maker-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker-1.md
category: reference
title: Surrogate decision-maker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:43.576285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surrogate-decision-maker-20260505-0
summary:
== Criteria for being a surrogate agent == In the event that a surrogate decision maker has not been identified through either a medical power of attorney or a court-appointed legal guardian, such an agent is selected by medical personnel. A patient must meet a certain set of criteria prior to the legal selection of a health care surrogate agent. The patient must have a disabling condition such as a mental illness or infirmity, an impairment in the ability to complete activities of daily living, cognitive impairment, and a lack of any previously indicated alternative to guardianship. This person is chosen by either the attending physician or their advance practice nurse. In the US, hierarchy of health care surrogates may vary according to the law of the specific state, but an example order of priority is listed here: The client's guardian The client's spouse Any adult son or daughter of the client Either parent of the client Any adult brother or sister of the client Any adult grandchild of the client, or an adult relative who has exhibited special care and concern, who has maintained close contact, and who is familiar with the patient's activities, health, and religious or moral


id: surrogate-decision-maker-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker-2.md
category: reference
title: Surrogate decision-maker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogate_decision-maker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:43.576285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surrogate-decision-maker-20260505-0
summary:
=== Current status of the law === Adults that are considered competent have the right to refuse treatment. As stated above, some states allow incompetent adults to refuse treatment. There can also be recommended termination of medical treatment for incompetent adults by a physician. Two tests for competency are the substituted judgment test and the best interests test. Current statutory solutions include living wills or advance directives that explain the patient's wishes in certain medical situations. A durable power of attorney for health care (DPA/HC) and is another way of identifying a patient's final wishes through an attorney. The patient self-determination act states that hospitals and health care facilities must provide information about advance directives and DPA/HC. Also, a proxy or surrogate decision-maker can provide these final wishes to the doctor or care team if a DPA/HC or AD is not present. Some fictional assumptions underlying judicial decisions include the following misconceptions: 1. It is better to make a mistake in favor of preserving the patient's life. This is an all too common misconception about surrogate decision-making, and another reason why it is so important to have a DPA/HC or AD. In most cases, patients wish to have a death


id: surrogate-endpoint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogate_endpoint-0.md
category: reference
title: Surrogate endpoint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrogate_endpoint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:44.845084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surrogate-endpoint-20260505-0
summary:
In clinical trials, a surrogate endpoint (or surrogate marker) is a measure of effect of a specific treatment that may correlate with a real clinical endpoint but does not necessarily have a guaranteed relationship. The National Institutes of Health (USA) defines surrogate endpoint as "a biomarker intended to substitute for a clinical endpoint". Surrogate markers are used when the primary endpoint is undesired (e.g., death), or when the number of events is very small, thus making it impractical to conduct a clinical trial to gather a statistically significant number of endpoints. The FDA and other regulatory agencies will often accept evidence from clinical trials that show a direct clinical benefit to surrogate markers. Surrogate endpoints can be obtained from different modalities, such as, behavioural or cognitive scores, or biomarkers from Electroencephalography (qEEG), MRI, PET, or biochemical biomarkers. A correlate does not make a surrogate. It is a common misconception that if an outcome is a correlate (that is, correlated with the true clinical outcome) it can be used as a valid surrogate endpoint (that is, a replacement for the true clinical outcome). However, proper justification for such replacement requires that the effect of the intervention on the surrogate endpoint predicts


id: symptomatic-treatment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptomatic_treatment-0.md
category: reference
title: Symptomatic treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptomatic_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:46.188794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symptomatic-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
Symptomatic treatment, supportive care, supportive therapy, or palliative treatment is any medical therapy of a disease that only affects its symptoms, not the underlying cause. It is usually aimed at reducing the signs and symptoms for the comfort and well-being of the patient, but it also may be useful in reducing organic consequences and sequelae of these signs and symptoms of the disease. In many diseases, even in those whose etiologies are known (e.g., most viral diseases, such as influenza and Rift Valley fever), symptomatic treatment is the only treatment available so far. For more detail, see supportive therapy. For conditions like cancer, arthritis, neuropathy, tendinopathy, and injury, it can be useful to distinguish treatments that are supportive/palliative and cannot alter the natural history of the disease (disease modifying treatments). == Examples == Examples of symptomatic treatments: Analgesics, to reduce pain Anti-inflammatory agents, for inflammation caused by arthritis Antitussives, for cough Antihistaminics (also known as antihistamines), for allergy Antipyretics, for fever Enemas for constipation Treatments that reduce unwanted side effects from drugs == Uses == When the etiology (the cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease or condition) for the disease is known, then specific treatment


id: syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:47.470965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
A syndrome is a set of medical signs and symptoms which are correlated with each other and often associated with a particular disease or disorder. The word derives from the Greek σύνδρομον, meaning "concurrence". When a syndrome is paired with a definite cause this becomes a disease. In some instances, a syndrome is so closely linked with a pathogenesis or cause that the words syndrome, disease, and disorder end up being used interchangeably for them. This substitution of terminology often confuses the reality and meaning of medical diagnoses. This is especially true of inherited syndromes. About one third of all phenotypes that are listed in OMIM are described as dysmorphic, which usually refers to the facial gestalt. For example, Down syndrome, Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome, and Andersen–Tawil syndrome are disorders with known pathogeneses, so each is more than just a set of signs and symptoms, despite the syndrome nomenclature. In other instances, a syndrome is not specific to only one disease. For example, toxic shock syndrome can be caused by various toxins; another medical syndrome named as premotor syndrome can be caused by various brain lesions; and premenstrual syndrome is not a disease but simply a set of symptoms. If an underlying


id: syndrome-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndrome-1.md
category: reference
title: Syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:47.470965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other fields === In biology, "syndrome" is used in a more general sense to describe characteristic sets of features in various contexts. Examples include behavioral syndromes, as well as pollination syndromes and seed dispersal syndromes. In orbital mechanics and astronomy, Kessler syndrome refers to the effect where the density of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO) is high enough that collisions between objects could cause a cascade in which each collision generates space debris that increases the likelihood of further collisions. In quantum error correction theory syndromes correspond to errors in code words which are determined with syndrome measurements, which only collapse the state on an error state, so that the error can be corrected without affecting the quantum information stored in the code words. == Naming == There is no set common convention for the naming of newly identified syndromes. In the past, syndromes were often named after the physician or scientist who identified and described the condition in an initial publication. These are referred to as "eponymous syndromes". In some cases, diseases are named after the patient who initially presents with symptoms, or their home town (Stockholm syndrome). There have been isolated cases of patients being eager


