# kb

id: disease-modifying-treatment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-modifying_treatment-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease-modifying treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-modifying_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:01.433151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-modifying-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
A disease-modifying drug, or disease-modifying therapy, is a treatment that delays, slows or reverses the progression of a disease by targeting its underlying cause. They are distinguished from symptomatic treatments that treat the symptoms of a disease but do not address its underlying cause. == Examples == Disease-modifying osteoarthritis drug Disease-modifying antirheumatic drug == References ==


id: disseminated-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disseminated_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Disseminated disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disseminated_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:02.635093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disseminated-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Disseminated disease can refer to disseminated cancer which is the movement of cancerous cells from the original tumor to other areas of the body, or disseminated infection which is the pathogen's entry into the host, growth, and dissemination, which results in illness. After exiting the main tumor, cancer cells circulate throughout the body. They are known as circulating tumor cells once they are in the blood. Few circulating tumor cells can disseminate to distant locations and remain tumor cells. The amount of disseminated tumor cells that can develop into metastases is even lower. == See also == Metastasis Localized disease == References == == Further reading == Albert, WH; Hauch, S; Zieglschmid, V (2005). "Detection of Disseminated Cancer Cells in Blood". EJIFCC. 16 (2). International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine: 81–85. PMC 6008966. PMID 29942243. Ramamoorthi, Ganesan; Kodumudi, Krithika; Gallen, Corey; Zachariah, Nadia Nocera; Basu, Amrita; Albert, Gabriella; Beyer, Amber; Snyder, Colin; Wiener, Doris; Costa, Ricardo L.B.; Czerniecki, Brian J. (2022). "Disseminated cancer cells in breast cancer: Mechanism of dissemination and dormancy and emerging insights on therapeutic opportunities". Seminars in Cancer Biology. 78. Elsevier BV: 78–89. doi:10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.02.004. ISSN 1044-579X. PMID 33626407. == External links ==


id: distress-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distress_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Distress (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distress_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:03.912155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distress-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, distress is an aversive state in which a person is unable to completely adapt to difficult situations and their resulting effects and shows maladaptive behaviors. It can be evident in the presence of various phenomena, such as inappropriate social interaction (e.g., aggression, passivity, or withdrawal). Distress is the opposite of eustress, a positive emotion that motivates people. == Risk factors == Stress can be created by influences such as work, school, peers or co-workers, family and death. Other influences vary by age. People under constant distress are more likely to become sick, mentally or physically. There is a clear response association between psychological distress and major causes of mortality across the full range of distress. Higher education has been linked to a reduction in psychological distress in both men and women, and these effects persist throughout the aging process, not just immediately after receiving education. However, this link does lessen with age. The major mechanism by which higher education plays a role on reducing stress in men is more so related to labor-market resources rather than social resources as in women. In the clinic, distress is a patient reported outcome that has a huge impact on patient's quality


id: divaricate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divaricate-0.md
category: reference
title: Divaricate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divaricate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:05.077629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: divaricate-20260505-0
summary:
Divaricate means branching, or having separation or a degree of separation. The angle between branches is wide. == In botany == In botany, the term is often used to describe the branching pattern of plants. Plants are said to be divaricating when their growth form is such that each internode diverges widely from the previous internode, producing an often tightly interlaced shrub or small tree. Of the 72 small leaved shrubs found on the Banks Peninsula, for example, some 38 are divaricating. == See also == Diastasis (pathology), a medical term for separation of parts Laciniate == References ==


id: diverticulum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diverticulum-0.md
category: reference
title: Diverticulum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diverticulum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:06.331221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diverticulum-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine or biology, a diverticulum is an outpouching of a hollow (or a fluid-filled) structure in the body. Depending upon which layers of the structure are involved, diverticula are described as being either true or false. In medicine, the term usually implies the structure is not normally present, but in embryology, the term is used for some normal structures arising from others, as for instance the thyroid diverticulum, which arises from the tongue. The word comes from Latin dīverticulum, "bypath" or "byway". == Classification == Diverticula are described as being true or false depending upon the layers involved: False diverticula (also known as "pseudodiverticula") do not involve muscular layers or adventitia. False diverticula, in the gastrointestinal tract for instance, involve only the submucosa and mucosa, such as Zenker's diverticulum. False diverticula are typically synonymous with pulsion diverticula, which describes the mechanism of formation as increased intraluminal pressure. True diverticula involve all layers of the structure, including muscularis propria and adventitia, such as Meckel's diverticulum. True diverticula are typically synonymous with traction diverticula, which describes the mechanism of formation as pulling forces external to the structure. == Embryology == The kidneys are originally diverticula in the development of the urinary


id: dose-area-product-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_area_product-0.md
category: reference
title: Dose area product
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_area_product
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:07.646252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dose-area-product-20260505-0
summary:
Dose area product (DAP) is a quantity used in assessing the radiation risk from diagnostic X-ray radiography examinations and interventional procedures, like angiography. It is defined as the absorbed dose multiplied by the area irradiated, expressed in gray-centimetres squared (Gy·cm2 – sometimes the prefixed units dGy·cm2, mGy·cm2 or cGy·cm2 are also used). Gray (Gy) is the SI unit of absorbed dose of ionizing radiation, while the milligray (mGy) is its subunit, numerically equivalent to the millisievert (mSv) as used to quantify equivalent and effective doses for gamma (γ) and X-rays. Manufacturers of DAP meters usually calibrate them in terms of absorbed dose to air. DAP reflects not only the dose within the radiation field but also the area of tissue irradiated. Therefore, it may be a better indicator of the overall risk of inducing cancer than the dose within the field. It also has the advantage of being easily measured, with the permanent installation of a DAP meter on the X-ray set. Due to the divergence of a beam emitted from a "point source", the area irradiated (A) increases with the square of distance from the source (A ∝ d2), while radiation intensity (I) decreases according to the inverse square


id: drop-attack-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop_attack-0.md
category: reference
title: Drop attack
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop_attack
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:08.814933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: drop-attack-20260505-0
summary:
A drop attack is a sudden fall without loss of consciousness. A drop attack has been defined as "a collapse or fall with little warning, following which the patient lies motionless or nearly motionless for a variable time, but often with rapid recovery to their normal state". However, the understanding of what constitutes a drop attack varies widely between authors. Drop attacks stem from diverse mechanisms, including orthopedic causes (for example, leg weakness and knee instability), hemodynamic causes (for example, transient vertebrobasilar insufficiency, a type of interruption of blood flow to the brain), and neurologic causes (such as epileptic seizures or unstable vestibular function). The term "drop attack", also known as "cryptogenic drop attack" or "La maladie des genoux bleus"; is used to categorize otherwise unexplained falls from a wide variety of causes and is considered ambiguous medical terminology; drop attacks are currently reported much less often than in the past, possibly as a result of better diagnostic precision. The common cardiovascular causes of drop attacks include syncope (a sudden transient loss of awareness due to reduced blood flow to the brain), orthostatic hypotension (which is often precipitated by medications), and arrhythmias (abnormalities of the heart beat). A drop of


id: dyscopia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscopia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dyscopia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscopia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:10.105316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dyscopia-20260505-0
summary:
Dyscopia consists of the Latin root copia, which means abundance or plenty (see cornucopia), and the Greek prefix dys-, which means "bad", "abnormal", "difficult" or "impaired". This word has assumed two meanings, both of which are essentially a play on words based on the phonic similarity of the words "copy" and "cope" with copia. In the field of neurology, dyscopia is used to describe a type of developmental coordination disorder related to dyslexia and dysgraphia (inability to read or write). Specifically, it is taken to mean difficulty with coping. Sometimes a similar word, "acopia", is mistaken to mean the same, although this is not a medical term and has no basis in Latin. The term "dyscopia" has also made its way into general medical parlance as a tongue-in-cheek shorthand notation for patients who, after being examined and found to have no specific medical condition, are deemed to be not coping with certain aspects of their lives, and are presumed to be seeking treatment as a form of comfort from the medical profession. More recently, and controversially, the term has been used in this context as a diagnosis for admission to hospital. The words have also been used in medical notes


id: dyscrasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscrasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dyscrasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscrasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:11.461150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dyscrasia-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, both ancient and modern, a dyscrasia is any of various disorders. The word has ancient Greek roots meaning "bad mixture". The concept of dyscrasia was developed by the Greek physician Galen (129–216 AD), who elaborated a model of health and disease as a structure of elements, qualities, humors, organs, and temperaments (based on earlier humorism). Health was understood in this perspective to be a condition of harmony or balance among these basic components, called eucrasia. Disease was interpreted as the disproportion of bodily fluids or four humours: phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. The imbalance was called dyscrasia. In modern medicine, the term is still occasionally used in medical context for an unspecified disorder of the blood, such as a plasma cell dyscrasia. == Ancient use == To the Greeks, it meant an imbalance of the four humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and water (phlegm). These humors were believed to exist in the body, and any change in the balance among the four of them was the direct cause of all disease. This is similar to the concepts of bodily humors in the Tibetan medical tradition and the Indian Ayurvedic system, which both relate health and


id: dysdiadochokinesia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysdiadochokinesia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dysdiadochokinesia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysdiadochokinesia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:12.737219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dysdiadochokinesia-20260505-0
summary:
Dysdiadochokinesia (DDK) is the medical term for an impaired ability to perform rapid, alternating movements (i.e., diadochokinesia). Complete inability is called adiadochokinesia. The term is from Greek δυς dys "bad", διάδοχος diadochos "working in turn", κίνησις kinesis "movement". The term was first described by neurologist Joseph Francois Félix Babinski in 1902. Impaired pronation/supination of the upper extremities, hand/finger tapping, and heel-to-shin test are some clinical ways to test for dysdiadochokinesia. Causes can either be from cerebellar or extrapyramidal origin. Management includes treating the underlying cause and neurorehabilitation therapies. == History of name and origin == The term dysdiadochokinesia came into fruition in 1902 after the neurologist Joseph Francois Félix Babinski observed patients with cerebellar lesions. He noticed that these patients could not perform rapid, alternating movements of agonist and antagonist muscles. During this time period, neurophysiologists discovered that voluntary movements came from the cerebellum. The term has the Greek roots, "dys", "diadochos", "kinesis", meaning impaired, succeeding, and movement, respectively. == Signs and symptoms == Abnormalities in dysdiadochokinesia can be seen in the upper extremity, lower extremity, and in speech. These deficits can greatly impact activities of daily living through motor movements. The deficits become visible in the rate of alternation,


id: dystrophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystrophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Dystrophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystrophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:13.930063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dystrophy-20260505-0
summary:
Dystrophy is the degeneration of tissue, due to disease or malnutrition, most likely due to heredity. == Types == Muscular dystrophy Duchenne muscular dystrophy Becker's muscular dystrophy Myotonic dystrophy Reflex neurovascular dystrophy Retinal dystrophy Cone dystrophy Corneal dystrophy Lipodystrophy Nail dystrophy == See also == Muscle weakness Muscle atrophy Myotonia List of biological development disorders


id: e-patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-patient-0.md
category: reference
title: E-patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:15.181300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: e-patient-20260505-0
summary:
An e-patient is a health consumer who participates fully in their own medical care, primarily by gathering information about medical conditions that impact them and their families, using the Internet and other digital tools. The term encompasses those who seek guidance for their own ailments, and the friends and family members who research on their behalf. E-patients report two effects of their health research: "better health information and services, and different, but not always better, relationships with their doctors." E-patients are active in their care and demonstrate the power of the participatory medicine or Health 2.0 / Medicine 2.0. model of care. The "e" can stand for "electronic" but has also been used to refer to other terms, such as "equipped", "enabled", "empowered" and "expert". The current state of knowledge on the impact of e-patients on the healthcare system and the quality of care received indicates: A growing number of people say the internet played a crucial or important role as they helped another person cope with a major illness. Many clinicians underestimated the benefits and overestimated the risks of online health resources for patients. Medical online support groups are an important healthcare resource. "The net friendliness of clinicians and


id: early-pregnancy-loss-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_pregnancy_loss-0.md
category: reference
title: Early pregnancy loss
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_pregnancy_loss
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:16.369257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: early-pregnancy-loss-20260505-0
summary:
Early pregnancy loss is a medical term that when referring to humans can variously be used to mean: Death of an embryo or fetus during the first trimester. This can happen by implantation failure, miscarriage, embryo resorption, early fetal resorption or vanishing twin syndrome. Death of an embryo or fetus before 20 weeks gestation, as in all pregnancy loss before it becomes considered stillbirth. == Causes of early pregnancy loss == Pregnancy loss, in many cases, occurs for unknown reasons, often involving random chromosome issues during conception. Miscarriage is not caused by everyday activities like working, exercising, or having sex. Even falls or blows are rarely to blame. Research on the effects of alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine on miscarriage is inconclusive, so it's not something you could have prevented. It's crucial not to blame yourself for a miscarriage, as it's not the result of anything you did or didn't do. == Symptoms of early pregnancy loss == The most prevalent indication of pregnancy loss is vaginal bleeding. In the later stages of pregnancy, a woman experiencing a stillbirth may cease to sense fetal movements. However, it's important to note that each type of pregnancy loss presents distinct symptoms, so it's


id: ebullism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism-0.md
category: reference
title: Ebullism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:17.583213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ebullism-20260505-0
summary:
Ebullism is the formation of water vapour bubbles in bodily fluids due to reduced environmental pressure, usually at extreme high altitude. It occurs because a system of liquid and gas at equilibrium will see a net conversion of liquid to gas as pressure lowers; for example, liquids reach their boiling points at lower temperatures when the pressure on them is lowered. The injuries and disorder caused by ebullism is also known as ebullism syndrome. Ebullism will expand the volume of the tissues, but the vapour pressure of water at temperatures in which a human can survive is not sufficient to rupture skin or most other tissues encased in skin. Ebullism produces predictable injuries, which may be survivable if treated soon enough, and is often accompanied by complications caused by rapid decompression, such as decompression sickness and a variety of barotrauma injuries. Persons at risk are astronauts and high altitude aviators, for whom it is an occupational hazard. == Symptoms == Symptoms of ebullism include bubbles in the membranes of the mouth and eyes, swelling of the soft tissues with possible bruising, and bubbles in the blood. Blood circulation and breathing may be impaired or stopped by cardiac vapour lock. The


id: ebullism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism-1.md
category: reference
title: Ebullism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:17.583213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ebullism-20260505-0
summary:
== Treatment and outcomes == Ebullism produces secondary tissue damage which, when extensive, has generally been considered fatal due to limited availability of treatment options on site. Immediate recompression to a pressure at minimum pressure for effective oxygenation is necessary for survival in whole-body exposure, along with re-oxygenation. Continued or additional pressurisation where necessary to prevent or treat decompression sickness is also indicated. High-frequency percussive ventilation is recommended by Murray et al (2013) for respiratory support as atelectasis is likely. Initial field evaluation would be similar to trauma assessment. It may be necessary to remove a pressure suit to give access for primary and secondary surveys. Airway, breathing, and circulation are immediate priorities, followed by assessment of level of consciousness. Intubation is indicated if unconscious and deteriorating. If a pulse cannot be distinguished, and the person is unresponsive, cardiopulmonary resuscitation should be started immediately, with advanced cardiac life support and cardiovascular monitoring as soon as possible. Little information is available on the effectiveness of conventional treatment, such as hyperbaric oxygen, or adjunctive therapies, for injuries due to ebullism. Spontaneous recovery has occurred in cases where recompression was applied with minimal delay, or the damage was restricted to parts of the


id: economic-credentialing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_credentialing-0.md
category: reference
title: Economic credentialing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_credentialing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:18.753617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economic-credentialing-20260505-0
summary:
Economic credentialing is a term of disapproval used by the American Medical Association (AMA). The association defines the term as "the use of economic criteria unrelated to quality of care or professional competence in determining a physician's qualifications for initial or continuing hospital medical staff membership or privileges." Traditionally, physicians applied for hospital staff membership based on education, medical licensure and a record of quality care. Privileges are requests to perform certain procedures or use certain skills based on training and experience. For example, an obstetrician and a family practitioner might request privileges for both routine deliveries and caesarean sections. Typically an obstetrician could demonstrate enough experience and be granted those privileges. The FP might obtain both procedures or be restricted to routine deliveries only, or none at all, based on hospital policy. As medical costs have increased and reimbursement has declined or been stagnant, both hospitals and physicians have come under increasing financial pressure. One response by physicians has been the formation of specialty hospitals or diagnostic centers with physician ownership. Some hospitals have seen this as a threat to their economic interests and have denied or revoked membership and privileges of the physician owners. == External links ==


id: efficacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy-0.md
category: reference
title: Efficacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:19.923293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: efficacy-20260505-0
summary:
Efficacy is the ability to perform a task to a satisfactory or expected degree. The word comes from the same roots as effectiveness, and it has often been used synonymously, although in pharmacology a distinction is now often made between efficacy and effectiveness. The word efficacy is used in pharmacology and medicine to refer both to the maximum response achievable from a pharmaceutical drug in research settings, and to the capacity for sufficient therapeutic effect or beneficial change in clinical settings. == Pharmacology == In pharmacology, efficacy (Emax) is the maximum response achievable from an applied or dosed agent, for instance, a small molecule drug. Intrinsic activity is a relative term for a drug's efficacy relative to a drug with the highest observed efficacy. It is a purely descriptive term that has little or no mechanistic interpretation. In order for a drug to have an effect, it needs to bind to its target, and then to affect the function of this target. The target of a drug is commonly referred to as a receptor, but can in general be any chemically sensitive site on any molecule found in the body. The nature of such binding can be quantified by characterising


id: elective-surgery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective_surgery-0.md
category: reference
title: Elective surgery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective_surgery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:21.091015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elective-surgery-20260505-0
summary:
Elective surgery or elective procedure is surgery that is scheduled in advance because it does not involve a medical emergency. Semi-elective surgery is a surgery that must be done to preserve the patient's life, but does not need to be performed immediately. Most surgeries are elective, scheduled at a time to suit the surgeon, hospital, and patient. By contrast, an urgent surgery is one that can wait until the patient is medically stable, but should generally be done within 2 days, and an emergency surgery is one that must be performed without delay; the patient has no choice other than immediate surgery if permanent disability or death is to be avoided. Many surgeries can be performed as either elective or emergency surgeries, depending on the patient's needs. == Description == An elective surgery or elective procedure (from the Latin: eligere, meaning to choose) is a surgery that does not involve a medical emergency and is scheduled in advance. Semi-elective surgery is a surgery that must be done to preserve the patient's life, but does not need to be performed immediately. == Types == === Elective === Most surgical medical treatments are elective, that is, scheduled at a time to suit


