# kb

id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-5.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:35.467021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
"First, the new candidate must seem to resolve some outstanding and generally recognized problem that can be met in no other way. Second, the new paradigm must promise to preserve a relatively large part of the concrete problem-solving ability that has accrued to science through its predecessors. Novelty for its own sake is not a desideratum in the sciences as it is in so many other creative fields. As a result, though new paradigms seldom or never possess all the capabilities of their predecessors, they usually preserve a great deal of the most concrete parts of past achievement and they always permit additional concrete problem-solutions besides." In the second edition, Kuhn added a postscript in which he elaborated his ideas on the nature of scientific progress. He described a thought experiment involving an observer who has the opportunity to inspect an assortment of theories, each corresponding to a single stage in a succession of theories. What if the observer is presented with these theories without any explicit indication of their chronological order? Kuhn anticipates that it will be possible to reconstruct their chronology on the basis of the theories' scope and content, because the more recent a theory is, the


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-6.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:35.467021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Political science === In 1974, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was ranked as the second most frequently used book in political science courses focused on scope and methods. In particular, Kuhn's theory has been used by political scientists to critique behavioralism, which claims that accurate political statements must be both testable and falsifiable. The book also proved popular with political scientists embroiled in debates about whether a set of formulations put forth by a political scientist constituted a theory, or something else. The changes that occur in politics, society and business are often expressed in Kuhnian terms, however poor their parallel with the practice of science may seem to scientists and historians of science. The terms "paradigm" and "paradigm shift" have become such notorious clichés and buzzwords that they are sometimes viewed as effectively devoid of content. == Criticisms == The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was soon criticized by Kuhn's colleagues in the history and philosophy of science. In 1965, a special symposium on the book was held at an International Colloquium on the Philosophy of Science that took place at Bedford College, London, and was chaired by Karl Popper. The symposium led to the publication of the symposium's


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-7.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:35.467021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
Relativistic mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the total energy of the particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since the total energy of a particle in relation to one system of reference differs from the total energy in relation to other systems of reference, while the speed of light remains constant in all systems, it follows that the mass of a particle has different values in different systems of reference. "Real" mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the non-kinetic energy of a particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since non-kinetic energy is the same in all systems of reference, and the same is true of light, it follows that the mass of a particle has the same value in all systems of reference. Projecting this distinction backwards in time onto Newtonian dynamics, we can formulate the following two hypotheses: HR: the term "mass" in Newtonian theory denotes relativistic mass. Hp: the term "mass" in Newtonian theory denotes "real" mass. According to Field, it is impossible to decide which of these two affirmations is true. Prior to the theory of relativity, the term "mass" was referentially indeterminate. But this does not


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-8.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:35.467021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Barnes, Barry (1982). T. S. Kuhn and Social Science. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231054362. Bilton, Tony; et al. (2002). Introductory Sociology (4th ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-333-94571-1.* Bird, Alexander (2013). "Thomas Kuhn". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved September 23, 2017. Bird, Alexander; Ladyman, James (2013). Arguing about Science. Routledge. ISBN 9780415492294. Retrieved September 23, 2017. Blanchard, Olivier J. (2009). "The State of Macro". Annual Review of Economics. 1 (1): 209–228. doi:10.3386/w14259. Conant, James; Haugeland, John (2002). "Editors' introduction". The Road Since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970-1993, with an Autobiographical Interview (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0226457994. Daston, Lorraine (2012). "Structure". Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences. 42 (5): 496–499. doi:10.1525/hsns.2012.42.5.496. JSTOR 10.1525/hsns.2012.42.5.496. Davidson, Donald (1973). "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme". Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association. 47: 5–20. doi:10.2307/3129898. JSTOR 3129898. de Gelder, Beatrice (1989). "Granny, The Naked Emperor and the Second Cognitive Revolution". The Cognitive Turn: Sociological and Psychological Perspectives on Science. Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook. Vol. 13. Springer Netherlands. pp. 97–100. ISBN 978-0-7923-0306-0. Dolby, R. G. A. (1971). "Reviewed Work: Criticism and the


id: the-third-culture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Third_Culture-0.md
category: reference
title: The Third Culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Third_Culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:37.926935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-third-culture-20260505-0
summary:
The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution is a 1995 book by John Brockman which discusses the work of several well-known scientists who are directly communicating their new, sometimes provocative, ideas to the general public. John Brockman has continued the themes of 'The Third Culture' in the website of the Edge Foundation, where leading scientists and thinkers contribute their thoughts in plain English. The title of the book refers to C. P. Snow's 1959 work The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution, which described the conflict between the cultures of the humanities and science. == Contents == Contributions by twenty-three authors were included in the 1995 book: physicist Paul Davies biologist Richard Dawkins philosopher Daniel Dennett paleontologist Niles Eldredge chaos theorist J. Doyne Farmer theoretical physicist Murray Gell-Mann biologist Brian Goodwin geologist/biologist Stephen Jay Gould physicist Alan Guth inventor W. Daniel Hillis theoretical psychologist Nicholas Humphrey geneticist Steve Jones biologist Stuart Kauffman complex systems specialist Christopher Langton biologist Lynn Margulis mathematician and computer scientist Marvin Minsky mathematical physicist Roger Penrose cognitive scientist Steven Pinker theoretical astrophysicist Martin Rees cognitive scientist Roger Schank theoretical physicist Lee Smolin biologist Francisco Varela evolutionary biologist George C. Williams The book influenced the reception of


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:39.150258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
The tree of knowledge (ToK) system is a new map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques, who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University. The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-1.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:39.150258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences === Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition, in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science. Henriques argues that comparative psychology, ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. === Culture/Person


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-2.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:39.150258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
== The "problem of psychology" == The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework. The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-3.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:39.150258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
(1) psychological formalism and (2) human psychology. Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-4.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:39.150258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
== Toward the integration of human knowledge == As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience. Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In


id: the-two-cultures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Cultures-0.md
category: reference
title: The Two Cultures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Cultures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:40.468298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-two-cultures-20260505-0
summary:
"The Two Cultures" is the first part of an influential 1959 Rede Lecture by British scientist and novelist C. P. Snow. The lecture was published that same year in book form as The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Snow's thesis was that science and the humanities, which represented "the intellectual life of the whole of western society", had become divided into "two cultures", and that the growing division between them was a major handicap in solving the world's problems. == The lecture == The talk was delivered 7 May 1959 in the Senate House, Cambridge, and subsequently published as The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The lecture and book expanded upon an article by Snow published in the New Statesman of 6 October 1956, also titled "The Two Cultures". The book form of Snow's lecture was widely read and discussed on both sides of the Atlantic, leading him to write a 1963 follow-up, The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of the Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Snow's position can be summed up by an oft-repeated passage from his lecture: A good many times I have been present at gatherings of people who, by


id: the-two-cultures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Cultures-1.md
category: reference
title: The Two Cultures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Cultures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:40.468298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-two-cultures-20260505-0
summary:
== Antecedents == Contrasting scientific and humanistic knowledge is a repetition of the Methodenstreit of 1890 German universities. A quarrel in 1911 between Benedetto Croce and Giovanni Gentile on the one hand and Federigo Enriques on the other one is believed to have had enduring effects in the separation of the two cultures in Italy and to the predominance of the views of (objective) idealism over those of (logical) positivism. In the social sciences it is also commonly proposed as the quarrel of positivism versus interpretivism. == See also == Culture war The Third Culture Science wars Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, a 1998 book written by biologist Edward Osborne Wilson, as an attempt to bridge the gap between "the two cultures" Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns Interdisciplinarity, a movement to cross boundaries between academic disciplines, including the divide between "the two cultures" == References == == Further reading == Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds. (2008). Science Matters: Humanities as Complex Systems. World Scientific: Singapore. ISBN 978-981-283-593-2 James, Frank A. J. L. (29 November 2016). "Introduction: Some Significances of the Two Cultures Debate" (PDF). Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 41 (2–3): 107–117. Bibcode:2016ISRv...41..107J. doi:10.1080/03080188.2016.1223651. Sinclair, Andrew (1987). The Red


id: unified-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Unified Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:41.633002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unified-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Unified Science" can refer to any of three related strands in contemporary thought. Belief in the unity of science was a central tenet of logical positivism. Different logical positivists construed this doctrine in several different ways, e.g. as a reductionist thesis, that the objects investigated by the special sciences reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all of the theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that all the special sciences share a common method. The writings of Edward Haskell and a few associates, seeking to rework science into a single discipline employing a common artificial language. This work culminated in the 1972 publication of Full Circle: The Moral Force of Unified Science. The vast part of the work of Haskell and his contemporaries remains unpublished, however. Timothy Wilken and Anthony Judge have recently revived and extended the insights of Haskell and his coworkers. Unified Science has been a consistent thread since the 1940s in Howard T. Odum's systems ecology and the associated Emergy Synthesis, modeling the "ecosystem":


id: unity-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Unity of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:42.836667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unity-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The unity of science is a thesis in philosophy of science that says that all the sciences form a unified whole. The variants of the thesis can be classified as ontological (giving a unified account of the structure of reality) and/or as epistemic/pragmatic (giving a unified account of how the activities and products of science work). There are also philosophers who emphasize the disunity of science, which does not necessarily imply that there could be no unity in some sense but does emphasize pluralism in the ontology and/or practice of science. Early versions of the unity of science thesis can be found in ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, and in the later history of Western philosophy. For example, in the first half of the 20th century the thesis was associated with the unity of science movement led by Otto Neurath, and in the second half of the century the thesis was advocated by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in "General System Theory: A New Approach to Unity of Science" (1951) and by Paul Oppenheim and Hilary Putnam in "Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis" (1958). It has been opposed by, for example, Jerry Fodor in "Special Sciences (Or: The Disunity


id: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow-0.md
category: reference
title: Unweaving the Rainbow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:44.179509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-0
summary:
Unweaving the Rainbow: Science, Delusion and the Appetite for Wonder is a 1998 book by the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, in which the author discusses the relationship between science and the arts from the perspective of a scientist. Dawkins addresses the misperception that science and art are at odds. Driven by the responses to his books The Selfish Gene and The Blind Watchmaker wherein readers resented his naturalistic world view, seeing it as depriving life of meaning, Dawkins felt the need to explain that, as a scientist, he saw the world as full of wonders and a source of pleasure. This pleasure was not in spite of, but rather because he does not assume as cause the inexplicable actions of a deity but rather the understandable laws of nature. His starting point is John Keats's well-known, light-hearted accusation that Isaac Newton destroyed the poetry of the rainbow by 'reducing it to the prismatic colours.' See Keats's poem Lamia and Edgar Allan Poe's To Science. Dawkins's agenda is to show the reader that science does not destroy, but rather discovers poetry in the patterns of nature. == Summary == === Preface === It is of little concern whether or not science


id: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow-1.md
category: reference
title: Unweaving the Rainbow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:44.179509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-0
summary:
=== Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance === Unlike "magisterial poetry" (where metaphors and pretty language are used to describe the familiar), "pupillary poetry" uses poetic imagery to assist a scientist's thinking about the exotic (e.g. consider "being" an electron temporarily). Although it is useful, some authors take pupillary poetry too far, and, "drunk on metaphor", they produce "bad science"; i.e. postulate faulty theories. This is powered by humanity's natural tendency to look for representations. === The selfish cooperator === Genes compete with each other, but this occurs within the context of collaboration, as is shown with examples involving mitochondria, bacteria, and termites. Two types of collaboration are co-adaptation (tailoring simultaneously the different parts of an organism, such as flower colour and flower markings), and co-evolution (two species changing together; e.g. predator and prey running speeds may increase together in a sort of arms race). === The Genetic Book of the Dead === The body of any organism provides clues about its habitat. The genes allow one to reconstruct a picture of the range of ways of life that the species has experienced; in this sense DNA would act as a palimpsestic "digital archive" if only its language of


id: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow-2.md
category: reference
title: Unweaving the Rainbow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:44.179509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-0
summary:
Video interview with Dawkins about the book, Charlie Rose, 11 April 2000] Dawkins's Rainbow Reduces Science to Truth, Beauty—and Fantasy – reviewed by Robert N. Proctor, American Scientist. Richard Dawkins: The man who knows the meaning of life Archived 31 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine review from The Guardian. How, Why and Wow! Archived 1 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine – reviewed by Jonathan Gathorne-Hardy, The Spectator. There is Poetry in Science – reviewed by Melvyn Bragg, The Observer. Everyone a Scientist Archived 7 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine – reviewed by John Gribbin, The Literary Review. The Poetry of Science – reviewed by Sam Hurwitt, The San Francisco Examiner. The Science of Selfishness – reviewed by Andrew Brown, Salon. Nature of Science: A Wondrous and Poetic Spectrum Archived 1 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine reviewed by Charles M. Vest, Science. Frauds! Fakes! Phonies! – reviewed by Timothy Ferris, The New York Times. Unweaving the Rainbow Archived 24 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine reviewed by Paul R. Gross, The Wall Street Journal. Finding Awe, Reverence, and Wonder in Science – reviewed by Kendrick Frazier, Skeptical Inquirer. Unweaving the Rainbow – review from The Complete Review.


id: vienna-circle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-0.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:45.384376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
The Vienna Circle (German: Wiener Kreis) of logical empiricism was a group of philosophers and scientists drawn from the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics who met regularly from 1924 to 1936 at the University of Vienna, chaired by Moritz Schlick. The Vienna Circle had an influence on 20th-century philosophy, especially philosophy of science and analytic philosophy. The philosophical position of the Vienna Circle was called logical empiricism (German: logischer Empirismus), logical positivism or neopositivism. It was influenced by Ernst Mach, David Hilbert, French conventionalism (Henri Poincaré and Pierre Duhem), Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Albert Einstein. The Vienna Circle was pluralistic and committed to the ideals of the Enlightenment. It was unified by the aim of making philosophy scientific with the help of modern logic. Main topics were foundational debates in the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics; the modernization of empiricism by modern logic; the search for an empiricist criterion of meaning; the critique of metaphysics and the unification of the sciences in the unity of science. The Vienna Circle appeared in public with the publication of various book series – Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science) and


id: vienna-circle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-1.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:45.384376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Public phase – Schlick Circle and Verein Ernst Mach (1928–1934) === In 1928 the Verein Ernst Mach (Ernst Mach Society) was founded, with Schlick as its chairman. The aim of the society was the spreading of a "scientific world conception" through public lectures that were in large part held by members of the Vienna Circle. In 1929 the Vienna Circle made its first public appearance under this name – invented by Neurath – with the publication of its manifesto Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis (The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle also known as Viewing the World Scientifically: The Vienna Circle) The pamphlet is dedicated to Schlick, and its preface was signed by Hahn, Neurath and Carnap. The manifesto was presented at the Tagung für Erkenntnislehre der exakten Wissenschaften (Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences) in autumn 1929, organized by the Vienna Circle together with the Berlin Circle. This conference was the first international appearance of logical empiricism (Neurath coined the term in 1931 in his article "Physikalismus") and the first of a number of conferences: Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934), Paris (1935), Copenhague (1936), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Mass. (1939), and Chicago (1941). While primarily


id: vienna-circle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-2.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:45.384376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
== Congresses and publications == The Vienna Circle was very active in advertising their new philosophical ideas. Several congresses on epistemology and philosophy of science were organized, with the help of the Berlin Circle. There were some preparatory congresses: Prague (1929), Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934) and then the first congress on scientific philosophy held in Paris (1935), followed by congresses in Copenhagen (1936), Paris (1937), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Massachusetts. (1939). The Königsberg congress (1930) was very important, for Kurt Gödel announced that he had proven the completeness of first-order logic and the incompleteness of formal arithmetic. Another very interesting congress was the one held in Copenhagen (1936), which was dedicated to quantum physics and causality. Between 1928 and 1937, the Vienna Circle published ten books in a collection named Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), edited by Schlick and Frank. Karl Raimund Popper's book Logik der Forschung was published in this collection. Seven works were published in another collection, called Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science). In 1930 Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach undertook the editorship of the journal Erkenntnis, which was published between 1930 and 1940 (from 1939 the editors were Otto Neurath, Rudolf Carnap and Charles Morris).


id: vienna-circle-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-3.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:45.384376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Manifesto (1929) === This states the scientific world-conception of the Vienna Circle, which is characterized "essentially by two features. First it is empiricist and positivist: there is knowledge only from experience. Second, the scientific world-conception is marked by the application of a certain method, namely logical analysis." Logical analysis is the method of clarification of philosophical problems; it makes an extensive use of symbolic logic and distinguishes the Vienna Circle empiricism from earlier versions. The task of philosophy lies in the clarification—through the method of logical analysis—of problems and assertions. Logical analysis shows that there are two different kinds of statements; one kind includes statements reducible to simpler statements about the empirically given; the other kind includes statements which cannot be reduced to statements about experience and thus they are devoid of meaning. Metaphysical statements belong to this second kind and therefore they are meaningless. Hence many philosophical problems are rejected as pseudo-problems which arise from logical mistakes, while others are re-interpreted as empirical statements and thus become the subject of scientific inquiries. One source of the logical mistakes that are at the origins of metaphysics is the ambiguity of natural language. "Ordinary language for instance uses the


id: vienna-circle-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-4.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:45.384376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Critique of metaphysics === The attitude of Vienna Circle towards metaphysics is well expressed by Carnap in the article 'Überwindung der Metaphysik durch Logische Analyse der Sprache' in Erkenntnis, vol. 2, 1932 (English translation 'The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language' in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., Logical empiricism at its peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath, New York : Garland Pub., 1996, pp. 10–31). A language—says Carnap—consists of a vocabulary, i.e., a set of meaningful words, and a syntax, i.e., a set of rules governing the formation of sentences from the words of the vocabulary. Pseudo-statements, i.e., sequences of words that at first sight resemble statements but in reality have no meaning, are formed in two ways: either meaningless words occur in them, or they are formed in an invalid syntactical way. According to Carnap, pseudo-statements of both kinds occur in metaphysics. A word W has a meaning if two conditions are satisfied. First, the mode of the occurrence of W in its elementary sentence form (i.e., the simplest sentence form in which W is capable of occurring) must be fixed. Secondly, if W occurs in an elementary sentence S, it is necessary to give an answer to the


id: vienna-circle-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-5.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:45.384376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
What sentences is S deducible from, and what sentences are deducible from S? Under what conditions is S supposed to be true, and under what conditions false? How is S verified? What is the meaning of S? (Carnap, "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" in Sarkar, Sahotra 1996, p. 12) An example offered by Carnap concerns the word 'arthropod'. The sentence form "the thing x is an arthropod" is an elementary sentence form that is derivable from "x is an animal", "x has a segmented body" and "x has jointed legs". Conversely, these sentences are derivable from "the thing x is an arthropod". Thus the meaning of the word 'arthropod' is determined. According to Carnap, many words of metaphysics do not fulfill these requirements and thus they are meaningless. As an example, Carnap considers the word 'principle'. This word has a definite meaning, if the sentence "x is the principle of y" is supposed to be equivalent to the sentence "y exists by virtue of x" or "y arises out of x". The latter sentence is perfectly clear: y arises out of x when x is invariably followed by y, and the invariable association between x and


id: science-journalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:47.224072+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
Science journalism conveys reporting about science to the public. The field typically involves interactions between scientists, journalists and the public. There are many different examples of science writing. A few examples include feature writing, risk communication, blogs, science books, scientific journals, science podcasts and science magazines. == Origins == Modern science journalism originated in weather and other natural history observations, as well as reports of new scientific findings, reported by almanacs and other news writing in the centuries following the advent of the printing press. One early example dates back to Digdarshan (means showing the direction), which was an educational monthly magazine that started publication in 1818 from Srirampore, Bengal, India. Digdarshan carried articles on different aspects of science, such as plants, steam boat, etc. It was available in Bengali, Hindi and English languages. In the U.S., Scientific American was founded in 1845, in another early example. One of the occasions an article was attributed to a 'scientific correspondent' was "A Gale in the Bay of Biscay" by William Crookes which appeared in The Times on 18 January 1871, page 7. Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) and John Tyndall (1820–1893) were scientists who were greatly involved in journalism and Peter Chalmers


id: science-journalism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-1.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:47.224072+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
== Status == With budget cuts at major newspapers and other media, there are fewer working science journalists employed by traditional print and broadcast media than before. Similarly, there are currently very few journalists in traditional media outlets that write multiple articles on emerging science, such as nanotechnology. In 2011, there were 459 journalists who had written a newspaper article covering nanotechnology, of whom 7 wrote about the topic more than 25 times. In January 2012, just a week after The Daily Climate reported that worldwide coverage of climate change continued a three-year slide in 2012 and that among the five largest US dailies, the New York Times published the most stories and had the biggest increase in coverage, that newspaper announced that it was dismantling its environmental desk and merging its journalists with other departments. News coverage on science by traditional media outlets, such as newspapers, magazines, radio and news broadcasts is being replaced by online sources. In April 2012, the New York Times was awarded two Pulitzer Prizes for content published by Politico and The Huffington Post (now HuffPost) both online sources, a sign of the platform shift by the media outlet. Science information continues to be widely


id: science-journalism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-2.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:47.224072+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
The content of news stories regarding climate change are affected by journalistic norms including balance, impartiality, neutrality and objectivity. Balanced reporting, which involves giving equal time to opposing sides of a debate over has had a harmful impact on the media coverage of climate science.


id: science-journalism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-3.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:47.224072+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == Science journalists regularly come under criticism for misleading reporting of scientific stories. All three groups of scientists, journalists and the public often criticize science journalism for bias and inaccuracies. However, with the increasing collaborations online between science journalists there may be potential with removing inaccuracies. The 2010 book Merchants of Doubt by historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway argues that in topics like the global warming controversy, tobacco smoking, acid rain, DDT and ozone depletion, contrarian scientists have sought to "keep the controversy alive" in the public arena by demanding that reporters give false balance to the minority side. Very often, such as with climate change, this leaves the public with the impression that disagreement within the scientific community is much greater than it actually is. Science is based on experimental evidence and testing, and disputation is a normal activity. Scholars have criticized science journalists for: Uncritical reporting Emphasizing frames of scientific progress and economic prospect Not presenting a range of expert opinion Having preferences toward positive messages Reporting unrealistic timelines and engaging in the production of a "cycle of hype" Science journalists can be seen as the gatekeepers of scientific information. Just like


id: administratium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administratium-0.md
category: reference
title: Administratium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administratium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:48.553629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: administratium-20260505-0
summary:
Administratium is a well-known in-joke in scientific circles and is a parody both on the bureaucracy of the scientific community and academic institutions, and on descriptions of newly discovered chemical elements. In 1991, Thomas Kyle (the supposed discoverer of this element) was awarded an Ig Nobel Prize for physics, making him one of only three fictional people to have won the award. A spoof article was written by William DeBuvitz in 1988 and first appeared in print in the January 1989 issue of The Physics Teacher. It spread rapidly among university campuses and research centers; many versions surfaced, often customized to the contributor's situation. A similar joke concerns Administrontium which was referenced in print in 1993. Another variation on the same joke is Bureaucratium. A commonly heard description describes it as "having a negative half-life". In other words, the more time passes, the more massive "Bureaucratium" becomes; it only grows larger and more sluggish. This refers to the bureaucratic system, which is generally perceived as a system in which bureaucratic procedures accumulate, and whatever needs to get done takes increasingly longer to get done as soon as it touches the bureaucracy. == See also == Unobtainium Wishalloy List of fictional


id: the-craft-of-science-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Craft_of_Science_Writing-0.md
category: reference
title: The Craft of Science Writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Craft_of_Science_Writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:49.705224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-craft-of-science-writing-20260505-0
summary:
The Craft of Science Writing: Selections from The Open Notebook is a non-fiction book edited by Siri Carpenter and published in 2020 by The Open Notebook. == Synopsis == The Craft of Science Writing presents more than 30 articles, some new, others previously published on The Open Notebook website, organized to answer five questions: "Who is a science journalist and how do you become one? What makes a science story and how do you find one? How do you report a science story? How do you tell your story? How do you build expertise in science writing?" In ALA's CHOICE, Melody Herr wrote that the articles are organized "into an introductory course that covers becoming a science journalist, identifying a story idea, conducting research, writing the story, and building proficiency in core skills". She also said the articles demonstrate effective idea presentation, "through personal anecdotes, interviews with award-winning journalists, expert panel discussions, and visuals, including a marked-up science article, a flowchart, and helpful checklists". Jonathan Wai wrote in Psychology Today, that it "...seeks to illuminate the craft of science writing by collecting numerous perspectives from science writers themselves about how to improve their own craft of science writing." Carolyn Crist


id: microphotography-literature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphotography_(literature)-0.md
category: reference
title: Microphotography (literature)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphotography_(literature)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:50.912503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microphotography-literature-20260505-0
summary:
Microphotography is a writing style that emerged in the early 1990s in science journalism. The style is named after micrographs and is distinctive for its highly detailed, worm's eye or microscopic view of the macroscopic world. One of the flagship works in this style was David Bodanis's commercially prominent The Secret House: 24 hours in the strange & wonderful world in which we spend our nights and days. This book followed daily life in a typical enclosed human habitat in minute detail, featuring detailed physical and biological explanations. == References ==


id: nature-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:52.137502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Nature writing is nonfiction or fiction prose about the natural environment. It often draws heavily from scientific information and facts while also incorporating philosophical reflection upon various aspects of nature. Works are frequently written in the first person and include personal observations. Nature writing encompasses a wide variety of works, ranging from those that place primary emphasis on natural history (such as field guides) to those focusing on philosophical interpretation. It includes poetry, essays of solitude or escape, as well as travel and adventure writing. Modern-day nature writing traces its roots to works of natural history that initially gained popularity in the second half of the 18th century, and continued to do so throughout the 19th century. An important early figure in nature writing was the parson-naturalist Gilbert White (1720–1793), a pioneering English naturalist and ornithologist. He is best known for writing Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789). William Bartram (1739–1823) was another significant American pioneer naturalist who became a respected figure in literary and scientific communities after his first work was published in 1791. == Early history == The tradition of clerical naturalists can be traced back to the monastic writings of the Middle Ages, although under modern-day


id: nature-writing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing-1.md
category: reference
title: Nature writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:52.137502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-writing-20260505-0
summary:
== 20th century to date == The second half of the 20th century saw a significant increase in nature writing in fiction and non-fiction in Britain. One of the earliest of these works was John Moore (1907–1967), a best-selling pioneer conservationist. Writing from the 1930s to 1960s, he was described by Sir Compton Mackenzie as the most talented writer about the countryside of his generation. Moore's contemporaries included Henry Williamson (1895–1977), best known for Tarka the Otter, whose imaginative prose won him the Hawthornden Prize in 1928. Other 20th century writers included American authors Edward Abbey (1927–1989), Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) and Indian author M. Krishnan (1912–1996). After World War II, other writers emerged including English teacher and naturalist Margaret Hutchinson (1904–1997), who strongly advocated for raising children as naturalists from an early age. American author Rachel Carson (1907–1964) is known for Silent Spring, published in 1962. Carson heralded a new and pointed style of nature writing that carried stronger warnings of environmental loss as pesticide use in industrial agriculture became an increasing concern after World War II. Relevant contemporary nature writers in Britain include Richard Mabey, Roger Deakin, Mark Cocker, and Oliver Rackham. Rackham's books included Ancient Woodland (1980) and


id: patrusky-lecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrusky_Lecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Patrusky Lecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrusky_Lecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:53.378995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patrusky-lecture-20260505-0
summary:
The Patrusky lecture series is held by the Council for the Advancement of Science Writing (CASW) in honor of Ben Patrusky, who retired from CASW in 2013 after 25 years as the executive director of CASW and 30 years as the director of the New Horizons in Science program. The first lecture was held in 2013 and the event has taken place every year since then. == The Lecturers == 2013 — George M. Whitesides 2014 — Donald Johanson 2015 — Jo Handelsman 2016 — Steven Weinberg 2017 — Susan Desmond-Hellmann 2018 — Shirley Tilghman 2019 — Steve Squyres 2020 — Ruha Benjamin 2021 — Katharine Hayhoe 2022 — Alyssa A. Goodman 2023 — Michael E. Mann == References ==


id: the-puzzle-solver-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puzzle_Solver-0.md
category: reference
title: The Puzzle Solver
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puzzle_Solver
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:54.593583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-puzzle-solver-20260505-0
summary:
The Puzzle Solver: A Scientist's Desperate Quest to Cure the Illness that Stole His Son is a book by Tracie White with scientist Ronald W. Davis about Davis's efforts to cure his son Whitney, who has very severe myalgic encephalomyelitis, also called chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). The book was published on January 5, 2021. == Publication history == The Puzzle Solver began as a work of journalism that Tracie White wrote for Stanford Medicine. She expanded the work into a book (her first) in collaboration with Ronald W. Davis, a renowned scientist and one of the book's subjects. It was published by Hachette on January 5, 2021. == Content == Whitney Dafoe was a photographer and world traveler when at age 23, he was hospitalized on a trip to India, suffering from a stomach ailment. When he returned home, he weighed only 115 pounds and instead of recovering his health steadily declined. He was diagnosed with ME/CFS in 2011 but continued to slip until he was confined to a back room at his parents' home, unable to speak or eat without the assistance of a feeding tube. His one source of hope was his father, world renown scientist Ronald W.