id: systemic-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Systemic disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:48.676564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systemic-disease-20260505-0
summary:
A systemic disease is one that affects a number of organs and tissues, or affects the body as a whole. It differs from a localized disease, which is a disease affecting only part of the body (e.g., a mouth ulcer). == Examples == Mastocytosis, including mast cell activation syndrome and eosinophilic esophagitis Chronic fatigue syndrome Systemic vasculitis e.g. SLE, PAN Sarcoidosis – a disease that mainly affects the lungs, brain, joints and eyes, found most often in young African-American women. Hypothyroidism – where the thyroid gland produces too little thyroid hormones. Diabetes mellitus – an imbalance in blood glucose (sugar) levels. Fibromyalgia Ehlers-Danlos syndromes - an inherited connective tissue disorder with multiple subcategories Adrenal insufficiency – where the adrenal glands don't produce enough steroid hormones Coeliac disease – an autoimmune disease triggered by gluten consumption, which may involve several organs and cause a variety of symptoms, or be completely asymptomatic. Ulcerative colitis – an inflammatory bowel disease Crohn's disease – an inflammatory bowel disease Hypertension (high blood pressure) Metabolic syndrome AIDS – a disease caused by a virus that cripples the body's immune defenses. Graves' disease – a thyroid disorder, most often in women, which can cause a goiter (swelling


id: terminal-cleaning-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_cleaning-0.md
category: reference
title: Terminal cleaning
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_cleaning
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:49.838595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminal-cleaning-20260505-0
summary:
Terminal cleaning is the thorough cleaning of a room after use, used in healthcare environments to control the spread of infections. == Justification == Nosocomial infections claim approximately 90,000 lives in the United States annually. When patients are hospitalized and identified as having methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus or infections that can be spread to other patients, best practices isolate these patients in rooms that are subjected to terminal cleaning when the patient is discharged. For example, terminal cleaning reduces the spread of C. difficile infections. == Procedure == Terminal cleaning requires cleaning the entire room after use by the patient. Methods vary, but involve disinfection of all surfaces and discarding all disposable items and cleaning rags or towels as medical waste. == See also == Nosocomial infection MRSA VRE Pseudomonas aeruginosa == References == == Further reading == Environmental Cleaning Procedures Reinigungsmittel (in German)


id: terminal-illness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness-0.md
category: reference
title: Terminal illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:51.114989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminal-illness-20260505-0
summary:
Terminal illness or end-stage disease is a disease that cannot be cured, or adequately treated, and typically results in the death of the patient. This term is usually used for progressive diseases such as cancer, rather than fatal injury. In popular use, it indicates a disease that will progress until death with near absolute certainty, regardless of treatment. A patient who has such an illness may be referred to as a terminal patient, terminally ill or simply as being terminal. There is no standardized life expectancy for a patient to be considered terminal, although it is generally months or less. An illness which will result in premature death, even if that death may be many years away, is called a life-limiting illness. An illness which is lifelong but not life-shortening is called a chronic condition. Terminal patients usually have options for disease management after diagnosis; examples may include caregiving, continued treatment, palliative and hospice care, and physician-assisted suicide. Decisions regarding management are made by the patient and their family, although medical professionals may offer recommendations of services available to terminal patients. Lifestyle after diagnosis varies depending on management decisions and the nature of the disease, and there may be restrictions


id: terminal-illness-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness-1.md
category: reference
title: Terminal illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:51.114989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminal-illness-20260505-0
summary:
=== Caregiving === Terminal patients often need a caregiver, who could be a nurse, licensed practical nurse or a family member. Caregivers can help patients receive medications to reduce pain and control symptoms of nausea or vomiting. They can also assist the individual with daily living activities and movement. Caregivers provide assistance with food and psychological support and ensure that the individual is comfortable. The patient's family may have questions and most caregivers can provide information to help ease the mind. Doctors generally do not provide estimates for fear of instilling false hopes or obliterate an individual's hope. In most cases, the caregiver works along with physicians and follows professional instructions. Caregivers may call the physician or a nurse if the individual: experiences excessive pain. is in distress or having difficulty breathing. has difficulty passing urine or is constipated. has fallen and appears hurt. is depressed and wants to harm themselves. refuses to take prescribed medications, raising ethical concerns best addressed by a person with more extensive formal training. or if the caregiver does not know how to handle the situation. Most caregivers become the patient's listeners and let the individual express fears and concerns without judgment. Caregivers reassure the


id: terminal-illness-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness-2.md
category: reference
title: Terminal illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:51.114989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminal-illness-20260505-0
summary:
=== Physician-assisted suicide === Physician-assisted suicide (PAS) is highly controversial, and legal in only a few countries. In PAS, physicians, with voluntary written and verbal consent from the patient, give patients the means to die, usually through lethal drugs. The patient decides on their own time and place to die. Reasons as to why patients choose PAS differ. Factors that may play into a patient's decision include future disability and suffering, lack of control over death, impact on family, healthcare costs, insurance coverage, personal beliefs, religious beliefs, and much more. PAS may be referred to in many different ways, such as aid in dying, assisted dying, death with dignity, and many more. These often depend on the organization and the stance they take on the issue. In this section of the article, it will be referred to as PAS for the sake of consistency with the pre-existing Wikipedia page: Assisted Suicide. In the United States, PAS or medical aid in dying is legal in select states, including Oregon, Washington, Montana, Vermont, and New Mexico, and there are groups both in favor of and against legalization. Some groups favor PAS because they do not believe they will have control over their


id: terminal-illness-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness-3.md
category: reference
title: Terminal illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:51.114989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminal-illness-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mortality predictions === Often, a patient is considered terminally ill when their estimated life expectancy is six months or less, under the assumption that the disease will run its normal course based on previous data from other patients. The six-month standard is arbitrary, and best available estimates of longevity may be incorrect. Though a given patient may properly be considered terminal, this is not a guarantee that the patient will die within six months. Similarly, a patient with a slowly progressing disease, such as AIDS, may not be considered terminally ill if the best estimate of longevity is greater than six months. However, this does not guarantee that the patient will not die unexpectedly early. In general, physicians slightly overestimate the survival time of terminally ill cancer patients, so that, for example, a person who is expected to live for about six weeks would likely die around four weeks. A recent systematic review on palliative patients in general, rather than specifically cancer patients, states the following: "Accuracy of categorical estimates in this systematic review ranged from 23% up to 78% and continuous estimates over-predicted actual survival by, potentially, a factor of two." There was no evidence that any specific