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-0.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
Electronic prescription (e-prescribing or e-Rx) is the computer-based electronic generation, transmission, and filling of a medical prescription, taking the place of paper and faxed prescriptions. E-prescribing allows a physician, physician assistant, pharmacist, or nurse practitioner to use digital prescription software to electronically transmit a new prescription or renewal authorization to a community or mail-order pharmacy. It outlines the ability to send error-free, accurate, and understandable prescriptions electronically from the healthcare provider to the pharmacy. E-prescribing is meant to reduce the risks associated with traditional prescription script writing. It is also one of the major reasons for the push for electronic medical records. By sharing medical prescription information, e-prescribing seeks to connect the patient's team of healthcare providers to facilitate knowledgeable decision making. == Functions == An e-prescribing system used in the United States must be capable of performing all of the following functions: Patient's identification Generating a complete active medication list, possibly incorporating electronic data received from an insurance provider Access to patient historical data Prescribe or add new medication and select the pharmacy where the prescription will be filled. Work with an existing medication within the practice, this can involve viewing details of a medication, remove a medication from


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-1.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Improving patient safety and quality of care === Illegibility from handwritten prescriptions is eliminated, decreasing the risk of medication errors while simultaneously decreasing risks related to liability. Oral miscommunications regarding prescriptions can be reduced, as e-prescribing should decrease the need for phone calls between prescribers and dispensers. Causes of medication errors include mistakes by the pharmacist incorrectly interpreting illegible handwriting or ambiguous nomenclature, and lapses in the prescriber's knowledge of desired dosage of a drug or undesired interactions between multiple drugs. Electronic prescribing has the potential to eliminate most of these types of errors. Warning and alert systems are provided at the point of care. E-prescribing systems can enhance an overall medication management process through clinical decision support systems that can perform checks against the patient's current medications for drug-drug interactions, drug-allergy interactions, diagnoses, body weight, age, drug appropriateness, and correct dosing. Based on these algorithms, the system can alert prescribers to contradictions, adverse reactions, and duplicate therapies. The computer can also ensure that clear and unambiguous instructions are encoded in a structured message to the pharmacist, and decision support systems can flag lethal dosages and lethal combinations of drugs. E-prescribing allows for increased access to the patient's medical


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-2.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
Financial Cost and Return on Investment (ROI) - The costs associated with purchasing, implementing, supporting and maintaining such a system may be beyond the means of most small clinical practices, and noted to be one of the greatest implementation barriers. Health care workers who are responsible for medical prescription, especially those in small practices, inner-city areas, or remote rural settings, may bear more than their fair share of the cost associated with e-prescribing. This is in response to the various other stakeholders that may reap the benefits from such a system, without having to financially support it, disseminating their risk substantially. Clinical practices therefore need to invest significantly in both hardware and software, with varying costs based on system specifications (stand alone system or entire EHR system). Even clinics that receive free e-prescribing systems may face financial costs pertaining to management of the interface, customization due to flexibility, training, maintenance, and upgrades. On top of this, the clinic must also take into consideration the lost time and efficiency during the transition period of implementation. As a result, large urban areas may see the greatest ROI when compared to those in rural areas. Change management - Many underestimate the challenges pertaining


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-3.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === On March 22, 2016, the Government of Canada allocated funds to Canada Health Infoway to develop an e-prescribing service. Infoway is working with Health Canada, the provinces and territories and industry stakeholders to create PrescribeIT, a multi-jurisdiction e-prescribing service. Infoway will create, operate and maintain the service, along with its partners. The service will be financially self-sustaining and is designed to be scaled across the country and will enable prescribers to electronically transmit a prescription to a patient's pharmacy of choice. Physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners and other prescribers will be able to use the system either through their existing electronic medical record or through a standalone application. Health Canada included supporting better prescribing practices, including e-prescribing, as part of its Action on Opioid Misuse plan. Until recently in Canada, it was the position of Health Canada that, to allow for e-prescribing, amendments to Part C of the Food and Drugs Regulations made under the Food and Drugs Act, regulations made under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act and possibly regulations made under Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act would be required. After further review, Health Canada has concluded that there are currently no regulatory impediments


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-4.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
About 420 million repeat prescriptions are generated in the UK each year - about 200 for each general practitioner each week. They account for about 80% of the cost of medication in primary care. Paper based Repeat Dispensing Services were introduced by the NHS in 1991, and in 1992 it became possible to use the NHS Electronic Prescription Service for this purpose. In 2017 awareness of the scheme among patients was low. In October 2017 Keith McNeil, NHS England's chief clinical information officer demanded that NHS hospitals should be moved rapidly onto electronic prescribing in the light of research showing it would cut serious prescribing errors by more than half. There was no information about the extent to which it is happening in hospitals. After successful pilots in London and the East Midlands it was agreed in April 2018 that electronic prescribing should be introduced in all urgent care settings in England, including NHS 111 and other Out-of-hours services so that dispensed medication can be ready for collection at a pharmacy when patients arrive. £78 million was allocated in December 2018 to encourage progress with implementing electronic prescribing in NHS organisations which were struggling. Electronic prescribing is to start in


id: electronic-visit-verification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_visit_verification-0.md
category: reference
title: Electronic visit verification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_visit_verification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:23.527598+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-visit-verification-20260505-0
summary:
Electronic visit verification (EVV) is a method used in the United States to verify home healthcare visits to ensure patients are not neglected and to cut down on fraudulently documented home visits. Beginning January 1, 2020, home care agencies that provide personal care services must have an EVV solution in place or risk having their Medicaid claims denied, under a mandate included in the 21st Century Cures Act. While the federal mandate sets key data points that must be collected and electronically verified, states create their own systems. State governments decide how to gather and report data that EVV vendors use, and whether to include additional EVV compliance rules. == History == Electronic visit verification was created to help cut down on fraud and ensure that people receive the documented care they need. EVV was designed to help verify that services billed for home healthcare are for actual visits made. The passing of the Affordable Care Act signed into law in 2010 made provisions for the cut down of fraud and over-payments, requiring states to stop Medicaid payments to providers when there is credible evidence of fraud. At least 10 states implemented an office of inspector general to oversee Medicaid


id: electuary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electuary-0.md
category: reference
title: Electuary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electuary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:24.853354+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electuary-20260505-0
summary:
An electuary is a medicine consisting of a powder or other ingredient mixed with something sweet such as honey to make it more palatable. In German and Swiss cultures, electuary (German: Latwerge or Latwerg) is also more generally a thickened juice and honey preparation with a thick, viscous consistency that is used in for culinary purposes, such as a (bread) spread or as a sauce ingredient. In the Indian Ayurveda tradition, electuaries are called Lēhya (लेह्य) (literally, "lickable"). == Types == There are several different types of electuary: laxative electuary, joyful electuary, etc. The fermentation of mixed herbs in honey and their effects on each other are said to increase the medical properties already present and to create new ones. == Famous electuaries in medicine == Chyawanprash Diasenna Mithridate Faroug Figra Sootira == References == Avicenna (1999). The Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fī'l-ṭibb), vol. 5. translate by Abdurrahman Sharafkandi.


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Hospital emergency codes are coded messages often announced over a public address system of a hospital to alert staff to various classes of on-site emergencies. The use of codes is intended to convey essential information quickly and with minimal misunderstanding to staff while preventing stress and panic among visitors to the hospital. Such codes are sometimes posted on placards throughout the hospital or are printed on employee identification badges for ready reference. Hospital emergency codes have varied widely by location, even between hospitals in the same community. Confusion over these codes has led to the proposal for and sometimes adoption of standardised codes. In many American, Canadian, and Australian hospitals, for example "code blue" indicates a patient has entered cardiac arrest, while "code red" indicates that a fire has broken out somewhere in the hospital. In order for a code call to be useful in activating the response of specific hospital personnel to a given situation, it is usually accompanied by a specific location description (e.g., "Code red, second floor, corridor three, room two-twelve"). Other codes, however, only signal hospital staff generally to prepare for the consequences of some external event such as a natural disaster. == Summary == This


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-1.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Code black: bomb threat Code blue: cardiac or respiratory arrest Code brown: hazardous material Code gold: earthquake (Yukon has the highest seismic activity rate in Canada) Code green stage 1: partial evacuation to a safe area within the building Code green stage 2: complete evacuation of the building Code grey: shelter in place/air exclusion Code orange: mass casualty Code red: fire Code white: aggressive behaviour Lockdown: violent situation/hostage taking Code yellow: missing patient === United Kingdom === In the UK, hospitals have standardised codes across individual NHS trusts (England and Wales) and health boards (Scotland), but there are not many standardised codes across the entire NHS. This allows for differences in demands on hospitals in different areas, and also for hospitals of different roles to communicate different alerts according to their needs (e.g., a major trauma centre like St. George's Hospital in South London has different priority alert needs to a rural community hospital like West Berkshire Community Hospital). Some more standardised codes are as follows: Code black: hospital at capacity – no available beds for new admissions from A&E. A code black is declared by the hospital's general bed manager, who then relays this to the local ambulance service


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-2.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Code white: paediatric medical emergency, combative person without a weapon, or emergency operating procedures dependent on the state. Code gold: bomb threat Code brown: missing adult patient Code violet: combative person Code triage: mass casualty Code walker: missing adult patient ==== Plain-language alerts ==== In 2015, the South Carolina Hospital Association formed a work group to develop plain language standardisation code recommendations. Abolishing all colour codes was suggested. In 2016, the Texas Hospital Association encouraged the use of standardised plain language emergency alerts at all Texas hospitals. The only colour code that was still recommended was "code blue," meaning a cardiac arrest. Plain language alerts are announced using the following format: Alert type + description + location (general to specific) + instructions (if applicable). For example, if a patient in ICU Bed 4 went into cardiac arrest, the alert would be "Medical alert + code blue + second floor + intensive care unit + bed 4." In January 2025, the Washington State Hospital Association (WSHA) recommended plain-language codes, although it advised keeping the legacy colour codes of "Code Blue" and "Amber Alert." The new system, which is "strongly recommend[ed]" but not required, classifies alerts into "Facility," "Medical," and "Security" alerts.


id: empyema-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empyema-0.md
category: reference
title: Empyema
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empyema
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:32.131529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empyema-20260505-0
summary:
An empyema (; from Ancient Greek ἐμπύημα (empúēma) 'abscess') is a collection or gathering of pus within a naturally existing anatomical cavity. The term is most commonly used to refer to pleural empyema, which is empyema of the pleural cavity. It is similar to or the same as abscess in meaning, but the context of use may sometimes be different. For instance, an appendicular empyema is in medicine now generally called an abscess. Empyema most commonly occurs as a complication of pneumonia but can also result from other infections or conditions that lead to the collection of infected fluid in a body cavity. == Classification == Empyema occurs in: the pleural cavity (pleural empyema also known as pyothorax) the thoracic cavity the uterus (pyometra) the appendix (appendicitis) the meninges (subdural empyema) the joints (septic arthritis) the gallbladder == Diagnosis == Chest X-rays or computed tomography (CT) scans can reveal the presence of fluid within the pleural space and help assess its characteristics. Once a fluid-filled cavity has been identified, it is often partially or fully drained with a needle, so that the fluid may be analyzed. This helps determine whether the fluid is infected and allows for the identification of


id: end-organ-damage-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage-0.md
category: reference
title: End organ damage
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:33.470549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: end-organ-damage-20260505-0
summary:
End organ damage is severe impairment of major body organs due to systemic disease. Commonly this is referred to in diabetes, high blood pressure, or states of low blood pressure or low blood volume. This can present as a heart attack or heart failure, pulmonary edema, neurologic deficits including a stroke, or acute kidney failure. == Pathophysiology == End organ damage typically occurs where systemic disease causes cell death in most or all organs. === Hypertensive === When blood pressures are critically high (>180/120 mm Hg) or the rate of rise in blood pressure is rapid, a large volume of blood circulating in a small space creates turbulence and can damage the inner lining of blood vessels. The body’s repair systems are activated by damage and circulating blood components, like platelets, work on repair. The deposition of platelets can clutter the vessel space and impair the body’s natural ability to produce nitrous oxide, which would dilate blood vessels and help lower blood pressure. When high pressure is pushing on the walls of narrowed blood vessels, fluid leaves the inside of blood vessels and moves to the space just outside. This impairs necessary blood flow and cuts off circulating oxygen, which


id: end-organ-damage-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage-1.md
category: reference
title: End organ damage
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:33.470549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: end-organ-damage-20260505-0
summary:
== Management == === Hypertensive === When there is concern for the presence or development of end organ damage, blood pressure should be lowered emergently with intravenous antihypertensive medications. Patients should be admitted to the hospital to be closely monitored for complications of end organ damage, notably strokes. Blood pressure should be lowered a maximum of 10% over the first hour and 25% over the first two hours as rapid lowering of blood pressure can lead to decreased blood flow in the brain and cause the development of an ischemic stroke. Once blood pressure is stabilized, patients can be changed from intravenous medications to oral. For patients with long-standing hypertension, patient education on the importance of consistently taking prescribed medications and keeping blood pressure well-controlled is critical. Additionally, future treatments may focus not only on blood pressure control but also the reduction of local inflammation that can lead to end organ damage. In pregnant patients where there is concern for pre-eclampsia, patients should be given magnesium sulfate and admitted. Urine output, breathing, and reflexes should be monitored closely with concern for the development of worsening kidney function and magnesium toxicity. Systolic blood pressure should be treated with antihypertensive medications only


id: endaural-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endaural_phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: Endaural phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endaural_phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:34.761333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endaural-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
Endaural phenomena are sounds that are heard without any external acoustic stimulation. Endaural means "in the ear". Phenomena include transient ringing in the ears (that sound like sine tones), white noise-like sounds, and subjective tinnitus. Endaural phenomena need to be distinguished from otoacoustic emissions, in which a person's ear emits sounds. The emitter typically cannot hear the sounds made by his or her ear. Endaural phenomena also need to be distinguished from auditory hallucinations, which are sometimes associated with psychosis. == See also == Bruit Entoptic phenomenon == References ==


id: endogenous-agonist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogenous_agonist-0.md
category: reference
title: Endogenous agonist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogenous_agonist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:36.017714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endogenous-agonist-20260505-0
summary:
In pharmacology, an endogenous agonist for a particular receptor is a compound naturally produced by the body which binds to and activates that receptor. For example, the primary endogenous agonist for serotonin receptors is serotonin, and the primary endogenous agonist for dopamine receptors is dopamine. In general, receptors for small molecule neurotransmitters such as serotonin will have only one endogenous agonist, but often have many different receptor subtypes (e.g. 13 different receptors for serotonin). On the other hand, neuropeptide receptors tend to have fewer subtypes, but may have several different endogenous agonists. This allows for a high degree of complexity in the body's signalling system, with different tissues often showing quite distinct responses to a particular ligand. Some endogenous antagonists and inverse agonists are also known (e.g., kynurenic acid at the NMDA receptor), but these are much less common. == References ==


id: endotype-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotype-0.md
category: reference
title: Endotype
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotype
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:37.256928+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endotype-20260505-0
summary:
An endotype is a subtype of a health condition, which is defined by a distinct functional or pathobiological mechanism. This is distinct from a phenotype, which is any observable characteristic or trait of a disease, such as development, biochemical or physiological properties without any implication of a mechanism. It is envisaged that patients with a specific endotype present themselves within phenotypic clusters of diseases. One example is asthma, which is considered to be a syndrome, consisting of a series of endotypes. This is related to the concept of disease entity. == Disease entity == The main concept in nosology is the disease entity. Normally there are two ways to define a disease entity: Manifestational criteria and causal criteria. Manifestational criteria. These are a set of criteria based on signs, symptoms and laboratory findings that define a disease. They define a disease by its symptoms and medical findings. Causal criteria. These are a causal chain of events that defines the disease describing how it develops. They describe the disease by its etiology. Following Fred Gifford, these criteria lead one to view any disease entity in three different forms: Disease as symptoms: The disease is defined by the symptoms and signs that


id: engel-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engel_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Engel classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engel_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:38.574402+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engel-classification-20260505-0
summary:
To classify postoperative outcomes for epilepsy surgery, Jerome Engel proposed the following scheme, the Engel Epilepsy Surgery Outcome Scale, which has become the de facto standard when reporting results in the medical literature: Class I: Free of disabling seizures Class II: Rare disabling seizures ("almost seizure-free") Class III: Worthwhile improvement Class IV: No worthwhile improvement == History == Surgery for epilepsy patients has been used for over a century, but due to technological restrictions and insufficient knowledge of brain surgery, this treatment approach was relatively rare until the 1980s and 90s. Prior to the 1980s, no classification system existed due to the lack of operations performed up until the time. As surgery as a treatment grew more prevalent, a classification system became a necessity. The appropriate evaluation of patients following epilepsy surgery is extremely important, as medical professionals must know the appropriate course of action to follow in order to achieve seizure freedom for patients. Accordingly, the Engel classification guidelines were devised by UCLA neurologist Jerome Engel Jr. in 1987 and made public at the 1992 Palm Desert Conference on Epilepsy Surgery. The Engel classification system has since become the standard in reporting postoperative outcomes of epilepsy surgery. == Overview


id: epiphenomenon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenon-0.md
category: reference
title: Epiphenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:39.920298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epiphenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
An epiphenomenon (plural: epiphenomena) is a secondary phenomenon that occurs alongside or in parallel to a primary phenomenon. The word has two senses: one that connotes known causation and one that connotes absence of causation or reservation of judgment about it. == Examples == === Metaphysics === In the philosophy of causality, an epiphenomenon is any effect of a cause apart from the effect under primary consideration. In situations in which an event of interest E is caused by (or, is said to be caused by) an event C, which also causes (or, is said to cause) an event F, then F is an epiphenomenon. The problem of epiphenomena is often a counterexample to theories of causation. For example, take a simplified Lewisian counterfactual analysis of causation that the meaning of propositions about causal relationships between two events A and B can be explained in terms of counterfactual conditionals of the form "if A had not occurred then B would not have occurred". Suppose that C causes E and that C has an epiphenomenon F. We then have that if E had not occurred, then F would not have occurred, either. But then according to the counterfactual analysis of causation,


id: equianalgesic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equianalgesic-0.md
category: reference
title: Equianalgesic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equianalgesic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:41.388174+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equianalgesic-20260505-0
summary:
An equianalgesic chart is a conversion chart that lists equivalent doses of analgesics (drugs used to relieve pain). Equianalgesic charts are used for calculation of an equivalent dose (a dose which would offer an equal amount of analgesia) between different analgesics. Tables of this general type are also available for NSAIDs, benzodiazepines, depressants, stimulants, anticholinergics and others. When using oral morphine as a baseline, the comparison of strengths of opioid analgesics is referred to as oral morphine equivalent. == Format == Equianalgesic tables are available in different formats, such as pocket-sized cards for ease of reference. A frequently-seen format has the drug names in the left column, the route of administration in the center columns and any notes in the right column. == Purpose == There are several reasons for switching a patient to a different pain medication. These include practical considerations such as lower cost or unavailability of a drug at the patient's preferred pharmacy, or medical reasons such as lack of effectiveness of the current drug or to minimize adverse effects. Some patients request to be switched to a different narcotic due to stigma associated with a particular drug (e.g. a patient refusing methadone due to its association