id: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-0.md
category: reference
title: Science by press conference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:55.847305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
summary:
Science by press conference or science by press release is the practice by which scientists put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the news media via press conferences or press releases. The term is usually used disparagingly, to suggest that the seekers of publicity are promoting claims of questionable scientific merit, using the media for attention as they are unlikely to win the approval of the scientific community. Premature publicity violates a cultural value of most of the scientific community, which is that findings should be subjected to independent review with a "thorough examination by the scientific community" before they are widely publicized. The standard practice is to publish a paper in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. This idea has many merits, including that the scientific community has a responsibility to conduct itself in a deliberative, non-attention seeking way; and that its members should be oriented more towards the pursuit of insight than fame. Science by press conference in its most egregious forms can be undertaken on behalf of an individual researcher seeking fame, a corporation seeking to sway public opinion or investor perception, or a political or ideological movement. == Etymology == The phrase was coined by


id: science-by-press-conference-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-1.md
category: reference
title: Science by press conference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:55.847305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
summary:
== Responsibility == While the phrase tends to criticize scientists involved in creating the publicity, it has also been used to assert that the media bear responsibility in many instances. Even well-intentioned scientists can sometimes unintentionally create truth-distorting media firestorms because of journalists' difficulty in remaining critical and balanced, the media's interest in controversy, and the general tendency of science reporting to focus on apparent "groundbreaking findings" rather than on the larger context of a research field. Further, when results are released with great fanfare and limited peer review, basic journalism skills require skepticism and further investigation, the frequent lack of which can be seen as a problem with the media as much as with scientists who seek to exploit their power. Common examples of science by press conference are media reports that a certain product or activity affects health or safety. For instance, the media frequently report findings that a certain food causes or prevents a disease. These reports sometimes contradict earlier reports. In some cases, it is later learned that a group interested in influencing opinion had a hand in publicizing a specific report. The phrase also condemns different behavior in different fields. For instance, scientists working in


id: scientific-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:57.122616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific writing is about science, with the implication that the writing is done by scientists and for an audience that primarily includes peers—those with sufficient expertise to follow in detail. (The similar term "science writing" instead refers to writing about a scientific topic for a general audience; this could be by scientists and/or journalists, for example.) Scientific writing is a specialized form of technical writing, and a prominent genre of it involves reporting about scientific studies such as in articles for a scientific journal. Other scientific writing genres include writing literature-review articles (also typically for scientific journals), which summarize the existing state of a given aspect of a scientific field, and writing grant proposals, which are a common means of obtaining funding to support scientific research. Scientific writing is more likely to focus on the pure sciences compared to other aspects of technical communication that are more applied, although there is overlap. There is not one specific style for citations and references in scientific writing. Whether one is submitting a grant proposal, literature review articles, or submitting an article into a paper, the citation system that must be used will depend on the publication they plan to submit to. English-language


id: scientific-writing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:57.122616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Dissuasion from, and sometimes advocacy of, the passive voice. Advocates for the passive voice argue for its utility in avoiding first-person pronouns, while critics argue that it can be hard to make claims without an active voice. Generalizations about tense. In the mathematical sciences, for example, it is customary to report in the present tense, while in experimental sciences reporting is always in the past tense, as the experiments happened in the past. Preferences about "we" vs. "I" as a personal pronoun or a first-person pronoun (e.g., mathematical deductions sometimes include the reader in the pronoun "we.") Contemporary researchers in writing studies have pointed out that blanket generalizations about academic writing are seldom helpful, for example, scientific writing in practice is complex and shifts of tense and person reflect subtle changes in the section of the scientific journal article. Additionally, the use of passive voice allows the writer to focus on the subject being studied (the focus of communication in science) rather than the author. Similarly, some use of first-person pronouns is acceptable (such as "we" or "I," which depends on the number of authors). According to some journal editors, the best practice is to review articles recently published in


id: scientific-writing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:57.122616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific report == The stages of the scientific method are often incorporated into sections of scientific reports. The first section is typically the abstract, followed by the introduction, methods, results, conclusions, and acknowledgments. The introduction discusses the issue studied and discloses the hypothesis tested in the experiment. The step-by-step procedure, notable observations, and relevant data collected are all included in the methods and results. The discussion section consists of the author's analysis and interpretations of the data. Additionally, the author may choose to discuss any discrepancies with the experiment that could have altered the results. The conclusion summarizes the experiment and will make inferences about the outcomes. The paper will typically end with an acknowledgments section, giving proper attribution to any other contributors besides the main author(s). To get published, papers must go through peer review by experts with significant knowledge in the field. During this process, papers may get rejected or edited without adequate justification. This historically emerged form of argument has been periodically criticized for obscuring the process or investigation, eliminating the incorrect guesses, false leads, and errors that may have occurred before coming to the final method, data, explanation, and argument presented in the published paper.


id: 1970s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1970s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:08:58.791609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1970s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 1970s in science and technology. == Science == The 1970s in science and technology reached its height with the ambitious Voyager Program, which sent the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 uncrewed expeditions to several of the outer planets in the Solar System. The program also included a Voyager Golden Record with the spaceships in hopes of presenting aspects of life on Earth to intelligent alien life forms. The record contained pictures and other data about human beings and other living beings on earth. It also had an assortment of music from across cultures. Coupled with the zenithal achievements of the Voyagers was the end of NASA's Apollo lunar spacecraft program, with the final flight, Apollo 17, in 1972. The Apollo–Soyuz and Spacelab programs ended in 1976, and there would be a five-year hiatus in American crewed spaceflight until the flight of the Space Shuttle. The Soviet Union developed vital technologies involving long-term human life in free-fall on the Salyut and later Mir space stations. The 1970s witnessed an explosion in the understanding of solid-state physics, driven by the development of the integrated circuit and the laser. The evolution of the computer produced an


id: 1980s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1980s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:00.084130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1980s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 1980s in science and technology. == Astronomy == The Rings of Neptune were first discovered in 1984. The Voyager 2 spacecraft provided images of them in 1989. 4769 Castalia was discovered in 1989. It became the first asteroid to be viewed through radar imaging. The first exoplanet is discovered in 1988, though it was not confirmed until much later. == Genetic engineering and biology == 1983 Kary Mullis revolutionized molecular biology with his invention of the polymerase chain reaction, which required only a test tube, some reagents, a DNA template, and a source of heat. 1986 April – The first child produced from a gestational surrogacy is born. This is the first time in history that a child has been born to somebody who is not their biological mother. 1989 May 22 – The first gene transfer experiment in humans takes place, leading to full-fledged gene therapy trials by September 1990. The gene responsible for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator was discovered. Mutations of the gene are considered causes of cystic fibrosis. The kākāpō, a bird species of New Zealand, was termed a threatened species. The Department of Conservation started an endangered


id: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1990s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:01.368534+00:00
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parent: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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This article is a summary of the 1990s in science and technology. == Science timeline == 1990 April - The Hubble Space Telescope is launched; revolutionizes astronomy. September - The first successful somatic gene therapy trials begin. October - Human Genome Project formally begins. December 20 - The World Wide Web software is first tested by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. 1992 January 14 - The first intracytoplasmic sperm injection in vitro fertilization produced baby is born by mechanically injecting a single, selected sperm cell into an egg. Detection of extrasolar planets orbiting a pulsar is confirmed. 1994 The FlavrSavr tomato, the first genetically modified food sold in the United States is introduced. The Oriental Pearl Tower is completed in Shanghai, China, representing the newfound wealth and investment present in eastern China. 1995 The Global Positioning System (GPS) becomes fully operational. In April the NSFNET backbone is shut down, making the Internet a unified and "centerless" network without any restrictions on traffic types and essentially causing the Dot com bubble by attracting large-scale corporate investment in the Internet. On June 5 the first Bose–Einstein condensates of Rubidium-87 and Sodium-23 are created at JILA and MIT. In December the Galileo probe orbits


id: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 1990s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:01.368534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Home consoles become powerful and affordable enough to begin replacing trips to the arcade. CD-ROMs, which was first introduced as a software storage media with the 1988 launch of the PC Engine CD-ROM² System in Japan, gradually replaced ROM cartridges and floppy disks as the primary storage media for video games, starting with the release of platforms such as the Turbo Duo and Sega CD, later on with the PlayStation and the Sega Saturn, while CD-ROM drives for PCs became standardized. The sole exception was Nintendo, who canceled their plans to release a CD-ROM adapter for the Super NES and chose to employ cartridges for their subsequent home console, the Nintendo 64. Gaming, along with animation in general becomes more appealing to adults. Online multiplayer environments are popular over the internet during the later half of the 1990s. The first console with built-in Internet connectivity was the Dreamcast in 1999, which failed due to the low download speeds common at the time but eventually led to an online-centric gaming industry by the late 2000s. First-person shooter games become popular with the release of Doom (1993). 3D graphics overtake the traditional 2D graphics in the mid-nineties with the release of Quake


id: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2000s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:02.564729+00:00
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parent: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 2000s in science and technology. == Science == Using the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, scientists studying the universe measured that its age is 13.77 billion years; "solidly supported" that it has been expanding and cooling since the Big Bang; and calculated that the universe is composed of about 4.6% atoms, 24% dark matter, and 71% dark energy. The Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission successfully reached the surface of Mars in 2004, and sent detailed data and images of the landscape there back to Earth. Whilst NASA's original mission timeline of three months was incorrectly speculated, the mission was tremendously successful overall in the long term, as the MER Mission continued until 2018, lasting nearly 25 times the projected length. The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003. The National Geographic Society and IBM funded The Genographic Project. In 2002, Perelman posted the first of a series of eprints to the arXiv, in which he proved the Poincaré conjecture, 2004 – The astrophysicist and radio astronomer Naomi McClure-Griffiths identifies a new spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy On 29 July 2005, the discovery of Eris, a Kuiper Belt object larger than Pluto, was


id: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 2000s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:02.564729+00:00
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parent: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Digital cameras became very popular due to rapid decreases in size and cost while photo resolution steadily increased. As a result, sales of film reel cameras diminished greatly, and integration into mobile phones increased greatly; sexting by teenagers also became a controversial social issue, with teenagers - and even in one case a school administrator who investigated a sexting case - being arrested. Graphics processing units (GPUs) and video cards became powerful enough to render ultra-high-resolution (e.g. 2560 × 1600) scenes in real time with substantial detail and texture. Flat panel displays began displacing cathode ray tubes. This was a dramatic change during the decade, as very few flat panels were sold through the mid-2000s (decade) and the majority of stores sell only flat panel TVs by the end of the decade. Handheld projectors entered the market and were then integrated into cellphones. The digital switchover started to be enforced for television. The introduction of digital video recorders (DVRs) allowed consumers to modify content they watch on TV, and to record TV programs and watch them later, leading to problems as consumers could fast-forward through commercials, making them useless, and save TV shows for later viewing, causing a decline in


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:03.774220+00:00
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parent: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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This article is a summary of the 2010s in science and technology. == Technology == Big data and "Big Tech" saw an expansion in size and power in the 2010s, particularly FAANG corporations. The growing influence of "Big Tech" over cyberspace drew scrutiny and increased oversight from national governments. The G20 countries began closing tax loopholes and the European Union began asserting legal guidelines over domains such as data privacy, copyright, and hate speech, the latter of which helped fuel a debate over tech censorship and free speech online, particularly deplatforming. Throughout the decade, the United States government increasingly scrutinized the tech industry, from attempted copyright regulations to threatening antitrust probes. Increased protectionism and attempts to regulate and localize the internet by national governments also raised fears of cyber-balkanization in the later half of the decade. === Communications and electronics === Smartphones maintained their strong popularity throughout the 2010s, along with the arrival of tablets. Apple Inc. launched the iPad in 2010, its first tablet computer, which offered multi-touch interaction. The iPad became an immediate bestseller and only months after its release became the best selling tech product in history. By the mid-2010s, almost all smartphones were touchscreen-only, and Android


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:03.774220+00:00
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parent: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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Drones became increasingly popular, especially in the assistance of making deliveries, aerial photography, and drone racing. Electric and hybrid vehicles became popular in many countries in the Western world during the decade. Notable electric vehicles include the Chevrolet Volt, which became the world's top selling plug-in hybrid of all time with over 100,000 units sold in 2015. Other hybrid vehicles have also been noted such as the Porsche Panamera and BMW i3. Self-driving cars, while still in their infancy, were widely tested throughout the 2010s with significant progress. Google developed Waymo, the world's first self-driving car, to be licensed for use on public roads in 2011. In 2018, a woman in Tempe, Arizona became the first recorded casualty of an accident involving an autonomous vehicle. Automaker Volkswagen is alleged to have been involved in worldwide rigging of diesel emissions tests in 2015, affecting an estimated 11 million vehicles globally. The trend of shared mobility grew significantly during the decade. Carsharing, bike-sharing, and scooter-sharing services saw substantial growth as multiple economic, social and technological factors such as developments in "last mile" transportation helped changed the way people think about modern transportation, particularly in the Western world. The world's first 100% low-floor


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:03.774220+00:00
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parent: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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== Computing and artificial intelligence == The number of internet users doubled from about 2 billion to about 4 billion, surpassing half the world population in 2018. Smartphones became increasingly common due to a rapid increase in sales. Their applications and use time by the average user increased, too. Google develops the world's first self-driving car to be licensed for use on public roads. It was the first driverless ride that was on a public road and was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort. The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals. In 2012, Google Chrome became the world's most used web browser, displacing former long-time frontrunner Internet Explorer. Microsoft announces Windows Mixed Reality (previously Windows Holographic). Quantum computers made rapid progress. In 2019 Google announced to have achieved quantum supremacy, although this claim is disputed. During this decade artificial intelligence based on deep learning neural networks experienced rapid advancement, resulting in multiple practical applications in diverse fields such as speech and image recognition, social network moderation, virtual assistants, surveillance, healthcare or even art generation. In 2016, Google artificial intelligence program AlphaGo beat human grandmaster in the game of Go for the first time. === Legal


id: 2020s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2020s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:04.975397+00:00
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parent: 2020s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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This article is a summary of the 2020s in science and technology. == Biology and medicine == DeepMind used artificial intelligence for the first time to predict protein folding. Singapore became the first jurisdiction to approve the sale of cultured meat. The vaccines produced by Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna against Coronavirus disease 2019 became the first vaccines developed using messenger RNA and mark the fastest vaccine development and approval, taking only 10 months. Oregon became the first jurisdiction to legalize the medicinal use of psilocybin for mental health treatment. == Energy == QuantumScape revealed that it had created the first functioning prototype of a solid-state battery, promising to massively increase battery capacity. The Chinese Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak was turned on for the first time. The China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor is being planned for commissioning later in the decade. Group14 Technologies has patented SCC55, a silicon-carbon composite, leading to 50% more in fully lithiated volumetric energy density than graphite used in conventional lithium-ion battery anodes. == Environmental sciences == The United Nations has designated the 2020s as the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. == Space == == Transport == === Air === In 2021, United Airlines revealed plans


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:06.655022+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
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The following is a list of inventions, discoveries and scientific advancements made in the medieval Islamic world, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in later states of the Age of the Islamic Gunpowders such as the Ottoman and Mughal empires. The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions. == List of inventions == === Early caliphates === ==== Seventh century ====


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
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==== Ninth century ==== Algebra discipline: Al-Khwarizmi is considered the father of the algebra discipline. The word Algebra comes from the Arabic الجبر (al-jabr) in the title of his book Ilm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right. Algebraic reduction and balancing, cancellation, and like terms: Al-Khwarizmi introduced reduction and balancing in algebra. It refers to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation, which the term al-jabr (algebra) originally referred to. Automatic controls: "Although the Banu Musa took Greek models as their starting point, they went well beyond anything achieved by Hero or Philo. In particular, it is their preoccupation with automatic controls that distinguishes them not only from their Greek predecessors but from their Islamic successors." Chemical synthesis of a naturally occurring compound: The oldest known instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means appear in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950). Chess manual: The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:06.655022+00:00
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==== Tenth century ==== Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann. Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from Islamic North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world. Binomial theorem: The first formulation of the binomial theorem and the table of binomial coefficient can be found in a work by Al-Karaji, quoted by Al-Samaw'al in his "al-Bahir". Cauchy-Riemann Integral: Ibn al-Haytham gave a simple form of this. Decimal fractions: Decimal fractions were first used by Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in the 10th century. Experimental scientific method: Expounded and practised by ibn al-Haytham Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in his Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, the Fatimid caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:06.655022+00:00
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==== Thirteenth century ==== Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1. This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names. A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric. Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology in Islamic Spain was compiled under Alfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmented mercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century. It was described in the Libros del saber de Astronomia, a Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works. Mariotte's bottle: The Libros del saber de Astronomia describes a water clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle. Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism, Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment". Naker: Arabic nakers were the direct ancestors of most


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:06.655022+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
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==== Thirteenth century ==== Various automatons: Al-Jazari's inventions included automaton peacocks, a hand-washing automaton, and a musical band of automatons. Candle clock with dial and fastening mechanism: The earliest reference of the candle clock is described in a Chinese poem by You Jiangu (AD 520), However the most sophisticated candle clocks known, were those of Al-Jazari in 1206. It included a dial to display the time. Crank-slider: Ismail al-Jazari's water pump employed the first known crank-slider mechanism. Cotton gin with worm gear: The worm gear roller gin was invented in the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th to 14th centuries. Design and construction methods: English technology historian Donald Hill wrote, "We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand." Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:06.655022+00:00
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==== Sixteenth century ==== Firearm kneeling position: At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tüfenks (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing. Marching band and military band: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century. Matchlock volley fire: Volley fire with matchlocks was first implemented in 1526 when the Ottoman Janissaries utilized it during the Battle of Mohács. Parallel rulers: Invented by Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf and used at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din (1577–1580). Practical impulse steam turbine: A practical impulse steam turbine was first described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din, a philosopher, astronomer and engineer in 16th century Ottoman Egypt, who described a method for rotating a spit by means of a jet of steam playing on rotary vanes around the periphery of a wheel. A similar device for rotating a spit was also later described by John Wilkins in 1648. Steam jack:


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:07.983539+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology in Pacific Island countries encompass a diverse range of activities and innovations that address the unique challenges faced by this geographically dispersed region. Despite limited resources and infrastructural constraints, Pacific Island nations have made notable progress in areas such as digital connectivity, agricultural innovation, and climate resilience. Advancements in mobile and internet technologies have improved access to information and services, while regional cooperation has fostered the development of research networks and shared scientific infrastructure. The application of emerging technologies, including nuclear science for agriculture and DNA monitoring for biosecurity, is increasingly shaping policy and development initiatives. However, the region continues to face obstacles such as data scarcity, limited research funding, and vulnerability to climate change, necessitating ongoing collaboration and investment to realize the full potential of science and technology for sustainable development. == Socio-economic context == === Trends === Pacific Island economies are mostly dependent on natural resources, with a tiny manufacturing sector and no heavy industry. In Fiji and Papua New Guinea, for instance, there is a need to adopt automated machinery and design in forestry and to improve training, in order to add value to exports. Papua New Guinea experienced the strongest economic growth between


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:07.983539+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
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=== Regional bodies addressing technological issues === Both the largest and smallest Pacific nations acknowledge that taking a regional approach to science and technology offers them greater opportunities for institutional development. This approach is encapsulated in the Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014). All 14 nations have mandated the agencies attached to the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific (CROP) to conduct technical backstopping. CROP agencies partially fulfill the role that a science council might play in other regions. However, none of these agencies has a specific mandate or policy for science and technology. Pacific Island states have established a number of regional bodies to address technological issues for sectorial development. Examples are the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific, such as the Pacific Community (SPC); Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat; and Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environmental Programme. The Ministers of Education from Pacific Island countries signed a Ministerial communiqué on Pacific Science, Technology and Innovation in 2017, in which they committed to developing regional and national STI policies and roadmaps. However, no policy or roadmap has since been published for want of resources. The 2014 Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Accelerated Modalities of Action Pathway (SAMOA Pathway) identified


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:07.983539+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
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==== Higher education ==== Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa all consider education to be one of the key policy tools for driving science, technology and innovation, as well as modernization. Fiji, in particular, has made a supreme effort to re-visit existing policies, rules and regulations in this sector. The Fijian government allocates a larger portion of its national budget to education than any other Pacific Island country (4.2% of GDP in 2011), although this is down from 6% of GDP in 2000. The proportion of the education budget allocated to higher education (0.5% of GDP) amounts to 13% of the public education budget. Scholarship schemes like National Toppers, introduced in 2014, and the availability of student loans have made higher education attractive and rewarding in Fiji. According to an internal investigation into the choice of disciplines in school-leaving examinations (year 13), Fijian students have shown a greater interest in science since 2011. A similar trend can be observed in enrolment figures at all three Fijian universities. Many Pacific Island countries take Fiji as a benchmark for education. The country draws education leaders from other Pacific Island countries for training and, according to the Ministry of Education, teachers from Fiji


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:07.983539+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
==== Research and development ==== The National Vision 2050 was adopted in 2009. It has led to the establishment of the Research, Science and Technology Council. At its gathering in November 2014, the Council re-emphasized the need to focus on sustainable development through science and technology. Vision 2050’s medium-term priorities are: emerging industrial technology for downstream processing; infrastructure technology for the economic corridors; knowledge-based technology; Science and engineering education; and to reach the target of investing 5% of GDP in R&D by 2050. By 2016, the share of GDP invested in research and development measured just 0.03%. Between 2008 and 2014, 82% of scientific articles from Papua New Guinea concerned the biological and medical sciences. Less than 10% of the country's 517 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) focused on geosciences. In 2016, women represented 33.2% of the scientists in Papua New Guinea, on par with the global share. Professor Teatulohi Matainaho serves as Chief Science Advisor to Papua New Guinea, appointed in 2013. == Sustainable development == === Disaster resilience === Countries around the Pacific Rim are seeking ways to link their national knowledge base to regional and global advances in science. One


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:07.983539+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
=== Energy === On average, 10% of the GDP of Pacific Island countries funds imports of petroleum products but in some cases this figure can exceed 30%. In addition to high fuel transport costs, this reliance on fossil fuels leaves Pacific economies vulnerable to volatile global fuel prices and potential spills by oil tankers. Consequently, many Pacific Island countries are convinced that renewable energy will play a role in their socio-economic development. In Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu, renewable energy sources already represent significant shares of the total electricity supply: 60%, 66%, 37% and 15% respectively. Tokelau has even become the first country in the world to generate 100% of its electricity using renewable sources. According to the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, renewable energy still represented less than 10% of total energy use in the 22 Pacific Island countries and territories in 2015. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community observed that, 'while Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa are leading the way with large-scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-based energy sources'. International development partners are participating in several projects to


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-5.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:07.983539+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
=== Trends in scientific authorship === According to the Web of Science, Papua New Guinea had the largest number of publications (110) among Pacific Island states in 2014, followed by Fiji (106). Fijian research was concentrated in a handful of scientific disciplines, such as medical sciences, geosciences and biology. Nine out of ten scientific publications from Papua New Guinea focused on immunology, genetics, biotechnology and microbiology. This pattern contrasts with the trend observed in the French territories of New Caledonia and French Polynesia, where there was a strong emphasis on geosciences: six to eight times the world average for this field. === Trends in international co-authorship === More than three-quarters of articles published by scientists from Pacific Island nations between 2008 and 2014 were signed by international collaborators, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded. International co-authorship was higher for Papua New Guinea and Fiji (90% and 83% respectively) than for New Caledonia and French Polynesia (63% and 56% respectively). All countries counted North American partners among their top five partners. Fijian research collaboration with North American partners even exceeded that with India, even though a large proportion of Fijians are of Indian origin. Research partnerships


id: women-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
The presence of women in science spans the earliest times of the history of science wherein they have made substantial contributions. Historians with an interest in gender and science have researched the scientific endeavors and accomplishments of women, the barriers they have faced, and the strategies implemented to have their work peer-reviewed and accepted in major scientific journals and other publications. The historical, critical, and sociological study of these issues has become an academic discipline in its own right. The involvement of women in medicine occurred in several early Western civilizations, and the study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Women contributed to the proto-science of alchemy in the first or second centuries CE. During the Middle Ages, religious convents were an important place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. The 11th century saw the emergence of the first universities; women were, for the most part, excluded from university education. Outside academia, botany was the science that benefitted most from women’s contributions in early modern times. The attitude toward educating women in medical fields appears to have been more liberal in Italy than elsewhere.


id: women-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ancient history === The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An ancient Egyptian physician, Peseshet (c. 2600–2500 B.C.E.), described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest known female physician named in the history of science. Agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War (c. 1194–1184 BCE). The study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Recorded examples include Aglaonike, who predicted eclipses; and Theano, mathematician and physician, who was a pupil (possibly also wife) of Pythagoras, and one of the school in Crotone founded by Pythagoras, which included many other women. A passage in Pollux speaks about those who invented the process of coining money, mentioning Pheidon and Demodike from Cyme, wife of the Phrygian king, Midas, and daughter of King Agamemnon of Cyme. A daughter of a certain Agamemnon, king of Aeolian Cyme, married a Phrygian king called Midas. This link may have facilitated the Greeks "borrowing" their alphabet from the Phrygians because the Phrygian letter shapes are closest to the inscriptions from Aeolis. During the period of the Babylonian civilization, around 1200


id: women-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Margaret Cavendish, a seventeenth-century aristocrat, took part in some of the most important scientific debates of that time. She was, however, not inducted into the English Royal Society, although she was once allowed to attend a meeting. She wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy. In these works she was especially critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature. The observations provided a critique of the experimental science of Bacon and criticized microscopes as imperfect machines. Isabella Cortese, an Italian alchemist, is best known for her book I secreti della signora Isabella Cortese or The Secrets of Isabella Cortese. Cortese was able to manipulate nature in order to create several medicinal, alchemy and cosmetic "secrets" or experiments. Isabella's book of secrets belongs to a larger book of secrets that became extremely popular among the elite during the 16th century. Despite the low percentage of literate women during Cortese's era, the majority of alchemical and cosmetic "secrets" in the book of secrets were geared towards women. This included but was not limited to pregnancy, fertility, and childbirth. Sophia Brahe, sister of Tycho Brahe,


id: women-in-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Although women excelled in many scientific areas during the eighteenth century, they were discouraged from learning about plant reproduction. Carl Linnaeus' system of plant classification based on sexual characteristics drew attention to botanical licentiousness, and people feared that women would learn immoral lessons from nature's example. Women were often depicted as both innately emotional and incapable of objective reasoning, or as natural mothers reproducing a natural, moral society. The eighteenth century was characterized by three divergent views towards women: that women were mentally and socially inferior to men, that they were equal but different, and that women were potentially equal in both mental ability and contribution to society. While individuals such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed women's roles were confined to motherhood and service to their male partners, the Enlightenment was a period in which women experienced expanded roles in the sciences. The rise of salon culture in Europe brought philosophers and their conversation to an intimate setting where men and women met to discuss contemporary political, social, and scientific topics. While Jean-Jacques Rousseau attacked women-dominated salons as producing 'effeminate men' that stifled serious discourse, salons were characterized in this era by the mixing of the sexes. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu


id: women-in-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
In 1741–42 Charlotta Frölich became the first woman to be published by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences with three books in agricultural science. In 1748 Eva Ekeblad became the first woman inducted into that academy. In 1746 Ekeblad had written to the academy about her discoveries of how to make flour and alcohol out of potatoes. Potatoes had been introduced into Sweden in 1658 but had been cultivated only in the greenhouses of the aristocracy. Ekeblad's work turned potatoes into a staple food in Sweden, and increased the supply of wheat, rye and barley available for making bread, since potatoes could be used instead to make alcohol. This greatly improved the country's eating habits and reduced the frequency of famines. Ekeblad also discovered a method of bleaching cotton textile and yarn with soap in 1751, and of replacing the dangerous ingredients in cosmetics of the time by using potato flour in 1752. Émilie du Châtelet, a close friend of Voltaire, was the first scientist to appreciate the significance of kinetic energy, as opposed to momentum. She repeated and described the importance of an experiment originally devised by Willem 's Gravesande showing the impact of falling objects is proportional not


id: women-in-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Science remained a largely amateur profession during the early part of the nineteenth century. Botany was considered a popular and fashionable activity, and one particularly suitable to women. In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it was one of the most accessible areas of science for women in both England and North America. However, as the nineteenth century progressed, botany and other sciences became increasingly professionalized, and women were increasingly excluded. Women's contributions were limited by their exclusion from most formal scientific education, but began to be recognized through their occasional admittance into learned societies during this period. Scottish scientist Mary Fairfax Somerville carried out experiments in magnetism, presenting a paper entitled 'The Magnetic Properties of the Violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum' to the Royal Society in 1826, the second woman to do so. She also wrote several mathematical, astronomical, physical and geographical texts, and was a strong advocate for women's education. In 1835, she and Caroline Herschel were the first two women elected as Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society. English mathematician Ada, Lady Lovelace, a pupil of Somerville, corresponded with Charles Babbage about applications for his analytical engine. In her notes (1842–43) appended to her


id: women-in-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Among the successful scientists were Nadezhda Suslova (1843–1918), the first woman in the world to obtain a medical doctorate fully equivalent to men's degrees; Maria Bokova-Sechenova (1839–1929), a pioneer of women's medical education who received two doctoral degrees, one in medicine in Zürich and one in physiology in Vienna; Julia Lermontova (1846–1919), the first woman in the world to receive a doctoral degree in chemistry; the marine biologist Sofia Pereiaslavtseva (1849–1903), director of the Sevastopol Biological Station and winner of the Kessler Prize of the Russian Society of Natural Scientists; and the mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaia (1850–1891), the first woman in 19th century Europe to receive a doctorate in mathematics and the first to become a university professor in any field. ==== Late nineteenth century in the United States ==== In the later nineteenth century the rise of the women's college provided jobs for women scientists, and opportunities for education. Women's colleges produced a disproportionate number of women who went on for PhDs in science. Many coeducational colleges and universities also opened or started to admit women during this period; such institutions included just over 3000 women in 1875, by 1900 numbered almost 20,000. An example is Elizabeth Blackwell, who became