id: terminal-illness-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness-4.md
category: reference
title: Terminal illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:51.114989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminal-illness-20260505-0
summary:
== Death == When dying, patients often worry about their quality of life towards the end, including emotional and physical suffering. In order for families and doctors to understand clearly what the patient wants for themselves, it is recommended that patients, doctors, and families all convene and discuss the patient's decisions before the patient becomes unable to decide. === Advance directives === At the end of life, especially when patients are unable to make decisions on their own regarding treatment, it is often up to family members and doctors to decide what they believe the patients would have wanted regarding their deaths, which is often a heavy burden and hard for family members to predict. An estimated 25% of American adults have an advance directive, meaning the majority of Americans leave these decisions to be made by family, which can lead to conflict and guilt. Although it may be a difficult subject to broach, it is important to discuss the patient's plans for how far to continue treatment should they become unable to decide. This must be done while the patient is still able to make the decisions, and takes the form of an advance directive. The advance directive should


id: testicular-microlithiasis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicular_microlithiasis-0.md
category: reference
title: Testicular microlithiasis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicular_microlithiasis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:52.388808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: testicular-microlithiasis-20260505-0
summary:
Testicular microlithiasis is an unusual condition diagnosed on testicular ultrasound. It is believed to be found in 0.1–0.5% of males globally, with frequency varying based on geographic location and is more often found in individuals with subfertility. It is often an asymptomatic, non-progressive disease; though in a very small number of cases it may also cause bouts of extreme chronic fatigue, hormone imbalance and pain, which can be severe and accompanied by swelling around the testicular region (dependent on the size and location of the calcification). In an extremely rare select few cases, individuals with microlithiasis have also been known to experience calcification of the prostate, which can lead to the passing of stones. These rare cases can lead to secondary infections if not treated with care, due to the resulting damaged tissue. However, these symptoms are rarely seen in the majority of people who have been diagnosed. Testicular microlithiasis is not associated with risk of testicular cancer in asymptomatic individuals, except in individuals who experience symptoms. However, a large meta-analysis has shown that in individuals with associated risk factors for testicular germ cell tumor, the increase in risk of concurrent diagnosis of testicular germ cell tumor, or testicular carcinoma-in-situ


id: therapeutic-inertia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_inertia-0.md
category: reference
title: Therapeutic inertia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_inertia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:53.692796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: therapeutic-inertia-20260505-0
summary:
Therapeutic inertia (also known as clinical inertia) is a measurement of the resistance to therapeutic treatment for an existing medical condition. It is commonly measured as a percentage of the number of encounters in which a patient with a condition received new or increased therapeutic treatment out of the total number of visits to a health care professional by the patient. A high percentage indicates that the health care provider is slow to treat a medical condition. A low percentage indicates that a provider is extremely quick in prescribing new treatment at the onset of any medical condition. == Calculation == There are two common methods used in calculating therapeutic inertia. For the following examples, consider that a patient has five visits with a health provider. In four of those visits, a condition is not controlled (such as high blood pressure or high cholesterol). In two of those visits, the provider made a change to the patient's treatment for the condition. In Dr. Okonofua's original paper, this patient's therapeutic inertia is calculated as h v − c v {\displaystyle {\frac {h}{v}}-{\frac {c}{v}}} where h is the number of visits with an uncontrolled condition, c is the number of visits in


id: topical-medication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_medication-0.md
category: reference
title: Topical medication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_medication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:54.857316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topical-medication-20260505-0
summary:
A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body. Most often, topical medications are applied to the skin or mucous membranes, via creams, foams, gels, lotions, or ointments. Many topical medications are epicutaneous, meaning that they are applied directly to the skin. Topical medications may also be inhalational, such as asthma medications, or applied to the surface of tissues other than the skin, such as eye drops applied to the conjunctiva, or ear drops placed in the ear, or medications applied to the surface of a tooth. The word topical derives from Greek τοπικός topikos, "of a place". == Justification == Topical drug delivery is a route of administering drugs via the skin to provide topical therapeutic effects. As skin is one of the largest and most superficial organs in the human body, pharmacists utilise it to deliver various drugs. This system usually provides a local effect on certain positions of the body. In ancient times, people used herbs to put on wounds for relieving the inflammatory effect or as pain relievers. The use of topical drug delivery system is much broader now, from smoking cessation to beauty purposes. Nowadays, there


id: topical-medication-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_medication-1.md
category: reference
title: Topical medication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_medication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:54.857316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topical-medication-20260505-0
summary:
== Choice of base formulation == A medication's potency often is changed with its base. For example, some topical steroids will be classified one or two strengths higher when moving from cream to ointment. As a rule of thumb, an ointment base is more occlusive and will drive the medication into the skin more rapidly than a solution or cream base. The manufacturer of each topical product has total control over the content of the base of a medication. Although containing the same active ingredients, one manufacturer's cream might be more acidic than the next, which could cause skin irritation or change its absorption rate. For example, a vaginal formulation of miconazole antifungal cream might irritate the skin less than an athlete's foot formulation of miconazole cream. These variations can, on occasion, result in different clinical outcomes, even though the active ingredient is the same. No comparative potency labeling exists to ensure equal efficacy between brands of topical steroids (percentage of oil vs water dramatically affect the potency of topical steroid). Studies have confirmed that the potency of some topical steroid products may differ according to manufacturer or brand. An example of this is the case of brand name Valisone


id: topical-medication-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_medication-2.md
category: reference
title: Topical medication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_medication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:54.857316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topical-medication-20260505-0
summary:
Absorption bases, e.g., beeswax and wool fat Emulsifying bases, e.g., cetrimide and emulsifying wax Hydrocarbon bases, e.g., ceresine, microcrystalline wax, hard paraffin, and soft paraffin Vegetable oil bases, e.g., almond oil, coconut oil, olive oil, peanut oil, and sesame oil Water-soluble bases, e.g., macrogols 200, 300, 400 The medicaments are dispersed in the base and are divided after penetrating the living cells of the skin. The water number of an ointment is the maximum quantity of water that 100g of a base can contain at 20 °C. Ointments are formulated using hydrophobic, hydrophilic, or water-emulsifying bases to provide preparations that are immiscible, miscible, or emulsifiable with skin secretions. They can also be derived from hydrocarbon (fatty), absorption, water-removable, or water-soluble bases. Evaluation of ointments: Drug content Release of medicament from base Medicament penetration Consistency of the preparation Absorption of medicament into blood stream Irritant effect Properties which affect choice of an ointment base are: Stability Penetrability Solvent property Irritant effects Ease of application and removal Methods of preparation of ointments: Fusion: In this method the ingredients are melted together in descending order of their melting points and stirred to ensure homogeneity. Trituration: In this finely subdivided insoluble medicaments are evenly