id: eskape-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESKAPE-0.md
category: reference
title: ESKAPE
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESKAPE
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:42.622581+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eskape-20260505-0
summary:
ESKAPE is an acronym comprising the scientific names of six highly virulent and antibiotic resistant bacterial pathogens including: Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp. The acronym is sometimes extended to ESKAPEE to include Escherichia coli. This group of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria can evade or 'escape' commonly used antibiotics due to their increasing multi-drug resistance (MDR). As a result, throughout the world, they are the major cause of life-threatening nosocomial or hospital-acquired infections in immunocompromised and critically ill patients who are most at risk.== Training and awareness manuals == In addition to primary research literature, structured training materials have been developed to support understanding of ESKAPE pathogens in public health and biosecurity contexts. One such manual is Demystifying ESKAPE Pathogens (2017), published by the Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS), a laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), India. The manual provides an overview of multidrug-resistant pathogens, including their epidemiology, mechanisms of resistance, transmission, clinical features, and control strategies, and is used in training and awareness programmes in India. P. aeruginosa and S. aureus are some of the most ubiquitous pathogens in biofilms found in healthcare. P. aeruginosa is


id: eskape-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESKAPE-1.md
category: reference
title: ESKAPE
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESKAPE
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:42.622581+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eskape-20260505-0
summary:
== Clinical threats == Due to their heightened resistance to frequently used antibiotics, these pathogens pose an additional threat to the safety of the general population, particularly those who frequently interact with hospital environments, as they most commonly contribute to hospital-acquired infections (HAI). The increased antimicrobial resistance profile of these pathogens varies, however they arise from similar causes. One common cause of antibiotic resistance is due to incorrect dosing. When a sub-therapeutic dose is prescribed, or a patient chooses to use less of their prescribed antibiotic, bacteria are given the opportunity to adapt to the treatment. At lower doses, or when a course of antibiotics is not completed, certain strains of the bacteria develop drug-resistant strains through the process of natural selection. This is due to the random genetic mutations that are constantly occurring in many forms of living organisms, bacteria and humans included. Natural selection supports the persistence of strains of bacteria that have developed a certain mutation that allows them to survive. Some strains are also able to participate in inter-strain horizontal gene transfer, allowing them to pass resistance genes from one pathogen to another. This can be particularly problematic in nosocomial infections, where bacteria are constantly exposed


id: exacerbation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exacerbation-0.md
category: reference
title: Exacerbation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exacerbation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:43.829883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: exacerbation-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, an exacerbation is the worsening of a disease or an increase in its symptoms. Examples includes an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute exacerbation of congestive heart failure. == See also == Flare-up == References ==


id: excavation-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavation_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Excavation (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavation_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:45.147921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: excavation-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, excavation has two meanings: the act of hollowing out (e.g., to remove damaged or infected tissue) the space hollowed out, or a natural cavity or pouch == In anatomy == Examples of naturally hollow spaces that are considered excavations include: Rectouterine pouch or excavation, between the uterus and the rectum Rectovesical excavation, between the rectum and the male bladder Vesicouterine excavation, between the bladder and the uterus in a female == In medical and dental procedures == The tool used to create an excavation (e.g., to remove damaged areas before filling dental caries) is an excavator. Excavation is also the technique used to remove granulation tissue when necessary. == References ==


id: exercise-capacity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_capacity-0.md
category: reference
title: Exercise capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:46.378462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: exercise-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
Exercise capacity is defined as "the maximum amount of physical exertion that a patient can sustain". == References ==


id: extracorporeal-procedure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracorporeal_procedure-0.md
category: reference
title: Extracorporeal procedure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracorporeal_procedure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:47.590410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extracorporeal-procedure-20260505-0
summary:
An extracorporeal procedure is a medical procedure which is performed outside the body. Extracorporeal devices are the artificial organs that remain outside the body while treating a patient. Extracorporeal devices are useful in hemodialysis and cardiac surgery. == Circulatory procedures == A procedure in which blood is taken from a patient's circulation to have a process applied to it before it is returned to the circulation. All of the apparatuses carrying the blood outside the body are collectively termed the extracorporeal circuit. Intra-surgical cell salvage (aspiration, washing and Autotransfusion) Apheresis Plasmapheresis vs cytapheresis centrifugal apheresis vs filtration apheresis vs adsorption cascade apheresis Hemoadsorption/Hemoperfusion Plasma Adsorption Aquapheresis Hemodialysis Hemofiltration Hemodiafiltration Renal replacement therapy Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT) Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) Cardiopulmonary bypass during open heart surgery Liver support system Biospleen and other extracorporeal bionic or non bionic spleen-like blood cleansing device == Other procedures == Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL), which is unrelated to other extracorporeal therapies, in that the device used to break up the kidney stones is held completely outside the body, whilst the lithotripsy itself occurs inside the body. Extracorporeal radiotherapy, where a large bone with a tumour is removed


id: extravasation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravasation-0.md
category: reference
title: Extravasation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravasation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:48.772379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extravasation-20260505-0
summary:
Extravasation is the leakage of a fluid out of its contained space into the surrounding area, especially blood or blood cells from vessels. In the case of inflammation, it refers to the movement of white blood cells through the capillary wall, into the surrounding tissues. This is known as leukocyte extravasation, also called diapedesis. In the case of cancer metastasis, it refers to cancer cells exiting the capillaries and entering other tissues, where secondary tumors may form. The term is commonly used in a medical context. More specifically, extravasation can refer to: Extravasation (intravenous) Extravasation of infusates Extravasation of irrigation fluid Extravasation of urine Leukocyte extravasation Angiopellosis (non-leukocyte cell extravastion) == Irrigation fluid == Extravasation of irrigation fluid is the unintended migration of irrigation fluid (e.g., saline) introduced into a human body. This may occur in several types of endoscopic surgery, such as minimally invasive orthopedic surgery, i.e., arthroscopy, TURP (trans-urethral resection of the prostate), and TCRE (trans-cervical resection of the endometrium). In arthroscopy, fluid under pressure is used to inflate and distend a joint and make a working surgical space. An arthroscopy is typically performed on shoulder and knee joints; however, hip arthroscopy is becoming more popular. An arthroscopy


id: extravasation-intravenous-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravasation_(intravenous)-0.md
category: reference
title: Extravasation (intravenous)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravasation_(intravenous)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:50.074837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extravasation-intravenous-20260505-0
summary:
Extravasation is the leakage of intravenously (IV) infused, and potentially damaging, medications into the extravascular tissue around the site of infusion. The leakage can occur through brittle veins in the elderly, through previous venipuncture access, or through direct leakage from wrongly positioned venous access devices. When the leakage is not of harmful consequence it is known as infiltration. Extravasation of medication during intravenous therapy is an adverse event related to therapy that, depending on the medication, amount of exposure, and location, can potentially cause serious injury and permanent harm, such as tissue necrosis. Milder consequences of extravasation include irritation, characterized by symptoms of pain and inflammation, with the clinical signs of warmth, erythema (redness), or tenderness. == Medications == Complications related to extravasation are possible with any medication. Since vesicants are blistering agents, extravasation may lead to irreversible tissue injury. Extravasation is particularly serious during chemotherapy, since chemotherapy medications are highly toxic. == Treatment == The best "treatment" of extravasation is prevention. Depending on the medication that has extravasated, there are potential management options and treatments that aim to minimize damage, although the effectiveness of many of these treatments has not been well studied. In cases of tissue necrosis, surgical


id: family-history-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_history_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Family history (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_history_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:51.322749+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: family-history-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a family history (FH or FHx) consists of information about disorders of direct blood relatives of the patient. Genealogy typically includes very little of the medical history of the family, but the medical history could be considered a specific subset of the total history of a family. Accurate knowledge of a patient's family history may identify a predisposition to developing certain illnesses, which can inform clinical decisions and allow effective management or even prevention of conditions. == Eugenic origins and applications == Early mentions of family medical histories in medical literature date from the 1840s. Henry Ancell mentioned inquiring about the family history of a patient in a medical case study in 1842, noting that the patient's presenting concern appears to be present in relatives and remarking on the prolific reproduction of her female relatives. In 1849, W.H. Walshe argued in a lecture at University College London Hospital that in addition to a history of the presenting disease itself, a physician should also collect family history. Walshe's lecture does not define or justify the family history, which may suggest that taking one was already in common practice. However, later 19th-century physicians did provide a specific apologia for family


id: fascia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia-0.md
category: reference
title: Fascia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:52.647635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fascia-20260505-0
summary:
A fascia (; pl.: fasciae or fascias; adjective fascial; from Latin fascia 'band') is a generic term for macroscopic membranous bodily structures. Fasciae are classified as superficial, visceral or deep, and further designated according to their anatomical location. The knowledge of fascial structures is essential in surgery, as they create borders for infectious processes (for example Psoas abscess) and haematoma. An increase in pressure may result in a compartment syndrome, where a prompt fasciotomy may be necessary. For this reason, profound descriptions of fascial structures are available in anatomical literature from the 19th century. == Function == Fasciae were traditionally thought of as passive structures that transmit mechanical tension generated by muscular activities or external forces throughout the body. An important function of muscle fasciae is to reduce friction of muscular force. In doing so, fasciae provide a supportive and movable wrapping for nerves and blood vessels as they pass through and between muscles. In the tradition of medical dissections it has been common practice to carefully clean muscles and other organs from their surrounding fasciae in order to study their detailed topography and function. However, this practice tends to ignore that many muscle fibers insert into their fascial envelopes


id: fascia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia-1.md
category: reference
title: Fascia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:52.647635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fascia-20260505-0
summary:
==== Superficial ==== Superficial fascia is the lowermost layer of the skin in nearly all of the regions of the body, that blends with the reticular dermis layer. It is present on the face, over the upper portion of the sternocleidomastoid, at the nape of the neck and overlying the breastbone. It consists mainly of loose areolar and fatty adipose connective tissue and is the layer that primarily determines the shape of a body. In addition to its subcutaneous presence, superficial fascia surrounds organs, glands and neurovascular bundles, and fills otherwise empty space at many other locations. It serves as a storage medium of fat and water; as a passageway for lymph, nerve and blood vessels; and as a protective padding to cushion and insulate. Superficial fascia is present, but does not contain fat, in the eyelid, ear, scrotum, penis and clitoris. Due to its viscoelastic properties, superficial fascia can stretch to accommodate the deposition of adipose that accompanies both ordinary and prenatal weight gain. After pregnancy and weight loss, the superficial fascia slowly reverts to its original level of tension. ==== Visceral ==== Visceral fascia (also called subserous fascia) suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in


id: fibrosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Fibrosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:54.008675+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fibrosis-20260505-0
summary:
Fibrosis, also known as fibrotic scarring, is the development of fibrous connective tissue in response to an injury. Fibrosis can be a normal connective tissue deposition or excessive tissue deposition caused by a disease. Repeated injuries, chronic inflammation and repair are susceptible to fibrosis, where an accidental excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components, such as collagen, is produced by fibroblasts, leading to the formation of a permanent fibrotic scar. In response to injury, this is called scarring, and if fibrosis arises from a single cell line, this is called a fibroma. Physiologically, fibrosis acts to deposit connective tissue, which can interfere with or totally inhibit the normal architecture and function of the underlying organ or tissue. Fibrosis can be used to describe the pathological state of excess deposition of fibrous tissue, as well as the process of connective tissue deposition in healing. Defined by the pathological accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, fibrosis results in scarring and thickening of the affected tissue — it is in essence a natural wound healing response which interferes with normal organ function. == Physiology == Fibrosis is similar to the process of scarring, in that both involve stimulated fibroblasts laying down connective tissue, including


id: five-year-survival-rate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-year_survival_rate-0.md
category: reference
title: Five-year survival rate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-year_survival_rate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:55.293134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: five-year-survival-rate-20260505-0
summary:
The five-year survival rate is a type of survival rate for estimating the prognosis of a particular disease, normally calculated from the point of diagnosis. Lead time bias from earlier diagnosis can affect interpretation of the five-year survival rate. There are absolute and relative survival rates, but the latter are more useful and commonly used. == Relative and absolute rates == Five-year relative survival rates are more commonly cited in cancer statistics. Five-year absolute survival rates may sometimes also be cited. Five-year absolute survival rates describe the percentage of patients alive five years after the disease is diagnosed. Five-year relative survival rates describe the percentage of patients with a disease alive five years after the disease is diagnosed, divided by the percentage of the general population of corresponding sex and age alive after five years. Typically, cancer five-year relative survival rates are well below 100%, reflecting excess mortality among cancer patients compared to the general population. In contrast to five-year absolute survival rates, five-year relative survival rates may also equal or even exceed 100% if cancer patients have the same or even higher survival rates than the general population. The pattern may occur if cancer patients can generally be cured,


id: fomite-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite-0.md
category: reference
title: Fomite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:56.412800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fomite-20260505-0
summary:
A fomite () or fomes () is any inanimate object that, when contaminated with or exposed to infectious agents (such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses or fungi), can transfer disease to a new host. == Transfer of pathogens by fomites == A fomite is any inanimate object (also called passive vector) that, when contaminated with or exposed to infectious agents (such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses or fungi), can transfer disease to a new host. Contamination can occur when one of these objects comes into contact with bodily secretions, like nasal fluid, vomit or feces from toilet plume. Many common objects can sustain a pathogen until a person comes in contact with the pathogen, increasing the chance of infection. The likely objects are different in a hospital environment than at home or in a workplace. Fomites such as splinters, barbed wire or farmyard surfaces, including soil, feeding troughs or barn beams, have been implicated as sources of virus. === Hospital fomites === For humans, common hospital fomites are skin cells, hair, clothing, and bedding. Fomites are associated particularly with hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), as they are possible routes to pass pathogens between patients. Stethoscopes and neckties are common fomites associated with health care


id: fomite-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite-1.md
category: reference
title: Fomite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:56.412800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fomite-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transmission of specific viruses === Researchers have discovered that smooth (non-porous) surfaces like door knobs transmit bacteria and viruses better than porous materials like paper money because porous, especially fibrous, materials absorb and trap the contagion, making it harder to contract through simple touch. Nonetheless, fomites may include soiled clothes, towels, linens, handkerchiefs, and surgical dressings. SARS-CoV-2 was found to be viable on various surfaces from 4 to 72 hours under laboratory conditions. On porous surfaces, studies report inability to detect viable virus within minutes to hours; on non-porous surfaces, viable virus can be detected for days to weeks. However, further research called into question the relevance of such tests, instead finding fomite transmission of SARS-Cov-2 in real world settings is extremely rare when standard cleaning procedure are followed. Contact with aerosolized virus (large droplet spread) generated via talking, sneezing, coughing, or vomiting, toilet flushing & produced toilet plume or contact with airborne virus that settles after disturbance of a contaminated fomite (e.g. shaking a contaminated blanket). During the first 24 hours, the risk can be reduced by increasing ventilation and waiting as long as possible before entering the space (at least several hours, based on documented airborne transmission


id: frax-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FRAX-0.md
category: reference
title: FRAX
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FRAX
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:57.594597+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frax-20260505-0
summary:
FRAX (fracture risk assessment tool) is a diagnostic tool used to evaluate the 10-year probability of bone fracture risk. It was developed by the University of Sheffield. FRAX integrates clinical risk factors and bone mineral density at the femoral neck to calculate the 10-year probability of hip fracture and the 10-year probability of a major osteoporotic fracture (clinical spine, forearm, hip or shoulder fracture). The models used to develop the FRAX diagnostic tool were derived from studying patient populations in North America, Europe, Latin America, Asia and Australia. == Components == The parameters included in a FRAX assessment, many being yes/no questions, are: Country Age Sex Weight Height Previous fracture Hip fracture of a patient's parent Current smoking Glucocorticoid treatment Rheumatoid arthritis Disease strongly associated with osteoporosis, including type I diabetes, osteogenesis imperfecta in adults, untreated long-standing hyperthyroidism, hypogonadism, menopause before age 45, chronic malnutrition or malabsorption, chronic renal failure (dialysis-independent) and chronic liver disease Alcohol intake of 30 ml per day or more (three standard drinks) Bone mineral density (BMD) of the femoral neck if known Trabecular bone score (optional) == Availability and usage == FRAX is available free of charge online, and commercially as a desktop application, in


id: fremitus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremitus-0.md
category: reference
title: Fremitus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremitus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:58.816310+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fremitus-20260505-0
summary:
Fremitus is a vibration transmitted through the body. In common medical usage, it usually refers to assessment of the lungs by either the vibration intensity felt on the chest wall (tactile fremitus) and/or heard by a stethoscope on the chest wall with certain spoken words (vocal fremitus), although there are several other types. == Types == === Vocal fremitus === When a person speaks, the vocal cords create vibrations (vocal fremitus) in the tracheobronchial tree and through the lungs and chest wall, where they can be felt (tactile fremitus). This is usually assessed with the healthcare provider placing the flat of their palms on the chest wall and then asking a patient to repeat a phrase containing low-frequency vowels such as "blue balloons" or "toys for tots" (the original diphthong used was the German word neunundneunzig but the translation to the English 'ninety-nine' was a higher-frequency diphthong and thus not as effective in eliciting fremitus). An increase in tactile fremitus indicates denser or inflamed lung tissue, which can be caused by diseases such as pneumonia. A decrease suggests air or fluid in the pleural spaces or a decrease in lung tissue density, which can be caused by diseases such as


id: fulminant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulminant-0.md
category: reference
title: Fulminant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulminant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:00.136142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fulminant-20260505-0
summary:
Fulminant () is a medical descriptor for any event or process that occurs suddenly and escalates quickly, and is intense and severe to the point of lethality, i.e., it has an explosive character. The word comes from Latin fulmināre, to strike with lightning. There are several diseases described by this adjective: Fulminant liver failure Fulminant (Marburg variant) multiple sclerosis Fulminant colitis Fulminant pre-eclampsia Fulminant meningitis Purpura fulminans Fulminant hepatic venous thrombosis (Budd-Chiari syndrome) Fulminant jejunoileitis Fulminant myocarditis Beyond these particular uses, the term is used more generally as a descriptor for sudden-onset medical conditions that are immediately threatening to life or limb. Some viral hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola, Lassa fever, and Lábrea fever, may kill in as little as two to five days. Diseases that cause rapidly developing lung edema, such as some kinds of pneumonia, may kill in a few hours. It was said of the "black death" (pneumonic bubonic plague) that some of its victims would die in a matter of hours after the initial symptoms appeared. Other pathologic conditions that may be fulminating in character are acute respiratory distress syndrome, asthma, acute anaphylaxis, septic shock, Sweating sickness, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. The term is generally not


id: functional-disorder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder-0.md
category: reference
title: Functional disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:01.456201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
Functional disorders are a group of recognisable medical conditions which are due to changes to the functioning of the systems of the body rather than due to a disease affecting the structure of the body. Functional disorders are common and complex phenomena that pose challenges to medical systems. Traditionally in medicine, the body is thought of as consisting of different organ systems, but it is less well understood how the systems interconnect or communicate. Functional disorders can affect the interplay of several organ systems (for example gastrointestinal, respiratory, musculoskeletal or neurological) leading to multiple and variable symptoms. Less commonly there is a single prominent symptom or organ system affected. Most symptoms that are caused by structural disease can also be caused by a functional disorder. Because of this, individuals often undergo many medical investigations before the diagnosis is clear. Though research is growing to support explanatory models of functional disorders, structural scans such as MRIs, or laboratory investigation such as blood tests do not usually explain the symptoms or the symptom burden. This difficulty in 'seeing' the processes underlying the symptoms of functional disorders has often resulted in these conditions being misunderstood and sometimes stigmatised within medicine and society. Despite