id: women-in-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
In 1892, Ellen Swallow Richards called for the "christening of a new science" – "oekology" (ecology) in a Boston lecture. This new science included the study of "consumer nutrition" and environmental education. This interdisciplinary branch of science was later specialized into what is currently known as ecology, while the consumer nutrition focus split off and was eventually relabeled as home economics, which provided another avenue for women to study science. Richards helped to form the American Home Economics Association, which published a journal, the Journal of Home Economics, and hosted conferences. Home economics departments were formed at many colleges, especially at land grant institutions. In her work at MIT, Ellen Richards also introduced the first biology course in its history as well as the focus area of sanitary engineering. Women also found opportunities in botany and embryology. In psychology, women earned doctorates but were encouraged to specialize in educational and child psychology and to take jobs in clinical settings, such as hospitals and social welfare agencies. In 1901, Annie Jump Cannon first noticed that it was a star's temperature that was the principal distinguishing feature among different spectra. This led to re-ordering of the ABC types by temperature instead of


id: women-in-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Wu would later also confirm Albert Einstein's EPR Paradox in the first experimental corroboration, and prove the first violation of Parity and Charge Conjugate Symmetry, thereby laying the conceptual basis for the future Standard Model of Particle Physics, and the rapid development of the new field. Women in other disciplines looked for ways to apply their expertise to the war effort. Three nutritionists, Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel K. Stiebeling, and Helen S. Mitchell, developed the Recommended Dietary Allowance in 1941 to help military and civilian groups make plans for group feeding situations. The RDAs proved necessary, especially, once foods began to be rationed. Rachel Carson worked for the United States Bureau of Fisheries, writing brochures to encourage Americans to consume a wider variety of fish and seafood. She also contributed to research to assist the Navy in developing techniques and equipment for submarine detection. Women in psychology formed the National Council of Women Psychologists, which organized projects related to the war effort. The NCWP elected Florence Laura Goodenough president. In the social sciences, several women contributed to the Japanese Evacuation and Resettlement Study, based at the University of California. This study was led by sociologist Dorothy Swaine Thomas, who directed


id: women-in-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Europe after World War II ==== South-African born physicist and radiobiologist Tikvah Alper(1909–95), working in the UK, developed many fundamental insights into biological mechanisms, including the (negative) discovery that the infective agent in scrapie could not be a virus or other eukaryotic structure. French virologist Françoise Barré-Sinoussi performed some of the fundamental work in the identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the cause of AIDS, for which she shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. In July 1967, Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered evidence for the first known radio pulsar, which resulted in the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics for her supervisor. She was president of the Institute of Physics from October 2008 until October 2010. Astrophysicist Margaret Burbidge was a member of the B2FH group responsible for originating the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis, which explains how elements are formed in stars. She has held a number of prestigious posts, including the directorship of the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Mary Cartwright was a mathematician and student of G. H. Hardy. Her work on nonlinear differential equations was influential in the field of dynamical systems. Rosalind Franklin was a crystallographer, whose work helped to elucidate the fine structures


id: women-in-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Immediately after the end of World War II, the country saw a "retrenchment of positions for women" as male veterans returned and began filling open job positions. While men benefited from the opportunities of the G.I. Bill, some women had success with programs such as Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), a women's branch of the US Navy Reserve. The Society of Women Engineers held their first meeting in 1950. Although NASA was established in 1958, women were only admitted to the astronaut program in 1983, 25 years later. Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman were six of the original programmers for the ENIAC, the first general purpose electronic computer. Linda B. Buck is a neurobiologist who was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel for their work on olfactory receptors. Rachel Carson was a marine biologist from the United States. She is credited with being the founder of the environmental movement. The biologist and activist published Silent Spring, a work on the dangers of pesticides, in 1962. The publishing of her environmental science book led to the questioning of usage of harmful pesticides and other


id: women-in-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Australia after World War II ==== Amanda Barnard, an Australia-based theoretical physicist specializing in nanomaterials, winner of the Malcolm McIntosh Prize for Physical Scientist of the Year. Isobel Bennett, was one of the first women to go to Macquarie Island with the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE). She is one of Australia's best known marine biologists. Dorothy Hill, an Australian geologist who became the first female professor at an Australian university. Ruby Payne-Scott, was an Australian who was an early leader in the fields of radio astronomy and radiophysics. She was one of the first radio astronomers and the first woman in the field. Penny Sackett, an astronomer who became the first female chief scientist of Australia in 2008. She is a US-born Australian citizen. Fiona Stanley, winner of the 2003 Australian of the Year award, is an epidemiologist noted for her research into child and maternal health, birth disorders, and her work in the public health field. Michelle Simmons, winner of the 2018 Australian of the Year award, is a quantum physicist known for her research and leadership on atomic-scale silicon quantum devices. ==== Israel after World War II ==== Ada Yonath, the first woman from the


id: women-in-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Situation in the 1990s === Women appear to do less well than men (in terms of degree, rank, and salary) in the fields that have been traditionally dominated by women, such as nursing. In 1991 women attributed 91% of the PhDs in nursing, and men held 4% of full professorships in nursing. In the field of psychology, where women earn the majority of PhDs, women do not fill the majority of high rank positions in that field. Women's lower salaries in the scientific community are also reflected in statistics. According to the data provided in 1993, the median salaries of female scientists and engineers with doctoral degrees were 20% less than men. This data can be explained as there was less participation of women in high rank scientific fields/positions and a female majority in low-paid fields/positions. However, even with men and women in the same scientific community field, women are typically paid 15–17% less than men. In addition to the gender gap, there were also salary differences between ethnicity: African-American women with more years of experiences earn 3.4% less than European-American women with similar skills, while Asian women engineers out-earn both Africans and Europeans. Women are also under-represented in


id: women-in-science-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== In decision-making ==== As of 2015, each step up the ladder of the scientific research system saw a drop in female participation until, at the highest echelons of scientific research and decision-making, there were very few women left. In 2015, the EU Commissioner for Research, Science and Innovation Carlos Moedas called attention to this phenomenon, adding that the majority of entrepreneurs in science and engineering tended to be men. In 2013, the German government coalition agreement introduced a 30% quota for women on company boards of directors. In 2010, women made up 14% of university chancellors and vice-chancellors at Brazilian public universities and 17% of those in South Africa in 2011. As of 2015, in Argentina, women made up 16% of directors and vice-directors of national research centres and, in Mexico, 10% of directors of scientific research institutes at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. In the US, numbers are slightly higher at 23%. In the EU, less than 16% of tertiary institutions were headed by a woman in 2010 and just 10% of universities. In 2011, at the main tertiary institution for the English-speaking Caribbean, the University of the West Indies, women represented 51% of lecturers but only


id: women-in-science-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== In engineering and related fields ==== Women are consistently underrepresented in engineering and related fields. In Israel, for instance, where 28% of senior academic staff are women, there are proportionately many fewer in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) but dominate education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%). In Japan and the Republic of Korea, women represent just 5% and 10% of engineers. For women who are pursuing STEM major careers, these individuals often face gender disparities in the work field, especially in regards to science and engineering. It has become more common for women to pursue undergraduate degrees in science, but are continuously discredited in salary rates and higher ranking positions. For example, men show a greater likelihood of being selected for an employment position than a woman. In Europe and North America, the number of female graduates in engineering, physics, mathematics and computer science is generally low. Women make up just 19% of engineers in Canada, Germany and the US and 22% in Finland, for example. However, 50% of engineering graduates are women in Cyprus, 38% in Denmark and 36% in the Russian Federation, for instance. In many cases, engineering has lost ground to


id: women-in-science-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
During the early 1960s, the first American astronauts, nicknamed the Mercury Seven, were training. At the same time, William Randolph Lovelace II was interested to see if women could manage to go through the same training that the Mercury 7 undergoing at the time. Lovelace recruited thirteen female pilots, called the "Mercury 13", and put them through the same tests that the male astronauts took. As a result, the women actually performed better on these tests than the men of the Mercury 7 did. However, this did not convince NASA officials to allow women in space. In response, congressional hearings were held to investigate discrimination against women in the program. One of the women who testified at the hearing was Jerrie Cobb, the first woman to pass Lovelace's tests. During her testimony, Cobb said:I find it a little ridiculous when I read in a newspaper that there is a place called Chimp College in New Mexico where they are training chimpanzees for space flight, one a female named Glenda. I think it would be at least as important to let the women undergo this training for space flight.NASA officials also had representatives present, notably astronauts John Glenn and Scott Carpenter,


id: women-in-science-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Latin America and the Caribbean ==== Latin America has some of the world's highest rates of women studying scientific fields; it also shares with the Caribbean one of the highest proportions of female researchers: 44%. Of the 12 countries reporting data for the years 2010–2013, seven have achieved gender parity, or even dominate research: Bolivia (63%), Venezuela (56%), Argentina (53%), Paraguay (52%), Uruguay (49%), Brazil (48%) and Guatemala (45%). Costa Rica is on the cusp (43%). Chile has the lowest score among countries for which there are recent data (31%). The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with Cuba having achieved gender parity (47%) and Trinidad and Tobago on 44%. Recent data on women's participation in industrial research are available for those countries with the most developed national innovation systems, with the exception of Brazil and Cuba: Uruguay (47%), Argentina (29%), Colombia and Chile (26%). As in most other regions, the great majority of health graduates are women (60–85%). Women are also strongly represented in science. More than 40% of science graduates are women in each of Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama and Uruguay. The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with women graduates in science being on a


id: women-in-science-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== European Union ==== Women make up 33% of researchers overall in the European Union (EU), slightly more than their representation in science (32%). Women constitute 40% of researchers in higher education, 40% in government and 19% in the private sector, with the number of female researchers increasing faster than that of male researchers. The proportion of female researchers has been increasing over the last decade, at a faster rate than men (5.1% annually over 2002–2009 compared with 3.3% for men), which is also true for their participation among scientists and engineers (up 5.4% annually between 2002 and 2010, compared with 3.1% for men). Despite these gains, women's academic careers in Europe remain characterized by strong vertical and horizontal segregation. In 2010, although female students (55%) and graduates (59%) outnumbered male students, men outnumbered women at the PhD and graduate levels (albeit by a small margin). Further along in the research career, women represented 44% of grade C academic staff, 37% of grade B academic staff and 20% of grade A academic staff.11 These trends are intensified in science, with women making up 31% of the student population at the tertiary level to 38% of PhD students and 35% of


id: women-in-science-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Southeast Asia ==== Southeast Asia presents a different picture entirely, with women basically on a par with men in some countries: they make up 52% of researchers in the Philippines and Thailand, for example. Other countries are close to parity, such as Malaysia and Vietnam, whereas Indonesia and Singapore are still around the 30% mark. Cambodia trails its neighbours at 20%. Female researchers in the region are spread fairly equally across the sectors of participation, with the exception of the private sector, where they make up 30% or less of researchers in most countries. The proportion of women tertiary graduates reflects these trends, with high percentages of women in science in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines (around 60%) and a low of 10% in Cambodia. Women make up the majority of graduates in health sciences, from 60% in Laos to 81% in Myanmar – Vietnam being an exception at 42%. Women graduates are on a par with men in agriculture but less present in engineering: Vietnam (31%), the Philippines (30%) and Malaysia (39%); here, the exception is Myanmar, at 65%. In the Republic of Korea, women make up about 40% of graduates in science and agriculture and


id: women-in-science-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Sub-Saharan Africa ==== Just under one in three (30%) researchers in sub-Saharan Africa is a woman. Much of sub-Saharan Africa is seeing solid gains in the share of women among tertiary graduates in scientific fields. In two of the top four countries for women's representation in science, women graduates are part of very small cohorts, however: they make up 54% of Lesotho's 47 tertiary graduates in science and 60% of those in Namibia's graduating class of 149. South Africa and Zimbabwe, which have larger graduate populations in science, have achieved parity, with 49% and 47% respectively. The next grouping clusters seven countries poised at around 35–40% (Angola, Burundi, Eritrea, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Rwanda). The rest are grouped around 30% or below (Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana, Swaziland and Uganda). Burkina Faso ranks lowest, with women making up 18% of its science graduates. Female representation in engineering is fairly high in sub-Saharan Africa in comparison with other regions. In Mozambique and South Africa, for instance, women make up more than 34% and 28% of engineering graduates, respectively. Numbers of female graduates in agricultural science have been increasing steadily across the continent, with eight countries reporting the share of women graduates of


id: women-in-science-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Underrepresentation of homosexual and bi women, and gender nonconformists in STEM === While there has been a push to encourage more women to participate in science, there is less outreach to lesbian, bi, or gender nonconforming women, and gender nonconforming people more broadly. Due to the lack of data and statistics of LGBTQ members involvement in the STEM field, it is unknown to what exact degree lesbian and bisexual women, gender non-conformers (transgender, nonbinary/agender, or anti-gender gender abolitionists who eschew the system altogether) are potentially even more repressed and underrepresented than their straight peers. But a general lack of out lesbian and bi women in STEM has been noted. Reasons for under-representation of same-sex attracted women and anyone gender nonconforming in STEM fields include lack of role models in K–12, the desire of some transgender girls and women to adopt traditional heteronormative gender roles as gender is a cultural performance and socially-determined subjective internal experience, employment discrimination, and the possibility of sexual harassment in the workplace. Historically, women who have accepted STEM research positions for the government or the military remained in the closet due to lack of federal protections or the fact that homosexual or gender nonconforming expression


id: women-in-science-20260505-21
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Societal disadvantages === Despite women's tendency to perform better than men academically, there are flaws involving stereotyping, lack of information, and family influence that have been found to affect women's involvement in science. Stereotyping has an effect, because people associate characteristics such as nurturing, kind, and warm or characteristics like strong and powerful with a particular gender. These character associations lead people to stereotype that certain jobs are more suitable to a particular gender. Lack of information is something that many institutions have worked hard over the years to improve by making programs such as the IFAC project (Information for a choice: empowering women through learning for scientific and technological career paths) which investigated low women participation in science and technology fields at high school to university level. However, not all efforts were as successful, "Science: it's a girl thing" campaign, which has since been removed, received backlash for further encouraging women that they must partake in "girly" or "feminine" activities. The idea being that if women are fully informed of their career choices and employability, they will be more inclined to pursue STEM field jobs. Women also struggle in the sense of lacking role models of women in


id: women-in-science-20260505-22
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Efforts to increase participation === A number of organizations have been set up to combat the stereotyping that may encourage girls away from careers in these areas. In the UK The WISE Campaign (Women into Science, Engineering and Construction) and the UKRC (The UK Resource Centre for Women in SET) are collaborating to ensure industry, academia and education are all aware of the importance of challenging the traditional approaches to careers advice and recruitment that mean some of the best brains in the country are lost to science. The UKRC and other women's networks provide female role models, resources and support for activities that promote science to girls and women. The Women's Engineering Society, a professional association in the UK, has been supporting women in engineering and science since 1919. In computing, the British Computer Society group BCSWomen is active in encouraging girls to consider computing careers, and in supporting women in the computing workforce. In the United States, the Association for Women in Science is one of the most prominent organization for professional women in science. In 2011, the Scientista Foundation was created to empower pre-professional college and graduate women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), to


id: women-in-science-20260505-23
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-23.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Notable controversies and developments === A study conducted at Lund University in 2010 and 2011 analysed the genders of invited contributors to News & Views in Nature and Perspectives in Science. It found that 3.8% of the Earth and environmental science contributions to News & Views were written by women even while the field was estimated to be 16–20% female in the United States. Nature responded by suggesting that, worldwide, a significantly lower number of Earth scientists were women, but nevertheless committed to address any disparity. In 2012, a journal article published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) reported a gender bias among science faculty. Faculty were asked to review a resume from a hypothetical student and report how likely they would be to hire or mentor that student, as well as what they would offer as starting salary. Two resumes were distributed randomly to the faculty, only differing in the names at the top of the resume (John or Jennifer). The male student was rated as significantly more competent, more likely to be hired, and more likely to be mentored. The median starting salary offered to the male student was greater than $3,000 over the


id: women-in-science-20260505-24
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-24.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:09.932222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Problematic public statements ==== In January 2005, Harvard University President Lawrence Summers sparked controversy at a National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce. Dr. Summers offered his explanation for the shortage of women in senior posts in science and engineering. He made comments suggesting the lower numbers of women in high-level science positions may in part be due to innate differences in abilities or preferences between men and women. Making references to the field and behavioral genetics, he noted the generally greater variability among men (compared to women) on tests of cognitive abilities, leading to proportionally more men than women at both the lower and upper tails of the test score distributions. In his discussion of this, Summers said that "even small differences in the standard deviation [between genders] will translate into very large differences in the available pool substantially out [from the mean]". Summers concluded his discussion by saying:So my best guess, to provoke you, of what's behind all of this is that the largest phenomenon, by far, is the general clash between people's legitimate family desires and employers' current desire for high power and high intensity, that in the special


id: women-in-stem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
Many scholars and policymakers have noted that the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have remained predominantly male with historically low participation among women since the origins of these fields in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. Scholars are exploring the various reasons for the continued existence of this gender disparity in STEM fields. Those who view this disparity as resulting from discriminatory forces are also seeking ways to redress this disparity within STEM fields. STEM professions are typically construed as well-compensated, high-status professions with universal career appeal. == History == Women's participation in science, technology, and engineering has been limited and also under-reported throughout most of history. This has been the case, with exceptions, until large-scale changes began around the 1970s. Scholars have discussed possible reasons and mechanisms behind the limitations such as ingrained gender roles, sexism, and sex differences in psychology. There has also been an effort among historians of science to uncover under-reported contributions of women. The "Computer Women" at NASA during the 1950s and 1960s were a group of women known as "computers" who performed essential calculations for aeronautical and space research. They worked as mathematicians, engineers, and analysts, laying the groundwork


id: women-in-stem-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
Female college graduates earned less on average than male college graduates, even though they shared the earnings growth of all college graduates in the 1980s. Some of the salary differences are related to the differences in occupations entered by women and men. Among recent science and engineering bachelor's degree recipients, women were less likely than men to be employed in science and engineering occupations. There remains a wage gap between men and women in comparable scientific positions. Among more experienced scientists and engineers, the gender gap in salaries is greater than for recent graduates. Salaries are highest in mathematics, computer science, and engineering, which are fields in which women are not highly represented. In Australia, a study conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics has shown that the current gender wage gap between men and women in STEM fields in Australia stands at 30.1 percent as of 2013, which is an increase of 3 percent since 2012. In addition, according to a study done by Moss, when faculty members of top research institutions in America were asked to recruit student applicants for a laboratory manager position, both men and women faculty members rated the male applicants as more hireable and


id: women-in-stem-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Indonesia ==== UNESCO's A Complex Formula states that Indonesia's government has been working towards gender equality, especially through the Ministry of Education and Culture, but stereotypes about women's roles in the workplace persist. Due to traditional views and societal norms, women struggle to remain in their careers or to move up in the workplace. Substantially more women are enrolled in science-based fields such as pharmacy and biology than in mathematics and physics. Within engineering, statistics vary based on the specific engineering discipline; women make up 78% of chemical engineering students but only 5% of mechanical engineering students. As of 2005, out of 35,564 researchers in science, technology, and engineering, only 10,874 or 31% were female. ==== Japan ==== According to OECD data, about 25 percent of enrollment in science programs at the tertiary education level in Japan are women. Japan has the lowest share of women in tertiary teaching staff among OECD countries, with only 28% of female faculty members, far below the OECD average of 44%. Women make up just 17.7% of teaching staff at national universities, with only 10.8% in science and engineering fields and 9.4% in executive positions. Additionally, female enrollment in natural sciences, mathematics, and


id: women-in-stem-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Central and South America === Nearly half of PhD degrees pursued in Central and South America are completed by women (2018). However, only a small minority is represented at decision-making levels. A 2018 study gathered 6,849 articles published in Latin America and found that women researchers were 31% of published researchers in 2018, an increase from 27% in 2002. The same study also found that when women lead the research group, women contributors were published 60%, compared to when men are the leaders and the women contributors were published 20%. When looking at over 1,500 articles related to Botany published in Latin America, a study found that participation from both women and men were equal, whether it be in publications or leading roles in scientific organizations. Also women had higher rates of publication in Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico when compared to other Latin American countries despite participation being nearly the same throughout the region. Although women have higher publications in Botany, men still out publish women and are often the ones cited in research papers and studies relating to the sciences. The study concluded that according to the data (shown in the table above), women in Chile that are


id: women-in-stem-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== African American women ==== According to Kimberly Jackson, prejudice and assumed stereotypes keep women of color, especially black women from studying in STEM fields. Psychologically, stereotypes on black women's intellect, cognitive abilities, and work ethic contribute to their lack of confidence in STEM. Some schools, such as Spelman College, have made attempts to change perceptions of African-American women and improve their rates of becoming involved and technically proficient in STEM. Students of color, especially Black students, face difficulty in STEM majors as they face hostile climates, microaggressions, and a lack of support and mentorship. Despite facing discrimination, many African American women have risen to prominence in STEM fields, starting in the mid-1800s, when physician Rebecca Lee Crumpler was the first African American woman to earn a medical degree. In our day major scientific advances have been made by African American women such as Dr. Kizzmekia Corbett, who contributed to developing COVID-19 vaccines; Dr. Ayanna Howard, a leader in robotics and artificial intelligence; and Dr. Hadiyah-Nicole Green, a physicist known for her work in cancer treatments using lasers. Several organizations have worked to help African American women obtain the support needed to be successful in STEM; some of them include


id: women-in-stem-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Discrimination ==== This leakage may be due to discrimination, both overt and covert, faced by women in STEM fields. According to Schiebinger, women are twice as likely to leave jobs in science and engineering than men are. In the 1980s, researchers demonstrated a general evaluative bias against women. In a 2012 study, email requests were sent to meet to professors in doctoral programs at the top 260 U.S. universities. It was impossible to determine whether any particular individual in this study was exhibiting discrimination, since each participant only viewed a request from one potential graduate student. However, researchers found evidence for discrimination against ethnic minorities and women relative to Caucasian men. In another study, science faculty were sent the materials of students who were applying for a lab manager position at their university. The materials were the same for each participant, but each application was randomly assigned either a male or a female name. The researchers found that faculty members rated the male candidates as both more competent and more hirable than the female candidates, despite applications being otherwise identical. If individuals are given information about a prospective student's gender, they may infer that he or she possesses traits


id: women-in-stem-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Queen Bee effect ==== The Queen Bee effect is similar to the Black Sheep effect but applies only to women. It explains why higher-status women, particularly in male-dominated professions, may actually be far less likely to help other women than their male colleagues might be. A 2004 study found that while doctoral students in a number of different disciplines did not exhibit any gender differences in work commitment or work satisfaction, faculty members at the same university believed that female students were less committed to their work than male students. What was particularly surprising was that these beliefs by faculty members were most strongly endorsed by female faculty members, rather than male faculty members. One potential explanation for this finding is that individual mobility for a member of a negatively stereotyped group is often accompanied by a social and psychological distancing of oneself from the group. This implies that successful women in traditionally male-dominated careers do not see their success as evidence that negative stereotypes about women's quantitative and analytical abilities are wrong, but rather as proof that they personally are exceptions to the rule. Thus, such women may actually play a role in perpetuating, rather than abolishing, these


id: women-in-stem-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Clustering and leaky pipeline ==== In the early 1980s, Rossiter put forth the concept of "territorial segregation" or occupational segregation, which is the idea that women "cluster" in certain fields of study. For example, "women are more likely to teach and do research in the humanities and social sciences than in the natural sciences and engineering", and the majority of college women tend to choose majors such as psychology, education, English, performing arts, and nursing. Rossiter also used "hierarchical segregation" as an explanation for the low number of women in STEM fields. She describes "hierarchical segregation" as a decrease in the number of women as one "moves up the ladder of power and prestige." This is related to the leaky STEM pipeline concept. The metaphor of the leaky pipeline has been used to describe how women drop out of STEM fields at all stages of their careers. In the U.S., out of 2,000 high school aged persons, 1944 were enrolled in high school fall 2014. Assuming equal enrollment for boys and girls, 60 boys and 62 girls are considered "gifted." By comparing enrollment to the population of persons 20–24 years old, 880 of the 1,000 original women, and 654


id: women-in-stem-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Lack of confidence ==== According to A. N. Pell, the pipeline has several major leaks spanning the time from elementary school to retirement. One of the most important periods is adolescence. One of the factors behind girls' lack of confidence might be unqualified or ineffective teachers. Teachers' gendered perceptions on their students' capabilities can create an unbalanced learning environment and deter girls from pursuing further STEM education. They can also pass these stereotyped beliefs onto their students. Studies have also shown that student-teacher interactions affect girls' engagement with STEM. Teachers often give boys more opportunity to figure out the solution to a problem by themselves while telling the girls to follow the rules. Teachers are also more likely to accept questions from boys while telling girls to wait for their turns. This is partly due to gender expectations that boys will be active but that girls will be quiet and obedient. Prior to 1985, girls were provided fewer laboratory opportunities than boys. In middle and high school, science, mathematics, mechanics and computers courses are mainly taken by male students and also tend to be taught by male teachers. A lack of opportunities in STEM fields could lead to a


id: women-in-stem-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Innate versus learned skill === Some studies propose the explanation that STEM fields (and especially fields like physics, math and philosophy) are considered by both teachers and students to require more innate talent than skills that can be learned. Combined with a tendency to view women as having less of the required innate abilities, researchers proposed that this can result in assessing women as less qualified for STEM positions. In a study done by Ellis, Fosdick and Rasmussen, it was concluded that without strong skills in calculus, women cannot perform as well as their male counterparts in any field of STEM, which leads to the fewer women pursuing a career in these fields. A high percentage of women that do pursue a career in STEM do not continue on this pathway after taking Calculus I, which was found to be a class that weeds out students from the STEM pathway. There have been several controversial statements about innate ability and success in STEM. A few notable examples include Lawrence Summers, former president of Harvard University who suggested cognitive ability at high end positions could cause a population difference. Summers later stepped down as president. Former Google engineer, James Damore,


id: women-in-stem-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:11.519240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Self-affirmation ==== Researchers have investigated the usefulness of self-affirmation in alleviating stereotype threat. One study found that women who affirmed a personal value prior to experiencing stereotype threat performed as well on a math test as men and as women who did not experience stereotype threat. A subsequent study found that a short writing exercise in which college students, who were enrolled in an introductory physics course, wrote about their most important values substantially decreased the gender performance gap and boosted women's grades. Scholars believe that the effectiveness of such values-affirmation exercises is their ability to help individuals view themselves as complex individuals, rather than through the lens of a harmful stereotype. Supporting this hypothesis, another study found that women who were encouraged to draw self-concept maps with many nodes did not experience a performance decrease on a math test. However, women who did not draw self-concept maps or only drew maps with a few nodes did perform significantly worse than men on the math test. The effect of these maps with many nodes was to remind women of their "multiple roles and identities," that were unrelated to, and would thus not be harmed by, their performance on the


id: academianet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AcademiaNet-0.md
category: reference
title: AcademiaNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AcademiaNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:14.068356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academianet-20260505-0
summary:
AcademiaNet was an international database containing profiles of women scientists. It is a non-profit project with the goal to raise the share of women in leadership positions in academia. AcademiaNet was initiated in 2010 in Germany by the Robert Bosch Stiftung and the publishing house "Spektrum der Wissenschaft". The Swiss National Science Foundation assumed responsibility of the platform in 2020, but shut it down in September 2025. == Goals and functions == The share of women professors and executives at research institutions across Europe is low and rising only slowly. AcademiaNet is a resource aimed at facilitating the search for women researchers in view of academic appointments or as conference speakers, experts on scientific committees or peer reviewers. A search function allows users to find the registered scientists according to their field or discipline. As opposed to databases such as "Request a Woman in STEMM" by 500 Women Scientists or "WiLS database of women in science", women cannot create their own profile on AcademiaNet; they need to be nominated by a scientific partner based on clearly defined criteria. == History == The Robert Bosch Stiftung founded AcademiaNet in 2010. In her speech inaugurating the platform in November 2010, the German


id: ada-lovelace-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: Ada Lovelace Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:15.282158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ada-lovelace-day-20260505-0
summary:
Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event held on the second Tuesday of October to celebrate and raise awareness of the contributions of women to STEM fields. It is named after mathematician and computer science pioneer Ada Lovelace. It started in 2009 as a "day of blogging" and has since become a multi-national event with conferences. == History == The day was founded in the United Kingdom in 2009 by Suw Charman-Anderson on the second Tuesday in October as a means of raising awareness about the contributions of women to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Charman-Anderson later said of this: I launched Ada Lovelace Day in 2009 because I felt passionately that we needed a way to celebrate and highlight women’s work and achievements in STEM, which frequently don’t get the recognition they deserve. In 2022, Charman-Anderson announced that this would be the last year in which the organization that she founded, Finding Ada, would organize an annual flagship Ada Lovelace Day event in England. However, the Royal Institution stepped in with funding, due to its alignment with their mission to bring scientists and the public together. Since its inception, Ada Lovelace Day has become international in scope,


id: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team-0.md
category: reference
title: Afghan Girls Robotics Team
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:16.545056+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
summary:
The Afghan Girls Robotics Team, also known as the Afghan Dreamers, is an all-girl robotics team from Herat, Afghanistan, founded through the Digital Citizen Fund (DCF) in 2017 by Roya Mahboob and Alireza Mehraban. It is made up of girls between ages 12 and 18 and their mentors. Several members of the team were relocated to Qatar and Mexico by humanitarian and tech entrepreneur Sarah Porter following the fall of Kabul in August 2021. A documentary film featuring members of the team, titled Afghan Dreamers, was released by MTV Documentary Films in 2023. == Origins == The Afghan Girls Robotics Team was co-founded in 2017 by Roya Mahboob, who is their coach, mentor and sponsor, and founder of the Digital Citizen Fund (DCF), which is the parent organization for the team. Dean Kamen was planning a 2017 competition in the United States and had recruited Mahboob to form a team from Afghanistan. Out of 150 girls, 12 were selected for the first team. Before parts were sent by Kamen, they trained in the basement of the home of Mahboob's parents, with scrap metal and without safety equipment under the guidance of their coach, Mahboob's brother Alireza Mehraban, who is also