id: topical-medication-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_medication-3.md
category: reference
title: Topical medication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_medication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:54.857316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topical-medication-20260505-0
summary:
=== Advantages of topical drug delivery systems === In the early 1970s, the Alza Corporation, through their founder Alejandro Zaffaroni, filed the first US patents describing transdermal delivery systems for scopolamine, nitroglycerin and nicotine. People found that applying medicines on the body surfaces is beneficial in many aspects. Skin medicines can give faster onset and local effect on our body as the surface cream can bypass first pass metabolism such as hepatic and intestinal metabolism. Apart from the absorption, dermal drugs effectively prevent oral delivery limitations such as nausea and vomiting and poor appliances due to unpalatable tastes of the drugs . Topical application is an easy way for patients to tackle skin infections in a painless and non-invasive way. From a patient perspective, applying drugs on skin also provides stable dosage in blood so as to give the optimal bioavailability and therapeutic effects. In case of overdose or unwanted side effects, patients can take off or wash out the medicines quickly to eliminate toxicity by simply removing the patch to stop the delivery of drugs. === Disadvantages of topical drug delivery systems === The site of putting the patches for topical drugs may get irritated and have rashes and


id: toxidrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxidrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Toxidrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxidrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:56.103303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: toxidrome-20260505-0
summary:
A toxidrome (a portmanteau of toxic and syndrome, coined in 1970 by Mofenson and Greensher) is a syndrome caused by a dangerous level of a toxin in the body. It is often the consequence of a drug overdose. Common symptoms include dizziness, disorientation, nausea, vomiting and oscillopsia. It may indicate a medical emergency requiring treatment at a poison control center. Aside from poisoning, a systemic infection may also lead to one. Classic toxidromes may be variable or obscured by co-ingestion of multiple drugs. A common tool for assessing for the presence of toxidrome in the United Kingdom is the CRESS tool. == Anticholinergic == The symptoms of an anticholinergic toxidrome include blurred vision, coma, decreased bowel sounds, delirium, dry skin, fever, flushing, hallucinations, ileus, memory loss, mydriasis (dilated pupils), myoclonus, psychosis, seizures and urinary retention. Complications include hypertension, hyperthermia and tachycardia. Substances that may cause this toxidrome include antihistamines, antipsychotics, antidepressants, antiparkinsonian drugs, atropine, benztropine, datura, diphenhydramine and scopolamine. == Cholinergic == The symptoms of a cholinergic toxidrome include bronchorrhea, confusion, defecation, diaphoresis, diarrhea, emesis, lacrimation, miosis, muscle fasciculations, salivation, seizures, urination and weakness. Complications include bradycardia, hypothermia and tachypnea. Substances that may cause this toxidrome include carbamates, mushrooms and


id: trojan-horse-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Horse_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Trojan Horse effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Horse_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:57.370355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trojan-horse-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The Trojan Horse effect is a term used in scientific literature, referring to substances that act as carriers for other compounds, facilitating their transport. == Definition and examples == The effect generally refers to substance that facilitate the diffusion of other compounds. An example of this concept is observed with microplastics which act as carriers of organic compounds to new sites in the environment via sorption and desorption. == Medicine == It is also utilized in the field of medicine, for example to allow for the administration of medicine across the blood–brain barrier via lipid nanoparticles. The Trojan Horse effect is utilized by some antibiotics. By having the active compound bound to a mimic compound of molecules which are desirable to the bacteria. == References ==


id: ureterovaginal-fistula-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ureterovaginal_fistula-0.md
category: reference
title: Ureterovaginal fistula
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ureterovaginal_fistula
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:58.574628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ureterovaginal-fistula-20260505-0
summary:
A ureterovaginal fistula is an abnormal passageway existing between the ureter and the vagina. It presents as urinary incontinence. Its impact on women is to reduce the "quality of life dramatically." == Cause == A ureterovaginal fistula is a result of trauma, infection, pelvic surgery, radiation treatment and therapy, malignancy, or inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms can be troubling for women especially since some clinicians delay treatment until inflammation is reduced and stronger tissue has formed. The fistula may develop as a maternal birth injury from a long and protracted labor, long dilation time and expulsion period. Difficult deliveries can create pressure necrosis in the tissue that is being pushed between the head of the infant and the softer tissues of the vagina, ureters, and bladder. Radiographic imaging can assist clinicians in identifying the abnormality. A Ureterovaginal fistula is always indicative of an obstructed kidney necessitating emergency intervention followed later by an elective surgical repair of the fistula. == Treatment == Many women delay treatment for decades. Surgeons often will correct the fistula through major gynecological surgery. Newer treatments can include the placement of a stent and is usually successful. In 0.5-2.5% of major pelvic surgeries a ureterovaginal fistula will form,


id: va-conduction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_conduction-0.md
category: reference
title: VA conduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_conduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:59.807665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: va-conduction-20260505-0
summary:
VA conduction, also named Ventriculoatrial conduction and sometimes referred to as Retrograde conduction, is the conduction backward phenomena in the heart, where the conduction comes from the ventricles or from the AV node into and through the atria. Retrograde VA conduction results in many different symptoms, primarily those symptoms result from the delayed, nonphysiologic timing of atrial contraction in relation to ventricular contraction. == References ==


id: vascular-occlusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_occlusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Vascular occlusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_occlusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:01.129462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vascular-occlusion-20260505-0
summary:
Vascular occlusion is a blockage of a blood vessel, usually with a clot. It differs from thrombosis in describing any form of blockage, not just one formed by a clot. When it occurs in a major vein, it can, in some cases, cause deep vein thrombosis. The condition is also relatively common in the retina, and can cause partial or total loss of vision. An occlusion can often be diagnosed using Doppler sonography (a form of ultrasound). Some medical procedures, such as embolisation, involve occluding a blood vessel to treat a particular condition. This can be to reduce pressure on aneurysms (weakened blood vessels) or to restrict a haemorrhage. It can also be used to reduce blood supply to tumours or growths in the body, and therefore restrict their development. Occlusion can be carried out using a ligature; by implanting small coils which stimulate the formation of clots; or, particularly in the case of cerebral aneurysms, by clipping. == See also == Central retinal artery occlusion Central retinal vein occlusion Branch retinal artery occlusion Branch retinal vein occlusion == References ==


id: vasomotor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasomotor-0.md
category: reference
title: Vasomotor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasomotor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:02.324637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vasomotor-20260505-0
summary:
Vasomotor refers to actions upon a blood vessel which alter its diameter. More specifically, it can refer to vasodilator action and vasoconstrictor action. == Control == === Sympathetic innervation === Sympathetic nerve fibers travel around the tunica media of the artery, secrete neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine into the extracellular fluid surrounding the smooth muscle (tunica media) from the terminal knob of the axon. The smooth muscle cell membranes have α and β-adrenergic receptors for these neurotransmitters. Activation of α-adrenergic receptors promotes vasoconstriction, while the activation of β-adrenergic receptors mediates the relaxation of muscle cells, resulting in vasodilation. Normally, α-adrenergic receptors predominate in smooth muscle of resistance vessels. === Endothelium derived chemicals === Endothelin, and angiotensin are the vasoconstrictors of smooth muscles while nitric oxide and prostacyclin are vasodilators of the smooth muscles. == Pathology == Some vasoactive chemicals such as vasodilator acetylcholine are known for causing reduced/increased blood flow in the tumours by vasomotor changes. Inadequate blood supply to the tumour cells can cause the cells to be radio-resistant and resulted in reduced accessibility to chemotherapeutic agents. Injuries to nerves of the lower trunk of the brachial plexus (Klumpke's paralysis) and compression of median nerve at the flexor retinaculum of