id: functional-disorder-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder-1.md
category: reference
title: Functional disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:01.456201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
The diagnosis of functional disorders is usually made in the healthcare setting most often by a doctor — this could be a primary care physician or family doctor, hospital physician or specialist in the area of psychosomatic medicine or a consultant-liaison psychiatrist. The primary care physician or family doctor will generally play an important role in coordinating treatment with a secondary care clinician if necessary. The diagnosis is essentially clinical, whereby the clinician undertakes a thorough medical and mental health history and physical examination. Diagnosis should be based on the nature of the presenting symptoms, and is a "rule in" as opposed to "rule out" diagnosis — this means it is based on the presence of positive symptoms and signs that follow a characteristic pattern. There is usually a process of clinical reasoning to reach this point and assessment might require several visits, ideally with the same doctor. In the clinical setting, there are no laboratory or imaging tests that can consistently be used to diagnose the conditions; however, as is the case with all diagnoses, often additional diagnostic tests (such as blood tests, or diagnostic imaging) will be undertaken to consider the presence of underlying disease. There are however


id: functional-disorder-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder-2.md
category: reference
title: Functional disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:01.456201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
=== Precipitating factors === These are the factors that for some patients appear to trigger the onset of a functional disorder. Typically, these involve either an acute cause of physical or emotional stress, for example an operation, a viral illness, a car accident, a sudden bereavement, or a period of intense and prolonged overload of chronic stressors (for example relationship difficulties, job or financial stress, or caring responsibilities). Not all affected individuals will be able to identify obvious precipitating factors and some functional disorders develop gradually over time. === Perpetuating factors === These are the factors that contribute to the development of functional disorder as a persistent condition and maintaining symptoms. These can include the condition of the physiological systems including the immune and neuroimmune systems, the endocrine system, the musculoskeletal system, the sleep-wake cycle, the brain and nervous system, the person's thoughts and experience, their experience of the body, social situation and environment. All these layers interact with each other. Illness mechanisms are important therapeutically as they are seen as potential targets of treatment. The exact illness mechanisms that are responsible for maintaining an individual's functional disorder should be considered on an individual basis. However, various models have been


id: functional-disorder-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder-3.md
category: reference
title: Functional disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:01.456201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversies and stigma == Despite some progress in the last decade, people with functional disorders continue to suffer subtle and overt forms of discrimination by clinicians, researchers and the public. Stigma is a common experience for individuals who present with functional symptoms and is often driven by historical narratives and factual inaccuracies. Given that functional disorders do not usually have specific biomarkers or findings on structural imaging that are typically undertaken in routine clinical practice, this leads to potential for symptoms to be misunderstood, invalidated, or dismissed, leading to adverse experiences when individuals are seeking help. Part of this stigma is also driven by theories around "mind body dualism", which frequently surfaces as an area of importance for patients, researchers and clinicians in the realm of functional disorders. Artificial separation of the mind/brain/body (for example the use of phrases such as; "physical versus psychological" or "organic versus non-organic") furthers misunderstanding and misconceptions around these disorders, and only serves to hinder progress in scientific domain and for patients seeking treatment. Some patient groups have fought to have their illnesses not classified as functional disorders, because in some insurance based health-care systems these have attracted lower insurance payments. Current research is


id: functional-symptom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_symptom-0.md
category: reference
title: Functional symptom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_symptom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:02.778512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-symptom-20260505-0
summary:
A functional symptom is a medical symptom with no known physical cause. In other words, there is no structural or pathologically defined disease to explain the symptom. The use of the term 'functional symptom' does not assume psychogenesis, only that the body is not functioning as expected. Functional symptoms are increasingly viewed within a framework in which 'biological, psychological, interpersonal and healthcare factors' should all be considered to be relevant for determining the aetiology and treatment plans. Historically, there has often been fierce debate about whether certain problems are predominantly related to an abnormality of structure (disease) or are psychosomatic in nature (secondary gain), and what are at one stage posited to be functional symptoms are sometimes later reclassified as organic, as investigative techniques improve. It is well established that psychosomatic symptoms are a real phenomenon, so this potential explanation is often plausible, however the commonality of a range of psychological symptoms and functional weakness does not imply that one causes the other. For example, symptoms associated with migraine, epilepsy, schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, stomach ulcers, myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), Lyme disease and many other conditions have all tended historically at first to be explained largely as physical manifestations of


id: gliosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Gliosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:06.365369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gliosis-20260505-0
summary:
Gliosis is a nonspecific reactive change of glial cells in response to damage to the central nervous system (CNS). In most cases, gliosis involves the proliferation or hypertrophy of several different types of glial cells, including astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes. In its most extreme form, the proliferation associated with gliosis leads to the formation of a glial scar. The process of gliosis involves a series of cellular and molecular events that occur over several days. Typically, the first response to injury is the migration of macrophages and local microglia to the injury site. This process, which constitutes a form of gliosis known as microgliosis, begins within hours of the initial CNS injury. Later, after 3–5 days, oligodendrocyte precursor cells are also recruited to the site and may contribute to remyelination. The final component of gliosis is astrogliosis, the proliferation of surrounding astrocytes, which are the main constituents of the glial scar. Gliosis has historically been given a negative connotation due to its appearance in many CNS diseases and the inhibition of axonal regeneration caused by glial scar formation. However, gliosis has been shown to have both beneficial and detrimental effects, and the balance between these is due to a complex


id: gliosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Gliosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:06.365369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gliosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Microgliosis == Microglia, another type of glial cell, act as macrophage-like cells in the CNS when activated. Unlike other glial cell types, microglia are extremely sensitive to even small changes in the cellular environment, allowing for a rapid response to inflammatory signals and prompt destruction of infectious agents before sensitive neural tissue can be damaged. Due to their fast response time, microgliosis, or the activation of microglia, is commonly the first observed stage of gliosis. Microgliosis following a CNS insult most commonly involves the development of an altered cellular morphology, specifically the enlargement of cellular processes. The microglial immunological surface receptor CR3 is also upregulated within 24 hours after the initial injury. Within the first week following the injury, microglia begin to proliferate abnormally and while doing so exhibit several immunophenotypic changes, particularly an increased expression of MHC antigens. The population of activated microglia at the site of a CNS injury includes not only endogenous microglia of the CNS but also exogeneous perivascular cells originating in the bone marrow that migrate to the area and transform into microglia to supplement the microgliosis response. While in their activated state, microglia may serve a variety of beneficial functions. For example, active


id: gliosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Gliosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:06.365369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gliosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Triggers of gliosis == In general after any CNS insult, gliosis begins after the blood brain barrier is disrupted, allowing non-CNS molecules, such as blood and serum components, to enter the brain. These components, along with activated macrophages they carry, are known to have a role in beginning the formation of the glial scar by inducing the disconnection of axons, also called secondary axotomy, and the upregulation of fibrous extracellular matrix components which eventually form the scar tissue. The specific molecular triggers responsible for this action, however, remain unknown. One potential trigger is transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). TGF-β2, whose expression is gradually increased as gliosis occurs, has been shown to increase astrocyte production of scar-forming proteoglycans. Experimental reduction of both TGF-β2 and TGF-β1, which is expressed immediately after injury, has resulted in reduced glial scarring. The interleukins are another potential molecular trigger of gliosis. These molecules, notably IL-1, initiate an inflammatory response in various cells including astrocytes that contributes to the gliosis reaction. Finally, interactions between the inflammatory cytokines interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) may also be responsible for the induction of gliosis. In culture, both molecules act as mitogens, prompting the proliferation of astrocytes.


id: gliosis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis-3.md
category: reference
title: Gliosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:06.365369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gliosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Potential therapeutic targets in gliosis == The implications of gliosis in various neuropathologies and injury conditions has led to the investigation of various therapeutic routes which would regulate specific aspects of gliosis in order to improve clinical outcomes for both CNS trauma and a wide range of neurological disorders. Because gliosis is a dynamic process which involves a spectrum of changes depending on the type and severity of the initial insult, to date, no single molecular target has been identified which could improve healing in all injury contexts. Rather, therapeutic strategies for minimizing the contribution of astrogliosis to CNS pathologies must be designed to target specific molecular pathways and responses. One promising therapeutic mechanism is the use of β-lactam antibiotics to enhance the glutamate uptake of astrocytes in order to reduce excitotoxicity and provide neuroprotection in models of stroke and ALS. Other proposed targets related to astrogliosis include manipulating AQP4 channels, diminishing the action of NF-kB, or regulating the STAT3 pathway in order to reduce the inflammatory effects of reactive astrocytes. Astrogliosis may also be attenuated by inhibiting the microgliosis response. One notable microglial activation inhibitor is minocycline, which is a known suppressor of astrogliosis. The cell cycle inhibitor


id: habit-tic-deformity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit-tic_deformity-0.md
category: reference
title: Habit-tic deformity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit-tic_deformity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:07.695050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: habit-tic-deformity-20260505-0
summary:
Habit-tic deformity is a condition of the nail caused by external trauma to the nail matrix. The condition is characterized by ridges which run horizontally across the entire nail, most often occurring on the thumbs, as well as marked damage to or absence of cuticles. == Signs and symptoms == Habit-tic deformity is recognizable for its horizontal ridges that create a fir-tree shape. Discoloration along the affected area of the nail is also common. The condition is not to be confused with median nail dystrophy, a similar but rarer condition which additionally includes a canal-like vertical ridge. The deformity is most commonly seen on the thumbs, but is also less commonly seen on other nails. == Causes == Habit-tic deformity is caused by long-term external trauma to the nail matrix as a result of skin-picking around the affected nail. The underlying cause is habitual skin picking as a body-focused repetitive behavior which often worsens during times of stress, boredom, or inactivity. In the past, habit-tic deformity has been linked to anxiety, tic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. However, there is no preceding anxiety and subsequent relief felt by an individual after picking, differentiating it from compulsions associated with OCD. == Treatment


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-0.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
The head-twitch response (HTR), also sometimes known as wet dog shakes (WDS) in rats, is a rapid side-to-side head movement that occurs in mice and rats in association with serotonin 5-HT2A receptor activation. Serotonergic psychedelics like lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin consistently induce the HTR in rodents, whereas non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists do not. Because of this, the HTR is widely employed in scientific research as an animal behavioral model of hallucinogen effects and in the discovery of new psychedelic drugs. The HTR is one of the only behavioral paradigms for assessment of psychedelic-like effects in animals, with the other most notable test being drug discrimination. However, the HTR is far less costly and time-consuming than drug discrimination and hence has become much more popular in recent years. Limitations of the HTR include the fact that various other drugs besides serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists, such as NMDA receptor antagonists and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists, also induce the HTR, and certain indirect non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor activators, like 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) and serotonin releasers, induce the response as well. While a useful test, it should not be regarded as a definitive predictor of human psychedelic potential. The HTR was first


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-1.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
== Procedure == The HTR method is reliable, straightforward, and simple to perform in that it merely involves direct behavioral observation following drug administration. No animal training or expensive equipment are necessarily required. The HTR can be measured in a single animal or a group of animals and can be observed in real-time or via video-recording and later observation. It can also be recorded via a magnet attached to the head or ear. DOI is the most commonly used psychedelic to induce the HTR. DOI and other psychedelics show a biphasic or inverted U-shaped dose–response curve in terms of HTR induction. For example, no HTR is observed at 0.1 mg/kg DOI, maximal HTR is observed at 1 to 10 mg/kg, and lesser HTR is observed at 3 to 20 mg/kg in rodents. The doses can vary depending on the rodent species and strain. Hence, based on the preceding, proper drug dosing is important for induction of the HTR. A drawback of the HTR assay is that manual observation can be very laborious and time-consuming. More recently however, semi- and fully-automated forms of the assay, notably allowing for the possibility of high-throughput screening, have been developed. == Mechanisms == The HTR


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-2.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific validity == Head twitches do not occur with psychedelics in humans or many other species. In addition, they lack face validity as an animal behavioral proxy of psychedelic effects, in that they bear little resemblance to the human psychedelic experience. In any case, it has been said that head twitches might be a behavioral response to sensory disturbances during hallucinogenic experiences. On the other hand, many drugs that are not hallucinogenic in humans also induce the HTR. Despite the preceding limitations, the assay has strong predictive validity for hallucinogenic effects of serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists in humans. There is a strong correlation between the capacity of serotonergic psychedelics to induce head twitches in rodents and their reported potency in inducing hallucinogenic effects in humans. The HTR is easily quantifiable and there is high agreement in counts between independent observers. In addition, there is a low level of within-subject and between-subject variability in induction of the HTR in animals. Nonetheless, while the HTR assay is useful in assessing target engagement, it should not be regarded as a definitive predictor of psychedelic potential. == Exceptions == === Psychedelics lacking head twitches in animals === There are few or no known


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-3.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
Some serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists, including lisuride, 2-bromo-LSD (bromolysergide; BOL-148), ergotamine, 6-fluoro-DET, 6-MeO-DMT, Ariadne, zalsupindole (DLX-001; AAZ-A-154), ITI-1549, 25N-N1-Nap, and IHCH-7086 among others, are either non-hallucinogenic or are thought to be non-hallucinogenic in spite of activating the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor. The HTR is among the only animal behavioral tests that can reliably distinguish between hallucinogenic and non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists. Although lisuride and other non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists do not produce the HTR in rodents, lisuride does produce the HTR in the least shrew, a non-rodent species that is said to be highly sensitive to serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists. In any case, it is thought that partial agonism with sufficiently low efficacy for specific intracellular signaling pathways underlies the lack of HTR and psychedelic effects with non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists. However, other findings suggest that ergotamine may be non-hallucinogenic due to inability to efficiently cross the blood–brain barrier and peripheral selectivity, while lisuride and 2-bromo-LSD may actually be variably hallucinogenic at sufficiently high doses. Serotonin administered by intracerebroventricular injection at high doses produces the HTR in animals. However, serotonin itself has been considered to be non-hallucinogenic in humans. This would be in accordance with the lack of


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-4.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
The HTR was first described as an effect induced by LSD, independently by Winter and Flataker and by Keller and Umbreit, in 1956. Subsequently, it was described as an effect of large doses of 5-HTP, by Corne, Pickering, and Warner, in 1963. At first, the HTR was just a pharmacological curiosity and was not used as a tool in scientific research. In 1967 however, Corne and Pickering demonstrated the influence of a wide range of drugs on the HTR and proposed the HTR as a behavioral predictor of hallucinogenic effects in humans. The reliability of the HTR for identifying psychedelics is said to have been established by the mid-1970s. However, it has been said that the HTR test did not become widely used in studying serotonin 5-HT2A receptor activation until the mid-2000s. Studies published in the 1960s and 1970s had shown that serotonin receptor antagonists, such as cinanserin, methysergide, and cyproheptadine, blocked the hallucinogen-like effects of psychedelics in animals. Mediation of the HTR specifically via serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonism was first proposed by Peroutka, Lebovitz, and Snyder in 1981, followed by supporting studies by Ortmann and colleagues in 1982 and Leysen and colleagues also in 1982. Richard Glennon and colleagues


id: health-assessment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_assessment-0.md
category: reference
title: Health assessment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_assessment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:10.384453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-assessment-20260505-0
summary:
A health assessment is a plan of care that identifies the specific needs of a person and how those needs will be addressed by the healthcare system or skilled nursing facility. Health assessment is the evaluation of the health status by performing a physical exam after taking a health history. It is done to detect diseases early in people that may look and feel well. Evidence does not support routine health assessments in otherwise healthy people. Health assessment is the evaluation of the health status of an individual along the health continuum. The purpose of the assessment is to establish where on the health continuum the individual is because this guides how to approach and treat the individual. The health care approaches range from preventive, to treatment, to palliative care in relation to the individual's status on the health continuum. It is not the treatment or treatment plan. The plan related to findings is a care plan which is preceded by the specialty such as medical, physical therapy, nursing, etc. == Corporate health assessments == Research by Data Bridge Market Research shows that the market for corporate health assessments which was USD 2,91,272.4 million in 2023, is likely to reach


id: health-sciences-descriptors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Sciences_Descriptors-0.md
category: reference
title: Health Sciences Descriptors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Sciences_Descriptors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:11.640069+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-sciences-descriptors-20260505-0
summary:
DeCS – Health Sciences Descriptors is a structured and trilingual thesaurus created by BIREME – Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information – in 1986 for indexing scientific journal articles, books, proceedings of congresses, technical reports and other types of materials, as well as for searching and recovering scientific information in LILACS, MEDLINE and other databases. In the VHL, Virtual Health Library, DeCS is the tool that permits the navigation between records and sources of information through controlled concepts and organized in Portuguese, Spanish and English. It was developed from MeSH – Medical Subject Headings from the NLM – U.S. National Library of Medicine – in order to permit the use of common terminology for searching in three languages, providing a consistent and unique environment for information retrieval regardless of the language. In addition to the original MeSH terms, four specific areas were developed: Public Health (1986), Homeopathy (1991), Health Surveillance (2005), and Science and Health (2005). The concepts that compose the DeCS vocabulary are organized in a hierarchical structure permitting searches in broader or more specific terms or all the terms that belong to a single hierarchy. Its main purpose is to serve as a unique language


id: healthcare-error-proliferation-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Healthcare error proliferation model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:12.835146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: healthcare-error-proliferation-model-20260505-0
summary:
The healthcare error proliferation model is an adaptation of James Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model designed to illustrate the complexity inherent in the contemporary healthcare delivery system and the attribution of human error within these systems. The healthcare error proliferation model explains the etiology of error and the sequence of events typically leading to adverse outcomes. This model emphasizes the role organizational and external cultures contribute to error identification, prevention, mitigation, and defense construction. == Introduction == Healthcare systems are complex in that they are diverse in both structure (e.g. nursing units, pharmacies, emergency departments, operating rooms) and professional mix (e.g. nurses, physicians, pharmacists, administrators, therapists) and made up of multiple interconnected elements with adaptive tendencies in that they have the capacity to change and learn from experience. The term complex adaptive systems (CAS) was coined at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute (SFI), by John H. Holland, and Murray Gell-Mann. Subsequently, scholars such as Ruth A. Anderson, Rubin McDaniels, and Paul Cilliers have extended CAS theory and research to the social sciences such as education and healthcare. == Model overview == The healthcare error proliferation model (HEPM) adapts the Swiss Cheese Model to the complexity of healthcare delivery systems and integrated