id: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team-1.md
category: reference
title: Afghan Girls Robotics Team
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:16.545056+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
summary:
== Afghan Dreamers documentary == The Afghan Dreamers documentary from MTV Documentary Films premiered in May 2023 on Paramount+. The film was directed by David Greenwald and produced by David Cowan and Beth Murphy. In a review for Screen Daily, Wendy Ide wrote, "This film, with its likeable cast of girl nerds and positive message, should enjoy a warm reception on the festival circuit, and will be of particular interest to events seeking to showcase women's stories from around the world. It also serves as a timely cautionary tale – a case study on just how quickly the rights and the opportunities of women can be curtailed, at the behest of the men in power." == Honors and awards == 2017 Silver medal for Courageous Achievement at the FIRST Global Challenge, science and technology 2017 Benefiting Humanity in AI Award at World Summit AI 2017 Winner, Entrepreneurship Challenge at Robotex in Estonia 2018 Permission to Dream Award, Raw Film Festival 2018 Conrad Innovation Challenge, Raw Film Festival 2018 Rookie All Star – District Championship, Canada 2018 Asia Game Changer Award Honoree 2019 Inspiring in Engineering Award – FIRST Detroit World Championship 2019 Asia Game Changer Award of California 2019 Safety


id: athena-swan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN-0.md
category: reference
title: Athena SWAN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:17.866164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: athena-swan-20260505-0
summary:
The Athena SWAN Charter (Scientific Women's Academic Network) is an equality charter mark framework and accreditation scheme for higher education and research institutions, established in 2005 by the UK's Equality Challenge Unit (now part of Advance HE). It recognises and promotes commitment to advancing gender equality, particularly in relation to representation, career progression, and success for women. The charter is used both as a self-assessment and benchmarking tool to guide institutional change. == Award details == Members (universities) who sign up to the charter are expected to apply for an Athena SWAN award, at Bronze, Silver or Gold level. Each award is valid for four years under the post-2015 rules (three years where pre-2015 rules apply). They commit to adopting ten principles, which focus on promoting and supporting gender equality for women. These are: We acknowledge that academia cannot reach its full potential unless it can benefit from the talents of all. We commit to advancing gender equality in academia, in particular, addressing the loss of women across the career pipeline and the absence of women from senior academic, professional and support roles. We commit to addressing unequal gender representation across academic disciplines and professional and support functions. In this


id: athena-swan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN-1.md
category: reference
title: Athena SWAN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:17.866164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: athena-swan-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == An exploratory study of women's and men's perceptions of Athena SWAN in 2017 was broadly positive, and highlighted the significance of government funding being linked to Athena SWAN awards; it also highlighted the limitations of the process to change long-standing and entrenched issues in society. A 2019 study of the university culture in medical and social sciences attributed a more positive culture in medical sciences to the widespread implementation of Athena SWAN gender equality action plans, linked to the funding incentives of the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). A 2020 study examining the effect of Athena SWAN funding incentives on women's research leadership in NIHR Biomedical Research Centres found a rise in the number of women in mid-level leadership positions and the proportion of funding going to women. According to empirical research carried out at the University of Bath, "there is no evidence that Athena SWAN membership and award level have any impact" on "the gender pay gap and the proportion of women in the top quartile of pay". Some commentators consider it to be largely window-dressing with little impact on lived experiences of women working in universities. Others have indicated an apparent failure to find


id: bathurst-studentship-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathurst_studentship-0.md
category: reference
title: Bathurst studentship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathurst_studentship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:20.508736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bathurst-studentship-20260505-0
summary:
The Bathurst studentship was a fund for graduates of the natural science tripos at the women's colleges at the University of Cambridge to continue their scientific research. It was established in 1879 by The Hon. Lady Evelyn Selina Bathurst (often called Selina Bathurst, d. 1946). She was the daughter of Allen Bathurst, 6th Earl Bathurst and his second wife Evelyn, née Hankey. She contributed money and equipment for the establishment of the Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women. On 18 June 1898, she married Major George Coryton Lister. They had two children. She died on 16 April 1946. The Bathurst Studentship, awarded 'from time to time,' was taken up by dozens of women scientists in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students would work independently, supported by academic supervisors, and were granted bench space in the Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women for their experiments. == Notable recipients == Florence Eves (1881–2) Alice Johnson (1882–3) Marion Greenwood (1883–4) Anna Bateson (1887–9) Edith Saunders (1888–9) Elizabeth Eleanor Field (1891–3) Mary Tebb (1891–3) Gertrude Elles (1895) Ethel Skeat (1895–7) Mildred Gostling (1899–1900) Sibille Ford (1900–2) Ida Smedley (1901–3) Jessie Slater (1903–5) Muriel Onslow (1904) Edith Gertrude Willcock (1904–5) Annie Homer (1905) Mary Gladys Sykes


id: beyond-curie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Curie-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Curie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Curie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:21.844711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beyond-curie-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Curie is a portrait series of women who have made significant contributions in STEM fields. As of November 2018, the series features 42 women, including all 18 female Nobel Prize winners in Physics, Chemistry, and Physiology or Medicine. The series was created by Amanda Phingbodhipakkiya, a former neuroscience researcher and designer who named the project after two-time Nobel prize winner Marie Curie, with the goal of highlighting other important female scientists who are less well known. Beyond Curie has raised $44,172 from 856 backers across two Kickstarter campaigns. == Public exhibits == Beyond Curie has been on display in an exhibit at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences since March 24, 2017. Phingbodhipakkiya worked with the March for Science organizers to make special Beyond Curie posters that could be freely downloaded and brought to a rally or protest. In partnership with Outside, Phingbodhipakkiya developed five portraits specifically focused on women whose work focused on health and the environment. Phingbodhipakkiya presented some of the Beyond Curie portraits at TEDWomen 2017, where she said the project was "about finding your heroes" and shared stories of female scientists who only learned about some of the historical figures of the series after


id: susan-brunskill-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Brunskill-0.md
category: reference
title: Susan Brunskill
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Brunskill
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:23.057157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: susan-brunskill-20260505-0
summary:
Sue Brunskill is a Landcare community leader, and was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia, General Division, for her leadership and services to the environment. She has 35 years experience in bushland conservation and land management. == Early life == Brunskill's early life and childhood took place on a farm near Wagga Wagga, in Borambola. She was a volunteer within the Wooragee Primary School for 15 years, and then a volunteer at the Horticultural business, Amenity Horticulture. == Career == Brunskill was a teacher of Natural Resource Management, at the TAFE of Thurgoona. She is a bush regenerator, both teaching and conducting bush regeneration and Bush Care, in various groups around Albury Wodonga. Brunskill has been a community leader for longer than 30 years, and has been working to conserve the native flora and fauna species on her 50 ha property in Wooragee, located in the north-east region of Victoria. She is the president and has been working with the Wooragee Landcare Group (WLG), a group who removes invasive species which outcompete native vegetation. Her knowledge, combined with her enthusiasm for conservation, has supported local gardeners, farmers, and local people to understand the impact they can have on


id: coded-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coded_Bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Coded Bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coded_Bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:24.254730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coded-bias-20260505-0
summary:
Coded Bias is an American documentary film directed by Shalini Kantayya that premiered at the 2020 Sundance Film Festival. The film includes contributions from researchers Joy Buolamwini, Deborah Raji, Meredith Broussard, Cathy O’Neil, Zeynep Tufekci, Safiya Noble, Timnit Gebru, Virginia Eubanks, and Silkie Carlo, and others. == Background == Kantayya previously directed a documentary titled Catching the Sun and also directed one episode of the National Geographic television series, Breakthrough. She is also an associate of UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism. Kantayya said an interview with 500 Global on August 17, 2021, that three years previously she did not even know what an algorithm was. She read the book Weapons of Math Destruction, which describes how artificial intelligence, machine learning, and algorithms can determine outcomes for certain people. She later came across the work of Joy Buolamwini through a Ted Talk. == Summary == The documentary is about artificial intelligence and the biases that can be embedded into this technology. MIT media researcher Joy Buolamwini's computer science studies uncovered that her face was unrecognizable in many facial recognition systems and she worked to find out why these systems failed. She later found that facial recognition programs only worked when


id: computer-engineer-barbie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Engineer_Barbie-0.md
category: reference
title: Computer Engineer Barbie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Engineer_Barbie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:25.455441+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-engineer-barbie-20260505-0
summary:
Computer Engineer Barbie is the 126th career version of Mattel's Barbie doll. In response to poll results indicating strong support for computer engineers, the doll set was created and introduced in 2010. In 2014, Mattel apologized for the accompanying book, I Can Be a Computer Engineer, after complaints that it represented Barbie as incompetent in the field, needing the help of men. == Description == The doll has a pink laptop and a pink smartphone, and is wearing geometric pink glasses, a pink watch, black leggings, a T-shirt decorated with "Barbie" spelled in binary code, a fitted vest with saddle-stitch detailing, pink wedges, and a Bluetooth headset. The packaging included a code to unlock exclusive game content on the Barbie website. Female engineers including Betty Shanahan, CEO of the Society of Women Engineers, and Alice Agogino of the National Academy of Engineering were consulted on her wardrobe and work environment. They suggested that for authenticity she needed "a Coke can and a bag of Doritos" on her desk; she has a coffee cup. One mockup also included a Linux penguin; Barbie is running Linux on her dual-monitor set-up. == History == In 2010, Mattel invited people to vote for Barbie's


id: doris-m-curtis-outstanding-woman-in-science-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_M._Curtis_Outstanding_Woman_in_Science_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Doris M. Curtis Outstanding Woman in Science Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_M._Curtis_Outstanding_Woman_in_Science_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:27.850098+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doris-m-curtis-outstanding-woman-in-science-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Doris M. Curtis Outstanding Woman in Science Award, also known as the Subaru Outstanding Woman in Science Award is a prize given annually by the Geological Society of America to "...women who have made a significant impact on the geosciences with their Ph.D. research." The award is named in memory of Doris Malkin Curtis, first female president of the GSA, and sponsored by Subaru. Recipients of the award are listed below. == References ==


id: empowering-women-in-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowering_Women_in_Organic_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowering_Women_in_Organic_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:29.070477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empowering-women-in-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Empowering Women in organic Chemistry (EWOC) is a scientific conference designed to bring the research and career interests of women in organic chemistry to the forefront and seeks to empower all marginalized individuals by promoting equity, justice, diversity, and inclusion across all chemistry fields. EWOC is the world's largest gathering of women in organic chemistry, and hosts an annual meeting of women (students, post-docs, faculty and professionals) who work or plan to work in the field of Organic Chemistry, broadly defined, from all types of institutions (academic, industry, biotech, non-profit and government). The meeting goals are to Establish a peer group network for collaborating and recruiting diverse talent Afford a novel mechanism to provide advice and counsel for women organic chemists Share stories from different perspectives about career development and challenges faced – and overcome – along the way Establish an inclusive community, with an emphasis on Diversity, Inclusion and Belonging, to engage, network and support each other in the field of Organic Chemistry Provide support and guidance to graduate students and post-docs making career decisions Provide community support to enhance retention of women in chemistry. == History == The number of female scientists in the organic chemistry community, industry


id: female-education-in-stem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education_in_STEM-0.md
category: reference
title: Female education in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:30.396946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: female-education-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women. The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development. == Current status of girls and women in STEM education == === Overall trends in STEM education === Gender differences in STEM education remain a global issue. This is widely understood to be influenced by society and cultural factors. Including gender norms, expectation's, access to resources, and the availability of role models. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Globally, women represent 35% of graduates in STEM fields, and this share hasn't changed by much in recent years. However, participation can vary by subject. Women are more strongly represented in life sciences


id: female-education-in-stem-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education_in_STEM-1.md
category: reference
title: Female education in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:30.396946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: female-education-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Family and peer level === Parents, including their beliefs and expectations, play an important role in shaping girls' attitudes towards, and interest in, STEM studies. Parents with traditional beliefs about gender roles and who treat girls and boys unequally can reinforce stereotypes about gender and ability in STEM. Parents can also have a strong influence on girls' STEM participation and learning achievement through the family values, environment, experiences, and encouragement that they provide. Some research finds that parents’ expectations, particularly the mother's expectations, have more influence on the higher education and career choices of girls than those of boys. Higher socio-economic status and parental educational qualifications are associated with higher scores in mathematics and science for both girls and boys. Girls' science performance appears to be more strongly associated with mothers' higher educational qualifications, and boys' with their fathers'. Family members with STEM careers can also influence girls’ STEM engagement. The broader socio-cultural context of the family can also play a role. Factors such as ethnicity, language used at home, immigrant status, and family structure may also have an influence on girls' participation and performance in STEM. Peers can also impact on girls’ motivation and feeling of belonging in


id: feminist-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Feminist philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:31.736930+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Feminist philosophy of science is a branch of feminist philosophy that seeks to understand how the acquirement of knowledge through scientific means has been influenced by notions of gender identity and gender roles in society. Feminist philosophers of science question how scientific research and scientific knowledge itself may be influenced and possibly compromised by the social and professional framework within which that research and knowledge is established and exists. The intersection of gender and science allows feminist philosophers to reexamine fundamental questions and truths in the field of science to reveal how gender biases may influence scientific outcomes. The feminist philosophy of science has been described as being located "at the intersections of the philosophy of science and feminist science scholarship" and has attracted considerable attention since the 1980s. Feminist philosophers of science use feminist epistemology as a lens through which to analyze scientific methods, results, and analysis. This epistemology emphasizes "situated knowledge" that hinges on one's individual perspectives on a subject; feminist philosophers often highlight the under-representation of female scientists in academia and the resulting androcentric biases that exist in science. Feminist philosophers suggest that integrating feminine modes of thought and logic that are undervalued by current scientific theory


id: feminist-philosophy-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Feminist philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:31.736930+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Standpoint and knowledge === The feminist philosophy of science has traditionally been highly critical of the lack of access and opportunities for women in science, resulting in scientific results that have been "distorted by sexist values." Sharon Crasnow highlights how the "exclusion of women as researchers and subjects" in scientific research, studies and projects can lead to incomplete methods and methodologies and ultimately unreliable or inaccurate results. Some feminist philosophies of science question whether science can lay claim to "impartiality, neutrality, autonomy, and indifference to political positions and the values" when the "neutral" position is benchmarked against the values held by one culture (i.e. western patriarchy) among the multitude of cultures participating in modern science. A complete Standpoint theory contains seven parts to fully understand the location of power one has, their "epistemic privilege". Anderson lays these out in her journal Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science. The first point of the theory must state the social location of the authority. The second, how large is the grasp of this authority, what does it claim privilege over. Third, what aspect of the social location allows authority. Fourth, the grounds of the authority, what justifies their privilege. Fifth, the type


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:33.029134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Feminist technoscience is a transdisciplinary branch of science studies which emerged from decades of feminist critique on the way gender and other identity markers are entangled in the combined fields of science and technology. The term technoscience, especially in regard to the field of feminist technoscience studies, seeks to remove the distinction between scientific research and development with applied applications of technology while assuming science is entwined with the common interests of society. As a result, science is suggested to be held to the same level of political and ethical accountability as the technologies which develop from it. Feminist technoscience studies continue to develop new theories on how politics of gender and other identity markers are interconnected to resulting processes of technical change, and power relations of the globalized, material world. Feminist technoscience focuses less on intrapersonal relationships between men and women, and more on broader issues concerning knowledge production and how bodies manifest and are acknowledged in societies. Feminist technoscience studies are inspired by social constructionist approaches to gender, sex, intersectionalities, and science, technology and society (STS). It can also be referred to as feminist science studies, feminist STS, feminist cultural studies of science, feminist studies of science and


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:33.029134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Feminist technologies and technoscience studies == Feminist technoscience studies have become intrinsically linked with practices of Technofeminism and the development of feminist technologies in cultural and critical vernacular. Feminist technoscience studies explore the coded social and historical implications of science and technology on the development of society, including how identity constructs and is constructed by these technologies. Technofeminism emerged in the early 1980s, leaning on the different feminist movements. Feminist scholars reanalyzed the Scientific Revolution, and stated that the resulting science was based on the masculine ideology of exploiting the Earth and control. During this time, nature and scientific inquiry were modelled after misogynous relationships to women. Femininity was associated with nature and considered as something passive to be objectified. This was in contrast to culture, which was represented by objectifying masculinity. This analysis depended on the use of gender imagery to conceptualize the nature of technoscientific masculine ideology. Judy Wajcman draws parallels between Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity and the construction of technology. Butler conceives gender as a performative act as opposed to a naturalized condition one is born into. Through a fluctuating process achieved in daily social interaction, gender identity is acted and constructed through relational


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:33.029134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bioethics and capitalism === The development of reproductive technologies blur the lines between nature and technology, allowing for the reconfiguration of life itself. Through the advances of genetic technologies, the controlling of pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood has become increasingly possible through intrusive means. These advances in biotechnology are serving to develop life as a commodity and deepen monetary inequality - a link made by feminist theorists such as Donna Haraway. Genetic engineering also brings about questions in eugenics, leading early radical feminist analysis to declare and attempt to reclaim motherhood as a foundation of female identity. The idea of a green, natural motherhood was popularized by ecofeminists who celebrated the identification of women with nature, and natural life. Haraway instead chooses to embrace technology as feminist instead of reverting to this idea of naturalized femininity. By embracing the image of the cyborg, an amalgamation that is neither human/animal nor machine, Haraway explores the ideas of technoscience and gender, conceptualizing a space where gender is an arbitrary, unnecessary construct. The corporatization of biology through the alteration of nature through technology is also a theme explored by Haraway. The OncoMouse is a laboratory mouse genetically modified to carry a specific gene


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-0.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:36.798310+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
The Harvard Plate Stacks, previously known as the Harvard College Observatory glass plate collection or the astronomical photographic glass plate collection, is a collection of astronomical glass plate negatives at the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Created over more than a century by the Harvard College Observatory, it is widely described as the largest collection of astronomical glass plates in the world. The collection includes more than 550,000 glass plate negatives dating from the 1870s to the late 1990s, as well as early photographic data from as early as 1849, and logbooks, notebooks, and photographic prints associated with astronomical research at Harvard and affiliated observing stations. It is one of the largest photographic collections at Harvard. Many of the astronomers, assistants, and computers who worked with the collection were women, including members of the group now commonly known as the Women Astronomical Computers. == Scope and Size == The Harvard Plate Stacks collection consists of over 550,000 glass plate negatives of the night sky. The glass alone is estimated to weigh over 165 tons and stored across three floors of a purpose-built building on Observatory Hill in Cambridge, MA. The majority of the collection consists


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-1.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:36.798310+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
"My dear Mrs. Draper, Mr. Clark tells me that you are preparing to complete the work in which Dr. Draper was engaged, and my interest in this matter must be my excuse for addressing you regarding it. I need not state my satisfaction that you are taking this step, since it must be obvious that in no other way could you erect so lasting a monument to his memory." This would be the beginning of Anna Draper being the single largest benefactor to the Harvard College Observatory for the next three decades. Her funds and future endowment would back the creation, preservation, and housing of nearly 6000,000 glass plates and the core of the Harvard Plate Stacks collection, which would amount to a century of photographing the night sky. Her gift would not only include funds but also her and her husband's personal telescope. She would establish the Henry Draper Memorial, which would include both the creation of a physical photographic plate collection, as well as the study and publication of what is known as the Henry Draper Catalogue. Over 44 women would partake in the study, writing, and creation of the catalogue from 1886 until the final publication of


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-2.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:36.798310+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
=== Armagh-Dunsink-Harvard telescope === In 1947 through a chance meeting in the Shannon Airport with Harvard College Observatory director, Harlow Shapley, and Irish President (Taoiseach), Éamon de Valera led to the idea and further creation of the Armagh-Dunsink-Harvard telescope. Although installed and housed at Harvard's Boyden Observatory in South Africa, this was a joint endeavor with the Armagh Observatory in Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, and the Harvard College Observatory. This was one of the earlier examples of Space diplomacy that would be spearheaded at Harvard by astronomer Bart Bok. The director of the Armagh Observatory at the time was Eric Lindsay, who not only got his PhD from Harvard in 1934, but he would meet and later marry Women Astronomical Computer, Sylvia Mussells (Sister to fellow astronomer and Harvard Plate Stacks employee Muriel Mussells Seyfert). De Valera recently pushed to create the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies and its subsequent purchase of the Dunsink Observatory after Trinity College Dublin had ceased its operations a few years earlier. This cooperative agreement would be one of the rare instances where these two governments would regularly work together. The telescope was a 36—32 Baker-Schmidt telescope that received first light in October


id: hidden-figures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-0.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:38.196175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
Hidden Figures is a 2016 American biographical drama film co-produced and directed by Theodore Melfi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Allison Schroeder. It is loosely based on the 2016 book by Margot Lee Shetterly. It follows three female African-American mathematicians, Katherine Goble Johnson (Taraji P. Henson), Dorothy Vaughan (Octavia Spencer), and Mary Jackson (Janelle Monáe), who worked at NASA during the Space Race in the 1950s and 1960s. Other stars include Kevin Costner, Kirsten Dunst, Jim Parsons, Mahershala Ali, Aldis Hodge, and Glen Powell. Principal photography began in March 2016 in Atlanta, Georgia, and wrapped up in May 2016. Other filming locations included several other locations in Georgia, including East Point, Canton, Monroe, Columbus, and Madison. Hidden Figures had a limited release on December 25, 2016, by 20th Century Fox, before going wide in on January 6, 2017. The film received positive reviews, with praise for the performances (particularly Henson, Spencer and Monáe), the writing, direction, cinematography, emotional tone, and historical accuracy, although some argued it featured a white savior narrative. The film was a commercial success, grossing $236 million worldwide against its $25 million production budget. The film was chosen by the National Board of Review as one of


id: hidden-figures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-1.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:38.196175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
=== Development and casting === In 2015, producer Donna Gigliotti acquired Margot Lee Shetterly's nonfiction book Hidden Figures, about a group of Black female mathematicians that helped NASA win the Space Race. Allison Schroeder wrote the script, which was developed by Gigliotti through Levantine Films. Schroeder grew up by Cape Canaveral and her grandparents worked at NASA, where she also interned as a teenager, and as a result saw the project as a perfect fit for herself. Levantine Films produced the film with Peter Chernin's Chernin Entertainment. Fox 2000 Pictures acquired the film rights, and Theodore Melfi signed on to direct. After coming aboard, Melfi revised Schroeder's script, and in particular focused on balancing the home lives of the three protagonists with their careers at NASA. After the film's development was announced, actresses considered to play the lead roles included Oprah Winfrey, Viola Davis, Octavia Spencer, and Taraji P. Henson. Chernin and Jenno Topping produced, along with Gigliotti and Melfi. Fox cast Henson to play the lead role of mathematician Katherine Goble Johnson. Spencer was selected to play Dorothy Vaughan, one of the three lead mathematicians at NASA. Kevin Costner was cast in the film to play the fictional head


id: hidden-figures-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-2.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:38.196175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
== Historical accuracy == The film, set at NASA Langley Research Center in 1961, depicts segregated facilities such as the West Area Computing unit, where an all-Black group of female mathematicians were originally required to use separate dining and bathroom facilities. However, in reality, Dorothy Vaughan was promoted to supervisor of West Computing much earlier, in 1949, becoming the first Black supervisor at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and one of its few female supervisors. In 1958, when NACA became NASA, segregated facilities, including the West Computing office, were abolished. Vaughan and many of the former West computers transferred to the new Analysis and Computation Division (ACD), a racially and gender-integrated group. It was Mary Jackson, not Katherine Goble Johnson, who had difficulty finding a colored bathroom – in a 1953 incident she experienced while on temporary assignment in the East Area, a region of Langley unfamiliar to her and where few Blacks worked. Katherine Goble Johnson, for her part, was initially unaware that the bathrooms at Langley were segregated (in both its East and West areas during the NACA era), and used the "whites-only" bathrooms (many were not explicitly labeled as such) for years before anyone complained.


id: hidden-figures-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-3.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:38.196175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
His frustration is also a perfect example of how, when it comes to open dialogue about depictions of people of color on screen, it behooves white people (especially those who position themselves as 'allies') to listen [...] the inclusion of the bathroom scene doesn't make Melfi a bad filmmaker, or a bad person, or a racist. But his suggestion that a feel-good scene like that was needed for the marketability and overall appeal of the film speaks to the fact that Hollywood at large still has a long way to go in telling Black stories, no matter how many strides have been made. The fictional characters Vivian Mitchell and Paul Stafford are composites of several team members and reflect common social views and attitudes of the time. Karl Zielinski is based on Mary Jackson's mentor, Kazimierz "Kaz" Czarnecki. John Glenn, who was about a decade older than depicted at the time of launch, did ask specifically for Goble Johnson to verify the IBM calculations, although she had several days before the launch date to complete the process. Author Margot Lee Shetterly has agreed that there are differences between her book and the movie, but found that to be understandable: For


id: hidden-figures-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-4.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:38.196175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
=== Charity screenings === After Hidden Figures was released on December 25, 2016, certain charities, institutions and independent businesses who regard the film as relevant to the cause of improving youth awareness in education and careers in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, organized free screenings of the film in order to spread the message of the film's subject matter. A collaborative effort between Western New York STEM Hub, AT&T and the Girl Scouts of the USA allowed more than 200 Buffalo Public Schools students, Girl Scouts and teachers to see the film. WBFO's Senior Reporter Eileen Buckley stated the event was designed to help encourage a new generation of women to consider STEM careers. Research indicates that by 2020, there will be 2.4 million unfilled STEM jobs. Aspiring astronaut Naia Butler-Craig wrote of the film: "I can't imagine what that would have been like: 16-year-old, impressionable, curious and space-obsessed Naia finding out that Black women had something to do with getting Americans on the moon." Also, the film's principal actors (Henson, Spencer, Monáe and Parsons), director (Melfi), producer/musical creator (Williams), and other non-profit outside groups have offered free screenings to Hidden Figures at several cinema locations around


id: hidden-figures-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-5.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:38.196175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 93% based on 325 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "In heartwarming, crowd-pleasing fashion, Hidden Figures celebrates overlooked—and crucial—contributions from a pivotal moment in American history." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 90 films in the history of the service to receive such a score. Simon Thompson of IGN gave the film a rating of nine out of ten, writing, "Hidden Figures fills in an all too forgotten, or simply too widely unknown, blank in US history in a classy, engaging, entertaining and hugely fulfilling way. Superb performances across the board and a fascinating story alone make Hidden Figures a solid, an accomplished and deftly executed movie that entertains, engages and earns your time, money and attention." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe wrote, "the film's made with more heart than art and more skill than subtlety, and it works primarily because of the


id: international-conference-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:42.074241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-conference-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
ICWES (International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists) is an international conference for engineers and scientists. Established in 1964, it takes place every 3–4 years in countries around the world. Since 1999, the conference has been organised by the International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists (INWES), which was founded at the World Conference on Science (Budapest, Hungary) in 1999. The first conference took place in New York City, USA in 1964, the second followed in 1967 in Cambridge, UK. Since then meetings have taken place in Turin, Italy (1971); Cracow, Poland (1975); Rouen, France (1978); Mumbai, India, (1981); Washington DC, USA (1984); Abidjan, Ivory Coast (1988); Warwick, UK (1991); Budapest, Hungary (1996); Chiba, Japan (1999); Ottawa, Canada (2002); Seoul, Korea (2005); Lille, France (2008); Adelaide, Australia (2011); Los Angeles, USA (2014); New Delhi, India (2017). ICWES 18 was postponed due to the Covid pandemic and took place in Coventry, UK, in 2021. ICWES 19 was hosted in Aotearoa, New Zealand in 2023. == ICWES I - New York City == The first ICWES conference took place in New York City, United States of America in 1964 and was organised by the American Society of Women Engineers (SWE). Beatrice Hicks


id: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: International Day of Women and Girls in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:43.404587+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
The International Day of Women and Girls in Science is an annual observance adopted by the United Nations General Assembly to promote equal participation of women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields. The United Nations General Assembly passed the resolution in 2015, which proclaimed 11 February as the commemoration of the observance. A theme is selected annually as a focus point for gender equality in science. The International Day of Women and Girls in Science is implemented annually at the United Nations Headquarters by the Royal Academy of Science International Trust in partnership with UNESCO and UNWomen. to promote the role of women and girls in scientific fields and celebrate those who have been successful in the field. == Background == === Context === In comparison to their male peers, females are underrepresented in science and technology fields. Between the 1960s and 1980s, the number of women obtaining science and engineering degrees steadily increased in American universities, however reached an unexpected plateau from the 1980s. A 2013 UK study explored that there has existed a persistent underrepresentation of women in STEM fields, and that in the prior 25-year period there had been little change of the participation of


id: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: International Day of Women and Girls in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:43.404587+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Following the adoption of Resolution A/RES/70/212 on the International Day of Women and Girls in Science, The Royal Academy of Science International Trust (RASIT) continues to work with UN Member States, Inter-Governmental Organizations, the UN and its entities to achieve equality in science, technology, and innovation for socio-economic sustainable development in line with the 2030 Agenda and its SDGs. Following the adoption of UNGA Resolution 70/212, RASIT reached out to UNESCO and UN Women on January 4, 2016 to discuss its vision for the inaugural International Day of Women and Girls in Science. On January 7, UNESCO, accompanied by UN Women invited RASIT to lead celebration planning. Each year on February 11, RASIT in close collaboration and partnership with the United Nations Member States, Departments, organizations and entities, as well as Intergovernmental Organizations organizes the International Day of Women and Girls in Science Assembly at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. The High-Level Assembly brings together representatives of member states and international organizations, the private sector and leading scientists to discuss measures and initiatives to promote the increased participation of females in STEM. Each year the assembly focuses upon a key theme as a central topic of discussion. In