id: vegetation-pathology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_(pathology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Vegetation (pathology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_(pathology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:03.543730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vegetation-pathology-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a vegetation is an abnormal growth named for its similarity to natural vegetation. Vegetations are often associated with endocarditis. They can be made of fibrin and platelets. == Types == Certain conditions are associated with specific vegetation patterns: == References ==


id: vip-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIP_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: VIP medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIP_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:04.879770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vip-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
VIP medicine is a variety of the VIP syndrome—the phenomenon of a perceived "VIP" (very important person) using his or her status to influence a given professional or institution to make unorthodox decisions under the pressure or presence of said VIP—that relates to the accessibility and quality of health care. It is essentially health care in which a physician or hospital accommodates a wealthy, important or famous patient who can afford to pay the full medical bill outright, usually with luxury amenities, and seclusion from the ordinary run of patient, as added benefits. As a result, such a patient may receive something other than the normal standard of care; the deviation may be in the direction of either greater or lesser safety and quality. VIP medicine may be initially reflected in expedited care in an emergency room or more immediate and direct access to specialists, bypassing primary care providers. A "VIP suite", or "wing", is one venue where VIP medicine may be practiced in the hospital setting—indeed, whole floors of a hospital building, at major medical centers, may be dedicated to it. A particular type of formalized and regularized VIP medical practice is known as concierge medicine. Many aspects of


id: vip-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIP_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: VIP medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIP_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:04.879770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vip-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Hospitals and doctors aiming to give some patients more medical care, more time, and more resources contradicts fundamental medical ethics. It may not be consistent with the idea of justice within medicine: a fair distribution of scarce resources. VIP medicine can be extravagant and wasteful. Excessive drug prescriptions may be written and imaging studies ordered. Some health care programs for corporate executives, for example, involve periodic full-body CT scans as screening tests as part of the "chairman's physical", a measure considered entirely unjustified as routine care. Overmedication may result. Imaging tests may actually increase the risk of cancer from radiation exposure and have never really been shown to improve anyone's health. And if there is an incidental finding, as there often is, more tests might be ordered, which may lead to unnecessary biopsies. A VIP may insist on the senior-most specialist at an academic institution or teaching hospital—the chair of the department of medicine, or of surgery, for instance. But the senior-most, or most eminent, caregiver is not necessarily the most skilled at performing a given procedure. Such an individual may be out of practice, or no longer up-to-date, and the "no name" subordinate may actually be much more skilled.


id: waiting-in-healthcare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waiting_in_healthcare-0.md
category: reference
title: Waiting in healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waiting_in_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:06.106767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: waiting-in-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
Waiting in healthcare refers to any waiting period experienced by a patient before or during medical treatment. Waiting to get an appointment with a physician, staying in a waiting room before an appointment, and being observed during a physician's watchful waiting are different concepts in waiting for healthcare. When a patient is waiting, their family and friends may also be waiting for an outcome. Waiting time influences patient satisfaction. Patients can spend longer waiting for treatment than actually receiving treatment. Some experts have suggested that patient waiting rooms in hospitals be integrated with the other rooms providing patient care so that information updates can come freely to anyone waiting. Time in the waiting room has been used to experiment with giving patient health education. In 2014 the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute began funding a study for improving the waiting room experience. Patients who are waiting for surgery depend on the availability of the operating theater, and if any patient getting treatment in that room takes longer than scheduled, all patients who are waiting to be next must wait beyond their appointed time. It can be difficult to maximize efficient use of the operating room when unexpected delays can happen and


id: watchful-waiting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchful_waiting-0.md
category: reference
title: Watchful waiting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchful_waiting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:07.307836+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: watchful-waiting-20260505-0
summary:
Watchful waiting (also watch and wait or WAW) is an approach to a medical problem in which time is allowed to pass before medical intervention or therapy is used. During this time, repeated testing may be performed. Related terms include expectant management, active surveillance (especially active surveillance of prostate cancer), and masterly inactivity. The term masterly inactivity is also used in nonmedical contexts. A distinction can be drawn between watchful waiting and medical observation, but some sources equate the terms. Usually, watchful waiting is an outpatient process and may have a duration of months or years. In contrast, medical observation is usually an inpatient process, often involving frequent or even continuous monitoring and may have a duration of hours or days. == Medical uses == Often watchful waiting is recommended in situations with a high likelihood of self-resolution if there is high uncertainty concerning the diagnosis, and the risks of intervention or therapy may outweigh the benefits. Watchful waiting is often recommended for many common illnesses such as ear infections in children; because the majority of cases resolve spontaneously, antibiotics will often be prescribed only after several days of symptoms. It is also a strategy frequently used in surgery prior


id: weekend-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:08.663129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: weekend-effect-20260505-0
summary:
In healthcare, the weekend effect is the finding of a difference in mortality rate for patients admitted to hospital for treatment at the weekend compared to those admitted on a weekday. The effects of the weekend on patient outcomes has been a concern since the late 1970s, and a 'weekend effect' is now well documented. Although this is a controversial area, the balance of opinion is that the weekend (and bank holidays) have a deleterious effect on patient care (and specifically increase mortality)—based on the larger studies that have been carried out. Variations in the outcomes for patients treated for many acute and chronic conditions have been studied. == Published research: Non-disease specific (unselected) patients == === Medical patients === Schmulewitz et al., in the UK in 2005, studied 3,244 patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cerebrovascular accidents, pulmonary embolism, pneumonia, collapse and upper gastrointestinal bleed. They found "Weekend admission was not associated with significantly higher in-hospital mortality, readmission rates or increased length of stay compared to the weekday equivalent for any of the six conditions". However, in 2010, Clarke et al., in a much larger Australian study of 54,625 mixed medical/surgical non-elective admissions showed a significant weekend effect (i.e.