id: healthcare-proxy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_proxy-0.md
category: reference
title: Healthcare proxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_proxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:13.973480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: healthcare-proxy-20260505-0
summary:
In the field of medicine, a healthcare proxy (commonly referred to as HCP) is a document (legal instrument) with which a patient (primary individual) appoints an agent to legally make healthcare decisions on behalf of the patient, when the patient is incapable of making and executing the healthcare decisions stipulated in the proxy. Once the healthcare proxy is effective, the agent continues making healthcare decisions as long as the primary individual is legally competent to decide. Moreover, in legal-administrative functions, the healthcare proxy is a legal instrument akin to a "springing" healthcare power of attorney. The proxy must declare the healthcare agent who will gain durable power attorney. This document also notifies of the authority given from the principal to the agent and states the limitations of this authority. Those over the age of 18 are allowed to have a healthcare proxy, and these documents are useful in situations that render a person unable to communicate their wishes such as being in a persistent vegetative state, having a form of dementia or an illness that takes away one's ability to effectively communicate, or being under anesthesia when a decision needs to be made. Healthcare proxies are one of three ways


id: heent-examination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEENT_examination-0.md
category: reference
title: HEENT examination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEENT_examination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:15.188681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heent-examination-20260505-0
summary:
A HEENT examination is a portion of a physical examination that principally concerns the head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat. == Steps == IPPA Inspection of scars or skin changes Palpation of temporomandibular joint, thyroid, and lymph nodes Percussion may involve the skin above the frontal sinuses and paranasal sinuses to detect any signs of pain Auscultation for carotid bruits Tests specific to HEENT examination Eyes: eye examination and acuity (including ophthalmoscope) Ears: hearing examination and evaluation of tympanic membrane (TM) (otoscope used in evaluation of ears, nose, and mouth) A neurological examination is usually considered separate from the HEENT evaluation, although there can be some overlap in some cases. == Sample write-up == == References ==


id: herd-immunity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity-0.md
category: reference
title: Herd immunity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:16.564067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herd-immunity-20260505-0
summary:
Herd immunity (also called herd effect, community immunity, population immunity, or mass immunity) is a form of indirect protection that applies only to contagious diseases. It occurs when a sufficient percentage of a population has become immune to an infection, whether through previous infections or vaccination, that the communicable pathogen cannot maintain itself in the population, its low incidence thereby reducing the likelihood of infection for individuals who lack immunity. Once the herd immunity has been reached, disease gradually disappears from a population and may result in eradication or permanent reduction of infections to zero if achieved worldwide. Herd immunity created via vaccination has contributed to the reduction of many diseases. == Effects == === Protection of those without immunity === Some individuals either cannot develop immunity after vaccination or for medical reasons cannot be vaccinated. Newborn infants are too young to receive many vaccines, either for safety reasons or because passive immunity renders the vaccine ineffective. Individuals who are immunodeficient due to HIV/AIDS, lymphoma, leukemia, bone marrow cancer, an impaired spleen, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy may have lost any immunity that they previously had, and vaccines may not be of any use for them because of their immunodeficiency. A portion


id: herd-immunity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity-1.md
category: reference
title: Herd immunity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:16.564067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herd-immunity-20260505-0
summary:
If herd immunity has been established and maintained in a population for a sufficient time, the disease is inevitably eliminated – no more endemic transmissions occur. If elimination is achieved worldwide and the number of cases is permanently reduced to zero, then a disease can be declared eradicated. Eradication can thus be considered the final effect or end-result of public health initiatives to control the spread of contagious disease. In cases in which herd immunity is compromised, on the contrary, disease outbreaks among the unvaccinated population are likely to occur. The benefits of eradication include ending all morbidity and mortality caused by the disease, financial savings for individuals, health care providers, and governments, and enabling resources used to control the disease to be used elsewhere. To date, two diseases have been eradicated using herd immunity and vaccination: rinderpest and smallpox. Eradication efforts that rely on herd immunity are currently underway for poliomyelitis, though civil unrest and distrust of modern medicine have made this difficult. Mandatory vaccination may be beneficial to eradication efforts if not enough people choose to get vaccinated. == Free riding == Herd immunity is vulnerable to the free rider problem. Individuals who lack immunity, including those who


id: herd-immunity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity-2.md
category: reference
title: Herd immunity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:16.564067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herd-immunity-20260505-0
summary:
With p being by itself on the left side of the equation, it can be renamed as pc, representing the critical proportion of the population needed to be immune to stop the transmission of disease, which is the same as the HIT. R0 functions as a measure of contagiousness, so low R0 values are associated with lower HITs, whereas higher R0s result in higher HITs. For example, the HIT for a disease with an R0 of 2 is theoretically only 50%, whereas a disease with an R0 of 10, the theoretical HIT is 90%. When the effective reproduction number Re of a contagious disease is reduced to and sustained below 1 new individual per infection, the number of cases occurring in the population gradually decreases until the disease has been eliminated. If a population is immune to a disease in excess of that disease's HIT, the number of cases reduces at a faster rate, outbreaks are even less likely to happen, and outbreaks that occur are smaller than they would be otherwise. If the population immunity falls below the herd immunity threshold, where the effective reproduction number increases to above 1, the population is said to have an "immunity gap",


id: herd-immunity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity-3.md
category: reference
title: Herd immunity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:16.564067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herd-immunity-20260505-0
summary:
As seen from this equation, all other things being equal ("ceteris paribus"), any increase in either vaccine coverage or vaccine effectiveness, including any increase in excess of a disease's HIT, further reduces the number of cases of a disease. The rate of decline in cases depends on a disease's R0, with diseases with lower R0 values experiencing sharper declines. Vaccines usually have at least one contraindication for a specific population for medical reasons, but if both effectiveness and coverage are high enough, then herd immunity can protect these individuals. Vaccine effectiveness is not always adversely affected by passive immunity, so additional doses are recommended for some vaccines, while others are not administered until after an individual has lost his or her passive immunity. === Passive immunity === Individual immunity can also be gained passively, when antibodies to a pathogen are transferred from one individual to another. This can occur naturally, whereby maternal antibodies, primarily immunoglobulin G antibodies, are transferred across the placenta and in colostrum to fetuses and newborns. Passive immunity can also be gained artificially, when a susceptible person is injected with antibodies from the serum or plasma of an immune person. Protection generated from passive immunity is immediate,


id: hickam-s-dictum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hickam's_dictum-0.md
category: reference
title: Hickam's dictum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hickam's_dictum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:17.717107+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hickam-s-dictum-20260505-0
summary:
Hickam's dictum is a medical principle that a patient's symptoms could be caused by several diseases. It is a counterargument to misapplying Occam's razor in the medical profession. A common version of Hickam's dictum states: "A man can have as many diseases as he damn well pleases." The principle is attributed to an apocryphal physician named Hickam, possibly John Bamber Hickam, MD. When he began saying this is uncertain. Occam's razor is frequently misinterpreted to mean that the simplest explanation is most likely. Applying this in health care, it purports that diagnosticians should assume a single cause for multiple symptoms. Hickam's dictum admits multiple causes can produce the result confronting the diagnostician. == John Hickam, MD == In 1946, John Bamber Hickam was a housestaff member in medicine at Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia. Later, in the 1950s, he was a faculty member at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. He subsequently was chairman of medicine at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana from 1958 to 1970. == See also == Zebra (medicine) == References == == External links ==


id: history-of-the-present-illness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_present_illness-0.md
category: reference
title: History of the present illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_present_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:18.910705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-the-present-illness-20260505-0
summary:
Following the chief complaint in medical history taking, a history of the present illness (abbreviated HPI) (termed history of presenting complaint (HPC) in the UK) refers to a detailed interview prompted by the chief complaint or presenting symptom (for example, pain). == Questions to include == Different sources include different questions to be asked while conducting an HPI. Several acronyms have been developed to categorize the appropriate questions to include. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services has published criteria for what constitutes a reimbursable HPI. A "brief HPI" constitutes one to three of these elements. An "extended HPI" includes four or more of these elements. Also usable is SOCRATES. For chronic pain, the Stanford Five may be assessed to understand the pain experience from the patient's primary belief system. == See also == Medical record Medical history Pain scale == References == == External links == Overview at medicine.ucsd.edu Overview at medinfo.ufl.edu


id: hiv-remission-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV_remission-0.md
category: reference
title: HIV remission
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV_remission
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:20.169498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hiv-remission-20260505-0
summary:
HIV remission is a clinical state in which an individual diagnosed with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) maintains plasma viral loads below the limit of detection without the ongoing administration of antiretroviral therapy (ART). In the context of HIV/AIDS research, remission is frequently distinguished from a "sterilizing cure," which requires the total elimination of the virus from all anatomical compartments. Instead, remission is often characterized as a "functional cure", wherein the host immune system or external interventions suppress viral replication and prevent disease progression in the absence of medication. The primary barrier to achieving durable remission is the latent HIV reservoir. During the early stages of infection, the virus establishes a persistent pool of integrated proviral DNA within long-lived resting CD4+ T cells and other cellular reservoirs. While ART effectively arrests active replication, it has no impact on these dormant cells. Consequently, the cessation of treatment typically results in a viral rebound (the rapid re-emergence of detectable viremia) as the latent virus reactivates. == Mechanisms and clinical pathways == Historically, instances of sustained HIV remission have emerged through three distinct pathways involving genetic resistance, intensive clinical intervention, or exceptional host immune responses. === 1. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation === The most


id: homicidal-ideation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homicidal_ideation-0.md
category: reference
title: Homicidal ideation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homicidal_ideation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:21.488054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homicidal-ideation-20260505-0
summary:
Homicidal ideation is a common medical term for thoughts about homicide. There is a range of homicidal thoughts which spans from vague and fleeting to detailed and fully formulated plans without the act itself. Most people who have homicidal ideation do not commit homicide. 50–91% of people surveyed on university grounds in various places in the United States admit to having had a homicidal fantasy. Homicidal ideation accounts for 2–5% of patient presentations to psychiatric facilities in the United States. Homicidal ideation is not a disease itself, but may result from other illnesses such as delirium and psychosis. Psychosis, which accounts for 89% of admissions with homicidal ideation in one US study, includes substance-induced psychosis (e.g. amphetamine psychosis) and the psychoses related to schizophreniform disorder and schizophrenia. Delirium is often drug induced or secondary to general medical illness(es). Homicidal ideation is also a possible side effect of many psychiatric medications. It may arise in association with personality disorders or it may occur in people who do not have any detectable illness. In fact, surveys have shown that the majority of people have had homicidal fantasies at some stage in their life. Many theories have been proposed to explain this. ==


id: host-factor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_factor-0.md
category: reference
title: Host factor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_factor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:22.754558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: host-factor-20260505-0
summary:
Host factor (sometimes known as risk factor) is a medical term referring to the traits of an individual person or animal that affect susceptibility to disease, especially in comparison to other individuals. The term arose in the context of infectious disease research, in contrast to "organism factors", such as the virulence and infectivity of a microbe. Host factors that may vary in a population and affect disease susceptibility can be innate or acquired. Some examples: general health psychological characteristics and attitude nutritional state social ties previous exposure to the organism or related antigens haplotype or other specific genetic differences of immune function substance abuse race The term is now used in oncology and many other medical contexts related to individual differences of disease vulnerability. == See also == Vulnerability index Epidemiology Immunology == References ==


id: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature-0.md
category: reference
title: Human body temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:23.993847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
Normal human body temperature (normothermia, euthermia) is the typical temperature range found in humans. The normal human body temperature range is typically stated as 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F). Human body temperature varies. It depends on sex, age, time of day, exertion level, health status (such as illness and menstruation), what part of the body the measurement is taken at, state of consciousness (waking, sleeping, sedated), and emotions. Body temperature is kept in the normal range by a homeostatic function known as thermoregulation, in which adjustment of temperature is triggered by the central nervous system. == Methods of measurement == Taking a human's temperature is an initial part of a full clinical examination. There are various types of medical thermometers, as well as sites used for measurement, including: Under the armpit (axillary temperature) In the mouth (oral temperature) In the rectum (rectal temperature) In the ear (tympanic temperature) On the skin of the forehead over the temporal artery Using heat flux sensors === Variations === Temperature control (thermoregulation) is a homeostatic mechanism that keeps the organism at optimum operating temperature, as the temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions. In humans, the average internal temperature is widely accepted to be 37


id: human-body-temperature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature-1.md
category: reference
title: Human body temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:23.993847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
=== Natural rhythms === Body temperature normally fluctuates over the day following circadian rhythms, with the lowest levels around 4 a.m. and the highest in the late afternoon, between 4:00 and 6:00 p.m. (assuming the person sleeps at night and stays awake during the day). Therefore, an oral temperature of 37.3 °C (99.1 °F) would, strictly speaking, be a normal, healthy temperature in the afternoon but not in the early morning. An individual's body temperature typically changes by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) between its highest and lowest points each day. Body temperature is sensitive to many hormones, so women have a temperature rhythm that varies with the menstrual cycle, called a circamensal rhythm. A woman's basal body temperature rises sharply after ovulation, as estrogen production decreases and progesterone increases. Fertility awareness programs use this change to identify when a woman has ovulated to achieve or avoid pregnancy. During the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, both the lowest and the average temperatures are slightly higher than during other parts of the cycle. However, the amount that the temperature rises during each day is slightly lower than typical, so the highest temperature of the day is not very much higher


id: human-body-temperature-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature-2.md
category: reference
title: Human body temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:23.993847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
Hyperthermia occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate. It is usually caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures. The heat-regulating mechanisms of the body eventually become overwhelmed and unable to deal effectively with the heat, causing the body temperature to climb uncontrollably. Hyperthermia at or above about 40 °C (104 °F) is a life-threatening medical emergency that requires immediate treatment. Common symptoms include headache, confusion, and fatigue. If sweating has resulted in dehydration, then the affected person may have dry, red skin. In a medical setting, mild hyperthermia is commonly called heat exhaustion or heat prostration; severe hyperthermia is called heat stroke. Heatstroke may come on suddenly, but it usually follows the untreated milder stages. Treatment involves cooling and rehydrating the body; fever-reducing drugs are useless for this condition. This may be done by moving out of direct sunlight to a cooler and shaded environment, drinking water, removing clothing that might keep heat close to the body, or sitting in front of a fan. Bathing in tepid or cool water, or even just washing the face and other exposed areas of the skin, can be helpful. With fever, the body's core temperature rises to


id: human-body-temperature-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature-3.md
category: reference
title: Human body temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:23.993847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
=== Normal === 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F) is a typically reported range for normal body temperature. === Cold === 35.5 °C (95.9 °F) – Feeling cold, mild to moderate shivering. This can be a normal body temperature for sleeping. 35 °C (95 °F) – Threshold for hypothermia. Intense shivering, numbness and bluish/grayness of the skin. There is the possibility of heart irritability. 34 °C (93.2 °F) – Severe shivering, loss of movement of fingers, blueness, and confusion. Some behavioral changes may take place. 33 °C (91.4 °F) – Moderate to severe confusion, sleepiness, depressed reflexes, progressive loss of shivering, slow heartbeat, shallow breathing. Shivering may stop. The subject may be unresponsive to certain stimuli. 32 °C (89.6 °F) – (Medical emergency) – Hallucinations, delirium, complete confusion, extreme sleepiness that is progressively becoming comatose. Shivering is absent. Reflex may be absent or very slight. 31 °C (87.8 °F) – Comatose, very rarely conscious. No or slight reflexes. Very shallow breathing and slow heart rate. Possibility of serious heart rhythm problems. 28 °C (82.4 °F) – Severe heart rhythm disturbances are likely and breathing may stop at any time. The person may appear to be dead. 24–26 °C (75.2–78.8 °F) or less


id: human-equivalent-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_equivalent-0.md
category: reference
title: Human equivalent
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_equivalent
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:25.201027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-equivalent-20260505-0
summary:
The term human equivalent is used in a number of different contexts. This term can refer to human equivalents of various comparisons of animate and inanimate things. == Animal models in chemistry and medicine == Animal models are used to learn more about a disease, its diagnosis and its treatment, with animal models predicting human toxicity in up to 71% of cases. The human equivalent dose (HED) or human equivalent concentration (HEC) is the quantity of a chemical that, when administered to humans, produces an effect equal to that produced in test animals by a smaller dose. Calculating the HED is a step in carrying out a clinical trial of a pharmaceutical drug. == Human energy usage and conversion == The concept of human-equivalent energy (H-e) assists in understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a “feel” for the use of a given amount of energy by expressing it in terms of the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. A light bulb running at 100 watts is running


id: hyperkatifeia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkatifeia-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperkatifeia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkatifeia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:26.364618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperkatifeia-20260505-0
summary:
Hyperkatifeia is defined as hypersensitivity to emotional distress in the context of opioid abuse. Hyperkatifeia and opioid-induced hyperalgesia can be seen with long-term use of illicit street opioids e.g. heroin, and prescription opioids e.g. hydrocodone and oxycodone during withdrawal. == References ==


id: hypoplasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoplasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Hypoplasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoplasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:27.587927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypoplasia-20260505-0
summary:
Hypoplasia (from Ancient Greek ὑπo- (hypo-) 'under' and πλάσις (plasis) 'formation'; adjective form hypoplastic) is underdevelopment or incomplete development of a tissue or organ. Although the term is not always used precisely, it properly refers to an inadequate or below-normal number of cells. Hypoplasia is similar to aplasia, but less severe. It is technically not the opposite of hyperplasia (too many cells). Hypoplasia is a congenital condition, while hyperplasia generally refers to excessive cell growth later in life. (Atrophy, the wasting away of already existing cells, is technically the direct opposite of both hyperplasia and hypertrophy.) Hypoplasia can be present in any tissue or organ. It is descriptive of many medical conditions, including underdevelopment of organs such as: Breasts during puberty Testes in Klinefelter's syndrome Ovaries in Fanconi anemia, gonadal dysgenesis, trisomy X Thymus in DiGeorge syndrome Labia majora in popliteal pterygium syndrome Corpus callosum, connecting the two sides of the brain, in agenesis of the corpus callosum Cerebellum caused by mutation in the reelin gene Tooth caused by oral pathology, such as Turner's hypoplasia Chambers of the heart in hypoplastic left heart syndrome and hypoplastic right heart syndrome Optic nerve in optic nerve hypoplasia Sacrum in sacral agenesis Facial


id: idiopathic-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiopathic_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiopathic disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiopathic_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:28.918087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiopathic-disease-20260505-0
summary:
An idiopathic disease is any disease with an unknown cause or mechanism of apparent spontaneous origin. For some medical conditions, one or more causes are somewhat understood, but in a certain percentage of instances, the cause may not be readily apparent or characterized. In these cases, the origin of the condition is said to be idiopathic. With some other medical conditions, the root cause for a large percentage of all cases has not been established—for example, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis or ankylosing spondylitis; the majority of these cases are deemed idiopathic. Certain medical conditions, when idiopathic, notably some forms of epilepsy and stroke, are preferentially described by the synonymous term of cryptogenic. == Derivation == The term 'idiopathic' derives from Greek ἴδιος idios "one's own" and πάθος pathos "suffering", so idiopathy means approximately "a disease of its own kind". == Examples == Diseases where the cause is seen as wholly or partly idiopathic include: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Idiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis Idiopathic intracranial hypertension Idiopathic chronic fatigue Granulomatous prostatitis == Medical advances and this term == Advances in medical science improve the understanding of causes of diseases and the classification of diseases; thus, regarding any particular condition or disease, as more root