id: international-network-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:44.652922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-network-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists (INWES) is a current network for women professionals, which was founded in 2002 with the intention to support women and girls in engineering and science across the world. The current (2020–2023) President is Jung Sun Kim, from Dongseo University, South Korea. According to their mission statement, the network seeks to encourage the education and retention of professional women in these fields through international collaboration. The founding of the network received support from UNESCO. Founding members include Canadian engineers Claire Deschênes, Monique Frize and Gail Mattson, current Immediate Past President of INWES and past president of SWE, Society of Women Engineers, USA. The network currently has over 60 countries involved, including the Association of Korean Women Scientists and Engineers, Women's Engineering Society (UK), the German Association of Women Engineers (DIB), the Society of Taiwan Women in Science and Technology (TWiST) and African Women in Science and Engineering (AWSE). == Management of the International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists == The network took over the management of the International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists (ICWES), which first took place in 1964 in New York and has met every 3–4 years since then. ICWES


id: ir-ne-joliot-curie-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irène_Joliot-Curie_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Irène Joliot-Curie Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irène_Joliot-Curie_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:45.866492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ir-ne-joliot-curie-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Irène Joliot-Curie Prize is a French prize for women in science and technology, founded in 2001. It is awarded by the Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation, the Airbus Group corporate foundation, the French Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Technologies, it aims at rewarding women for their work in the fields of science and technology". The prize is named after French scientist Irène Joliot-Curie, a French chemist, physicist and politician who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935 for the discovery of artificial radioactivity. (This prize should be distinguished from a different prize with the same name, offered since 1956 by the Société Française de Physique. which rewards work in the field of physics each year.) Each year three awards are given: one for the female scientist of the year, a second to a young female scientist, and a third to a woman in business and technology. In addition, until 2009, of the award a fourth category of awards was given, to an individual or group in recognition of their mentorship of women in science. In 2023, a new category was recognized in a special prize for engagement. Since 2011, the award winners have been


id: kiriri-women-s-university-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiriri_Women's_University_of_Science_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiriri_Women's_University_of_Science_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:47.137223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kiriri-women-s-university-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology, often referred to as KWUST, is a non-state funded secular women's university in Nairobi, Kenya. It was started in 2002. Its aim is to empower women in sciences. Kiriri Women's University is the only women's university in east and southern Africa. Its main campus is located in Mwihoko, Githurai in the outskirt of Nairobi. Kiriri has no male students. It offers Bachelors in Science degrees, mathematics (actuarial, pure, statistics), computer science and business administration, as well as diplomas and certificates. == Admissionsthrive == Admissions are conducted twice annually, in May and September.The university maintains a female-only enrollment policy, in line with its mission to empower women in STEM and leadership fields. === Accreditation === Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology (KWUST) was officially accredited by the Commission for University Education (CUE) in Kenya and granted its charter on 2 August 2022. == References == == External links == Official website Universities and Colleges in Kenya


id: lean-out-the-struggle-for-gender-equality-in-tech-and-start-up-culture-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Lean Out: The Struggle for Gender Equality in Tech and Start-up Culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:48.417186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lean-out-the-struggle-for-gender-equality-in-tech-and-start-up-culture-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_Out:_The_Struggle_for_Gender_Equality_in_Tech_and_Start-up_Culture-0.md

summary:
Lean Out: The Struggle for Gender Equality in Tech and Start-Up Culture is a 2015 book written by Elissa Shevinsky, an information security entrepreneur and feminist. Shevinsky wrote it in response to Sheryl Sandberg's Lean In, a book often criticized by feminists as being unrealistic in its expectations on women. == Reactions == The book was listed by Inc. Magazine as one of the 100 best business books of 2015. Newspaper reviews have been nearly universal in their approbation of Shevinsky's work, with the Los Angeles Times saying "the book is not just directed at women who might want to opt out of the rat race and start their own thing. This book is packed with stories — and statistics — that should give anyone in tech management pause." At least one review notes that "the essays end up varying widely in quality, radical message, level of editing, and scope. Among incisive critiques of nerd sociology and important stories of micro and macro aggressions, there are also far too many unnecessarily long resumes and capitalist self-help manuals in the book." == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_Out:_The_Struggle_for_Gender_Equality_in_Tech_and_Start-up_Culture


id: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-members-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_members-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Graduate Women in Science members
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_members
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:49.607206+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-members-20260505-0
summary:
Graduate Women in Science formerly known as Sigma Delta Epsilon, is an international organization for women in science. It was established in 1921 at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, United States as a women's fraternity. Following are some of its notable members. Membership includes graduate students in the sciences, alumnae, and honorary members. The latter are professional women who had achieved recognition in the science. == See also == List of Graduate Women in Science chapters Women in science == References ==


id: marie-pistilli-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Pistilli_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Marie Pistilli Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Pistilli_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:50.831519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marie-pistilli-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Marie R. Pistilli Women in Engineering Achievement Award is issued annually since 2000 by the Design Automation Conference (DAC) to honor the outstanding achievements of women in Electronic Design Automation. It is named after the co-founder of DAC, Marie Pistilli. Originally named as the "Marie R. Pistilli Women in EDA Achievement Award", it is named the "Marie R. Pistilli Women in Engineering Achievement Award" since 2016. == Recipients == 2000: Penny Herscher, then with Cadence Design Systems 2001: Deirdre Hanford, Synopsys, Inc. 2002: Ann Rincon, then senior technical staff member at IBM Microelectronics, Burlington, Vermont, "For her significant contributions in helping women advance in the field of DA technology" 2003: Karen Bartleson, Synopsis, Inc. 2004: Mary Jane Irwin, Pennsylvania State University 2005: Kathryn Kranen, Jasper Design Automation 2006: Ellen J. Yoffa, IBM 2007: Jan Willis, then with Cadence Design Systems - "Jan's leadership and dedication in serving as a mentor and role model to women in EDA, and young girls and boys as they begin to consider career options, exemplifies what the Marie R. Pistilli Women in Electronic Design Automation Achievement Award is all about." 2008: Louise Trevillyan IBM Research Center 2009: Telle Whitney 2010: Mar Hershenson, Vice President


id: matilda-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Matilda effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:52.168020+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: matilda-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The Matilda effect is a bias against acknowledging the achievements of women scientists and inventors, whose work is consequently attributed to their male colleagues. This phenomenon was first described by suffragist and abolitionist Matilda Joslyn Gage (1826–1898) in her essay, "Woman as Inventor" (first published as a tract in 1870 and later published in the North American Review, retitled "Woman as an Inventor", in 1883). The term Matilda effect was coined in 1993 by science historian Margaret W. Rossiter. Rossiter provides several examples of this effect. Trotula (Trota of Salerno), a 12th-century Italian woman physician, wrote books which, after her death, were attributed to male authors. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century cases illustrating the Matilda effect include those of Nettie Stevens, Lise Meitner, Marietta Blau, Rosalind Franklin, and Jocelyn Bell Burnell. The Matilda effect was compared to the Matthew effect, whereby an eminent scientist often gets more credit than a comparatively unknown researcher, even if their work is shared or similar. == Research == In 2012, Marieke van den Brink and Yvonne Benschop from Radboud University Nijmegen showed that in the Netherlands the sex of professorship candidates influences the evaluation made of them. Similar cases are described by Andrea Cerroni and Zenia


id: matilda-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Matilda effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:52.168020+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: matilda-effect-20260505-0
summary:
In 1934, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to George Whipple, George Richards Minot, and William P. Murphy. They felt their female co-worker, Frieda Robscheit-Robbins, was excluded on grounds of her sex. Whipple, however, shared the prize money with her as he felt she deserved the Nobel as well, since she was co-author of almost all of Whipple's publications. In 1944 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to Otto Hahn as the sole recipient. Lise Meitner had worked with Hahn and had laid the theoretical foundations for nuclear fission (she coined the term nuclear fission). Meitner was not recognized by the Nobel Prize Committee, partly due to her gender and partly due to her persecuted Jewish identity in Nazi Germany. She was affected by the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which prohibited Jews from holding government-related positions, including in research. Initially, her Austrian citizenship shielded her from persecution, but she fled Germany after Hitler's annexation of Austria in 1938. In 1950, Cecil Powell received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and for the resulting discovery of the pion (pi-meson). Marietta Blau did


id: sarah-mcswiney-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_McSwiney-0.md
category: reference
title: Sarah McSwiney
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_McSwiney
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:53.386744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sarah-mcswiney-20260505-0
summary:
Sarah McSwiney FTSE is an Australian aerospace engineer, who was made a fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering in 2025. She is head of Engineering at Jetstar Airways and has a passion for supporting young women in the Aerospace and Aviation industry, and supporter of gender equity. == Education == McSwiney attended Kilvington Grammar and graduated in 1999. She graduated with a Bachelor of Aerospace Engineering (hons), as well as an MBA. == Career == McSwiney was a design engineer and liaison engineer in Seattle (USA) and Melbourne. She worked with Boeing for 17 years, including as leading the liaison engineering team across Boeing Australia, and then subsequently the Senior Manager of Engineering Strategy and Operations. McSwiney was Chair of Kilvington Board, as well as holding a number of Board positions, including Chair of the Aviation/Aeorspace Australia. She is also the Chair of the Sir Lawrence Wackett Defence as well as Chair of the Aerospace Centre advisory board at RMIT. == Gender Equity == McSwiney has a passion for encouraging young women and girls to pursue careers in STEM, and encouraging gender equity, which was first sparked while she was a primary school student at Kilvington


id: nelson-diversity-surveys-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Diversity_Surveys-0.md
category: reference
title: Nelson Diversity Surveys
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Diversity_Surveys
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:54.608896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nelson-diversity-surveys-20260505-0
summary:
The Nelson Diversity Surveys (NDS) are a collection of data sets that quantify the representation of women and minorities among professors, by science and engineering discipline, at research universities. They consist of four data sets compiled by Donna Nelson, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oklahoma during fiscal years (FY) 2002, 2005, 2007, and 2012 through the Diversity in Science Association. These surveys were each complete populations, rather than samples. Consequently, the Surveys quantified characteristics of the faculty which had never been revealed previously, drawing great attention from women and minorities. Furthermore, the Surveys initially came at a time when these underrepresented groups were becoming concerned and vocal about perceived inequities in academia. At the time the surveys were initiated, the MIT Study of 1999, expressing the concerns of women scientists (including Nancy Hopkins), had just been issued, and underrepresented minority (URM) science faculty noticed URM students increase among PhD recipients without a corresponding increase among recently hired professors. Data sets like the NDS, along with similar research available through the NSF, allowed URM faculty to track the progress of diversity efforts in the STEM fields. As noted by the Women's Institute for Policy Research, progress has been slow


id: pakistani-women-in-stem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_women_in_STEM-0.md
category: reference
title: Pakistani women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:55.900971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pakistani-women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
While STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields all over the world are dominated by men, the number of Pakistani women in 'STEM' is low due to one of the highest gender gaps in STEM fields. However, over the time, some Pakistani women have emerged as scientists in fields like physics, biology and computer sciences. == Gender gap in Pakistan == Pakistan has one of the highest gender gaps in the world, and it is the third least performer in gender parity according to a report published by World Economic Forum in 2020. The low literacy rate of women in Pakistan, despite women making almost half the population, is one of the factors in a high gender gap in STEM fields. This literacy rate is even lower in science and technology. === Facts === According to UNESCO, among students enrolled in bachelor's degrees, 47% are women while 53% are men. The number of women pursuing doctoral studies is only 36%, while the percentage of men is 64%. There is also a significant gender gap in research sector, with women making only 34% of researchers. Among students in universities, the field of natural sciences is reported to have only 40% women


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-0.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:57.129021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
Films have portrayed professional women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields in various ways throughout film history. == Overview == The study of female characters in film began with movements from the 1960s and 1970s in the form of second-wave feminism, the rise of independent films, and the beginning of academic film studies. Some films promote certain socially defined female stereotypical archetypes that often combine job stereotypes with gender stereotypes. The use of these stereotypes in film has been suggested to contribute to a questionable portrayal of women, especially revolving around themes of violence, sexuality, objectification, and subordination. == Examples of female scientists in film == === Early 20th century === The presentation of women as scientists on film goes back to the early days of cinema. The first known presentation may be 1929's Woman in the Moon. Written by Thea von Harbou and directed by Fritz Lang, the film follows a group of Germans as they travel to the Moon. The group includes Friede Velten, an assistant on the trip, who chooses between two potential husbands and ultimately decides to stay on the Moon and live a new life there. It would take almost ten years before


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-1.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:57.129021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== Arrival (2016) === The 2016 film Arrival revolves around the character of linguist Dr. Louise Banks, played by Amy Adams, who facilitates the very first instance of human communicative contact with an alien population. The film makes an obvious effort at employing a feminist theme, primarily through the way the backstory shapes Dr. Banks and frames her as an accomplished professional and mother. === Hidden Figures === Hidden Figures was released in 2016 and told the true story of three female African-American mathematicians, Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan and Mary Jackson (engineer) who worked at NASA during the Space Race. === Black Panther (2018) === The critically acclaimed film Black Panther features Princess Shuri, a young, Black, female character who excels in the STEM field as an intelligent and creative technology whiz and inventor. Portrayed by Letitia Wright, Princess Shuri is the younger sister of T'Challa (Chadwick Boseman), the eventual king of Wakanda, and the mastermind behind harnessing the power of vibranium, specifically in the creation of the Black Panther suit. The Marvel Cinematic Universe has portrayed over 60 fictional scientists, about a quarter of them being women, including computer expert Dr Helen Cho, biologist Dr Maya Hensen and biochemist


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-2.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:57.129021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Lonely Heroine === This type of woman scientist is intelligent, attractive, and somewhat independent. Flicker says that she "has appropriated some male traits," such as losing herself in her work. She is both sexual and smart, and she manages to exhibit both qualities in the film. Despite this, she is still subordinate to the men on her team, and depends on them and their work to gain respect. She is the most progressive of the woman scientist types, but she lacks her own form of independence and still must rely on a sexual relationship with a man to be seen as someone. The "lonely heroine" type is best seen in Jodie Foster's portrayal of Elleonore Arroway in the film Contact. == Objectification of women in film == Flicker argues that women are often pigeonholed into these six limiting roles when written in films. Each of these roles places the female scientist character on the sidelines, and does not allow her to be on the same level as her male counterpart(s). Although the women in these roles are educated, and often just as educated as the men on their team, they are used primarily as assistants and sexual characters.


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-3.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:57.129021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
== Opposing views == Noël Carroll references Mulvey's pivotal paper on psychoanalysis and visual pleasure in his writing, and plays devil's advocate to her claim that women are the only subjects of gaze. Carroll acknowledges and agrees with Mulvey's assessment that women in film are strategically placed for the male gaze despite the role of their actual character. Carroll states, "Women in Hollywood film are staged and blocked for male erotic contemplation and pleasure." However, Carroll adds that men in films are also strategically placed for the purpose of pleasure. He cites such examples as Sylvester Stallone and Arnold Schwarzenegger, big bodybuilding actors "whose scenes are blocked and staged precisely to afford spectacles of bulging pectorals and other parts." Similarly to actresses, male actors are also heralded for their facial attractiveness and are sometimes lauded exclusively for being attractive. As an example, Carroll offers Leslie Howard, a male actor who appeared in Of Human Bondage and Gone With the Wind, who was highly successful in the industry despite being "staggeringly ineffectual." According to Carroll, being subject to the erotic gaze of the audience is not an exclusively female burden; rather, both sexes fall prey to Hollywood camera angles that best


id: promoting-women-in-entrepreneurship-act-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoting_Women_in_Entrepreneurship_Act-0.md
category: reference
title: Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoting_Women_in_Entrepreneurship_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:58.370304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: promoting-women-in-entrepreneurship-act-20260505-0
summary:
The Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act in the USA (Pub. L. 115–6 (text) (PDF), H.R. 255) is a 2017 public law amendment to the Science and Engineering Equal Opportunities Act (Pub. L. 96–516) to authorize the National Science Foundation to encourage its entrepreneurial programs to recruit and support women to extend their focus beyond the laboratory and into the commercial world. == Background == The Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on January 4, 2017, by Representative Elizabeth Esty of Connecticut and signed into law by President Donald Trump on February 28, 2017. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, women account for 47% of the workforce, but make up only 25.6 percent of computer and mathematical occupations. In addition, only 15.4 percent of architecture and engineering jobs are filled by women. Congress also found that only 26 percent of women who earned STEM degrees actually worked in STEM related jobs. The president stated, “(Pub. L. 96–516) enables the National Science Foundation to support women inventors – of which there are many – researchers and scientists in bringing their discoveries to the business world, championing science and entrepreneurship and creating new ways


id: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields-0.md
category: reference
title: Racial diversity and discrimination in STEM fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:59.669582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
summary:
According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), women and racial minorities are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Scholars, governments, and scientific organizations from around the world have noted a variety of explanations contributing to this lack of racial diversity, including higher levels of discrimination, implicit bias, microaggressions, chilly climate, lack of role models and mentors, and less academic preparation. == Race imbalance in STEM in the United States == Racial minorities, with the exception of Asian Americans, are underrepresented through every stage of the STEM pipeline. === Education and degree attainment === Racial disparities in high school completion are a prominent reason for racial imbalances in STEM fields. While only 1.8% of Asian and 4.1% of White students drop out of high school, 5.6% of Black, 7.7% of Hispanic, 8.0% of Pacific Islander, and 9.6% of American Indian/Alaskan Native students drop out of high school. Among those that graduate high school, 67% of Whites, 62% of Blacks, and 69% of Hispanics enroll in a “degree granting college.” While there is no measurable difference in college enrollment of White, Black, and Hispanic STEM students, only 15% of Black students who initially enrolled in a STEM major received a


id: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields-1.md
category: reference
title: Racial diversity and discrimination in STEM fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:59.669582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microaggressions === People of color and underrepresented minority groups in science, technology, engineering and math are more likely than whites to experience racial microaggressions. Studies show racial microaggressions that occur on college campus weaken students sense of belonging, make it difficult to form relationships with faculty, and contribute to less cultural alignment with STEM. At predominantly white institutions (PWI) environmental microaggressions are common in shared laboratory spaces among students and during meetings with faculty and advisors. Black female students are especially likely to feel alienated and isolated from their peers in STEM departments. === Implicit bias === Research on implicit bias demonstrates that as early as preschool teachers are likely to hold implicit bias against students of color, especially Black boys. While Black children make up 19% of preschool enrollment, they account for about half of preschool suspension. Implicit biases among teachers, faculty, and colleagues makes it more difficult for students of color to form relationships, network with professionals in their fields, and find valuable mentors. Judgments placed upon people of color based on implicit biases are incredibly damaging and contribute to stereotype threat, which affects their overall performances. For instance, Black women are often assumed to be under-qualified


id: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields-2.md
category: reference
title: Racial diversity and discrimination in STEM fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:09:59.669582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
summary:
=== Protective factors === Those in STEM fields have recognized that there is an extensive history of poor representation of women and people of color in STEM and are working to close the gap. Addressing this issue requires a coherent and sustained effort across multiple fronts. Many would argue that single intervention does not work, but that sustainable and strategic reform in education, work place, and within our communities would put our theory in to practice. Transforming our perception of STEM in the early education years for students of color necessitates celebration of the distinct contribution that women and people of color bring to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. === Teachers === While many teachers are highly dedicated to reducing the race gap and actively striving to create equal opportunities in their classrooms, they can actually contribute to the STEM race gap. Researchers suggest that a teacher's attitude toward's their own profession will predict their attitude over STEM education, with emotional readiness, cognitive readiness and self-efficacy all playing part mediating roles. Meaning teachers who have zero confidence in STEM or under prepared are more likely to teach it incorrectly, which could be detrimental to students of color who already face


id: maria-aparecida-soares-ruas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Aparecida_Soares_Ruas-0.md
category: reference
title: Maria Aparecida Soares Ruas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Aparecida_Soares_Ruas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:00.979852+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maria-aparecida-soares-ruas-20260505-0
summary:
Maria Aparecida Soares Ruas (1948–2025) was a Brazilian mathematician specializing in differential geometry and singularity theory. She was a professor at the University of São Paulo. == Education and career == Ruas was born on 5 January 1948, in Lins, São Paulo. She became interested in mathematics through a junior high school mathematics teacher, Râmisa Jorge, and after entering university study in 1967, earned a licenciate in mathematics in 1970 through what is now the Faculty of Science and Letters of the Araraquara campus of São Paulo State University. She became a teaching assistant at the same campus in 1971, while at the same time studying for a master's degree at the University of São Paulo, working there with Gilberto Francisco Loibel; she completed her degree in 1974, and was promoted to assistant professor. In 1982 she moved to the University of São Paulo as a professor. She defended her doctoral dissertation, Finity Determinacy and Applications at the University of São Paulo in 1983. It was jointly advised by Luiz Antonio Fávaro and Terence Gaffney. She headed the mathematics department at the University of São Paulo, was a founding member of the Brazilian Mathematical Society, and organized the biennial Workshop


id: us-international-women-in-science-dialogue-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-International_Women_in_Science_Dialogue-0.md
category: reference
title: US-International Women in Science Dialogue
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-International_Women_in_Science_Dialogue
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:02.189230+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: us-international-women-in-science-dialogue-20260505-0
summary:
The US-International Women in Science Dialogue was a conference held in June 2011 that brought sixteen women scientists from different countries to talk about their experiences as women in science. It was moderated by Sherburne Abbott. The discussions included public questions from Twitter. == Attendees == Ana Lucia Assad, Ministry of Science and Technology, Brazil. Ansam Sawalha, West Bank and others. == External links == "US-International Women in Science Dialogue" on YouTube. == References ==


id: women-are-boring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Are_Boring-0.md
category: reference
title: Women Are Boring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Are_Boring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:03.427451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-are-boring-20260505-0
summary:
Women Are Boring is an online publication featuring research by women. It aims to improve the visibility of women researchers, in response to the poor representation of discoveries by women in media outlets that quote or cover academic research. Women Are Boring is primarily a platform for women to post summaries or synopses of research that they have published in a different venue, on any topic. == History and motivation == Grace McDermott and Catherine Connolly founded the publication while they were PhD students at Dublin City University in May of 2016. McDermott and Connolly attributed their decision to found Women Are Boring to the under-representation of women in media, and particularly the underrepresentation of women scholars in news about research. They were specifically motivated by a study by The Global Media Monitoring Project which concluded that "only 24% of the persons heard, read about or seen in news media are women", and that only 28% of the sources cited in Irish news media were women, with only a very small proportion of those in expert roles like scientific or academic sources. McDermott and Connolly have noted the contrast between the dearth of women researchers in popular media and the


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-0.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:05.617532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
Women at NASA highlights the scientists, engineers, managers, flight controllers, and astronauts whose work has shaped the United States civil space program from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics era to the present, with their roles and contributions varying significantly over time. Women entered NACA in the 1920s as technical specialists, including physicist Pearl I. Young, the first woman hired as a professional employee at Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in 1922, and expanded in the 1940s to large pools of "human computers" who performed critical aeronautical and astronautical calculations by hand at Langley and other facilities. Over time those roles widened into engineering, science leadership, flight operations, and spaceflight, culminating in major program firsts and center leadership positions across the agency. Throughout the 1930s to the present, more women joined the NASA teams not only at Langley Memorial, but at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Glenn Research Center, and other numerous NASA sites throughout the United States.[2] As the space program has grown, women have advanced into many roles, including astronauts. NASA's first six female astronaut candidates were selected in 1978 at Johnson Space Center, followed by decades of mission milestones and leadership appointments across multiple centers. By the 2010s


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-1.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:05.617532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
On June 18, 1983, Sally Ride became the first American woman astronaut to travel to space. More than a year later, Judith Resnik flew aboard Space Shuttle Discovery and became the second American woman in space. Kathryn D. Sullivan became the first American woman to perform a spacewalk in 1984. In 1988, Ellen Ochoa joined NASA and became the first Hispanic woman astronaut. Ochoa completed four space shuttle missions aboard Discovery and Atlantis, accumulating nearly 1,000 hours in space. In 1985, Shannon Lucid completed her first spaceflight and by the end of her career had spent 188 days in space. Lucid held the American record for most cumulative days in space until 2002. In the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster two women died: Christa McAuliffe, who would have been the first teacher in space, and Judith Resnik, the second American woman to fly in space. === 1990s === By the 1990s, NASA had expanded its research into the physiological effects of spaceflight on women's bodies. Carolyn Huntoon delivered a keynote address in 1994 at the 2nd Annual Women's Health and Space Luncheon, highlighting NASA's previously unrecognized contributions to women's health research. On February 3, 1995, Colonel Eileen Collins became the


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-2.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:05.617532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
The Women in Space Program (launched December 20, 1959) was a revived version of the Women in Space Earliest program that had been cancelled in November 1959. Like the program for men, this required candidate testing. However, the testing parameters were modified to accommodate women. In the screening phase, men were required to be degree-holding jet pilots who had attended military test pilot school and had a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying time. Since women were excluded from these opportunities, the screening criteria shifted to women with commercial pilot licenses, particularly those who served as flight instructors. Cobb, who underwent testing first, became the leader of the FLATs (Fellow Lady Astronaut Trainees) along with 12 other women, totaling 13 women (hence the media designation "Mercury 13"). Although Cobb was assigned as a NASA consultant and continued the testing process, women were still not trained as astronauts. During the examinations, some scientists believed that women demonstrated advantages over men for space missions. For example, women's internal organs were thought to be better suited to withstand radiation and vibrations. Due to women's generally smaller size, spacecraft and flights would be less expensive if women were used as astronauts. However, testing for


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-3.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:05.617532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Astronauts and astronaut managers === Ellen S. Baker, physician and veteran of three shuttle flights (1989-1995) Kayla Barron, submarine warfare officer and Crew-3 mission specialist on Expeditions 66 and 67 (2021-2022) Catherine G. "Cady" Coleman, chemist and veteran of STS-73, STS-93, and Expedition 26/27 (1995-2011) Tracy Caldwell Dyson, chemist and veteran of STS-118 and Expeditions 23/24 and 71 (2007-2010, 2024) Kalpana Chawla, aeronautical engineer, flew STS-87 and STS-107, died in the Columbia accident (1997, 2003) Mary L. Cleave, environmental engineer and veteran of STS-61B and STS-30 (1985, 1989) Eileen Collins, test pilot and first woman Shuttle commander, veteran of four missions including STS-93 and STS-114 (1995-2005) Nancy J. Currie-Gregg, engineer and veteran of four shuttle flights STS-57, STS-70, STS-88, STS-109 (1993-2002) Nancy Jan Davis, aerospace engineer and veteran of STS-47, STS-60, and STS-85 (1992-1997) Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger, science educator and STS-131 mission specialist (2010) Yvonne Cagle, physician and astronaut selected in 1996, service in astronaut office and medical roles (selected 1996) Anna Fisher, emergency physician and STS-51-A mission specialist, first mother in space (1984) Linda M. Godwin, physicist and veteran of four shuttle flights STS-37, STS-59, STS-76, STS-108 (1991-2001) Susan J. Helms, USAF engineer and veteran of four shuttle flights


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-4.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:05.617532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientists, engineers, and technologists === Valerie Thomas, data scientist at Goddard and inventor of the Illusion Transmitter (1964-1995) Pearl I. Young, physicist and first female professional at NACA Langley, later Chief Technical Editor (1922-1936) Dorothy Vaughan, mathematician and supervisor of the West Area Computers at NACA Langley (1943-1958) Mary W. Jackson, aerospace engineer and NASA's first Black female engineer (1958-1985) Katherine Johnson, mathematician whose orbital mechanics work supported Mercury, Apollo, and Shuttle missions (1953-1986) Christine Darden, aeronautical engineer and sonic boom expert, later Senior Executive at NASA Langley (1967-2007) Annie Easley, computer scientist at Lewis, pioneer in codes for propulsion and energy systems (1955-1989) Miriam D. Mann, among the earliest West Area human computers at Langley, noted for desegregation advocacy (1943-1940s) Melba Roy Mouton, mathematician at Goddard who led Echo satellite orbit tracking and programming teams (1959-1973) Susan G. Finley, JPL engineer who began as a human computer in 1958, the lab's longest-serving employee (1958-present) Barbara Askins, Marshall chemist who invented a photographic enhancement process, National Inventor of the Year (1978) Margaret Hamilton, computer scientist who led Apollo guidance computer software at MIT IL (1965-1972) Nancy Grace Roman, astronomer and first Chief of Astronomy at NASA, "Mother of Hubble"


id: women-in-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:06.923144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
Women in archaeology is an aspect of the history of archaeology and the topic of women in science more generally. In the nineteenth century women were discouraged from pursuing interests in archaeology, however throughout the twentieth century participation and recognition of expertise increased. However women in archaeology face discrimination based on their gender and many face harassment in the workplace. == History == As a professional field of study, archaeology was initially established as an academic discipline in the nineteenth century and typically developed from people engaged in the study of antiquities. Prior to the Victorian era, women in Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States were rarely engaged in professional archaeology (though at this time, archaeology was not so much a profession as the practice of wealthy individuals, with workers paid to undertake the digging). Participation by women in the field was discouraged, both by men and societal pressure, as the occupation masculinized the accepted view of women as homemakers and nurturers. Even after they began to enter the field, the reluctance of male colleagues to accept them in fieldwork, led many women to choose roles outside of academia, seeking positions in museums or in cultural preservation associations.