id: weekend-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:08.663129+00:00
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=== Surgical patients === Non-elective (emergency) Patients There have been many similar studies (with similar conclusions) in surgery. In the US, in a very large study in 2011, 29,991,621 non-elective general surgical hospital admissions were studied (Ricciardi et al.). Inpatient mortality was reported as 2.7% for weekend and 2.3% for weekday admissions (p<0.001). Regression analysis revealed significantly higher mortality during weekends for 15 of the 26 (57.7%) major diagnostic categories. The weekend effect remained, and mortality was noted to be 10.5% higher during weekends compared with weekdays after adjusting for all other variables. In another huge US study in 2016 (Ricciardi et al., 2016), 28,236,749 non-elective surgical patients were evaluated, with 428,685 (1.5%) experiencing one or more Patient Safety Indicator (PSI) events. The rate of PSI was the same for patients admitted on weekends as compared to weekdays (1.5%). However, the risk of mortality was 7% higher if a PSI event occurred to a patient admitted on a weekend, as compared with a weekday. In addition, compared to patients admitted on weekdays, patients admitted on weekends had a 36% higher risk of postoperative wound dehiscence, 19% greater risk of death in a low-mortality diagnostic-related group, 19% increased risk of postoperative


id: weekend-effect-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-2.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== Emergency department (ED) patients === ED admissions have also been well studied. The first major study was published in 2001 by Bell et al. In this Canadian study, 3,789,917 ED admissions were analysed. Weekend admissions were associated with significantly higher in-hospital mortality rates than weekday admissions among patients with ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms (42% vs 36%, p<0.001), acute epiglottitis (1.7% vs 0.3%, p=0.04), and pulmonary embolism (13% vs 11%, p=0.009). In another Canadian study (Cram et al., 2004), 641,860 admissions from the ED were investigated. The adjusted odds of death for patients admitted on weekends when compared with weekdays was 1.03 (95% CI 1.01-1.06; p=0.005). The weekend effect was larger in major teaching hospitals compared with non-teaching hospitals (OR = 1.13 vs 1.03, p=0.03) and minor teaching hospitals (OR = 1.05, p=0.11). In a UK study in 2010, Aylin et al. studied 4,317,866 ED admissions, and found 215,054 in-hospital deaths with an overall crude mortality rate of 5.0% (5.2% for all weekend admissions and 4.9% for all weekday admissions). The overall adjusted odds of death for all emergency admissions was 10% higher (OR = 1.10; 95% CI 1.08-1.11) in those patients admitted at the weekend compared with patients admitted


id: weekend-effect-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-3.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:08.663129+00:00
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parent: weekend-effect-20260505-0
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=== Intensive care unit patients === As well as ED, ICU care has been extensively studied in terms of weekend mortality. In 2002, Barnett et al. studied 156,136 patients in the US. They found the in-hospital death was 9% higher (OR = 1.09; 95% CI 1.04-1.15; p<0.001) for weekend admissions (Saturday or Sunday) than in patients admitted midweek (Tuesday to Thursday). However, the adjusted odds of death were also higher (p<0.001) for patients admitted on a Monday (OR = 1.09) or a Friday (OR = 1.08). Findings were generally similar in analyses stratified by admission type (medical vs. surgical), hospital teaching status, and illness severity. In 2003, in Finland, Uusaro et al., studied 23,134 consecutive ICU patients. Adjusted ICU-mortality was higher for weekend as compared with weekday admissions (OR = 1.20; 95% CI 1.01-1.43). But not all ICU studies show an effect. For example, in the following year, Ensminger et al.(2004) published a similar study in the US, looking at a significantly smaller population (of 29,084 patients). In multivariable analyses - controlling for the factors associated with mortality such as APACHE (acute physiology and chronic health evaluation) III predicted mortality rate, ICU admission source, and intensity of treatment - no


id: weekend-effect-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-4.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== Other non-selected patients === Schilling et al., in 2010, investigated 166,920 patients admitted to 39 Michigan hospitals. Participants were adults, 65 years+, and admitted through the emergency department with six common discharge diagnoses (acute myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, stroke, pneumonia, hip fracture, gastrointestinal bleeding). Seasonal influenza conferred the greatest increase in absolute risk of in-hospital mortality (0.5%; 95% CI 0.23-0.76), followed by weekend admission (0.32%; 95% CI 0.11-0.54), and high hospital occupancy on admission (0.25; 95% CI 0.06-0.43). In a huge study in 2012 by Freemantle et al., 14,217,640 admissions (all types) were assessed. Admission on weekend days was associated with an increase in risk of subsequent death compared with admission on weekdays. Hazard ratio for Sunday vs Wednesday 1.16 (95% CI 1.14-1.18; p<0.0001), and for Saturday vs Wednesday 1.11 (95% CI 1.09-1.13; p<.0001). Also in 2012, Lee et al., in Malaysia, studied 126,627 patients admitted to a single hospital. The group found that there was a statistically significant increased risk of mortality for those patients admitted during weekends (OR = 1.22; 95% CI 1.14-1.31) and out-of-hours on a weekday (OR = 1.67; 95% CI 1.57-1.78). As well as the effect of the weekend, there is a considerable


id: weekend-effect-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-5.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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== Published research: Disease-specific (selected) patients: Cardiorespiratory medicine == === Cardiology === AMI Multiple studies have been carried out into acute myocardial infarction (AMI). In the first study, in Japan in 2007, Matsui et al. studied 6084 patients. There were no differences between the weekday and weekend groups in terms of in-hospital, 30-day, and 1-year mortality rates. However, also in 2007, in a much larger US study (of 231,164 AMI patients), Kostis et al. found that the difference in mortality at 30 days was significant even after adjustment for demographic characteristics, coexisting conditions, and site of infarction (OR = 1.048; 95% CI 1.02-1.08; p<0.001). In 2008, Kruth et al. in Germany, analysed 11,516 patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). On weekends the group found a significantly higher in-hospital mortality (11.1 vs 9.4%, p=0.01) and at night there was a trend to higher in-hospital mortality when compared with regular working hours (10.6 vs 9.4%, p=0.07). In small Japanese study, two years later, 370 AMI patients were studied (Turin et al., 2009). Odds ratio was 1.18 (95% CI 0.7-1.9) but there was no significant difference between weekend and weekday patients. Similarly, also in 2010, in South Korea, in another large study (97,466


id: weekend-effect-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-6.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== Other cardiac disease === Three studies have been carried out into Acute Heart Failure (AHF). In 2009, in a US study of 48,612 patients with AHF, there were no differences in death rate by day of admission or discharge (Fornarow et al.). Conversely, in the same year, also in the US, Horwich et al. analysed 81,810 AHF admissions at 241 sites. Weekend AHF admission compared to weekday admission was associated with an increased in-hospital mortality (OR = 1.13; 95% CI 1.02-1.27). In a smaller Japanese study (of 1620 patients) in 2014, Hamaguchi et al., found in-hospital death was comparable between patients admitted on the weekend and weekdays (OR = 1.13; 95% CI 1.63-2.00; p=0.69). Deshmukh et al., in the US in 2012, analysed 86,497 discharges with atrial fibrillation. The rate of AF requiring cardioversion was lower at the weekend when compared to a weekday (7.9% vs 16.2%, p<0.0001; OR = 0.5, 95% CI 0.45-0.55; p<0.0001). The adjusted hospital mortality odds was greater for weekend admissions (OR = 1.23, 95% CI 1.03-1.51; p<0.0001), after adjusting for patient and hospital characteristics and disease severity. === Cardiovascular surgery === There have been three studies in cardiovascular surgery. In 2011, Kim et al.