id: idiosyncrasy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiosyncrasy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:30.459804+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiosyncrasy-20260505-0
summary:
An idiosyncrasy is a unique feature of something. The term is often used to express peculiarity. == Etymology == The term "idiosyncrasy" originates from Greek ἰδιοσυγκρασία idiosynkrasía, "a peculiar temperament, habit of body" (from ἴδιος idios, "one's own", σύν syn, "with" and κρᾶσις krasis, "blend of the four humors" (temperament) or literally "particular mingling". Idiosyncrasy is sometimes used as a synonym for eccentricity, as these terms "are not always clearly distinguished when they denote an act, a practice, or a characteristic that impresses the observer as strange or singular." Eccentricity, however, "emphasizes the idea of divergence from the usual or customary; idiosyncrasy implies a following of one's particular temperament or bent especially in trait, trick, or habit; the former often suggests mental aberration, the latter, strong individuality and independence of action". == Linguistics == The term can also be applied to symbols or words. Idiosyncratic symbols mean one thing for a particular person, as a blade could mean war, but to someone else, it could symbolize a surgery. === Idiosyncratic property === In phonology, an idiosyncratic property contrasts with a systematic regularity. While systematic regularities in the sound system of a language are useful for identifying phonological rules during analysis


id: idiosyncratic-drug-reaction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncratic_drug_reaction-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiosyncratic drug reaction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncratic_drug_reaction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:31.620982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiosyncratic-drug-reaction-20260505-0
summary:
Idiosyncratic drug reactions, also known as type B reactions, are drug reactions that occur rarely and unpredictably amongst the population. This is not to be mistaken with idiopathic, which implies that the cause is not known. They frequently occur with exposure to new drugs, as they have not been fully tested and the full range of possible side-effects have not been discovered; they may also be listed as an adverse drug reaction with a drug, but are extremely rare. Some patients have multiple-drug intolerance. Patients who have multiple idiopathic effects that are nonspecific are more likely to have anxiety and depression. Idiosyncratic drug reactions appear to not be concentration dependent. A minimal amount of drug will cause an immune response, but it is suspected that at a low enough concentration, a drug will be less likely to initiate an immune response. == Mechanism == In adverse drug reactions involving overdoses, the toxic effect is simply an extension of the pharmacological effect (Type A adverse drug reactions). On the other hand, clinical symptoms of idiosyncratic drug reactions (Type B adverse drug reactions) are different from the pharmacological effect of the drug. The proposed mechanism of most idiosyncratic drug reactions is immune-mediated


id: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker-0.md
category: reference
title: Imaging biomarker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:33.011316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
summary:
An imaging biomarker, is a biologic feature, or biomarker detectable in an image. In medicine, an imaging biomarker is a feature of an image relevant to a patient's diagnosis. It is also referred to as radiomics in medical diagnostics. For example, a number of biomarkers are frequently used to determine risk of a lung nodule for lung cancer. First, a simple lesion in the lung detected by X-ray, CT, or MRI can lead to the suspicion of a neoplasm. The lesion itself serves as a biomarker, but the minute details of the lesion serve as biomarkers as well, and can collectively be used to assess the risk of neoplasm. Some of the imaging biomarkers used in lung nodule assessment include size, spiculation, calcification, cavitation, location within the lung, rate of growth, and rate of metabolism. Each piece of information from the image represents a probability. Spiculation increases the probability of the lesion being cancer. A slow rate of growth indicates benignity. These variables can be added to the patient's history, physical exam, laboratory tests, and pathology to reach a proposed diagnosis. Imaging biomarkers can be measured using several techniques, such as CT, PET, SPECT, ultrasound, electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and MRI. ==


id: imaging-biomarker-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker-1.md
category: reference
title: Imaging biomarker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:33.011316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
summary:
== Qualification and validation == Developing an understanding of clinical significance for specific biomarkers can be a difficult process. There are two steps of certification for a surrogate endpoint to be fully established: Qualification and Validation. For a biomarker to become qualified it must go through a somewhat formal qualification process. A request must be submitted to IPRG to qualify an imaging biomarker for a specific use. The Biomarker Qualification Review Team, recruited from nonclinical and clinical review divisions, assesses the context and available data regarding the biomarker. They also evaluate the qualification study strategy methods and results and ultimately make a decision to accept or reject. After qualification, a biomarker may have limited use as a surrogate endpoint. They may be used in phase I and II clinical trials, but can only be used in phase III trials for early futility analyses. There are two steps to validation, probable validation and known validation. "Probable validation" requires widespread agreement in the medical or scientific community as to its efficacy. "Known validation" requires a scientific framework or body of evidence that appears to elucidate the marker's efficacy. For full validation, a biomarker must demonstrate that the treatment versus control differences are


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
Immune dysregulation is any proposed or confirmed breakdown or maladaptive change in molecular control of immune system processes. For example, dysregulation is a component in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and some cancers. Immune system dysfunction, as seen in IPEX syndrome leads to immune dysfunction, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked (IPEX). IPEX typically presents during the first few months of life with diabetes mellitus, intractable diarrhea, failure to thrive, eczema, and hemolytic anemia. unrestrained or unregulated immune response. == IPEX syndrome == IPEX (Immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked syndrome) is a syndrome caused by a genetic mutation in the FOXP3 gene, which encodes a major transcription factor of regulatory T cells (Tregs). Such a mutation leads to dysfunctional Tregs and, as a result, autoimmune diseases. The classic clinical manifestations are enteropathy, type I diabetes mellitus and eczema. Various other autoimmune diseases or hypersensitivity are common in other individuals with IPEX syndrome. In addition to autoimmune diseases, individuals experience higher immune reactivity (e.g. chronic dermatitis) and susceptibility to infections. Individuals also develop autoimmune diseases at a young age. == Other genetic syndromes associated with immune dysregulation == === APECED === Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-endodermal dystrophy (APECED) is a syndrome caused by a mutation in AIRE


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-1.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
== Aging of the immune system == Dysregulation of the immune system is also associated with immunosenescence, which arises due to aging. Immunosenescence is manifested by a decrease in reactivity to vaccination or infection, an impaired ability of T and B lymphocytes to activate and proliferate, or a lower ability of antigen presentation by dendritic cells. In immunosenescence, memory and effector T cells accumulate at the expense of naïve T cells. The lack of naïve T lymphocytes is the cause of low plasticity of the immune system in the elderly. In aging of the immune system is also a decrease in central tolerance and an increase in the number of autoreactive T cells. B cells also have a decreased repertoire of naïve cells and an increase in memory B cells. They also have reduced the production of antibodies against antigens. In immunosenescence, here is a change in the individual subtypes of immunoglobulins. IgM and IgD levels decrease while IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3 levels increase. IgA is higher in the form of monomers in serum but lower as a dimer on the mucosal surface. The overall accumulation of both effector T and B cells is due to the presence of chronic


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-2.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
== Allergy == Allergic reactions are misdirected reactions of the immune system to substances commonly found in the environment. Allergens elicit a The immune response, including the involvement of IgE, mast cells, Innate lymphoid cells 2 (ILC2), eosinophils, and basophils. Allergy symptoms are often related to the body's efforts to expel the allergen from the body and to protect it from further exposure to the allergen. Allergic reactions increase the production of mucus by goblet cells on the mucosa. The production of mucus is promoted by IL-13 from ILC2 and Th2 cells. Higher mucus production then creates stronger barrier protection and supports runny nose, coughing, or sneezing. Removal of the allergen from the body by sneezing, coughing, vomiting, or diarrhea is enabled by the activation of peristalsis and contractions of the smooth muscles of the digestive and respiratory systems. Activation of smooth muscles occurs after the action of histamine, which is released by mast cells. Manifestations of allergies generally aim to eliminate the body's allergen. This is also related to hearing the flushing of antigens in the eyes or to attempts to achieve mechanical removal of the surface of the organism. Allergies can be caused by genetic and environmental factors.


id: implementability-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementability_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Implementability (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementability_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:35.410890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: implementability-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, implementability is a property of clinical practice guidelines. It refers to a set of characteristics that predict ease of (and obstacles to) guideline adaptations by clinicians. There is a journal Implementation Science, which "aims to publish research relevant to the scientific study of methods to promote the uptake of research findings into routine healthcare in clinical, organisational or policy contexts". == See also == Implementation == References ==


id: incidental-medical-findings-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_medical_findings-0.md
category: reference
title: Incidental medical findings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_medical_findings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:36.664763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incidental-medical-findings-20260505-0
summary:
Incidental medical findings are previously undiagnosed medical or psychiatric conditions that are discovered unintentionally and during evaluation for a medical or psychiatric condition. Such findings may occur in a variety of settings, including routine medical care, during biomedical research, during post-mortem autopsy, or during genetic testing. == Medical imaging == An incidentaloma is a tumor found by coincidence which is often benign and does not cause any clinically significant symptoms; however a small percentage do turn out to be malignant. Incidentalomas are common, with up to 7% of all patients over 60 harboring a benign growth, often of the adrenal gland, which is detected when diagnostic imaging is used for the analysis of unrelated symptoms. As 37% of patients receiving whole-body CT scan may have abnormal findings that need further evaluation and with the increase of "whole-body CT scanning" as part of health screening programs, the chance of finding incidentalomas is expected to increase. === Neuroimaging === Incidental findings in neuroimaging are common, with the prevalence of neoplastic incidental brain findings increasing with age. Even in healthy subjects acting as controls in research incidental findings are not rare. As most neuroimaging studies are performed in adults, less is known about


id: indication-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Indication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:37.986964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, an indication is a valid reason to use a certain test, medication, procedure, or surgery. There can be multiple indications to use a procedure or medication. An indication can commonly be confused with the term diagnosis. A diagnosis is the assessment that a particular medical condition is present while an indication is a reason for use. The opposite of an indication is a contraindication, a reason to withhold a certain medical treatment because the risks of treatment clearly outweigh the benefits. In the US, indications for prescription drugs are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Indications are included in the Indications and Usage section of the Prescribing Information. The primary role of this section of labeling is to enable health care practitioners to readily identify appropriate therapies for patients by clearly communicating the drug's approved indication(s). The Indications and Usage section states the disease or condition, or manifestation or symptoms thereof, for which the drug is approved, as well as whether the drug is indicated for the treatment, prevention, mitigation, cure, relief, or diagnosis of that disease or condition. Additionally, the Indications and Usage section should contain the approved age groups as well as other information


id: indication-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Indication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:37.986964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Effect on drug pricing === Indications can impact the pricing of medications through Value-based Pricing, also known as indication specific pricing or indication value-based pricing. Since drugs can be used for different indications, this form of pricing would set different prices for each indication based on the value the drug offers for whatever it is being used to treat. This pricing scheme is often discussed in relation to oncology drugs, which are costly. Oncology drugs can be used for multiple different types of cancers so by applying indication-specific pricing, the drug would be priced based on how effective it is for treating each type of cancer. If the drug is more effective for Cancer A than Cancer B, then the patient taking the drug to treat Cancer A will pay more than the person using it for Cancer B because they receive more value from it. Currently, most medications in the United States are priced the same regardless of what they're being used for or how effective they are at improving outcomes. Concerns were therefore raised that patients and insurers may be paying too high prices for indications with a relatively low clinical value. Thereby pharmaceutical companies could realize


id: indirect-agonist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_agonist-0.md
category: reference
title: Indirect agonist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_agonist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:39.159830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indirect-agonist-20260505-0
summary:
In pharmacology, an indirect agonist or indirect-acting agonist is a substance that enhances the release or action of an endogenous neurotransmitter but has no specific agonist activity at the neurotransmitter receptor itself. Indirect agonists work through varying mechanisms to achieve their effects, including transporter blockade, induction of transmitter release, and inhibition of transmitter breakdown. == Mechanisms of indirect agonism == === Reuptake inhibition === Cocaine is a monoamine transporter blocker and, thus, an indirect agonist of dopamine receptors. Cocaine binds the dopamine transporter (DAT), blocking the protein's ability to uptake dopamine from the synaptic cleft and also blocking DAT from terminating dopamine signaling. Blockage of DAT increases the extracellular concentration of dopamine, therefore increasing the amount of dopamine receptor binding and signaling. Dipyridamole inhibits reuptake of adenosine, resulting in greater extracellular concentrations of adenosine. Dipyridamole also inhibits the enzyme adenosine deaminase, the enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of adenosine. === Evoking transmitter release === Fenfluramine is an indirect agonist of serotonin receptors. Fenfluramine binds to the serotonin transporter, blocking serotonin reuptake. However, fenfluramine also acts to induce non-exocytotic serotonin release; in a mechanism similar to that of methamphetamine in dopamine neurons, fenfluramine binds to VMAT2, disrupting the compartmentalization of serotonin


id: individualized-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualized_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Individualized medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualized_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:40.475433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: individualized-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Individualized medicine tailors treatment to a single patient. The term refers to an individual, truly personalized medicine that strives to treat each patient on the basis of his own individual biology. Individualized medicine represents a further individualization of personalized medicine. While the latter is aimed at a specific group of patients, individualized medicine deals with the individual circumstances of a single person. Thus, individualized medicine goes one step further and can be considered as an increase in personalized medicine. Individualized medicine seeks to derive tailored therapies for individuals by taking into account a person's genes as well as the full range of that person's unique nature, including biological, physiological and anatomical information. == Background == Individualized medicine was first mentioned in the literature in 2003 and described the individual drug metabolism in pharmacogenomics. Subsequently, the term was used to improve diagnosis based on genetic differences and physiological information and to better tailor the treatment to the needs of a single patient. More recently, a second context has been introduced that relates to therapeutic approaches that use a person's own cell material to develop a treatment that is unique to the patient from whom the material originated. Examples are stem-cell therapies


id: ineffective-erythropoiesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineffective_erythropoiesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ineffective erythropoiesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineffective_erythropoiesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:41.755016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ineffective-erythropoiesis-20260505-0
summary:
Ineffective erythropoiesis a condition in which the bone marrow produces red blood cells (erythrocytes) that are unable to mature properly and are pre-maturely destroyed due to various causes. Erythropoiesis is the overall process that the body goes through to produce red blood cells. The red blood cell's main function is to carry and transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. If the red blood cells are unable to mature properly or are destroyed pre-maturely, this can lead to anemia. This mechanism is principally responsible for the anemia seen in acquired conditions such as certain subtypes of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) and inherited disorders such as β-thalassemia, inherited sideroblastic anemias, as well as congenital dyserythropoietic anemias. == See also == Congenital dyserythropoietic anemias List of hematologic conditions == References == == Further reading == Ribeil, Jean-Antoine; Arlet, Jean-Benoit; Dussiot, Michael; Cruz Moura, Ivan; Courtois, Geneviève; Hermine, Olivier (28 March 2013). "Ineffective Erythropoiesis in β-Thalassemia". The Scientific World Journal. 2013 e394295. doi:10.1155/2013/394295. ISSN 2356-6140. PMC 3628659. PMID 23606813. Tanno, Toshihiko; Miller, Jeffery L. (11 May 2010). "Iron Loading and Overloading due to Ineffective Erythropoiesis". Advances in Hematology. 2010 e358283. doi:10.1155/2010/358283. ISSN 1687-9104. PMC 2868182. PMID 20467559. Rivella, Stefano (2013). "Ineffective


id: infiltration-medical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(medical)-0.md
category: reference
title: Infiltration (medical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(medical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:43.013528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infiltration-medical-20260505-0
summary:
Infiltration in a medical context is the process of cells or substances moving across a barrier, typically a tissue barrier, into a place they are not normally found, or in which they are typically found in lower concentrations. Infiltration may refer to normal physiological processes, such as the infiltration of certain immune cells into peripheral tissues. Infiltration may also refer to infiltrative disorders, pathological processes such as malignant tumor cells infiltrating new areas of the human body, or small particles infiltrating tissues, where they may cause damage or inflammation. == Types of Infiltration == The term 'infiltration' is frequently used to describe various pathologic and physiologic processes, including but not limited to: === Immune Infiltration === This occurs when immune cells like lymphocytes and macrophages migrate into tissues in response to infection, injury, or inflammation, aiding in defense and healing but potentially contributing to autoimmune diseases if misdirected. Immune cells (especially lymphocytes) also infiltrate into malignant tumors and other neoplasms. === Malignant Infiltration === Malignant infiltration involves cancerous cells invading surrounding healthy tissues by breaching normal cellular boundaries, which allows tumors to grow locally and facilitates metastasis to distant organs. This is especially relevant for cancers that cross the blood-brain


id: insufflation-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insufflation_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Insufflation (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insufflation_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:44.313706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insufflation-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Insufflation (Latin: insufflare, lit. 'to blow into') is the act of blowing something (such as a gas, powder, or vapor) into a body cavity. Insufflation has many medical uses, most notably as a route of administration for various drugs. == Medical uses == === Surgery === Gases are often insufflated into a body cavity to inflate the cavity for more workroom, e.g. during laparoscopic surgery. The most common gas used in this manner is carbon dioxide, because it is inexpensive, non-flammable, colorless, and dissolves readily in blood. === Diagnostics === Gases can be insufflated into parts of the body to enhance radiological imaging or to gain access to areas for visual inspection (e.g. during colonoscopy). === Respiratory assistance === Oxygen can be insufflated into the nose by nasal cannulae to assist in respiration. Mechanical insufflation-exsufflation simulates a cough and assists airway mucus clearance. It is used with patients with neuromuscular disease and muscle weakness due to central nervous system injury. Glossopharyngeal insufflation is a breathing technique that consists of gulping boluses of air into the lungs. It is also used by breath-hold divers to increase their lung volumes. Positive airway pressure is a mode of mechanical or artificial ventilation based


id: insult-medical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult_(medical)-0.md
category: reference
title: Insult (medical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult_(medical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:45.452002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insult-medical-20260505-0
summary:
In medical terms, an insult is the cause of some kind of physical or mental injury. For example, a burn on the skin (the injury) may be the result of a thermal, chemical, radioactive, or electrical event (the insult). Likewise, sepsis and trauma are examples of foreign insults, and encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, and brain tumors are examples of insults to the brain. Clinicians may use the term cerebrovascular insult (CVI) as a synonym for a stroke. Insults may be categorized as either genetic or environmental. == References ==


id: integumentary-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Integumentary system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:47.772667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: integumentary-system-20260505-0
summary:
The integumentary system is the set of organs forming the outermost layer of an animal's body, comprising the skin, hair, scales, feathers, hooves, claws, and nails. It acts as a protective physical barrier between the external environment and the internal environment. Additionally, it maintains water balance, protects the deeper tissues, excretes waste, regulates body temperature, and contains the sensory receptors that detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature. The skin (integument) is a composite organ, made up of at least two major layers of tissue: the outermost epidermis and the inner dermis, which are separated by a basement membrane (comprising basal lamina and reticular lamina). The epidermis comprises five layers: the stratum corneum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum and stratum basale. Where the skin is thicker, such as in the palms and soles, there is an extra layer of skin between the stratum corneum and the stratum granulosum known as the stratum lucidum. The dermis comprises two sections, the papillary and reticular layers, and contains connective tissues, blood vessels, glands, follicles, hair roots, sensory nerve endings, and muscular tissue. Between the integument and the deep body musculature there is a transitional subcutaneous zone, the hypodermis. == Structure == === Skin === The