id: women-in-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_archaeology-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:06.923144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Glass ceiling === Statistics show that women experience a glass ceiling in academic archaeology. Sue Hamilton, the director of the UCL Institute of Archaeology, noted that 60–70% of the institute's undergraduate and postgraduate students were women, as were the majority of its postdoctoral researchers. However, the proportion of women amongst permanent academic staff has never been more than 31%. Women are progressively further under-represented in each academic rank at the institute: 38% of lecturers are female, 41% of senior lecturers, 17% of readers, and just 11% of professors. A 2016 study found a similar pattern in Australian universities. Whilst 41% of academic archaeologists were women, there was an imbalance in female representation in research fellowships (67%) compared to higher-ranked lecturing posts (31%). This study identified a "two-tiered" glass ceiling: women were less likely to obtain permanent tenure-track positions, and those that did also found it more difficult to advance to senior ranks. In 1994, around 15% of the archaeologists working in the top 30 academic institutions for the field were women. On the other hand, it was within academic archaeology that women first broke the glass ceiling at a number of British universities. Dorothy Garrod was the first woman


id: women-in-cell-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Cell_Biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in Cell Biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Cell_Biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:08.150208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-cell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Women in Cell Biology (WCIB) is a subcommittee of the American Society for Cell Biology (ASCB) created to promote women in cell biology and present awards. == History == A group of women were unhappy with the lack of recognition in ASCB. In 1971, Virginia Walbot gathered a group of women to meet at the annual ASCB meetings and WICB began. The goal was to provide a space for women to talk and network with other women in the field, learn about job opportunities, and promote women in academia. Newsletters were distributed containing job listings and news of powerful women in biology. Originally, WICB was not accepted by ASCB; the newsletter was not funded and later discontinued in the 1970s. WICB was established as a standing committee within ASCB in 1993. The formation of the committee correlates with increased women representation at the annual meeting. Between 1967-1977, there was only one woman speaker at the annual meeting; between 1990-1999, 21% of speakers were women. These numbers increased to parity with men by 2020 with equal numbers as speakers and as award recipients. == Activities == Currently, WICB meets annually at ASCB meetings and has a column in the ASCB newsletter.


id: women-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:09.403302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
This article discusses women who have made an important contribution to the field of physics. == International physics awards == === Nobel laureates === Five women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded annually since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. These are: 1903 Marie Curie: "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel" 1963 Maria Goeppert Mayer: "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure" 2018 Donna Strickland: "for their method high-intensity, ultra-short optical pulses" 2020 Andrea Ghez: "for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy." 2023 Anne L'Huillier "for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter." Marie Curie was the first woman to be nominated in 1902 and to receive the prize in 1903 and shared 1/2 of the prize with her husband Pierre Curie for their joint work on radioactivity, discovered by Henri Becquerel who got the other half of the prize. Marie Curie was the first woman to also receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911, making her the first person to win two


id: women-in-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:09.403302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prizes only for female physicists === L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards, awarded bi-annually to one laureate per continent for outstanding contributions to the physical sciences. Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award of the American Physical Society awarded annually in recognition of an outstanding contribution to physics research. Jocelyn Bell Burnell Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics in UK, for contributions to physics by a very early career physicist. Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy awarded annually for outstanding contributions to astronomy within five years of earning a doctorate degree. == Topics named after female scientists == Female scientist have sometimes not been recognized in the naming of topics they discovered due to Matilda effect. Some physics phenomena that are named after female scientists include: === Physical models and theories === Birge–Sponer method, in molecular physics, partially named after Hertha Sponer. Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem in chaos theory, partially named after Mary Tsingou. Frenkel–Kontorova model, in non-linear physics, partially named after Tatiana Kontorova. Hopfield model, in atmospheric physics, is named after Helen Hopfield. Kachru–Kalosh–Linde–Trivedi mechanism, in string theory, is partially named after Renata Kallosh. Kovalevskaya top in rotational dynamics, named after Sofya Kovalevskaya. Peccei–Quinn theory in particle physics, partially named after Helen


id: women-in-physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:09.403302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === 1806: Carl Friedrich Gauss recognizes Marie-Jeanne de Lalande as the only woman he knows working in science. Unaware that his correspondent Sophie Germain was a woman. 1816: French mathematician and physicist Sophie Germain became the first women to win a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her work on elasticity theory. 1828: Caroline Herschel, sister of William Herschel, becomes the first woman to publish in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society and is awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1835: Caroline Herschel and Mary Somerville became the first female Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1856: Amateur scientist Eunice Newton Foote provides the first demonstration of the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide (greenhouse effect). 1890: Alice Everett becomes the first woman to be employed and paid at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 1891: Agnes Pockels, is helped by Rayleigh to publish her first paper on nature of surface tension. There she first introduces the concept of the Pockels point and pioneers the field of surface science. 1893: Astronomer Dorothea Klumpke


id: women-in-physics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:09.403302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1930s ==== 1931: Sylvia Skan and Victor Montague Falkner publish their work on the Falkner–Skan boundary layer. 1931: Toshiko Yuasa becomes the first Japanese female physicist. 1933: Herta Pöschl (abbreviated G. Pöschl) working with Edward Teller, find that the Pöschl–Teller potential is analytically solvable in quantum mechanics. 1934: Olga N. Trapeznikowa and his husband Lev Shubnikov finish an experiment showing one of the first evidences for the existence of antiferromagnetism. 1935: Katharine Burr Blodgett improves Irving Langmuir experimental set up leading to the development of the Langmuir–Blodgett trough and the discovery of the Langmuir–Blodgett films. 1935: Grete Hermann provides the earliest refutation to John von Neumann's attempt to prove that quantum mechanics is incompatible with hidden variables. 1936: Hertha Sponer becomes the first female professor in the physics faculty in Duke University. 1937: Marietta Blau and her student Hertha Wambacher, both Austrian physicists, received the Lieben Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for their work on cosmic ray observations using the technique of nuclear emulsions. 1938: Tatiana Kontorova, in collaboration with Yakov Frenkel, develops the Frenkel-Kontorova model to describe the structure and nonlinear dynamics of a crystal lattice in the vicinity of the dislocation core. 1939 Lise Meitner


id: women-in-physics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:09.403302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1960s ==== 1961: Ellen Fetter and Margaret Hamilton were collaborators with Edward Norton Lorenz in weather forecasting, establishing together modern chaos theory. 1961: Nina Byers, jointly with C.N. Yang, studies the quantum Hall effect. Together they proved the Byers–Yang theorem. 1962: French physicist Marguerite Perey became the first female Fellow elected to the Académie des Sciences. 1963: Maria Goeppert Mayer became the first American woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with J. Hans D. Jensen "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure" and Eugene Paul Wigner "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles". 1963: Experiments by Myriam Sarachik provided the first data that confirmed the Kondo effect. 1964: Chien-Shiung Wu spoke at MIT about gender discrimination. 1967: Astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell co-discovered the first radio pulsars. 1967: Helen Freedhoff becomes the first female professor of York University and it is believed to be one the only female professor of physics in Canada at that time. 1969: Helen Hopfield develops the Hopfield model to study the troposphere and satellite-tracking. 1970: Astronomer Vera Rubin published the first evidence


id: women-in-physics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:09.403302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2000s ==== 2001: Lene Hau stopped a beam of light completely 2001: Wendy Freedman and her team published the measured Hubble constant from measurements of the Hubble Space Telescope. 2003: Geophysicist Claudia Alexander oversaw the final stages of Project Galileo, a space exploration mission that ended at the planet Jupiter. Deborah S. Jin and her team were the first to condense pairs of fermionic atoms Physicists Ayşe Erzan, Karimat El-Sayed, Li Fanghua, Mariana Weissmann and Anneke Levelt Sengers win the first L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards in Physical Sciences. Renata Kallosh, in collaboration with Shamit Kachru, Andrei Linde, and Sandip Trivedi, proposes the KKLT mechanism in string theory. 2005: Myriam Sarachik becomes the first woman to win the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize for her contributions to quantum spin dynamics and spin coherence in condensed matter systems, along with David Awschalom and Gabriel Aeppli. 2007: Physicist Ibtesam Badhrees was the first Saudi Arabian woman to become a member of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). 2009: Margaret Reid becomes the first woman to win the Moyal Medal fromm Macquarie University, for her In 2019, her work on how to demonstrate the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox using squeezing and


id: women-in-scientific-and-engineering-professions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Scientific_and_Engineering_Professions-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Scientific_and_Engineering_Professions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:12.024401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-scientific-and-engineering-professions-20260505-0
summary:
Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions is a 1984 book co-edited by American authors Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci. It was published through University of Michigan Press. The book was reviewed in several academic journals. == References ==


id: betz-mystery-sphere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz_mystery_sphere-0.md
category: reference
title: Betz mystery sphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz_mystery_sphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:17.321825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: betz-mystery-sphere-20260505-0
summary:
The Betz mystery sphere is a metal sphere with an approximate diameter of 8 inches (20 cm) weighing nearly 22 pounds (10 kg) uncovered in 1974 by a family in Florida. == Background == On March 27, 1974, the Betz family investigated a small brush fire near their residence on Fort George Island, Florida. The family of three, Antoine, Jerri, and son Terry, came across a small metal sphere the size of a bowling ball. Their first thought was the sphere had been a cannonball left from New World conquistadors. They decided to take the sphere back to their house. Several days later, Terry was playing the guitar in their home. The sphere seemed to react to the sound of the guitar. It made a throbbing noise. Later, the sphere was noticed to roll on its own and even stop on its own and change direction. Terry started doing experiments with the sphere. He noticed the sphere would reverberate when hit with a hammer. He also found the sphere would move after being shaken and placed on the ground. The Betzes reported that the sphere moved on its own several times, and that it would follow people around the house


id: cern-ritual-hoax-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN_ritual_hoax-0.md
category: reference
title: CERN ritual hoax
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN_ritual_hoax
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:18.545454+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cern-ritual-hoax-20260505-0
summary:
The CERN ritual hoax is a found footage video that depicts a faux occult ritual occurring in the grounds of CERN, the intergovernmental organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. The video became popular in August 2016 and shows several people dressed in black cloaks surrounding a statue of the Hindu deity Shiva and apparently performing a human sacrifice, in apparent mockery of existing conspiracy theories which suggest that CERN aims to use the Large Hadron Collider to create a portal to hell, summon the antichrist, or destroy the universe. The video ended with the person filming crying out and running away. == Reactions == A CERN spokesperson stated that the video was a prank and that no one was actually harmed. CERN stated in its FAQ that the video was "fiction" and the actions were outside its professional guidelines and without any official permission. CERN stated that it "doesn't tolerate this kind of spoof" and that it can "give rise to misunderstandings about the scientific nature of our work". == References ==


id: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Dead Internet theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:21.240001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The dead Internet theory is a conspiracy theory that asserts that, since around 2016, the Internet has consisted primarily of bot activity and automated content manipulated by algorithmic curation. This alleged coordinated effort aims to control the population and reduce genuine human interaction. Supporters of the theory claim that social bots were deliberately created to manipulate algorithms and enhance search results to influence consumers. Some proponents also accuse government agencies of using bots to shape public perception and opinions. The dead Internet theory gained renewed interest following the AI boom that began in the 2020s, with large language model (LLM) chatbots and text-to-image models emerging as technologies that could theoretically drown out human-authored content on the web. In the time since, social media sites have seen a measured increase in bot activity, such as algorithmic feeds displaying low-quality AI slop at the expense of user-generated content. Despite there being no evidence of a conspiracy, commentators have linked some aspects of the dead Internet theory to this rise in generative content across social media. Sources see the theory as having some amount of truth behind it, or as offering a potentially realistic prediction of the Internet's future. One source uses the


id: dead-internet-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Dead Internet theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:21.240001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== "Leaner" dead Internet theory === In a 2026 article, Hal Berghel discussed what he called a "Leaner" dead Internet Theory, "stripped of paranoia, prejudice, politics and polemic." In this discussion, Berghel points to the 2025 publication in AI & Society by Yoshija Walter, and lists algorithmic generated content, Generative AI byproducts, the difficulty for some people to distingusish between this and human generated content, and the resulting mistrust and misinformation as the core of the dead Internet theory. Berghel laments that conspiracy theorists take these phenomena and to make implausible claims, while arguing that core criticisms should not be dismissed. == Expert view == Caroline Busta, founder of the media platform New Models, was quoted in a 2021 article in The Atlantic calling much of the dead Internet theory a "paranoid fantasy", even if there are legitimate criticisms involving bot traffic and the integrity of the Internet, but she said she does agree with the "overarching idea". A 2021 Ouest-France article, which heavily referenced the 2021 article in The Atlantic, went on to compare the dead Internet theory to flat Earth and COVID-19 conspiracy theories. The article stated that even though bots do produce online content, the dead Internet


id: dead-internet-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Dead Internet theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:21.240001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bot traffic === In 2016, the security firm Imperva released a report on bot traffic after examining over 16.7 billion visits to 100,000 randomly selected domains, and found that automated programs were responsible for 52% of web traffic. This report has been used as evidence in reports on the dead Internet theory. Imperva's report for 2023 found that 49.6% of Internet traffic was automated, a 2% rise from 2022, which was partly attributed to artificial intelligence models scraping the web for training content. A 2023 policy paper from the Institutul Diplomatic Român cited this increase in bot traffic as the basis for the dead Internet theory. === Large language models === Generative pre-trained transformers (GPTs) are a class of large language models (LLMs) that employ artificial neural networks to produce human-like content. The first of these to be well known was developed by OpenAI. These models have created significant controversy. For example, Timothy Shoup of the Copenhagen Institute for Futures Studies said in 2022, "in the scenario where GPT-3 'gets loose', the Internet would be completely unrecognizable". He predicted that in such a scenario, 99% to 99.9% of content online might be AI-generated by 2025 to 2030. These predictions


id: dead-internet-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Dead Internet theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:21.240001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== TikTok === In 2024, TikTok began discussing offering the use of virtual influencers to advertising agencies. In a 2024 article in Fast Company, journalist Michael Grothaus linked this and other AI-generated content on social media to the dead Internet theory. In this article, he referred to the content as "AI slime". === YouTube === YouTube is susceptible to fake views generated by computers, not human users, and fake views were so prevalent that some engineers were concerned YouTube's algorithm for detecting them would begin to treat the fake views as default and start misclassifying real ones. YouTube engineers coined the term "the Inversion" to describe this phenomenon. YouTube bots and the fear of "the Inversion" were cited as support for the dead Internet theory in a thread on the Internet forum Melonland. === SocialAI === SocialAI, an app created on September 18, 2024, by Michael Sayman, was created with the full purpose of chatting with only AI bots without human interaction. An article on the Ars Technica website linked SocialAI to the dead Internet theory. === Digg === On June 23, 2025, Alexis Ohanian, one of the Reddit co-founders, said he thought he "long subscribed to the dead Internet


id: gec-marconi-scientist-deaths-conspiracy-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC-Marconi_scientist_deaths_conspiracy_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: GEC-Marconi scientist deaths conspiracy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC-Marconi_scientist_deaths_conspiracy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:23.652447+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gec-marconi-scientist-deaths-conspiracy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The GEC-Marconi scientist deaths theory looks at when between 1982 and 1990, 25 British-based GEC-Marconi scientists and engineers who worked on the Sting Ray torpedo project and United States Strategic Defense Initiative-related projects died under mysterious circumstances. == History == The first death attributed to the conspiracy was that of Keith Bowden, a computer scientist, University of Essex professor, and Marconi employee, in March 1982, after his car drove off the A12 road in Witham and plunged 30 feet. The first deaths to gain widespread attention and be linked to the theory came in 1986–1987. In just about a year, six scientists died, three of whom had worked for the Marconi company, a subsidiary of the defence group General Electric Company. Most deaths were ruled suicides or accidents. One died after driving his car, which had been packed full of petrol containers, into a building. Another tied a rope to his neck and to a tree and then drove off in a car. A third died of carbon monoxide poisoning in his garage. No links were found between them. At the time, some opposition lawmakers in the British parliament called for an investigation into the deaths. Proponents of the conspiracy


id: patent-encumbrance-of-large-automotive-nimh-batteries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_encumbrance_of_large_automotive_NiMH_batteries-0.md
category: reference
title: Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_encumbrance_of_large_automotive_NiMH_batteries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:26.124128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patent-encumbrance-of-large-automotive-nimh-batteries-20260505-0
summary:
The patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries refers to allegations that corporate interests have used the patent system to prevent the commercialization of nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery technology. Nickel metal hydride battery technology was considered important to the development of battery electric vehicles (BEVs or EVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) before the technology for lithium-ion battery packs became a viable replacement. == Background == The modern nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) electric vehicle battery was invented by Dr. Masahiko Oshitani, of the GS Yuasa Corporation, and Stanford Ovshinsky, the founder of the Ovonics Battery Company, and granted a patent. The current trend in the industry is towards the development of lithium-ion (Li-Ion) technology to replace NiMH in electric vehicles. In 2009, Toyota tested lithium batteries as a potential replacement for the nickel metal hydride batteries used in its Prius model gasoline-electric hybrid. The company said that it would continue to use NiMH batteries in the Prius, but would introduce an all-electric vehicle based on lithium technology. Li-Ion technology, while functionally superior due to its higher specific energy and specific power, is more expensive and, as of 2009, relatively untested with regards to its long-term


id: patent-encumbrance-of-large-automotive-nimh-batteries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_encumbrance_of_large_automotive_NiMH_batteries-1.md
category: reference
title: Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_encumbrance_of_large_automotive_NiMH_batteries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:26.124128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patent-encumbrance-of-large-automotive-nimh-batteries-20260505-0
summary:
In October 2000, oil company Texaco announced the purchase of General Motors' share in GM Ovonics. Texaco was itself acquired by rival Chevron, which was announced a few days later (and completed a year later). At that time, Toyota was using NiMH batteries in the electric RAV4 SUV available in California. In March 2001, Chevron-controlled Ovonics filed a patent infringement suit against Toyota's battery supplier, Panasonic, as well as against Toyota itself, that led to a negotiated settlement in 2004. The agreement included extensive cross-licensing of each company's patents; a joint research venture to improve nickel hydride battery technology; and a ban on Panasonic's and Toyota's use of large format NiMH batteries for certain transportation uses until 2010. Information about what exactly were these particular transportation uses of NiMH batteries - that ChevronTexaco has forbidden - was suppressed due to a gag order placed on Toyota. This Gag Order was so effective that Panasonic did not Develop Size C and D Eneloop Batteries. This way, ChevronTexaco forced Toyota to end production of the first generation Toyota RAV4 EV. However, the existing RAV4 EVs were not crushed. After the court granted a motion to stay proceedings (January 2002) and the ICC


id: patent-encumbrance-of-large-automotive-nimh-batteries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_encumbrance_of_large_automotive_NiMH_batteries-2.md
category: reference
title: Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_encumbrance_of_large_automotive_NiMH_batteries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:26.124128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patent-encumbrance-of-large-automotive-nimh-batteries-20260505-0
summary:
== Timeline of legal status of the Ovonics battery technology == Multiple companies have tried to develop NiMH battery technology without making use of Ovonics' patents. Electro Energy Inc., working with CalCars, converted a Toyota Prius from a hybrid electric vehicle to a PHEV using its own bipolar NiMH batteries. Plug-In Conversions uses Nilar NiMH batteries and the EAA-PHEV open source control system in its Prius PHEV conversions. These organizations maintain that these developments are allowable because their NiMH battery technologies are not covered by Cobasys' patents. These batteries became commercially available in late 2007. On July 28, 2009, Automotive News reported that Cobasys would be bought from Chevron and Energy Conversion Devices by battery maker SB LiMotive, a joint venture of Bosch and Samsung. At the time of the 2009 Cobasys sale, control of NiMH battery technology transferred back to ECD Ovonics. In October 2009, ECD Ovonics announced that their next-generation NiMH batteries will provide specific energy and power that are comparable to those of lithium-ion batteries at a cost that is significantly lower than the cost of lithium-ion batteries. On February 3, 2010, patent JP2003504507 was refused, hence removing any patent encumbrance in Japan. On July 2, 2010,


id: polybius-urban-legend-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_(urban_legend)-0.md
category: reference
title: Polybius (urban legend)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_(urban_legend)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:27.365528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polybius-urban-legend-20260505-0
summary:
Polybius is an urban legend about a mysterious arcade video game. According to the legend, the game appeared in arcades around Portland, Oregon in 1981. The gameplay was supposedly psychoactive, abstract, and dangerous. Children who played the arcade game were said to suffer from amnesia, seizures, night terrors, and hallucinations. Despite these adverse effects, the arcade cabinet was described as so addictive that players returned to Polybius repeatedly until they went insane, died, or vanished. The lack of any surviving Polybius cabinets is explained by men in black who were said to record data on the players before removing all the arcade machines. There is no evidence for any Polybius machines in the 1980s. The earliest known print reference is the September 2003 issue of GamePro. The earliest online reference to Polybius is a coinop.org page, dated to 1998. There is no record of the supposed publisher, Sinneslöschen, and no surviving arcade cabinet has surfaced. People claiming to have seen a Polybius arcade machine may be conflating it with memories of unusual actual titles from the period, such as Cube Quest and Tempest. Journalists and scholars have linked the urban legend to cultural anxieties from the period and real but


id: polybius-urban-legend-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_(urban_legend)-1.md
category: reference
title: Polybius (urban legend)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_(urban_legend)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:27.365528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polybius-urban-legend-20260505-0
summary:
== Themes == The story of Polybius may be rooted in several real but unrelated events. Author Brian Dunning believes the Polybius legend grew out of a mixture of 1980s influences. For example, two players fell ill in a Portland arcade on the same day in 1981. Teenage Portland resident Michael Lopez developed a migraine headache after playing Tempest and left the arcade. He was found unconscious in a stranger's yard after blacking out. During a filmed attempt to break the Asteroids world record at the same arcade where Lopez became ill, another Portland teen played for 28 hours until suffering from stomach pain. Ten days later, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) raided several Portland arcades in the area. The lead-up to the raid involved FBI agents monitoring arcade cabinets for evidence of tampering and recording high scores for possible witnesses. The FBI made 52 Portland arcade arrests in 1981, and 25 arrests at a single arcade a year later. Some arcade owners had illegally converted video game cabinets into gambling machines. Many adults in the 1980s expressed concern about the new video games children spent so much time on. Early video games were the subject of fears and


id: polybius-urban-legend-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_(urban_legend)-2.md
category: reference
title: Polybius (urban legend)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius_(urban_legend)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:27.365528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polybius-urban-legend-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == Polybius has inspired and appeared in music, television, and films. It has been used to evoke connections to the supernatural and to the 1980s, including a central cameo as the "main attraction" in the Nine Inch Nails music video "Less Than". It has cameos in many TV series, such as The Goldbergs (2013) and The Simpsons (2006). The cameo in Loki (2021) gained acclaim on social media as an example of Loki referencing real-world conspiracy theories, and sparked speculation that the game was integral to the show's fictional multiverse. For Paper Girls (2022), CBR reported that the Polybius cameo gave the series 1980s science fiction credentials and differentiated it from Stranger Things (2016). Artists Goto80 and Raquel Meyers also explored the theme in a series of performances in 2010. The Polybius Conspiracy is a seven-part podcast published in 2017, adapted from a canceled feature film project. Two major video games were inspired by Polybius and bear its name. In 2007, freeware developers and arcade constructors Rogue Synapse published a free downloadable game titled Polybius for Windows at sinnesloschen.com. Its design is partly based on a description posted on a forum by an individual who claimed to have


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-0.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Some conspiracy theories argue that various governments and politicians globally, in particular the United States government, are suppressing evidence that unidentified flying objects (UFO) are controlled by an extraterrestrial or "non-human" intelligence, or built using alien technology. Since the 1980s, such conspiracy theories often argue that world governments are in communication or cooperation with extraterrestrials, and some claim that the governments are explicitly allowing cattle mutilation and alien abduction. Mainstream scientists, government investigators, and skeptics maintain that little or no evidence exists to support conspiracy theories regarding alien visitation. Despite claims of cover-ups, conspiracy theories about alien spaceships largely lack verifiable proof, relying instead on speculation, anecdotes, and misidentified surveillance technology. == Overview == Flying saucer conspiracy theories first began in the pages of pulp science-fiction, where they drew upon inspiration from the "lost continent" myths of Atlantis and Lemuria. In 1947, during 'the first summer of the cold war', private pilot Kenneth Arnold reported witnessing supersonic 'flying discs'; historians would later chronicle at least 800 "copycat" reports in subsequent weeks, while other sources estimate the reports may have numbered in the thousands. Press speculated that the flying discs were secret American or Soviet technology. By December 1949, author Donald


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-1.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
== Notable proponents == A wide variety of people have publicly promoted the idea of a conspiracy to cover up UFOs. A number of theorists achieved prominence for their claims. Donald Keyhoe was the most prominent proponent of UFO conspiracy theories during the 1950s. In the late 1960s and 1970s, Jacques Vallée and J. Allen Hynek were notable voices alleging a "Cosmic Watergate"; both were involved in the blockbuster Close Encounters of the Third Kind. In the 1980s, Stanton Friedman rose to prominence after describing the Roswell incident as a conspiracy. In the 2010s, Luis Elizondo rose to prominence for his claims of a US government cover-up. Other proponents were less prominent. Richard Shaver, one early proponent, had been hospitalized for psychiatric problems, while another, Paul Bennewitz, was hospitalized for paranoia after being deceived by Richard Doty. Several proponents later confessed responsibility for hoaxes or lies, including Gray Barker, Carl Allen, Richard Doty, Bill Moore, and Ray Santelli. Other proponents met violent ends—Morris Jessup and James E. McDonald died by suicide. John Lear helped promote both Bill Cooper and Bob Lazar — Cooper broke with Lear and was years later shot and killed by law enforcement during an attempted arrest.


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-2.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
UFO conspiracy theories began in 1940s pulp magazine edited by Raymond Palmer, known as "the man who invented flying saucers". For years prior to the 1947 flying disc craze, Palmer had published reports of strange craft in his pulp sci-fi magazine Amazing Stories. During the 1947 flying disc craze, Palmer hired original saucer witness Kenneth Arnold to investigate a flying disc report near Maury Island, Washington. By October 1947, Palmer's magazine featured claims that the truth behind the discs was being covered up. Palmer would continue to promote UFO conspiracy theories for the rest of his life, eventually linking them to the JFK assassination and Watergate. ==== Spaceships of "The Shaver Mystery" ==== Beginning in 1945, Palmer began to print ostensibly-true stories based on the writings of Richard Shaver, a Pennsylvania welder who claimed to be in telepathic communication with a secret underground race. In 1934, Shaver had been hospitalized for psychiatric problems; Barkun argues: "By most accounts Shaver himself believed with absolute conviction in the truthfulness of his stories. This, combined with their appearance in a pulp-fiction venue, served further to blur the already uncertain boundary between fact and fiction." Shaver claimed that ancient civilizations had mastered space travel,


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-3.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
==== Keyhoe's "Flying Saucer Conspiracy" ==== On December 26, 1949, True magazine published an article by Donald Keyhoe titled "The Flying Saucers Are Real". Keyhoe, a former Major in the US Marines, claimed that elements within the Air Force knew that saucers existed and had concluded they were likely 'inter-planetary'. The article examined the Mantell UFO incident and quoted an unnamed pilot who opined that the Air Force's explanation "looks like a cover up to me". The article claimed a "rocket authority at Wright field" had concluded saucers were interplanetary. Concern over a public panic, of the kind that supposedly occurred after the 1938 War of the Worlds broadcast, is cited in the article as a possible motive for the cover up. The True article caused a sensation. When Keyhoe expanded the article into a book, The Flying Saucers Are Real (1950), it sold over half a million copies in paperback. The Air Force denied "flying saucers" exist and further denied that they were US technology being covered-up. In 1954, before Sputnik became the first man-made satellite, Keyhoe told press that alien satellites had been detected in Earth orbit. In 1955, Donald Keyhoe authored a new book that pointedly accused


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-4.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
In 1955, Morris K. Jessup achieved some notoriety with his book The Case for the UFO, in which he argued that UFOs represented a mysterious subject worthy of further study. In January 1956, Jessup began receiving a series of letters from "Carlos Miguel Allende", later identified as Carl Meredith Allen. "Allende" warned Jessup not to investigate the levitation of UFOs and spun a tale of a dangerous experiment in which a navy ship was made invisible, only to inexplicably teleport from Philadelphia to Norfolk, Virginia, before reappearing back in Philadelphia. The ship's crew was supposed to have suffered various side effects, including insanity, intangibility, and being "frozen" in place. In 1957, Jessup was invited to the Office of Naval Research where he was shown an annotated copy of his book that was filled with handwritten notes in its margins, written with three different shades of blue ink, appearing to detail a debate among three individuals. They discussed ideas about the propulsion for flying saucers, alien races, and express concern that Jessup was too close to discovering their technology. Jessup noticed the handwriting of the annotations resembled the letters he received from Allen. Twelve years later, Allen would say that he


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-5.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
==== "Cosmic Watergate" ==== In the novel and film 2001: A Space Odyssey by Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick, American discovery of an extraterrestrial artifact prompts a cover up and disinformation campaign with fatal consequence for astronauts sent to investigate. The film was prominent in Moon landing conspiracy theories, which variously argue that humans never went to the Moon, went there with the assistance of aliens, or even that NASA covered up lunar evidence of aliens. One scholar opined that the 1968 film "seems to anticipate the post-Nixonian culture of governmental conspiracy". J. Allen Hynek was an American astronomer who served as scientific advisor to UFO studies undertaken by the U.S. Air Force. Hynek had drawn ridicule for his most famous debunking, in which he suggested a mass-sighting over Michigan may have been caused by "swamp gas". By 1974, the former skeptic was publicly charging that Bluebook was "a Cosmic Watergate". Hynek claimed 20% of Bluebook cases were unexplained. Fellow Ufologists like Stanton Friedman echoed Hynek's "Cosmic Watergate" accusations. In 1976, pulp publisher Ray Palmer argued "there is a definite link between flying saucers, The Shaver Mystery, The Kennedy’s assassinations, Watergate and Fred Crisman." During the 1976 US presidential