id: weekend-effect-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-7.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== Gastroenterology === Upper GI Bleed The studies related to Upper GI Bleed (UGIB) are almost as numerous as those on myocardial infarction; two focus on Acute Variceal Hemorrhage (AVH) alone. In 2009, in the US, Shaheen et al., found, in a study of 237,412 patients with UGI bleed, that those admitted on the weekend had an increased risk of death (3.4% vs 3.0%; OR = 1.08; 95% CI 1.02-1.15). In a similar US paper that year, Ananthakrishnan et al., studied another very large population (of 419,939 patients with UGIB). On multivariate analysis, non-variceal UGIB patients admitted on weekends had higher adjusted in-hospital mortality (OR = 1.21; 95% CI 1.09-1.35). Whereas, weekend admission was not predictive of in-hospital mortality in patients with AVH (OR = 0.94; 95% CI 0.75-1.18). In another similar US study, by Dorn et al., in 2010, 98,975 patients with UGIB were studied, and a similar weekend effect found. Compared to patients admitted on a weekday, for those admitted on a weekend, in-hospital mortality was higher (unadjusted mortality 3.76 vs 3.33%; p = 0.003; adjusted OR = 1.09, 95% CI 1.00-1.18). Whereas, in a much smaller 2011 UK study (of 6749 patients), Jaraith et al., no weekend


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-8.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== Nephrology and transplantation === In a very large Canadian study (of 963,730) patients, in 2010, James et al., showed that (compared with admission on a weekday), AKI patients admitted on a weekend had a higher risk of death (OR = 1.07; 95% CI 1.02-1.12). Similarly, in a huge study of 3,278,572 American haemodialysis patients in 2013, Sakhuja et al., concluded that patients admitted over weekends had higher mortality during the first 3 days of admission (OR = 1.18; 95% CI 1.10-1.26). Haddock et al., in the UK, in 2015, studied admissions to a renal unit. No weekend effect was observed. Thirty-day mortality rate was 46/208 = 0.22 deaths/weekend day of admission compared with 107/523 = 0.20 deaths/weekday of admission (OR = 1.08, p = 0.67). Acute kidney injury and haemodialysis patients formed a higher percentage of admissions. Orman et al., in 2012, in the US, studied 94,768 liver transplants. The patient survival rates did not significantly differ from those for daytime and weekday operations. The graft failure rate was unchanged at 30 and 90 days for weekend transplants but was modestly increased at 365 days (OR = 1.05; 95% CI 1.01-1.11). In 2016, an American study of 181,799 deceased


id: weekend-effect-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-9.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== Neurology === Stroke With myocardial infarction and UGIB, the most well studied disease is stroke, with varying results regarding the weekend effect. Though there are three very large studies (>100,000 patients), two of which are positive. In the first stroke study, by Saposnik et al. in 2007, 26,676 patients in 606 hospitals in Canada were assessed. Seven-day stroke mortality was 7.6%. Weekend admissions were associated with a higher stroke mortality than weekday admissions (8.5% vs 7.4%). In the multivariable analysis, weekend admissions were associated with higher early mortality (OR = 1.14; 95% CI 1.02-1.26) after adjusting for age, sex, comorbidities, and medical complications. In Japan in the following year, a much smaller study of 1578 patients, was carried out by Turin et al. They found the 28-day case fatality rate for the weekend admission group was 14.7% (95% CI 11.3-18.8) and 10.1% (95% CI 8.5-11.9) for the weekday admission group. This phenomenon was observed mainly for cerebral infarction, and to some extent for cerebral haemorrhage. But it did not reach statistical significance. In 2009, Tung et al., in Taiwan, studied 34,347 ischaemic stroke patients and found that weekend admissions were associated with increased 30-day mortality. Five studies were published


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-10.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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Hsieh et al., in Taiwan, analysed 46,007 ischaemic stroke admissions. They found, in multivariate analysis without adjustment for stroke severity, weekend admission was associated with increased 30-day mortality (OR = 1.20; 95% CI 1.08-1.34). But this association did not persist after adjustment for stroke severity (OR = 1.07; 95% CI 0.95-1.20). Whereas, Ansa et al., in Nigeria in 2016, studied 339 patients, of which 187 (55.2%) had had a stroke. They found presentation to hospital after-hours was a significant predictor of death (OR = 3.37). There has been one study of stroke in (8467) children, by Adil et al., in the US, in 2016. After adjusting for age, sex, and confounders, the odds of in-hospital mortality remained higher among children admitted on weekends (OR = 1.4; 95% CI 1.1-1.9; p=0.04). Other neurological disease One study related to meningococcal septicaemia has been published. In 2013, Goldacre et al., in a UK study of 19,729 patients, found that the risk of in-hospital death was significantly higher (OR = 1.12; 95% CI 1.05-1.20) for weekend admission.


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-11.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== Neurosurgery === Intracranial haemorrhage Several studies have been published regarding intracranial bleeding: intracerebral, subarachnoid and subdural haemorrhage. In 2009 in the US, Crowley et al., in a study of 13,821 US patients with intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH), reported the risk of in-hospital death was 12% higher with weekend admission (OR = 1.12; 95% CI 1.05-1.20). In China, in 2012, Jiang et al., in a much smaller study (of 313 patients with ICH) found that weekend admission was not a statistically significant predictive factor of in-hospital mortality (p=0.315) or functional outcome (p=0.128). However, in 2016, Patel et al., also in the US, studied 485,329 patients with intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH). Overall, weekend admission was associated with 11% higher odds of in-hospital mortality. When analysed in 3-year groups, excess mortality of weekend admissions showed temporal decline. Three relatively small studies on SAH have been carried out. Crowley et al., in the US in 2009, investigated patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH; 5667 patients). Unlike the group's other study, weekend admission was not a statistically significant independent predictor of death in the study population at 7 days (OR = 1.07, 95% CI 0.91-1.25), 14 days (OR = 1.01, 95% CI 0.87-1.17), or 30 days (OR


id: weekend-effect-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-12.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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== Published research: Disease-specific (selected) patients: Paediatrics and obstetrics == Neonatal mortality Several paediatric and obstetric studies have been performed. In fact, the first studies on the weekend effect were in this area in the late 1970s. Possibly the first study of the weekend effect was a UK prospective study of 297,000 children, published in 1977, when childhood deaths were assessed. The paper stated "16 of the 29 sudden unexpected deaths occurred at a weekend or bank holiday". In 1981, Hendry in the UK, stated that "babies born on Sundays were more at risk of dying during or after birth." Also in 1981, in the US, Mangold studied 66,049 live births. Neonatal mortality was found to be higher among weekend deliveries with a Sunday rate that was 27 per cent above the weekly average. Two years later, in Australia, Mathers concluded that "stillbirth and neonatal death rates were 17% and 29% higher respectively among babies born at weekends than among those born on weekdays". In 2003, Hamilton et al., in an American study of 111,749 births, found that neonatal mortality was higher among the births on weekends than those during the week. However, in the same year, Gould et al.