id: integumentary-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system-1.md
category: reference
title: Integumentary system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:47.772667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: integumentary-system-20260505-0
summary:
The hypodermis, otherwise known as the subcutaneous layer, is a layer beneath the skin. It invaginates into the dermis and is attached to the latter, immediately above it, by collagen and elastin fibers. It is essentially composed of a type of cell known as adipocytes, which are specialized in accumulating and storing fats. These cells are grouped together in lobules separated by connective tissue. The hypodermis acts as an energy reserve. The fats contained in the adipocytes can be put back into circulation, via the venous route, during intense effort or when there is a lack of energy-providing substances, and are then transformed into energy. The hypodermis participates, passively at least, in thermoregulation since fat is a heat insulator. == Functions == The integumentary system has multiple roles in maintaining the body's equilibrium. All body systems work in an interconnected manner to maintain the internal conditions essential to the function of the body. The skin has an important job of protecting the body and acts as the body's first line of defense against infection, temperature change, and other challenges to homeostasis. Its main functions include: Protect the body's internal living tissues and organs Protect against invasion by foreign organisms, including


id: international-health-terminology-standards-development-organisation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Health_Terminology_Standards_Development_Organisation-0.md
category: reference
title: International Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Health_Terminology_Standards_Development_Organisation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:49.113431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-health-terminology-standards-development-organisation-20260505-0
summary:
The International Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation (IHTSDO), trading as SNOMED International, is private company limited by guarantee and established under the laws of England that owns SNOMED CT, a leading clinical terminology used in electronic health records. IHTSDO was founded in 2007 by 9 charter member countries (Australia, Canada, Denmark, Lithuania, Sweden, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States) in order to acquire the rights of SNOMED CT from the College of American Pathologists (CAP) and make the development of a global clinical language for healthcare an international, collaborative effort. == Governance == IHTSDO governance is defined in the IHTSDO Articles of Association. The organization is headquartered in the United Kingdom (London). Since 2007 the number of member countries has increased from 9 to 29. The members were (as of December 2016): Australia, Belgium, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Ireland, Israel, Lithuania, Malaysia, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States and Uruguay. The member countries provide the bulk of the institutional financing through payment of yearly member fees, which are based on gross national income. Members of IHTSDO


id: intertriginous-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertriginous-0.md
category: reference
title: Intertriginous
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertriginous
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:50.397041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intertriginous-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, an intertriginous area is where two skin areas may touch or rub together. Examples of intertriginous areas are the axilla of the arm, the anogenital region, skin folds of the breasts and between digits. Intertriginous areas are known to harbor large amounts of aerobic cocci and aerobic coryneform bacteria, which are both parts of normal skin flora. == See also == Intertrigo == References == == Bibliography == Leyden J. Pathophysiology of certain bacterial diseases. In: Soter N, Baden H, eds. Pathophysiology of Dermatologic diseases. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991:427-51


id: intracorporeal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracorporeal-0.md
category: reference
title: Intracorporeal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracorporeal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:51.626835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intracorporeal-20260505-0
summary:
Intracorporeal or intracorporal is an adjective that means within (intra-) the body (corpus). Its antonym is extracorporeal. It is used frequently in medicine to describe medical procedures that occur within the body, or within a corpus, as opposed to extracorporeal procedures (e.g. extracorporeal membrane oxygenation). In a medical or surgical context, it may refer to: Intracorporeal anastomosis Intracorporeal circulation Intracorporeal energy harvesting, harvesting energy from the body, and storing it, to sustain a medical device (e.g. a pacemaker). Intracorporeal injection Intracorporeal microrobotics Intracorporeal reconstruction Intracorporeal suturing Intracorporeal urinary diversion Lithotripsy: Intracorporeal electrohydraulic lithotripsy Intracorporeal laser lithotripsy Intracorporeal pneumatic lithotripsy Intracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy == See also == The dictionary definition of intracorporeal at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of intracorpuscular at Wiktionary Human body (corpus humanum) In vivo == References ==


id: involution-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Involution (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:52.820238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: involution-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Involution is the shrinking or return of an organ to a former size. At a cellular level, involution is characterized by the process of proteolysis of the basement membrane (basal lamina), leading to epithelial regression and apoptosis, with accompanying stromal fibrosis. The consequent reduction in cell number and reorganization of stromal tissue leads to the reduction in the size of the organ. == Examples == === Thymus === The thymus continues to grow between birth and sexual maturity and then begins to atrophy, a process directed by the high levels of circulating sex hormones. Proportional to thymic size, thymic activity (T cell output) is most active before maturity. Upon atrophy, the size and activity are dramatically reduced, and the organ is primarily replaced with fat. The atrophy is due to the increased circulating level of sex hormones, and chemical or physical castration of an adult results in the thymus increasing in size and activity. === Uterus === Involution is the process by which the uterus is transformed from pregnant to non-pregnant state. This period is characterized by the restoration of ovarian function in order to prepare the body for a new pregnancy. It is a physiological process occurring after parturition;


id: ketolysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketolysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ketolysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketolysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:54.044756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ketolysis-20260505-0
summary:
Ketolysis is the process of catabolizing ketones, the opposite of ketogenesis which is the process of synthesizing ketones. Ketolysis provides more energy for ATP synthesis than fatty acid oxidation (beta oxidation). Ketogenesis occurs primarily in the liver, whereas ketolysis occurs in non-liver cells, especially in the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle. The SCOT enzyme (aka thiophorase) is required for ketolysis, and is present in the mitochondria of all mammalian cells except for hepatocytes. Although type II cells of the pulmonary alveolus possess monocarboxylate transporters to transport of beta hydroxybutyrate precursors into the cytoplasm, the absence of ketolytic enzymes results in the cells being unable to catabolize the beta hydroxybutyrate. The cardioprotective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors have been attributed to the elevated ketone levels and increased ketolysis. == The Ketolytic Pathway == == References ==


id: kissing-contusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_contusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Kissing contusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_contusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:55.379094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kissing-contusion-20260505-0
summary:
Contusions of both surfaces of the knee joint are known as kissing contusions. These contusions are generally found by magnetic resonance imaging and most cases are associated with ligamentous or meniscal injuries. == References ==


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
A lateral flow test (LFT), is an assay also known as a lateral flow immunochromatographic test (ICT). It is a simple device intended to detect the presence of a target substance in a liquid sample without the need for specialized and costly equipment. LFTs are widely used in medical diagnostics in the home, at the point of care, and in the laboratory. For instance, the home pregnancy test is an LFT that detects a specific hormone. These tests are simple and economical and generally show results in around five to thirty minutes. Many lab-based applications increase the sensitivity of simple LFTs by employing additional dedicated equipment. Many LFTs are called rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs), though this term also includes other formats such as the vertical-flow tests. LFTs operate on the same principles of affinity chromatography as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). In essence, these tests run the liquid sample along the surface of a pad with reactive molecules that show a visual positive or negative result. The pads are based on a series of capillary beds, such as pieces of porous paper, microstructured polymer, or sintered polymer. Each of these pads has the capacity to transport fluid (e.g., urine, blood,


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-1.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
Most tests will incorporate a second line which contains a further antibody (one which is not specific to the analyte) that binds some of the remaining colored particles which did not bind to the test line. This confirms that fluid has passed successfully from the sample-application pad, past the test line. By giving confirmation that the sample has had a chance to interact with the test line, this increases confidence that a visibly-unchanged test line can be interpreted as a negative result (or that a changed test line can be interpreted as a negative result in a competitive assay). === Blood plasma extraction === Because the intense red color of hemoglobin interferes with the readout of colorimetric or optical detection-based diagnostic tests, blood plasma separation is a common first step to increase diagnostic test accuracy. Plasma can be extracted from whole blood via integrated filters or via agglutination. === Speed and simplicity === Time to obtain the test result is a key driver for these products. Tests results can be available in as little as a few minutes. Generally there is a trade off between time and sensitivity: more sensitive tests may take longer to develop. The other key advantage


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-2.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
Lateral flow assays have played a critical role in COVID-19 testing as they have the benefit of delivering a result in 15–30 minutes. The systematic evaluation of lateral flow assays during the COVID-19 pandemic was initiated at Oxford University as part of a UK collaboration with Public Health England. A study that started in June 2020 in the United Kingdom, FALCON-C19, confirmed the sensitivity of some lateral flow devices (LFDs) in this setting. Four out of 64 LFDs tested had desirable performance characteristics according to these early tests; the Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Test performed moderately in viral antigen detection/sensitivity with excellent specificity, although kit failure rates and the impact of training were potential issues. The Innova test's specificity is more widely publicised, but sensitivity in phase 4 trials was 50.1%. This describes a device for which one out of every two patients infected with COVID-19 and tested in real-world conditions would receive a false-negative result. After closure of schools in January 2021, biweekly LFTs were introduced in England for teachers, pupils, and households of pupils when schools re-opened on March 8, 2021 for asymptomatic testing. Biweekly LFT were made universally available to everyone in England on April 9,


id: left-without-being-seen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_without_being_seen-0.md
category: reference
title: Left without being seen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_without_being_seen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:57.931077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: left-without-being-seen-20260505-0
summary:
Left Without Being Seen (LWBS) is a healthcare term often used by emergency departments (ED) to designate a patient encounter that ended with the patient leaving the healthcare setting before the patient could be seen by a certified physician. Often the inclusion of this phrase in a medical record is the result of ED overcrowding (i.e. the patient could no longer wait in the ED to be seen by a physician, so they left without alerting a healthcare professional). Typically, those patients who leave an emergency department without being seen are not at an increased risk of death, and often do not require inpatient hospital admission. An increase in LWBS patients may be reflective of systemic public healthcare logistical issues. == References ==


id: length-of-stay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_of_stay-0.md
category: reference
title: Length of stay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_of_stay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:59.189346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: length-of-stay-20260505-0
summary:
Length of stay (LOS) is the duration of a single episode of hospitalization. Inpatient days are calculated by subtracting day of admission from day of discharge. == Analysis == A common statistic associated with length of stay is the average length of stay (ALOS), a mean calculated by dividing the sum of inpatient days by the number of patients admissions with the same diagnosis-related group classification. A variation in the calculation of ALOS can be to consider only length of stay during the period under analysis. Length of stay is typically highly skewed and so statistical approaches taking that into account are recommended. While the mean length of stay is useful from the point of view of costs, it may be a poor statistic in terms of representing a typical length of stay, and the median may be preferred. It is useful to be able to predict an individual's expected length of stay or to model length of stay to determine factors that affect it. Various analyses have sought to model length of stay in different condition contexts. This has usually been done with regression models, but Markov chain methods have also been applied. Within regression approaches, linear, log-normal and


id: lightwood-s-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightwood's_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Lightwood's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightwood's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:00.416124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lightwood-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
Lightwood's law is the principle that, in medicine, bacterial infections will tend to localise while viral infections will tend to spread. This is based on the observation that while bacterial sepsis tends, despite affecting the whole body, to have a clear site of origin or 'focus', the opposite may be true of viral infections. There may be multiple sites across the body which are affected including dermatological manifestations, respiratory symptoms and gastrointestinal symptoms. It is named for Reginald Cyril Lightwood. This principle is by no means infallible and in clinical practice a variety of diagnostic tests are used to distinguish between bacterial and viral infections. == References ==


id: list-of-bones-of-the-human-skeleton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bones_of_the_human_skeleton-0.md
category: reference
title: List of bones of the human skeleton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bones_of_the_human_skeleton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:01.691476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bones-of-the-human-skeleton-20260505-0
summary:
An adult human skeleton is commonly quoted as consisting of 206 bones. Reports on the typical number of bones have varied historically depending on how different sources choose to count features such as fused bones (for example, the sternum). The actual number of bones in any individual skeleton varies depending on factors such as age and anatomical variation. The list of 206 bones in the adult skeleton can be subdivided into the axial skeleton (80 bones) and the appendicular skeleton (126 bones). 172 of 206 bones are part of a pair and the remaining 34 are unpaired. Many small accessory bones, such as sesamoid bones, are not included in the standard list. == Introduction == Infants are born with an estimated 270 bones. During the course of normal human development, many bones fuse, a process that is active throughout childhood and puberty but typically continues until sometime within the third decade of life. Therefore, the number of bones in an individual may be evaluated differently throughout a lifetime. In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being fused naturally. Some reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform are counted, while others, such as


id: list-of-medical-abbreviations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_abbreviations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of medical abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:03.077429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-medical-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
Abbreviations are used very frequently in medicine. They boost efficiency as long as they are used intelligently. The advantages of brevity should be weighed against the possibilities of obfuscation (making the communication harder for others to understand) and ambiguity (having more than one possible interpretation). Certain medical abbreviations are avoided to prevent mistakes, according to best practices (and in some cases regulatory requirements); these are flagged in the list of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions. == Orthographic styling == === Periods (stops) === Periods (stops) are often used in styling abbreviations. Prevalent practice in medicine today is often to forgo them as unnecessary. Example: Less common: The diagnosis was C.O.P.D. [chronic obstructive pulmonary disease] More common: The diagnosis was COPD === Plurals === The prevalent way to represent plurals for medical acronyms and initialisms is simply to affix a lowercase s (no apostrophe). Example: one OCP, two OCPs [oral contraceptive pills]. === Possessives === Possessive forms are not often needed, but can be formed using apostrophe + s. Often the writer can also recast the sentence to avoid it. Example: BP's effect on risk of MI is multifaceted. The effect of BP on MI risk is multifaceted. === Arrows ===


id: list-of-skeletal-muscles-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_skeletal_muscles_of_the_human_body-0.md
category: reference
title: List of skeletal muscles of the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_skeletal_muscles_of_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:04.336896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-skeletal-muscles-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
This is a table of skeletal muscles of the human anatomy, with muscle counts and other information. == Table == == Table explanation and summary == The muscles are described using anatomical terminology. The columns are as follows: For Origin, Insertion and Action please name a specific Rib, Thoracic vertebrae or Cervical vertebrae, by using C1-7, T1-12 or R1-12. === Summary in numbers === There does not appear to be a definitive source counting all skeletal muscles. Different sources group muscles differently, regarding physical features as different parts of a single muscle or as several muscles. There are also vestigial muscles that are present in some people but absent in others, such as the palmaris longus muscle. There are between 600 and 840 muscles within the typical human body, depending on how they are counted. In the present table, using statistical counts of the instances of each muscle, and ignoring gender-specific muscles, there are 753 skeletal muscles. Sometimes male and females have the same muscle but with different purposes ==== Numbers based on the list above ==== === Agonistic and antagonistic relationships === Muscles are often paired as agonistic and antagonistic muscles. This can be a bit misleading as, in


id: lists-of-medical-eponyms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_medical_eponyms-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of medical eponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_medical_eponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:20.105318+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-medical-eponyms-20260505-0
summary:
Medical eponyms are diseases, disorders, or syndromes named after people, and occasionally places or things. Eponyms are widely used and new ones continue to be coined, although some physicians argue against their use. Eponyms are most typically named after the physician or researcher who first described the condition, such as Parkinson's disease, after James Parkinson (1755-1824) or Alzheimer's disease, after Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915). Some diseases are commonly known by a famous patient's name, such as Lou Gehrig disease, although amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is the clinical name. A few clinical names come from a patient's name, such as Hartnup disease (formally pellagra-like dermatosis with transitory cerebellar ataxia), named for a family with this hereditary disease. Sometimes conditions are named after multiple physicians or scientists, such as Waterhouse–Friderichsen syndrome. Lyme disease is named for two towns where the symptoms were first identified. The eponym may even be a fictional character with no direct relationship to the disease. For example, Munchausen syndrome was coined because, like Baron von Munchausen, "the persons affected have always travelled widely, and their stories, like those attributed to him, are both dramatic and untrue." Eponyms are widely used in medicine and continue to be coined. There are no


id: localized-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localized_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Localized disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localized_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:21.591704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: localized-disease-20260505-0
summary:
A localized disease is an infectious or neoplastic process that originates in and is confined to one organ system or general area in the body, such as a sprained ankle, a boil on the hand, an abscess of finger. A localized cancer that has not extended beyond the margins of the organ involved can also be described as localized disease, while cancers that extend into other tissues are described as invasive. Tumors that are non-hematologic in origin but extend into the bloodstream or lymphatic system are known as metastatic. Localized diseases are contrasted with disseminated diseases and systemic diseases. Some diseases are capable of changing from local to disseminated diseases. Pneumonia, for example, is generally confined to one or both lungs but can become disseminated through sepsis, in which the microorganism responsible for the pneumonia "seeds" the bloodstream or lymphatic system and is transported to distant sites in the body. When that occurs, the process is no longer described as a localized disease, but rather as a disseminated disease. == See also == Disease Nosology == References ==


id: medical-logistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_logistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical logistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_logistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:22.898880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-logistics-20260505-0
summary:
Medical logistics is the logistics of pharmaceuticals, medical and surgical supplies, medical devices and equipment, and other products needed to support doctors, nurses, and other health and dental care providers. Because its final customers are responsible for the lives and health of their patients, medical logistics is unique in that it seeks to optimize effectiveness rather than efficiency. Medical logistics functions comprise an important part of the health care system: after staff costs, medical supplies are the single most expensive component of health care. To drive costs out of the health-care sector, medical logistics providers are adopting supply chain management theories. This organizational chart is as follows and separated into three key areas. Medical Materiel Facilities Management. Biomedical Engineering (BMET) or Clinical Engineering These areas are managed by a qualified Director of Logistics. The Director of Logistics' educational background holds some type of accredited graduate degree (MBA or M.S.) == See also == Medical device == References ==


id: long-term-care-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-0.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
Long-term care (LTC) is a variety of services which help meet both the medical and non-medical needs of people with a chronic illness or disability who cannot care for themselves for long periods. Long-term care is focused on individualized and coordinated services that promote independence, maximize patients' quality of life, and meet patients' needs over a period of time. It is common for long-term care to provide custodial and non-skilled care, such as assisting with activities of daily living like dressing, feeding, using the bathroom, meal preparation, functional transfers and safe restroom use. Increasingly, long-term care involves providing a level of medical care that requires the expertise of skilled practitioners to address the multiple long-term conditions associated with older populations. Long-term care can be provided at home, in the community, in assisted living facilities or in nursing homes. Long-term care may be needed by people of any age, although it is a more common need for senior citizens. == Types of long-term care == Long-term care can be provided formally or informally. Facilities that offer formal LTC services typically provide living accommodation for people who require on-site delivery of around-the-clock supervised care, including professional health services, personal care, and services