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-6.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
In 1974, the film UFOs: Past, Present, and Future dramatized an ostensibly-historical meeting between humans and aliens who land after being summoned. The filmmakers reported being told by military officials that a UFO had landed at Holloman Air Force Base. The depiction of a landing in the blockbuster Close Encounters of the Third Kind has been called a "thinly veiled reference to the Holloman landing" story. The Holloman story would be later promoted by hoaxer Richard Doty. On December 14, 1977, the Spielberg blockbuster film Close Encounters of the Third Kind premiered and brought UFO conspiracy theories to a global market. The film opens with a United Nations recovery of Flight 19, lost in the Bermuda Triangle some 32 years prior, in Mexico's Sonora desert; Since Keyhoe's 1955 book The Flying Saucer Conspiracy, theorists had linked Flight 19's disappearance to flying saucers. The film's subplot of an "exchange program" of humans visiting aliens would later resurface in conspiracy theory as Project Serpo. Legendary French filmmaker François Truffaut played a character inspired by French UFO investigator Jacques Vallée, an advisor to the film.Real life debunker-turned-believer J. Allen Hynek made a cameo in the film. In coming years, conspiracy figure John Lear


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-7.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
The late 1970s also saw the beginning of controversy centered on Paul Bennewitz. On April 20, 1979, U.S. Attorney R. E. Thompson and US Senator Harrison Schmidt held a public meeting about cattle mutilations. The meeting was attended by about 80, one attendee was Paul Bennewitz, an amateur UFO investigator. Bennewitz was befriended by Richard Doty, an Air Force Sergeant, who fed him false stories of a UFO conspiracy, government treaties with extraterrestrials, and alien harvesting of cattle. This material inspired much of the post-1980 UFO mythology. The earliest known reference to "MJ Twelve" comes from a 1981 document used in disinformation targeting Paul Bennewitz. Paul Bennewitz was ultimately hospitalized for paranoia. Doty would appear in the 2013 documentary Mirage Men to discuss his role in deceiving Bennewitz. While Doty claims Bennewitz was targeted for inadvertently recording classified technology at Kirtland Air Force Base, Pilkington argues that government agents likely targeted Bennewitz due to his participation in the 1979 meeting on cattle mutilations around Dulce. In 1979, Linda Moulton Howe was a documentarian exploring cattle mutilations. In 1980, Moulton Howe's documentary "A Strange Harvest" alleged that cattle mutilations were connected to UFOs. In April 1983, Moulton Howe travelled to visit


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-8.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
In 1991, Cooper published the influential conspiracy work Behold a Pale Horse which claimed that Kennedy was killed after he "informed Majestic 12 that he intended to reveal the presence of aliens to the American people". Behold a Pale Horse became 'wildly popular' with conspiracy theorists and went on to be one of the most-read books in the US prison system. Cooper described the "Illuminati" as a secret international organization, controlled by the Bilderberg Group, that conspired with the Knights of Columbus, Masons, Skull and Bones, and other organizations. Its ultimate goal, he said, was the establishment of a New World Order. According to Cooper, the Illuminati conspirators not only invented alien threats for their own gain, but actively conspired with extraterrestrials to take over the world. Cooper produced regular shortwave-radio broadcasts that were popular with conspiracy theorist and anti-government activists. Cooper reportedly met with Timothy McVeigh shortly before the Oklahoma City bombing. In November 2001, Cooper was shot and killed by law enforcement during an attempted arrest. Lear introduced journalist George Knapp to UFO whistle-blower Bob Lazar and his tales of Area 51. In November 1989, Bob Lazar appeared in a special interview with Knapp on Las Vegas TV


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-9.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
The Branton Files are a series of documents espousing various conspiracy theories circulated on the internet since at least the mid-1990s. They are most often attributed to Bruce Alan Walton who claims to have been a victim of alien abduction and had contact through "altered states of consciousness" with humans "living in the inner earth". The files have been characterized as "high fantasy" filled with "complex and convoluted conspiracism". The content influenced David Icke. In the 1990s, author David Icke proposed that world elites are actually "reptilian" aliens. Scholars note that the science-fiction franchise V had told a similar story from 1983 to 1984. ==== Phoenix Lights and Heaven's Gate ==== On March 13, 1997, there were widespread reports of unidentified lights over Nevada and Arizona. Days later, 39 members of UFO group Heaven's Gate were found dead in a mass suicide. Arizona Governor Fife Symington III held a press conference, joking that "they found who was responsible" and revealing an aide dressed in an alien costume. Later, in 2007, Symington reportedly told a UFO investigator he'd had a personal close encounter with an alien spacecraft but remained silent "because he didn't want to panic the populace". According to Symington,


id: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories-10.md
category: reference
title: UFO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:32.686832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
=== Timeline === March 1945 - Palmer's Amazing Stories publishes Shaver's "I Remember Lemuria!" June 1946 - Palmer's Amazing Stories publishes Crisman's letter corroborating Shaver's claims July 1947 - Palmer hires original saucer witness Kenneth Arnold to investigate Crisman's Maury Island incident; USAF investigators killed in plane crash October 1947 - Palmer's Amazing Stories published letter by Shaver saying the truth behind the discs "will never be disclosed to common people". December 26, 1949 - Keyhoe's article "The Flying Saucers Are Real" published in True October 1949 - Scully's article on Aztec hoax introduces alien bodies 1952 - Arnold's The Coming of the Saucers introduces Maury Island hoax to wider audience April 1952 - "Have We Visitors From Space" published in Life Magazine July 31, 1952 - Samford press conference 1955 - Keyhoe authors The Flying Saucer Conspiracy links UFOs and Bermuda Triangle 1955 - Morris Jessup authors The Case for the UFO, an anonymously annotated copy of which introduces "The Philadelphia Experiment". 1956 - Ruppelt authors The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects 1956 - Chop's film Unidentified Flying Objects: The True Story of Flying Saucers released 1956 - Barker authors They Knew Too Much About Flying Saucers introduces Men


id: claude-langlois-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Langlois-0.md
category: reference
title: Claude Langlois
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Langlois
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:37.018024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: claude-langlois-20260505-0
summary:
Claude Langlois (c. 1700 – 1756) was a French maker of precision scientific instruments and the foremost among them in the period. His instruments included draughtsman's tools like an improved pantograph, measuring instruments, and six-foot quadrants for astronomical angle measurement. He was appointed official instrument maker for French astronomers Cassini II, Cassini de Thury, Le Monnier, Maupertuis, and the Abbé de Lacaille; and held the official position of ingénieur en instruments de mathématiques for the French Académie des Sciences in 1740. Little is known of Langlois' life but he was considered the most famous maker of scientific instruments between 1730 and 1756 and many of his instruments are known from his name on them. This was a period when English instrument makers were leading with master instrument makers like Nicolas Bion and Michael Butterfield. Langlois' earliest known contract was for a six-foot wall quadrant for the Paris observatory with markings that indicate that he worked at the Niveau on the Quai de l'Horloge. He also produced instruments for use in labs (including those of Lavosier), by surveyors, navigators and astronomers. His improved pantograph design was sent to the Académie des Sciences for approval. His instruments were sent on geodesic expeditions


id: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:38.391108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected innumerable scientific and technical institutions globally, resulting in lower productivity in a number of fields and programs. However, the impact of the pandemic has also led to the opening of several new research funding lines for government agencies around the world. == Science == As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, new and improved forms of scientific communication have evolved. One example is the amount of data being published on preprint servers and the way it has been reviewed on social media platforms before being formally peer reviewed. Scientists are reviewing, editing, analyzing, and publishing manuscripts and data speedily. This intense communication may have enabled an unusual level of collaboration and efficiency among scientists. Francis Collins notes that while he has not seen research move faster, the pace of research "can still feel slow" during a pandemic. The typical research model was considered too slow for the "urgency of the coronavirus threat". === World Health Organization (WHO) === On the 4th of May, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) organized a telethon to raise US$8 billion from forty countries to support the rapid development of COVID-19 vaccines. WHO also announced the implementation of an international


id: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:38.391108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== National and intergovernmental laboratories === The United States Department of Energy federal scientific laboratories, such as the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, closed to all visitors and many employees; non-essential employees and scientists became remote workers. Contractors were also strongly advised to isolate their facilities and employees unless necessary. Overall, ORNL operations remain reasonably unaffected. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was tasked by the White House Coronavirus Task Force to use most of its supercomputing capacity to continue the research on the virus stream, possible mutations, and other factors, while other projects were temporarily scaled back or indefinitely postponed. The European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) closed all of its six sites in Europe (Barcelona, Grenoble, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Hinxton, and Rome). All EMBL site governments have implemented strict controls in response to the coronavirus. EMBL staff have been instructed to follow the advice of local authorities. Several staff members have been given permission to work at the sites to provide essential services such as animal facility maintenance or data services. All other staff were instructed to stay at home. EMBL also cancelled all visits to the sites by groups outside the staff. This includes physical attendance at the Heidelberg course and conference


id: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:38.391108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
In March 2020, the United States Department of Energy, National Science Foundation, NASA, industry, and nine universities pooled resources to access supercomputers from IBM combined with cloud computing resources from Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Amazon, Microsoft, and Google for drug discovery. The COVID-19 High-Performance Computing Consortium also aims to predict the spread of disease, model possible vaccines, and study thousands of chemical compounds to develop a COVID-19 vaccine or therapy. As of May 2020, the Consortium has used up 437 petaFLOPS of computing power. The C3.ai Digital Transformation Institute, another consortium of Microsoft, six universities (including the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a member of the first consortium), and the National Center for Supercomputer Applications in Illinois, operating under the auspices of C3.ai, founded by Thomas Siebel, is pooling supercomputing resources for drug discovery, developing medical protocols, and improving public health strategies, and awarded large grants through May 2020 to researchers proposing to use AI for similar tasks. In March 2020, the Folding@home distributed computing project launched a program to support medical researchers around the world. The first wave of the project will simulate potential target proteins of SARS-CoV-2 and the related SARS-CoV virus, which has already been studied. In March, the


id: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology-3.md
category: reference
title: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:38.391108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Glenn Research Center in Ohio Plum Brook Station in Ohio Armstrong Flight Research Center in California Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, which also reported its first COVID-19 positive employee case. Two facilities were maintained at Stage 4 after reporting new cases of coronavirus: the Michoud Assembly Facility reported its first employee to test positive for COVID-19, and Stennis Space Center recorded the second case of a NASA community member with the virus. Kennedy Space Center maintained at Stage 3 after a workforce member tested positive. Due to the mandatory remote work policy already in place, the individual had not been on-site for more than a week before the onset of symptoms. On May 18, the Michoud facility began resuming work operations on the SLS, but so far remains in a Level 3 status. At Level 4, mandatory remote work is in effect for all personnel except for limited personnel required for mission-critical work and to ensure and maintain the safety and security of the facility. === ESA === The European Space Agency (ESA) directed many of its science and technology facility personnel to telework whenever possible.


id: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology-4.md
category: reference
title: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:38.391108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
From 2019 to 2020, the proportion of EU enterprises employing advanced digital technology in their operations expanded dramatically. From 2020 to 2021, this percentage remained relatively stable, reaching 61% in 2021, compared to 63% in 2020 and 58% in 2019. The pandemic has caused a huge strain on internet traffic, with BT Group and Vodafone seeing a 60 and 50 percent increase in broadband usage, respectively. At the same time, Netflix, Disney+, Google, Amazon, and YouTube have considered reducing the quality of their videos to avoid overload. In addition, Sony has begun to slow down PlayStation game downloads in Europe and the United States to maintain the traffic levels. Cellular service providers in mainland China reported significant declines in subscribers, partially due to inability of migrant workers to return to work as a result of the quarantine lockdowns; China Mobile saw a reduction of 8 million subscribers, while China Unicom had 7.8 million fewer subscribers, and China Telecom lost 5.6 million users. Teleconferencing has been used to replace cancelled events as well as daily business meetings and social contacts. Teleconference companies such as Zoom Video Communications have seen a sharp increase in usage, accompanied by technical issues such as bandwidth


id: history-of-science-and-technology-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Science_and_Technology_(journal)-0.md
category: reference
title: History of Science and Technology (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Science_and_Technology_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:39.613285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-journal-20260505-0
summary:
History of Science and Technology is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of science and technology. It is published by State University of Infrastructure and Technologies (Ukraine) and was established in 2011. == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus and the Emerging Sources Citation Index. == References ==


id: lists-of-engineers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineers-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of engineers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:48.570054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-engineers-20260505-0
summary:
Types of engineer include: Chartered Engineer European Engineer Incorporated Engineer Professional Engineer Royal Engineer Lists of individual engineers by discipline include: List of aerospace engineers List of canal engineers List of chemical engineers List of civil engineers List of combat engineering corps List of electrical engineers List of environmental engineers List of genetic engineers List of industrial engineers List of mechanical engineers List of software engineers List of structural engineers List of systems engineers == See also == List of British engineers List of inventors List of architects List of urban planners Lists of scientists List of fictional scientists and engineers


id: lists-of-mathematicians-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematicians-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of mathematicians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematicians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:49.790616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-mathematicians-20260505-0
summary:
This is a List of Lists of mathematicians and covers notable mathematicians by nationality, ethnicity, religion, profession and other characteristics. Alphabetical lists are also available (see table to the right). == Lists by nationality, ethnicity or religion == == Lists by profession == List of actuaries List of game theorists List of geometers List of logicians List of mathematical probabilists List of statisticians List of quantitative analysts == Other lists of mathematicians == List of amateur mathematicians List of mathematicians born in the 19th century List of centenarians (scientists and mathematicians) List of films about mathematicians List of women in mathematics == See also == The Mathematics Genealogy Project – Database for the academic genealogy of mathematicians List of mathematical artists List of mathematics journals List of publications in mathematics == External links == The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive – Extensive list of detailed biographies The Oberwolfach Photo Collection – Photographs of mathematicians from all over the world Photos of mathematicians – Collection of photos of mathematicians (and computer scientists) made by Andrej Bauer. Famous Mathematicians Calendar of mathematicians' birthdays and death anniversaries


id: nature-s-10-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature's_10-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature's 10
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature's_10
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:50.964121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-s-10-20260505-0
summary:
Nature's 10 is an annual listicle of ten "people who mattered" in science, produced by the scientific journal Nature. Nominees have made a significant impact in science either for good or for bad. Reporters and editorial staff at Nature judge nominees to have had "a significant impact on the world, or their position in the world may have had an important impact on science". Short biographical profiles describe the people behind some of the year's most important discoveries and events. Alongside the ten, five "ones to watch" for the following year are also listed. == 2025 == 2025 awardees includeded: Susan Monarez: Public-health guardian Achal Agrawal: Retraction detective Tony Tyson: Telescope pioneer Precious Matsoso: Pandemic negotiator Sarah Tabrizi: Huntington's hero Mengran Du: Deep diver Luciano Moreira: Mosquito rancher Liang Wenfeng: Tech disruptor Yifat Merbl: Peptide detective KJ Muldoon: Trailblazing baby Ones to watch in 2026: Reid Wiseman: Mission commander Artemis II, NASA Georgina Long: Medical oncologist, Melanoma Institute Australia, University of Sydney Amadou Sall: Virologist, Pasteur Institute of Dakar Alice Xiang: Global head of AI governance, Sony AI Colette Delawalla: Chief executive and founder, Stand Up for Science == 2024 == 2024 awardees included: Ekkehard Peik: Father time Kaitlin Kharas:


id: nature-s-10-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature's_10-1.md
category: reference
title: Nature's 10
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature's_10
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:50.964121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-s-10-20260505-0
summary:
Cori Bargmann, Science president, Chan Zuckerberg Initiative Robert Feidenhans’l, Chairman, European XFEL Jef Boeke, Co-leader, Human Genome Project–Write Wu Weiren, Chief Designer, China Lunar Programme Marcia McNutt, President, National Academy of Sciences == 2015 == 2015 awardees included: Christiana Figueres: Climate guardian Junjiu Huang: Embryo editor Alan Stern: Pluto hunter Zhenan Bao: Master of materials Ali Akbar Salehi: Nuclear diplomat Joan Schmelz: A voice for women David Reich: Genome archaeologist Mikhail Eremets: Super conductor Christina Smolke: Fermenting revolution Brian Nosek: Bias blaster Ones to watch in 2016: Fabiola Gianotti, Director-general of CERN Gabriela González, Spokesperson at Advanced LIGO Kathy Niakan, Stem-cell biologist, Francis Crick Institute Demis Hassabis, Co-founder, DeepMind Yang Wei, Head of the National Natural Science Foundation of China == 2014 == 2014 awardees included: Andrea Accomazzo: Comet chaser Suzanne L. Topalian: Cancer combatant Radhika Nagpal: Robot-maker Sheik Umar Khan: Ebola doctor David Spergel: Cosmic skeptic Maryam Mirzakhani: Surface explorer Pete Frates: Ice-bucket challenger Koppillil Radhakrishnan: Rocket launcher Masayo Takahashi: Stem-cell tester Sjors Scheres: Structure solver Ones to watch in 2015: Xie Zhenhua, China's top climate official Alan Stern, Principal investigator of NASA's New Horizons mission Joanne Liu, International president of Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) Bernard Bigot, Nominated as


id: andrew-b-raupp-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_B._Raupp-0.md
category: reference
title: Andrew B. Raupp
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_B._Raupp
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:52.274907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: andrew-b-raupp-20260505-0
summary:
Andrew B. Raupp (born in Detroit, Michigan) is an American entrepreneur, educator, and leading advocate for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. He is the founder and executive director of STEM.org Educational Research, a pioneering organization at the forefront of STEM research and quality assurance. Raupp is known for his groundbreaking work in establishing a decentralized framework for validating STEM credentials, leveraging blockchain technology's immutable and transparent characteristics. This initiative underscores his dedication to enhancing accountability and democratizing access to STEM education standards, aligning with the broader decentralization principles central to blockchain and Web3 innovations. Raupp's scholarly contributions extend to the comprehensive documentation and analysis of the STEM education movement's evolution. His research is considered one of the most authoritative and comprehensive chronologies in the field. It has been cited by institutions, including the Smithsonian Science Education Center, which reinforces his status as a significant contributor to 21st-century STEM education. == Early life and career == Andrew B. Raupp was born and raised in the United States and also holds citizenship in the Republic of Malta. He attended Divine Child High School in Dearborn, Michigan, graduating in 1998. From 1998 to 2000, he studied microbiology at Wayne State University


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology studies (STS) or science, technology, and society is an interdisciplinary field that examines the creation, development, and consequences of science and technology in their historical, cultural, and social contexts. == History == Like most interdisciplinary fields of study, STS emerged from the confluence of disciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s—in viewing science and technology as socially embedded enterprises. The key disciplinary components of STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the 1980s, although Ludwik Fleck's (1935) monograph Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many of STS's key themes. In the 1970s Elting E. Morison founded the STS program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which served as a model. By 2011, 111 STS research centers and academic programs were counted worldwide. === Important key points === History of technology, that examines technology in its social and historical context. Starting in the 1960s, some historians questioned technological determinism, a doctrine that can induce public passivity to technologic and scientific "natural" development. At the same time, some historians began to develop similarly contextual approaches to the


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social constructions are human-created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship. The following also alludes to the notion that not everything is set, a circumstance or result could potentially be one way or the other. According to the article "What is Social Construction?" by Ian Hacking, "Social construction work is critical of the status quo. Social constructionists about X tend to hold that: X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of things; it is not inevitable Very often they go further, and urge that: X is quite as bad as it is. We would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically transformed." In the past, there have been viewpoints that were widely regarded as fact until being called to question due to the introduction of new knowledge. Such viewpoints include the past concept of a correlation between intelligence and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social technical systems are an interplay between technologies and humans, this is clearly expressed in the sociotechnical systems theory. To expound on this interplay, humans fulfill and define tasks, then humans in companies use IT and IT supports people, and finally, IT processes tasks and new IT generates new tasks. This IT redefines work practices. This is what we call the sociotechnical systems. In socio-technical systems, there are two principles to internalize, that is joint optimization and complementarity. Joint optimization puts an emphasis on developing both systems in parallel and it is only in the interaction of both systems that the success of an organization arises. The principle of complementarity means that both systems have to be optimized. If you focus on one system and have bias over the other it will likely lead to the failure of the organization or jeopardize the success of a system. Although the above socio-technical system theory is focused on an organization, it is undoubtedly imperative to correlate this theory and its principles to society today and in science and technology studies. Understanding technology in the context of national development: critical reflections discusses how governance frameworks, digital infrastructure, and institutional capacity influence the societal


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Examples ==== Ford Pinto – Ford Motor Company sold and produced the Pinto during the 1970s. A flaw in the automobile design of the rear gas tank caused a fiery explosion upon impact. The exploding fuel tank killed and injured hundreds of people. Internal documents of test results proved Ford CEO Lee Iacocca and engineers were aware of the flaw. The company decided to ignore improving its technology because of profit-driven motives, strict internal control, and competition from foreign competitors such as Volkswagen. Ford Motor Company conducted a cost-benefit analysis to determine if altering the Ford Pinto model was feasible. An analysis conducted by Ford employees argued against a new design because of increased cost. Employees were also under tight control by the CEO who rushed the Pinto through production lines to increase profits. Ford finally changed after public scrutiny. Safety organizations later influenced this technology by requiring stricter safety standards for motor vehicles. DDT/toxins – DDT was a common and highly effective insecticide used during the 1940s until its ban in the early 1970s. It was utilized during World War 2 to combat insect-borne human diseases that plagued military members and civilian populations. People and companies soon realized


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Importance ==== Recently, there has been a movement towards greater transparency in the fields of policy and technology. Jasanoff comes to the conclusion that there is no longer a question of if there needs to be increased public participation in making decisions about science and technology, but now there need to be ways to make a more meaningful conversation between the public and those developing the technology. ==== In practice ==== Bruce Ackerman and James S. Fishkin offered an example of a reform in their paper "Deliberation Day." The deliberation is to enhance public understanding of popular, complex and controversial issues through devices such as Fishkin's deliberative polling, though implementation of these reforms is unlikely in a large government such as that of the United States. However, things similar to this have been implemented in small, local governments like New England towns and villages. New England town hall meetings are a good example of deliberative democracy in a realistic setting. An ideal deliberative democracy balances the voice and influence of all participants. While the main aim is to reach consensus, deliberative democracy should encourage the voices of those with opposing viewpoints, concerns due to uncertainties, and questions about assumptions


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Langdon Winner states that groups and social interests likely to be affected by a particular kind of technological change ought to be represented at an early stage in defining exactly what that technology will be. It is the idea that relevant parties have a say in technological developments and are not left in the dark. Spoken about by Massimiano Bucchi This ideal does not require the public to become experts on the topics of science and engineering, it only asks that the opinions and ideas be heard before making drastic decisions, as talked about by Steven L. Goldman. === Legacy thinking === Legacy thinking is defined as an inherited method of thinking imposed from an external source without objection by the individual because it is already widely accepted by society. Legacy thinking can impair the ability to drive technology for the betterment of society by blinding people to innovations that do not fit into their accepted model of how society works. By accepting ideas without questioning them, people often see all solutions that contradict these accepted ideas as impossible or impractical. Legacy thinking tends to advantage the wealthy, who have the means to project their ideas on the public. It


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Academic programs == STS is taught in several countries. According to the STS wiki, STS programs can be found in twenty countries, including 45 programs in the United States, three programs in India, and eleven programs in the UK. STS programs can be found in Canada, Germany, Israel, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Some examples of institutions offering STS programs are Stanford University, University College London, Harvard University, the University of Oxford, Mines ParisTech, Bar-Ilan University, and York University. In Europe the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) offers an MA degree in STS through study programs and student exchanges with over a dozen specializations. == Professional associations == The field has professional associations in regions and countries around the world. === In Europe === In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST) was founded in 1981 to "improve scholarly communication and exchange in the field", "increase the visibility of the subject to policy-makers and to the general public", and "stimulate and support teaching on the subject at all levels". Similarly, the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) researches and studies science and technology in society, in both historical and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Bauchspies, Wenda; Croissant, Jennifer; Restivo, Sal (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23210-0. Bijker, Wiebe; Hughes, Thomas; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1987). The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02262-0. Felt, Ulrike; Fouché, Rayvon; Miller, Clark A.; Smith-Doerr, Laruel, eds. (2017). The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03568-2. Fuller, Steve (1993). Philosophy, Rhetoric, and the End of Knowledge: The Coming of Science and Technology Studies. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (2nd edition, with James H. Collier, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004) Hess, David J. (1997). Science Studies: An Advanced Introduction. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3564-0. Jasanoff, Sheila; Markle, Gerald; Petersen, James; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1994). Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 978-0-8039-4021-5. Kuhn, Thomas (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Restivo, Sal, ed. (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514193-1. Guglielmo Rinzivillo (2020), Raccontare la


id: advanced-innovation-design-approach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Innovation_Design_Approach-0.md
category: reference
title: Advanced Innovation Design Approach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Innovation_Design_Approach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:57.767151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: advanced-innovation-design-approach-20260505-0
summary:
Advanced Innovation Design Approach (AIDA) is a holistic approach for enhancing the innovative and competitive capabilities of industrial companies. The name Advanced Innovation Design Approach (AIDA) was proposed in the research project "Innovation Process 4.0" run at the University of Applied Sciences Offenburg, Germany in co-operation with 10 German industrial companies in 2015–2019. AIDA can be considered as a pioneering mindset, an individually adaptable range of strong innovation techniques such as comprehensive front-end innovation process, advanced innovation methods, best tools and methods of the theory of inventive problem solving TRIZ, organisational measures for accelerating innovation, IT-solutions for Computer-Aided Innovation, and other tools for new product development, elaborated in the recent decade in the industry and academia. Initially the AIDA has been conceptualised as a systemic approach including analysis, optimizations and further development of the innovation process and promoting the innovation climate in industrial companies. The innovation process with self-configuration, self-optimization, self-diagnostics and intelligent information processing and communication, is understood as a holistic system comprising following typical phases with feedback loops and simultaneous auxiliary or follow-up processes: uncovering of solution-neutral customer needs, technology and market trends, identification of the needs and problems with high market potential and formulation of the innovation


id: astronaut-for-a-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_for_a_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut for a Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_for_a_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:59.026905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-for-a-day-20260505-0
summary:
Astronaut for a Day, an initiative launched by the Portuguese Space Agency in 2022, provides young students in the Portuguese education system with the chance to experience a zero-gravity flight and the same sensations astronauts have in space. Inspired by the astronaut selection processes of renowned space agencies, this national competition is not for the faint-hearted. It involves a rigorous selection process designed for students aged 14–18. The evaluation process, which includes five elimination phases, tests candidates' creativity, communication skills, and logical, spatial, and physical abilities. Finalists selected for the last phase participate in a parabolic flight aboard an Airbus A310 operated by Novespace. In the first three editions of Astronaut for a Day (2022, 2023, and 2024), the Portuguese Space Agency received over 1,600 applications nationwide. This initiative is considered a significant success and plays a key role in the Agency's strategy of fostering interest in STEM fields, particularly in space studies and careers among younger generations. So far, Portugal has 91 "astronauts". After the flight, each finalist becomes an ambassador for the initiative. They represent the Portuguese Space Agency and promote the activity within their school communities throughout the following academic year. This ambassadorship helps develop their leadership


id: automated-decision-making-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making-0.md
category: reference
title: Automated decision-making
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:00.240751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-decision-making-20260505-0
summary:
Automated decision-making (ADM) is the use of data, machines and algorithms to make decisions in a range of contexts, including public administration, business, health, education, law, employment, transport, media and entertainment, with varying degrees of human oversight or intervention. ADM may involve large-scale data from a range of sources, such as databases, text, social media, sensors, images or speech, that is processed using various technologies including computer software, algorithms, machine learning, natural language processing, artificial intelligence, augmented intelligence and robotics. The increasing use of automated decision-making systems (ADMS) across a range of contexts presents many benefits and challenges to human society requiring consideration of the technical, legal, ethical, societal, educational, economic and health consequences. == Overview == There are different definitions of ADM based on the level of automation involved. Some definitions suggests ADM involves decisions made through purely technological means without human input, such as the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (Article 22). However, ADM technologies and applications can take many forms ranging from decision-support systems that make recommendations for human decision-makers to act on, sometimes known as augmented intelligence or 'shared decision-making', to fully automated decision-making processes that make decisions on behalf of individuals or organizations without human


id: automated-decision-making-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making-1.md
category: reference
title: Automated decision-making
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:00.240751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-decision-making-20260505-0
summary:
=== Law === In legal systems around the world, algorithmic tools such as risk assessment instruments (RAI), are being used to supplement or replace the human judgment of judges, civil servants and police officers in many contexts. In the United States RAI are being used to generate scores to predict the risk of recidivism in pre-trial detention and sentencing decisions, evaluate parole for prisoners and to predict "hot spots" for future crime. These scores may result in automatic effects or may be used to inform decisions made by officials within the justice system. In Canada ADM has been used since 2014 to automate certain activities conducted by immigration officials and to support the evaluation of some immigrant and visitor applications. === Economics === Automated decision-making systems are used in certain computer programs to create buy and sell orders related to specific financial transactions and automatically submit the orders in the international markets. Computer programs can automatically generate orders based on predefined set of rules using trading strategies which are based on technical analyses, advanced statistical and mathematical computations, or inputs from other electronic sources. === Business === ==== Continuous auditing ==== Continuous auditing uses advanced analytical tools to automate auditing


id: automated-decision-making-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making-2.md
category: reference
title: Automated decision-making
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:00.240751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-decision-making-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transport and mobility === Connected and automated mobility (CAM) involves autonomous vehicles such as self-driving cars and other forms of transport which use automated decision-making systems to replace various aspects of human control of the vehicle. This can range from level 0 (complete human driving) to level 5 (completely autonomous). At level 5 the machine is able to make decisions to control the vehicle based on data models and geospatial mapping and real-time sensors and processing of the environment. Cars with levels 1 to 3 are already available on the market in 2021. In 2016 The German government established an 'Ethics Commission on Automated and Connected Driving' which recommended connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) be developed if the systems cause fewer accidents than human drivers (positive balance of risk). It also provided 20 ethical rules for the adaptation of automated and connected driving. In 2020 the European Commission strategy on CAMs recommended that they be adopted in Europe to reduce road fatalities and lower emissions however self-driving cars also raise many policy, security and legal issues in terms of liability and ethical decision-making in the case of accidents, as well as privacy issues. Issues of trust in autonomous vehicles