id: weekend-effect-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-13.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== General surgery === The weekend effect have been assessed in a wide range of specific surgical conditions. Four studies were published in 2012. Worni et al., in the US, studied 151,774 patients who had had a laparoscopic appendectomy. Overall mortality (OR = 1.37; p=0.075) was not statistically different between weekday and weekend groups. Whereas the same group, found a weekend effect in a study of 31,832 patients who underwent urgent surgery for left-sided diverticulitis (Worni et al., 2012). In a risk-adjusted analysis, patients admitted on weekends had a significantly higher risk for any postoperative complication (OR = 1.10; p=0.005). A mortality analysis was not presented. In the same year, in a small study of 404 US patients with small bowel obstruction, McVay et al., found that mortality was low at 1.7%, with no difference noted between the groups (p=0.35). This is not surprising with a small study of a lowish risk procedure. In the US, Orman et al., studied 94,768 liver transplant patients. Unadjusted Cox proportional hazards modelling showed that in comparison with weekday liver transplant patients, weekend liver transplant patients had an OR of 0.99 (95% CI 0.93-1.07) for mortality at 30 days (i.e. no weekend effect). In


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-14.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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=== Vascular surgery === Two studies of ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) have been carried out. Both demonstrated the weekend effect. In 2012, Gellerani et al., in Italy, investigated 4461 patients. Weekend admissions were associated with significantly higher in-hospital mortality (43.4%) than weekday admissions (36.9%; p<0.001). Multivariate regression analysis showed that weekend admission was an independent risk factor for increased in-hospital mortality (OR = 1.32; 95% CI 1.14-1.52; p<0.001). Two years later, in the US, in a study of 5832 patients, Groves et al. found that patients admitted on the weekend had a statistically significant increase in mortality compared with those admitted on the weekdays (OR = 1.32; 95% CI 1.13-1.55; p=0.0004). There are also two studies on lower limb ischaemia, both performed in the US. In a study of 63,768 patients with an ischaemic lower limb in 2014, Orandi et al. found no statistically significant association between weekend admission and in-hospital mortality (OR = 1.15; 95% CI 1.06-1.25; p=0.10). Whereas, Arora et al., a year later, in a similar study, did show a weekend effect. They found through multivariate analysis, that weekend admission (OR = 1.53; 95% CI 1.26-1.86; p<0.001) was a significant predictor of inhospital mortality. In 2015,


id: weekend-effect-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-15.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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== Published research: Discussion == This weekend effect is seen in non-selected (non disease-specific) studies, medical and surgical; for both non-elective and elective admissions, in most countries in the developed world. In fact, the strength of the effect is highest in elective surgical care; the highest relative risk being 3.18 in Glance et al in 2016, and 1.82 in Aylin et al, in 2013. However, it is not entirely valid to compare weekend vs weekday mortality in elective and non-elective surgical patients; as they may not be from the same patient groups - e.g. the elective patients may be older, with comorbidities, with degenerative or malignant disease (e.g. hip replacement or bowel carcinoma), and the non-elective younger with infection or inflammation (e.g. appendicitis). In terms of the disease-specific studies, the larger studies showed good evidence for a weekend effect in myocardial infarction, cardiac arrest, AF, pulmonary embolus, COPD, pneumonia, upper GI bleed, stroke (probably), AAA; and in specialties including plastic surgery, and paediatrics and obstetrics (probably), including SIDS. There is variable evidence of an effect in ICU and psychiatry; and no evidence of an effect in disease group-specific studies in general, orthopaedic, vascular and other specialist surgery. Public holidays, and


id: weekend-effect-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-16.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
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== Cause of weekend effect == The cause of this effect is unclear. It could be a 'purely medical problem', i.e. the mortality is increased due to reduced medical staffing levels at the weekend. The cardiology, nephrology, paediatric and obstetric studies are against this argument; as these are all specialties where senior medical staff usually work normally at weekends. It could be due to a combination of medical, nursing and other health professional staff being less available at weekends. There is some evidence for the importance of nursing numbers, in terms of weekend mortality. In Neuraz et al's study in 2015, the patient-to-nurse ratio was more important that the ratio of patient-to-physician. Alternatively, the effect may not just be a health issue, i.e. it could be due to reduced health and social care availability (that the patient may be discharged into) at the weekend. As described above in the Discussion, there is also considerable literature on the 'Out-of-Hours Effect'. This effect is seen during the week and at weekends. The study by Lee et al in 2012, looked at (and compared) the 'Out-of-Hours' and 'Weekend Effect' on the same dataset (of 126,627 patients). In this, and other such studies, the


id: weekend-effect-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect-17.md
category: reference
title: Weekend effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:34:08.663129+00:00
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parent: weekend-effect-20260505-0
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== Weekend effect and working patterns == A small number of studies have examined the evidence for an association between the weekend effect and patterns of health professional working; six studies have addressed medical staffing, two have addressed nursing issues, and two have addressed both. In 2011, in a study of COPD patients in the UK, Brims et al. found that after opening a Medical Admission Unit, the risk of death on day 1 after weekend winter admission fell from 3.63 (95% CI 1.15-11.5) to 1.65 (95% CI 0.14-19.01). Similarly, Bell et al., in 2013, in the UK, found an 'all inclusive' pattern of consultant working, incorporating a minimum consultant presence of 4 hours per day, was associated with reduced excess weekend mortality. In the US, in 2014, Ricciardi et al., in another medical study, found that mortality following a weekend admission for patients admitted to a hospital with resident trainees, was significantly higher than hospitals with no resident trainees. The effects of the introduction of a 7-day consultant service have been investigated in medical patients. In 2015, Leong et al., in an uncontrolled study of elderly medical patients in the UK, stated "introduction of seven-day consultant working was associated