id: burden-of-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Burden of knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:01.486346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burden-of-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The burden of knowledge describes the difficulty of adding to a scientific field as the amount of previous work that must be understood increases over time. This is seen across scientific disciplines. Evidence for this burden includes a trend that people are older before they receive their first patent or publish in a prestigious journal, and the need for scientific groups to be larger as scientists need to collaborate so that the team has sufficient understanding of prior work. == Scholarship == Explicit scholarship of this idea has entered the mainstream with the works of Benjamin Jones, in particular The Burden of Knowledge and the Death of the Renaissance Man, and with the works of Jan Brendel and Sascha Schweitzer The Burden of Knowledge in Mathematics. == Overview == Theory and empirical studies reflect the case that researchers and innovators are not born with the required expertise and must first undertake education. With accumulating information and discoveries, the time to digest and improve on extant knowledge takes longer. Similarly, frontiers of knowledge advance at an overall increasing rate and are shifting over time. The "burden of knowledge" refers to the difficulty of catching up with this evolving knowledge frontier. A


id: camille-no-s-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Noûs-0.md
category: reference
title: Camille Noûs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Noûs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:02.692330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: camille-no-s-20260505-0
summary:
Camille Noûs is a fictional name assumed by the French collective academic project RogueESR. The character of "Camille Noûs" was created in 2020 when the group signed an open letter concerning French science policy. In 2021, "Camille Noûs" was listed as an author on 180 journal papers in several scientific disciplines. == Background == The intent of the Camille Noûs character has been described as a protest against changes in research culture, including the rise of temporary academic positions, the decline in researcher job security and tenure protections, and research assessment metrics that emphasise citation numbers. The Camille Noûs campaign has been criticized as "ethically questionable" due to concerns about responsibility and accountability for research results. There has also been criticism that has arisen from some researchers including Camille Noûs on the author list without informing journal editors that it is a fictitious name. The intention of the Camille Noûs character is to protest individualism in scientific research, and to promote collaboration over individual accomplishment. In April 2021, a manifesto by Camille Noûs was published on the science blog 3 Quarks Daily. == See also == Citation impact Scientific citation == References == == Sources == == Further reading ==


id: casanova-s-lottery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casanova's_Lottery-0.md
category: reference
title: Casanova's Lottery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casanova's_Lottery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:03.929410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: casanova-s-lottery-20260505-0
summary:
Casanova's Lottery: The History of a Revolutionary Game of Chance is a history book about the French Loterie by historian and statistician Stephen M. Stigler. == Content == It is easy to associate statistics with death, thanks to actuarial tables and life expectancies, but the history of statistics also contains its libidinal opposite. Amid frequency distributions and tables of payout odds, Casanova's Lottery reminds us that the history of statistics is also a history of dreams, sex, and hope. Stigler's Casanova's Lottery: The History of a Revolutionary Game of Chance tells how, thanks to the direct involvement of the Venetian Giacomo Casanova, the French Loterie was established, lasting from 1758 to 1836 – with a four-year interruption during the French Revolution in 1793–1797. A quarter of a billion tickets were sold over that period through lottery offices all over France, thanks to which the state budget received "millions of livres (and then francs)". The Loterie was unique because, unlike a raffle, the maximum possible winning to be disbursed by the state to the winners was not known in advance. Thus, it was considerably riskier for the French administration, be it monarchical, republican, or imperial. At each drawing, the state was


id: center-on-organizational-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_on_Organizational_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Center on Organizational Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_on_Organizational_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:05.117117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-on-organizational-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
The Center on Organizational Innovation (COI) is a research center at Columbia University's Institute for Social and Economic Research and Policy. The center, established in 2000 and directed by sociologist David Stark, promotes research in the areas of organizational studies, science and technology studies and economic sociology, with an emphasis on innovation and reflexivity.[1] == References == ^Stark, D. (2008). "Searching questions: The Center on Organizational Innovation at Columbia University". European Management Review. 5 (4): 275–280. doi:10.1057/emr.2008.24. == External links == Center on Organizational Innovation


id: centre-de-sociologie-de-l-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_de_Sociologie_de_l'Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_de_Sociologie_de_l'Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:06.339150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: centre-de-sociologie-de-l-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
The Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation (CSI; "Center for the Sociology of Innovation") is a research center at the Mines Paris – PSL, France, and a research unit affiliated to the French National Centre for Scientific Research. The CSI was created in 1967 and is known for its members' contributions to the field of science and technology studies and to actor–network theory.[1] Prominent past and current members include academics such as Bruno Latour and Michel Callon. == References == ^ Dosse, François (1999). Empire of Meaning: The Humanization of the Social Sciences. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-2964-0. == External links == Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation


id: concept-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: Concept testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:07.601429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: concept-testing-20260505-0
summary:
Concept testing (to be distinguished from pre-test markets and test markets which may be used at a later stage of product development research) is the process of using surveys (and sometimes qualitative methods) to evaluate consumer acceptance of a new product idea prior to the introduction of a product to the market. It is important not to confuse concept testing with advertising testing, brand testing and packaging testing, as is sometimes done. Concept testing focuses on the basic product idea, without the embellishments and puffery inherent in advertising. == Questionnaires == It is important that the instruments (questionnaires) to test the product have a high quality themselves. Otherwise, results from data gathered surveys may be biased by measurement error. That makes the design of the testing procedure more complex. Empirical tests provide insight into the quality of the questionnaire. This can be done by: conducting cognitive interviewing. By asking a faction of potential-respondents about their interpretation of the questions and use of the questionnaire, a researcher can verify the viability of the cognitive interviewing. carrying out a small pretest of the questionnaire, using a small subset of target respondents. Results can inform a researcher of errors such as missing questions,


id: conversation-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Conversation theory is a pedagogical, dialectical, and cybernetic framework that examines conversation, cognition and learning in the context of two conversational participants who attempt to establish what is meant by a topic during a conversation. In effect, each participant attempts to converge towards a common understanding with the other as to the significance of the said topic between themselves. The theory provides a formal dialectical framework that examines how conversational participants may modulate the conceptualisation processes of each participant throughout a conversational interaction. A conversational interaction is characterised as a shared learning process: Each participant takes turns within the interaction—switching at intervals between the role of a student or the role of a teacher—to achieve a state of mutual understanding between themselves. In this sense, the theory concerns itself with how two a priori asynchronous cognitive systems—either mechanical or organic in nature—are able to converse and conceptualise about a topic, in such a way that each system achieves the a posteriori synchronization of each cognitive system's particular perspective or attitude towards said topic. This resultant synchronization allows each conversational participant to satisfy some shared task or goal. Conversation theory provides an experimental framework that heavily utilizes both human-computer interaction frameworks


id: conversation-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The object language L {\displaystyle L} differs from most formal languages, by virtue of being "a command and question language[,] not an assertoric language like [a] predicate calculus". It priorities the sematic and pragmatic aspects of language rather than the syntactical features of propositions and their corresponding truth or falsity values. It is often formally illustrated and embodied in the form of a conversational skeleton within conversation theory, which forms the basic unit of a conversational interactions between a collection of conversational participants Z = ⟨ A , B ⟩ {\displaystyle Z=\langle A,B\rangle } . This unit is contextualized as an extended learning system whose internal states are changed and modulated through the course of the conversation. Since conversation theory specifically focuses on learning and development within agents capable of cognition and conversation, the object language is separated into two distinct modes of conversing; a likeness of which, resembles the distinction between procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge in epistemology. Firstly, there is conversation which happens at the level of L 0 {\displaystyle L^{0}} of an object language, which is concerned with "how to “do” a topic: how to recognize it, construct it, maintain it and so on". Meanwhile, the L


id: conversation-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Both commands and questions of the type D ( R ) {\displaystyle D(R)} have the following basic form, which is taken from Nicholas Rescher's formalisation of The Logic of Commands (1966): D ( R ) = < Z ! X | Y > {\displaystyle D(R)\ =\ <Z!\ X\ |\ Y\ >} Where Z ! {\displaystyle Z!} obligates the addressee or receiver of the command or question to act in accordance with the intention of the messenger, and | {\displaystyle |} is a conditional relation. Therefore, the expression X | Y {\displaystyle X\ |\ Y} can be read as "Do X, given Y". In terms of speech-acts which take the form of commands and questions, they may sufficiently take the form of the below expressions: C o m m i = < Z ! E x e c Z i | P r e c o n > E Q u e s t i = < Z ! E x p l Z i | P r e c o n > {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lcl}Comm\ i&=&<Z!\ Exec_{Z}\ i\ |\ Precon\ >\\EQuest\ i&=&<Z!\ Expl_{Z}\ i\ |\ Precon\ >\end{array}}} For example, if some conversational participant A {\displaystyle A} issues a command to conversational


id: conversation-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
And where a concept is defined as an operation that is substitutable for the below ordered-pair: C O N ≜ P R O C = ⟨ P R O G , I N T E R ⟩ {\displaystyle CON\triangleq PROC=\langle PROG,INTER\rangle } Whose contents are defined as: I N T E R ≜ λ ( x ) P R O G ≜ π ( x ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lcl}INTER&\triangleq &\lambda (x)\\PROG&\triangleq &\pi (x)\end{array}}} Such that a program is defined as a calculus or set of rules π {\displaystyle \pi } that operates on some input, and an interpretation is conceived of as a compiler λ {\displaystyle \lambda } that attempts to compile said input into an executable form. A concept—as thus defined—is considered by Pask to be an L {\displaystyle L} -procedure or process, which is embodied by its underlying processor called an L {\displaystyle L} -processor. When said form has been compiled by said processor, then the concept may be executed to produce a topic relation, which may be sufficiently written as: A P ( λ ( π ( R H ) ) ) = A P ( C O N ( R H ) ) ⇒ R H {\displaystyle


id: conversation-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Serialists – Progress through a structure in a sequential fashion Holists – Look for higher order relations The ideal is the versatile learner who is neither vacuous holist "globe trotter" nor serialist who knows little of the context of his work. In learning, the stage where one converges or evolves, many Cyberneticians describe the act of understanding as a closed-loop. Instead of simply “taking in” new information, one goes back to look at their understandings and pulls together information that was “triggered” and forms a new connection. This connection becomes tighter and one's understanding of a certain concept is solidified or “stable” (Pangaro, 2003). Furthermore, Gordon Pask emphasized that conflict is the basis for the notion of “calling for'' additional information (Pangaro, 1992). According to Entwistle, experiments which lead to the investigation of phenomenon later denoted by the term learning strategy came about through the implementation of a variety of learning tasks. Initially, this was done through utilising either CASTE, INTUITION, or the Clobbits pseudo-taxonomy. However, given issues resulting from either the time-consuming nature or operating experiments or inexactness of experimental conditions, new tests were created in the form of the Spy Ring History test and the Smuggler's test. The


id: creativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
Creativity is the ability to generate novel and valuable ideas or works through the exercise of imagination. The products of creativity may be classified as either intangible or physical. Intangible products of creativity include ideas, scientific theories, literary works, musical compositions, and jokes. Physical products of creativity include inventions, dishes or meals, pieces of jewelry, costumes, and paintings. Creativity may also describe the ability to find new solutions to problems or new methods to accomplish a goal. Therefore, creativity enables people to solve problems in new ways. Most ancient cultures (including Ancient Greece, Ancient China, and Ancient India) lacked the concept of creativity, seeing art as a form of discovery rather than a form of creation. In the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition, creativity is seen as the sole province of God, and human creativity was considered an expression of God's work; the modern conception of creativity came about during the Renaissance, influenced by humanist ideas. Scholarly interest in creativity is found in several disciplines, primarily psychology, business studies, and cognitive science. It is also present in education and the humanities (including philosophy and the arts). == Etymology == The English word "creativity" comes from the Latin term creare (meaning "to create"). Its


id: creativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-1.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Renaissance === It was during the Renaissance that creativity was first conceived not as a conduit from the divine, but as arising from the abilities of "great men." This could be attributed to the leading intellectual movement of the time, aptly named humanism, which developed an intensely anthropocentric outlook on the world, valuing the intellect and achievement of the individual. From this philosophy arose the Renaissance man (or polymath), an individual who embodies the principles of humanism in their ceaseless courtship with knowledge and creation. One of the most well-known and immensely accomplished examples is Leonardo da Vinci. === From the 17th to the 19th centuries === However, the shift from divine inspiration to the abilities of the individual was gradual and would not become immediately apparent until the Age of Enlightenment. By the 18th century, creativity (notably in aesthetics) linked with the concept of imagination became more frequent. In the writing of Thomas Hobbes, imagination became a key element of human cognition. William Duff was one of the first to identify imagination as a quality of genius, typifying the separation being made between talent (productive, but not breaking new ground) and genius. As an independent topic of study,


id: creativity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-2.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
mini-c ("transformative learning" involving "personally meaningful interpretations of experiences, actions, and insights"). little-c (everyday problem-solving and creative expression). Pro-C (exhibited by people who are professionally or vocationally creative, though not necessarily eminent). Big-C (creativity considered great in a given field). This model was intended to help accommodate models and theories of creativity that stressed competence as an essential component and a historic transformation of a creative domain as the highest mark of creativity. It also, the authors argued, made a useful framework for analyzing creative processes in individuals. The contrast signified by the terms "Big C" and "little C" has been widely used. Kozbelt, Beghetto, and Runco used a little-c/Big-C model to review major theories of creativity. Margaret Boden distinguished between h-creativity (historical) and p-creativity (personal). Ken Robinson and Anna Craft focused on creativity in a general population, particularly with respect to education. Craft makes a similar distinction between "high" and "little c" creativity and cites Robinson as referring to "high" and "democratic" creativity. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi defined creativity in terms of individuals judged to have made significant creative and perhaps domain-changing contributions. Simonton analyzed the career trajectories of eminent creative people in order to map patterns and predictors of creative


id: creativity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-3.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geneplore model === In 1992, Finke, et al., proposed the "Geneplore model", in which creativity takes place in two phases: a generative phase, where an individual constructs mental representations called "preinventive" structures, and an exploratory phase where those structures are used to come up with creative ideas. Some evidence shows that when people use their imagination to develop new ideas, those ideas are structured in predictable ways in accordance with properties of existing categories and concepts. Weisberg argued, in contrast, that creativity involves ordinary cognitive processes yielding extraordinary results. === Explicit–implicit interaction theory === Helie and Sun proposed a framework for understanding creativity in problem solving, namely the explicit–implicit interaction (EII) theory of creativity. This theory attempts to provide a more unified explanation of relevant phenomena (in part by reinterpreting/integrating various fragmentary existing theories of incubation and insight). The EII theory relies mainly on five basic principles: co-existence of, and the difference between, explicit and implicit knowledge simultaneous involvement of implicit and explicit processes in most tasks redundant representation of explicit and implicit knowledge integration of the results of explicit and implicit processing iterative (and possibly bidirectional) processing A computational implementation of the theory was developed based on the


id: creativity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-4.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dialectical theory === The term "dialectical theory of creativity" dates back to psychoanalyst Daniel Dervin and was later developed into an interdisciplinary theory. This theory starts with the ancient concept that creativity takes place in an interplay between order and chaos. Similar ideas can be found in neuroscience and psychology. Neurobiologically, it can be shown that the creative process takes place in a dynamic interplay between coherence and incoherence that leads to new and usable neuronal networks. Psychology shows how the dialectics of convergent and focused thinking with divergent and associative thinking leads to new ideas and products. Personality traits such as the "Big Five" seem to bedialectically intertwined in the creative process: emotional instability versus stability, extraversion versus introversion, openness versus reserve, agreeableness versus antagonism, and disinhibition versus constraint. The dialectical theory of creativity also applies to counseling and psychotherapy. === Neuroeconomic framework === Lin and Vartanian developed a neurobiological description of creative cognition. This interdisciplinary framework integrates theoretical principles and empirical results from neuroeconomics, reinforcement learning, cognitive neuroscience, and neurotransmission research on the locus coeruleus system. It describes how decision-making processes studied by neuroeconomists as well as activity in the locus coeruleus system underlie creative cognition and


id: creativity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-5.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
Jürgen Schmidhuber's formal theory of creativity postulates that creativity, curiosity, and interestingness are by-products of a simple computational principle for measuring and optimizing learning progress. Consider an agent able to manipulate its environment and thus its own sensory inputs. The agent can use a black box optimization method such as reinforcement learning to learn, through informed trial and error, sequences of actions that maximize the expected sum of its future reward signals. There are extrinsic reward signals for achieving externally given goals, such as finding food when hungry. But for Schmidhuber's objective function to be maximized also includes an additional, intrinsic term to model "wow-effects". This non-standard term motivates purely creative behavior of the agent, even when there are no external goals. A wow-effect is formally defined as follows: as the agent is creating and predicting and encoding the continually growing history of actions and sensory inputs, it keeps improving the predictor or encoder, which can be implemented as an artificial neural network, or some other machine learning device, that can exploit regularities in the data to improve its performance over time. The improvements can be measured precisely, by computing the difference in computational costs (storage size, number of required


id: creativity-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-6.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social-personality approaches === Researchers have taken a social-personality approach by using personality traits such as independence of judgement, self-confidence, attraction to complexity, aesthetic orientation, and risk-taking as measures of personal creativity. Within the framework of the Big Five personality traits, a consistent few of these traits have emerged as being correlated to creativity. Openness to experience is consistently related to a host of different assessments of creativity. Investigation of the other Big Five traits has demonstrated subtle differences between different domains of creativity. Compared to non-artists, artists tend to have higher levels of openness to experience and lower levels of conscientiousness, while scientists are more open to experience, conscientious, and higher in the confidence-dominance facets of extraversion compared to non-scientists. === Self-reporting questionnaires === Biographical methods use quantitative characteristics, such as the number of publications, patents, or artistic performances that can be credited to a person. While this method was originally developed for highly creative personalities, today it is also available as self-report questionnaires supplemented with frequent, less outstanding creative behaviors such as writing a short story or creating recipes. The self-report questionnaire most frequently used in research is the Creative Achievement Questionnaire, a self-report test that measures creative


id: creativity-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-7.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
Sternberg & Lubart's Investment Theory, using the metaphor of a stock market, demonstrates that creative thinkers are like good investors—they buy low and sell high (in their ideas). Like undervalued or low-valued stock, creative individuals generate unique ideas that are initially rejected by other people. The creative individual has to persevere and convince others of the idea's value. After convincing others, and thus increasing the idea's value, the creative individual "sells high" by leaving the idea with the other people and moving on to generate another idea. According to this theory, six distinct, but related elements contribute to successful creativity: intelligence, knowledge, thinking styles, personality, motivation, and environment. Intelligence is just one of the six factors that can, either solely or in conjunction with the other five factors, generate creative thoughts. Amabile's Componential Model of Creativity posits three within-individual components needed for creativity—domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant processes, and task motivation—and one component external to the individual—their surrounding social environment. Creativity requires the confluence of all components. High creativity will result when a person is intrinsically motivated, possesses both a high level of domain-relevant skills and has high skills in creative thinking, and is working in a highly creative environment. The Amusement


id: creativity-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-8.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Studies ==== A study by psychologist J. Philippe Rushton found creativity to correlate with intelligence and psychoticism. Another study found creativity to be greater in people with schizotypal personality disorder than in people with either schizophrenia or those without mental health disorders. While divergent thinking was associated with activation of both sides of the prefrontal cortex, schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their right prefrontal cortex. That study hypothesized that such individuals are better at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. Consistent with this hypothesis, ambidexterity is also more common in people with schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia. Three studies by Mark Batey and Adrian Furnham demonstrated the relationships between schizotypal personality disorder, hypomanic personality, and several different measures of creativity. A study of 300,000 persons with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or unipolar depression, and their relatives, found overrepresentation in creative professions of those with bipolar disorder as well as for undiagnosed siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There was no overall overrepresentation, but overrepresentation for artistic occupations, among those diagnosed with schizophrenia. There was no association for those with unipolar depression or their relatives. Another study,


id: creativity-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-9.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Personal traits === Creativity can be expressed in a variety of ways, depending on the uniqueness of people and environments. Theorists have suggested a number of different models of the creative person. However, the creativity-profiling approach must take into account the tension between predicting the creative profile of an individual, as characterized by the psychometric approach, and the evidence that group creativity is founded on diversity and difference. From a personality-traits perspective, there are a number of traits that are associated with creativity in people. Creative people tend to be more open to new experiences, are more self-confident, are more ambitious, self-accepting, impulsive, driven, dominant, and hostile, compared to people who are less creative. ==== Divergent production ==== One characteristic of creative people, as measured by some psychologists, is what is called "divergent production"—the ability of a person to generate a diverse assortment, yet an appropriate amount, of responses to a given situation. One way to measure divergent production is by administering the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, which assess the diversity, quantity, and appropriateness of participants' responses to a variety of open-ended questions. Some researchers also emphasize how creative people are better at balancing between divergent and convergent


id: creativity-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-10.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Vandervert model ==== Vandervert described how the brain's frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collaborate to facilitate creativity and innovation. Vandervert's explanation rests on considerable evidence that all processes of working memory (responsible for processing all thought) are adaptively modeled for increased efficiency by the cerebellum. The cerebellum (consisting of 100 billion neurons, which is more than the in the entirety of the rest of the brain) also adaptively models all bodily movement for efficiency. The cerebellum's adaptive models of working memory processing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe working memory control processes, where creative and innovative thoughts arise. (Apparently, creative insight or the "aha" experience is then triggered in the temporal lobe.) According to Vandervert, the details of creative adaptation begin in "forward" cerebellar models, which are anticipatory/exploratory controls for movement and thought. These cerebellar processing and control architectures have been termed Hierarchical Modular Selection and Identification for Control (HMOSAIC). New, hierarchically-arranged levels of the cerebellar control architecture (HMOSAIC) develop as mental mulling in working memory is extended over time. These new levels of the control architecture are fed forward to the frontal lobes. Since the cerebellum adaptively models all movement and all


id: creativity-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-11.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Education === For those who view the conventional system of schooling as stifling creativity, an emphasis is made (particularly in the preschool/kindergarten and early school years) to provide a creativity-friendly, rich, imagination-fostering environment for young children. Researchers have seen this as important because technology is advancing at an unprecedented rate and creative problem-solving will be needed to cope with these challenges as they arise. In addition to helping with problem solving, creativity also helps students identify problems where others have failed to do so. The Waldorf School is an example of an education program that promotes creative thought. Promoting intrinsic motivation and problem solving are two areas where educators can foster creativity in students. Students are more creative when they see a task as intrinsically motivating, valued for its own sake. To promote creative thinking, educators need to identify what motivates their students and to structure teaching around it. Providing students with a choice of activities allows them to become more intrinsically motivated and therefore creative in completing the tasks. Teaching students to solve problems that do not have well-defined answers is another way to foster their creativity. This is accomplished by allowing students to explore problems and redefine


id: creativity-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-12.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Team composition === The diversity of team members' backgrounds and knowledge can increase team creativity by expanding the collection of unique information that is available to the team and by introducing different perspectives that can be integrated in novel ways. The Millennium Conferences on Creativity, a two-year-long Canadian review of the subject, for example, advocated for new linkages between the arts and science communities and targeted funding for multidisciplinary research. However, under some conditions, diversity can also decrease team creativity by making it more difficult for team members to communicate about ideas and causing interpersonal conflicts between those with different perspectives. Thus, the potential advantages of diversity must be supported by appropriate team processes and organizational cultures in order to enhance creativity. === Team processes === Team communication norms, such as respecting others' expertise, paying attention to others' ideas, expecting information sharing, tolerating disagreements, negotiating, remaining open to others' ideas, learning from others, and building on each other's ideas, increase team creativity by facilitating the social processes involved with brainstorming and problem solving. Through these processes, team members can access their collective pool of knowledge, reach shared understandings, identify new ways of understanding problems or tasks, and make new


id: creativity-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-13.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Rick Rubin The creative act, A. (2023). The Creative Act: A Way of Being. Penguin Press. ISBN 9780593652886. Craft, A. (2005). Creativity in Schools: tensions and dilemmas. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32414-4. Gielen, P. (2013). Creativity and other Fundamentalisms. Amsterdam: Mondriaan. Glăveanu, Vlad Petre, ed. (2019). The Creativity Reader. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-084171-3. Hadamard, Jacques (2017) [1945]. The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20107-8. Jeffery, Graham (2005). The Creative College: building a successful learning culture in the arts. Trentham Books. Johnson, D.M. (1972). Systematic introduction to the psychology of thinking. Harper & Row. Jullien, F. (2004). In Praise of Blandness: Proceeding from Chinese Thought and Aesthetics. Translated by Varsano, Paula M. Zone Books, U.S. ISBN 1-890951-41-2. Jung, Carl G. (1981). The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Vol. 8. The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09774-7. Kanigel, Robert (1992). The Man Who Knew Infinity: A Life of the Genius Ramanujan. Washington Square Press. ISBN 0-671-75061-5. Kolp, P.; Lammé, A.; Regnard, Fr. (2009). Rens, J.M. (ed.). "Musique et créativité". Orphée Apprenti. NS (1): 9–119. D/2009/11848/5 Kounios, John; Kounios, Yvette (1 March 2025). "The Wonder of Insight: Scientists are finally


id: criticism-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:11.499680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Criticism of technology is an analysis of adverse impacts of industrial and digital technologies. It is argued that, in all advanced industrial societies (not necessarily only capitalist ones), technology becomes a means of domination, control, and exploitation, or more generally something which threatens the survival of humanity. Some of the technology opposed by the most radical critics may include everyday household products, such as refrigerators, computers, and medication. However, criticism of technology comes in many shades. == Overview == Some authors such as Chellis Glendinning and Kirkpatrick Sale consider themselves Neo-Luddites and hold that technological progress has had a negative impact on humanity. Their work focused on seeking meaning out of technological change, specifically wrestling with the question of "how tools and their affordances change and alter the fabric of everyday life." Ellul, for instance, maintained that when people assert that technology is an instrument of freedom or the means to achieve historical destiny or the execution of divine vocation, it results in the glorification and sanctification of Technique so that it becomes that which gives meaning and value to life rather than mere ensemble of materials. This is echoed by rhetorical critics who cite the way technological discourse damages


id: cybernetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:12.709808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
Cybernetics is the transdisciplinary study of circular causal processes such as feedback and recursion, where the effects of a system's actions (its outputs) return as inputs to that system, influencing subsequent actions. It is concerned with general principles that are relevant across multiple contexts, including engineering, ecological, economic, biological, cognitive and social systems and also in practical activities such as designing, learning, and managing. Cybernetics' transdisciplinary character means that it intersects with a number of other fields, resulting in a wide influence and diverse interpretations. The field is named after an example of circular causal feedback—that of steering a ship (the ancient Greek κυβερνήτης (kybernḗtēs) refers to the person who steers a ship). In steering a ship, the position of the rudder is adjusted in continual response to the effect it is observed as having, forming a feedback loop through which a steady course can be maintained in a changing environment, responding to disturbances from cross winds and tide. Cybernetics has its origins in exchanges between numerous disciplines during the 1940s. Initial developments were consolidated through meetings such as the Macy conferences and the Ratio Club. Early focuses included purposeful behaviour, neural networks, heterarchy, information theory, and self-organising systems. As


id: cybernetics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics-1.md
category: reference
title: Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:12.709808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Second wave === The second wave of cybernetics came to prominence from the 1960s onwards, with its focus shifting away from technology toward social, ecological, and philosophical concerns. It was still grounded in biology, notably Maturana and Varela's autopoiesis, and built on earlier work on self-organising systems and the presence of anthropologists Mead and Bateson in the Macy meetings. The Biological Computer Laboratory, founded in 1958 and active until the mid-1970s under the direction of Heinz von Foerster at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, was a major incubator of this trend in cybernetics research. Focuses of the second wave of cybernetics included management cybernetics, such as Stafford Beer's biologically inspired viable system model; work in family therapy, drawing on Bateson; social systems, such as in the work of Niklas Luhmann; epistemology and pedagogy, such as in the development of radical constructivism. Cybernetics' core theme of circular causality was developed beyond goal-oriented processes to concerns with reflexivity and recursion. This was especially so in the development of second-order cybernetics (or the cybernetics of cybernetics), developed and promoted by Heinz von Foerster, which focused on questions of observation, cognition, epistemology, and ethics. The 1960s onwards also saw cybernetics begin to


id: cybernetics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics-2.md
category: reference
title: Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:12.709808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
== Related fields and applications == Cybernetics' central concept of circular causality is of wide applicability, leading to diverse applications and relations with other fields. Many of the initial applications of cybernetics focused on engineering, biology, and exchanges between the two, such as medical cybernetics and robotics and topics such as neural networks, heterarchy. In the social and behavioral sciences, cybernetics has included and influenced work in anthropology, sociology, economics, family therapy, cognitive science, and psychology. As cybernetics has developed, it broadened in scope to include work in management, design, pedagogy, and the creative arts, while also developing exchanges with constructivist philosophies, counter-cultural movements, and media studies. The development of management cybernetics has led to a variety of applications, notably to the national economy of Chile under the Allende government in Project Cybersyn, as well as other lesser known projects by Stafford Beer in Latin America. In design, cybernetics has been influential on interactive architecture, human-computer interaction, design research, and the development of systemic design and metadesign practices. Cybernetics is often understood within the context of systems science, systems theory, and systems thinking. Systems approaches influenced by cybernetics include critical systems thinking, which incorporates the viable system model; systemic design;