id: long-term-care-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-1.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
== Long-term services and supports == "Long-term services and supports" (LTSS) is the modernized term for community services, which may obtain health care financing (e.g., home and community-based Medicaid waiver services), and may or may not be operated by the traditional hospital-medical system (e.g., physicians, nurses, nurse's aides). The Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities (CCD) which works with the U. S. Congress, has indicated that while hospitals offer acute care, many non-acute, long-term services are provided to assist individuals to live and participate in the community. An example is the group home international emblem of community living and deinstitutionalization, and the variety of supportive services (e.g., supported housing, supported employment, supported living, supported parenting, family support), supported education. The term is also common with aging groups, such as the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), which annually surveys the US states on services for elders (e.g., intermediate care facilities, assisted living, home-delivered meals). The new US Support Workforce includes the Direct Support Professional, which is largely non-profit or for-profit, and the governmental workforces, often unionized, in the communities in US states. Core competencies (Racino-Lakin, 1988) at the federal-state interface for the aides "in institutions and communities" were identified in aging


id: long-term-care-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-2.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
Life expectancy is going up in most countries, meaning more people are living longer and entering an age when they may need care. Meanwhile, birth rates are generally falling. Globally, 70 percent of all older people now live in low or middle-income countries. Countries and health care systems need to find innovative and sustainable ways to cope with the demographic shift. As reported by John Beard, director of the World Health Organization's Department of Ageing and Life Course, "With the rapid ageing of populations, finding the right model for long-term care becomes more and more urgent." The demographic shift is also being accompanied by changing social patterns, including smaller families, different residential patterns, and increased female labour force participation. These factors often contribute to an increased need for paid care. In many countries, the largest percentages of older persons needing LTC services still rely on informal home care, or services provided by unpaid caregivers (usually nonprofessional family members, friends or other volunteers). Estimates from the OECD of these figures often are in the 80 to 90 percent range; for example, in Austria, 80 percent of all older citizens. The similar figure for dependent elders in Spain is 82.2 percent. The


id: long-term-care-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-3.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
== Long-term care funding == Governments around the world have responded to growing long-term care needs to different degrees and at different levels. These responses by governments, are based in part, upon a public policy research agenda on long-term care which includes special population research, flexible models of services, and managed care models to control escalating costs and high private pay rates. === Europe === Most Western European countries have put in place a mechanism to fund formal care and, in a number of Northern and Continental European countries, arrangements exist to at least partially fund informal care as well. Some countries have had publicly organized funding arrangements in place for many years: the Netherlands adopted the Exceptional Medical Expenses Act (ABWZ) in 1967, and in 1988 Norway established a framework for municipal payments to informal caregivers (in certain instances making them municipal employees). Other countries have only recently put in place comprehensive national programs: in 2004, for example, France set up a specific insurance fund for dependent older people and in 2006, Portugal created a public funded national network for long-term care. Some countries (Spain and Italy in Southern Europe, Poland and Hungary in Central Europe) have not yet


id: long-term-care-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-4.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== Long-term care is typically funded using a combination of sources including but not limited to family members, Medicaid, long-term care insurance and Medicare. All of these include out-of-pocket spending, which often becomes exhausted once an individual requires more medical attention throughout the aging process and might need in-home care or be admitted into a nursing home. For many people, out-of-pocket spending for long-term care is a transitional state before eventually being covered by Medicaid, which requires impoverishment for eligibility. Personal savings can be difficult to manage and budget and often deplete rapidly. In addition to personal savings, individuals can also rely on an Individual retirement account, Roth IRA, Pension, Severance package or the funds of family members. These are essentially retirement packages that become available to the individual once certain requirements have been met. In 2008, Medicaid and Medicare accounted for approximately 71% of national long-term care spending in the United States. Out-of-pocket spending accounted for 18% of national long-term care spending, private long-term care insurance accounted for 7%, and other organizations and agencies accounted for the remaining expenses. Moreover, 67% of all nursing home residents used Medicaid as their primary source of payment. Private Long-Term


id: maculopapular-rash-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maculopapular_rash-0.md
category: reference
title: Maculopapular rash
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maculopapular_rash
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:25.719082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maculopapular-rash-20260505-0
summary:
A maculopapular rash is a type of rash characterized by a flat, red area on the skin that is covered with small confluent bumps. It may only appear red in lighter-skinned people. The term "maculopapular" is a compound: macules are small, flat discolored spots on the surface of the skin; and papules are small, raised bumps. It is also described as erythematous, or red. This type of rash is common in several diseases and medical conditions, including scarlet fever, measles, Ebola virus disease, rubella, HIV, secondary syphilis (congenital syphilis, which is asymptomatic, the newborn may present this type of rash), erythrovirus (parvovirus B19), chikungunya (alphavirus), Zika fever, smallpox (which has been eradicated), varicella (when vaccinated persons exhibit symptoms from the modified form), heat rash, and sometimes dengue fever. It is also a common manifestation of a skin reaction to the antibiotic amoxicillin or chemotherapy drugs. Cutaneous infiltration of leukemic cells may also have this appearance. Maculopapular rash is seen in graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) developed after a hematopoietic stem cell transplant (bone marrow transplant), which can be seen within one week or several weeks after the transplant. In the case of GVHD, the maculopapular lesions may progress to a condition similar


id: malacia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacia-0.md
category: reference
title: Malacia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:27.021333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malacia-20260505-0
summary:
Malacia is abnormal softening of a biological tissue, most often cartilage. The word is derived from Greek μαλακός, malakos = soft. Usually the combining form -malacia suffixed to another combining form that denotes the affected tissue assigns a more specific name to each such disorder, as follows: Osteomalacia (rickets), a bone disorder from vitamin D deficiency Chondromalacia, softening of cartilage (often refers to chondromalacia patellae when mentioned without further specification) Chondromalacia patellae, a disorder of cartilage under the kneecap Bronchomalacia, a disorder of the bronchial tubes' cartilage Laryngomalacia, a disorder of the larynx's cartilage Tracheomalacia, a disorder of the trachea's cartilage Keratomalacia, an eye disorder from vitamin A deficiency Myelomalacia, a disorder of the spinal cord Cerebral softening (encephalomalacia), localized softening of brain tissue == References == == External links == Definition at MedineNet.com


id: malignancy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy-0.md
category: reference
title: Malignancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:28.374982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malignancy-20260505-0
summary:
Malignancy (from Latin male 'badly' and -gnus 'born') is the tendency of a medical condition to become progressively worse; the term is most familiar as a characterization of cancer. A malignant tumor contrasts with a non-cancerous benign tumor in that a malignancy is not self-limited in its growth, is capable of invading into adjacent tissues, and may be capable of spreading to distant tissues. A benign tumor has none of those properties, but may still be harmful to health. The term benign in more general medical use characterizes a condition or growth that is not cancerous, i.e. does not spread to other parts of the body or invade nearby tissue. Sometimes the term is used to suggest that a condition is not dangerous or serious, although this is not always the case. Malignancy in cancers is characterized by anaplasia, invasiveness, and metastasis. Malignant tumors are also characterized by genome instability: cancers, as assessed by whole genome sequencing, frequently have between 10,000 and 100,000 mutations in their entire genomes. Cancers usually show tumour heterogeneity, containing multiple subclones. They also frequently have reduced expression of DNA repair enzymes due to epigenetic methylation of DNA repair genes or altered microRNAs that control DNA


id: malignancy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy-1.md
category: reference
title: Malignancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:28.374982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malignancy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Surgery === Surgery can help manage or treat malignancy by either removing the tumour, localising it and/or determining whether there has been a spread to other organs. When undertaking surgery for malignancy, there are six major objectives which are considered. These include "prevention of cancer, diagnosis and staging of disease, disease cure, tumour debulking, symptom palliation and patient rehabilitation". Surgical prevention of cancer largely consists of removing the organ at risk of developing malignancy. This would occur if an individual is predisposed to the formation of malignant cells as a result of inherited genetic mutations and acquired diseases. Surgical diagnosis of malignancy involves completing a biopsy. This process requires a sufficient amount of tissue to make a confident diagnosis, and the handling of specimen to expand information provided from testing. Biopsies are categorised into four different processes: "fine-needle aspirate (FNA), core needle, incisional, and excisional". Curative surgery (also known as primary surgery) can be conducted when the malignant tumour has only invaded one area of the body. The objective is to remove the entirety of the malignant cells without violating the tumour; if the tumour is violated, the risk of both tumour spillage and wound implantation would increase. The


id: mammoplasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoplasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Mammoplasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoplasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:29.680473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mammoplasia-20260505-0
summary:
Mammoplasia is the normal or spontaneous enlargement of human breasts. Mammoplasia occurs normally during puberty and pregnancy in women, as well as during certain periods of the menstrual cycle. When it occurs in males, it is called gynecomastia and is considered to be pathological. When it occurs in females and is extremely excessive, it is called macromastia (also known as gigantomastia or breast hypertrophy) and is similarly considered to be pathological. Mammoplasia may be due to breast engorgement, which is temporary enlargement of the breasts caused by the production and storage of breast milk in association with lactation and/or galactorrhea (excessive or inappropriate production of milk). Mastodynia (breast tenderness/pain) frequently co-occurs with mammoplasia. During the luteal phase (latter half) of the menstrual cycle, due to increased mammary blood flow and/or premenstrual fluid retention caused by high circulating concentrations of estrogen and/or progesterone, the breasts temporarily increase in size, and this is experienced by women as fullness, heaviness, swollenness, and a tingling sensation. Mammoplasia can be an effect or side effect of various drugs, including estrogens, antiandrogens such as spironolactone, cyproterone acetate, bicalutamide, and finasteride, growth hormone, and drugs that elevate prolactin levels such as D2 receptor antagonists like antipsychotics (e.g.,


id: manner-of-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Manner of death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:31.066625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: manner-of-death-20260505-0
summary:
In many legal jurisdictions, the manner of death is a determination, typically made by the coroner, medical examiner, police, or similar officials, and recorded as a vital statistic. Within the United States and the United Kingdom, a distinction is made between the cause of death, which is a specific disease or injury, such as a gunshot wound or cancer, versus manner of death, which is primarily a legal determination, versus the mechanism of death (also called the mode of death), which does not explain why the person died or the underlying cause of death and is usually not specific to the cause or manner of death, such as asphyxiation, arrhythmia or exsanguination. Different categories are used in different jurisdictions, but manner of death determinations include everything from very broad categories like "natural" and "homicide" to specific manners like "traffic accident" or "gunshot wound". In some cases an autopsy is performed, either due to general legal requirements, because the medical cause of death is uncertain, upon the request of family members or guardians, or because the circumstances of death were suspicious. International Classification of Disease codes are sometimes used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that


id: manner-of-death-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death-1.md
category: reference
title: Manner of death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:31.066625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: manner-of-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, when people die, either a doctor writes an acceptable natural cause of death medical certificate, or a coroner (procurator fiscal in Scotland) investigates the case. Coroners are independent judicial officers who investigate deaths reported to them, and subsequently whatever inquiries are necessary to discover the cause of death, this includes ordering a post-mortem examination, obtaining witness statements and medical records, or holding an inquest. In the unified legal jurisdiction of England and Wales, most deaths are certified by doctors without autopsy or coroner involvement. Almost all deaths certified by the coroner involve an autopsy but most do not involve a formal inquest. In England and Wales, a specific list of choices for verdicts is not mandated, and "narrative verdicts" are allowed, which are not specifically classified. The verdicts aggregated by the Ministry of Justice are: Homicide Killed unlawfully Killed lawfully Suicide Attempted or self-induced abortion Cause of death aggravated by lack of care, or self-neglect Dependence on drugs Non-dependent abuse of drugs Want of attention at birth Death from industrial diseases Death by accident or misadventure Stillborn Death from natural causes Open verdict Disaster === Other jurisdictions === Some jurisdictions place deaths


id: mass-effect-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Mass effect (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:32.354081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-effect-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a mass effect is the effect of a growing mass that results in secondary pathological effects by pushing on or displacing surrounding tissue. In oncology, the mass typically refers to a tumor. For example, cancer of the thyroid gland may cause symptoms due to compressions of certain structures of the head and neck; pressure on the laryngeal nerves may cause voice changes, narrowing of the windpipe may cause stridor, pressure on the gullet may cause dysphagia and so on. Surgical removal or debulking is sometimes used to palliate symptoms of the mass effect even if the underlying pathology is not curable. In neurology, a mass effect is the effect exerted by any mass, including, for example, hydrocephalus (cerebrospinal fluid buildup) or an evolving intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding within the skull) presenting with a clinically significant hematoma. The hematoma can exert a mass effect on the brain, increasing intracranial pressure and potentially causing midline shift or deadly brain herniation. In the past this effect held additional diagnostic importance since prior to the invention of modern tomographic soft-tissue imaging utilizing MRI or CT it was not possible to directly image many kinds of primary intracranial lesions. Therefore, in those days, the


id: maternal-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
Maternal death or maternal mortality is defined in slightly different ways by several different health organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines maternal death as the death of a pregnant mother due to complications related to pregnancy, underlying conditions worsened by the pregnancy or management of these conditions. This can occur either while she is pregnant or within six weeks of resolution of the pregnancy. The CDC definition of pregnancy-related deaths extends the period of consideration to include one year from the resolution of the pregnancy. Pregnancy associated death, as defined by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), are all deaths occurring within one year of a pregnancy resolution. Identification of pregnancy associated deaths is important for deciding whether or not the pregnancy was a direct or indirect contributing cause of the death. There are two main measures used when talking about the rates of maternal mortality in a community or country. These are the maternal mortality ratio and maternal mortality rate, both abbreviated as "MMR". By 2017, the world maternal mortality rate had declined 44% since 1990; however, every day 808 women die from pregnancy or childbirth related causes. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)


id: maternal-death-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-1.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
When abortion is legal and accessible, it is widely regarded as safer for the mother than carrying a pregnancy to term and delivery. In fact, a study published in the journal Obstetrics & Gynecology reported that in the United States, carrying a pregnancy to term and delivering a baby comes with a 14 times increased risk of death for the mother as compared to a legal abortion. However, in many regions of the world, abortion is not legal and can be unsafe for the mother. Maternal deaths caused by improperly performed procedures are preventable and contribute 13% to the maternal mortality rate worldwide. This number is increased to 25% in countries where other causes of maternal mortality are low, such as in Eastern European and South American countries. This makes unsafe abortion practices the leading cause of maternal death worldwide. Unsafe abortion is another major cause of maternal death worldwide. In regions where abortion is legal and accessible, abortion is safe and does not contribute greatly to overall rates of maternal death. However, in regions where abortions are not legal, available, or regulated, unsafe abortion practices can cause significant rates of maternal death. According to the World Health Organization in


id: maternal-death-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-2.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Risk factors === According to a 2004 WHO publication, sociodemographic factors such as age, access to resources, and income level are significant indicators of maternal outcomes. Young mothers face higher risks of complications and death during pregnancy than older mothers, especially adolescents aged 15 years or younger. Adolescents have higher risks for postpartum hemorrhage, endometritis, operative vaginal delivery, episiotomy, low birth weight, preterm delivery, and small-for-gestational-age infants, all of which can lead to maternal death. The leading cause of death for girls at the age of 15 in developing countries is complications during pregnancy and childbirth. They have more pregnancies, on average, than women in developed countries, and it has been shown that 1 in 180 15-year-old girls in developing countries who become pregnant will die due to complications during pregnancy or childbirth. This is compared to women in developed countries, where the likelihood is 1 in 4900 live births. However, in the United States, as many women of older age continue to have children, the maternal mortality rate has risen in some states, especially among women over 40 years old. Women in low-income countries face a lifetime risk of maternal death—defined as the probability that a 15-year-old girl


id: maternal-death-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-3.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Trends === The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA; formerly known as the United Nations Fund for Population Activities) has established programs that support efforts in reducing maternal death. These efforts include education and training for midwives, supporting access to emergency services in obstetric and newborn care networks, and providing essential drugs and family planning services to pregnant women or those planning to become pregnant. They also support efforts for review and response systems regarding maternal deaths. According to the 2010 United Nations Population Fund report, low-resource nations account for ninety-nine percent of maternal deaths, with the majority of those deaths occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. Globally, high and middle-income countries experience lower maternal deaths than low-income countries. The Human Development Index (HDI) accounts for between 82 and 85 percent of the maternal mortality rates among countries. In most cases, high rates of maternal deaths occur in the same countries that have high rates of infant mortality. These trends reflect that higher-income countries have stronger healthcare infrastructure, more doctors, use more advanced medical technologies, and have fewer barriers to accessing care than low-income countries. In low-income countries, the most common cause of maternal death is obstetrical hemorrhage, followed


id: maternal-death-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-4.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prenatal care === It was estimated that in 2015, a total of 303,000 women died due to causes related to pregnancy or childbirth. The majority of these were due to severe bleeding, sepsis or infections, eclampsia, obstructed labor, and consequences from unsafe abortions. Most of these causes are either preventable or have highly effective interventions. An important factor that contributes to the maternal mortality rate is access and opportunity to receive prenatal care. Women who do not receive prenatal care are between three and four times more likely to die from complications resulting from pregnancy or delivery than those who receive prenatal care. Even in high-resource countries, many women do not receive the appropriate preventative or prenatal care. For example, 25% of women in the United States do not receive the recommended number of prenatal visits. This number increases for women among traditionally marginalized populations—32% of African American women and 41% for American Indian and Alaska Native women do not receive the recommended preventative health services before delivery. In 2023, a study reported that deaths among Native American women were three-and-a-half times that of white women. The report attributed the high rate in part to the fact that Native


id: maternal-death-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-5.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
A public health approach to addressing maternal mortality includes gathering information on the scope of the problem, identifying key causes, and implementing interventions, both before pregnancy and during pregnancy, to combat those causes and prevent maternal mortality. Public health has a role to play in the analysis of maternal death. One important aspect in the review of maternal death and its causes are Maternal Mortality Review Committees or Boards. The goal of these review committees is to analyze each maternal death and determine its cause. After this analysis, the information can be combined to determine specific interventions that could prevent future maternal deaths. These review boards are generally comprehensive in their analysis of maternal deaths, examining details that include mental health factors, public transportation, chronic illnesses, and substance use disorders. All of this information can be combined to give a detailed picture of what is causing maternal mortality and help determine recommendations to reduce its impact. Many states in the US are taking Maternal Mortality Review Committees a step further and are collaborating with various professional organizations to improve the quality of perinatal care. These teams of organizations form a "perinatal quality collaborative" (PQC) and include state health departments, the


id: maternal-death-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-6.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Policy === The largest global policy initiative for maternal health came from the United Nations' Millennium Declaration, which created the Millennium Development Goals. In 2012, this evolved at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development to become the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with a target year of 2030. The SDGs are 17 goals that call for global collaboration to tackle a wide variety of recognized problems. Goal 3 focuses on ensuring health and well-being for women of all ages. A specific target is to achieve a global maternal mortality ratio of less than 70 per 100,000 live births. So far, specific progress has been made in births attended by a skilled provider, now at 80% of births worldwide compared with 62% in 2005. Countries and local governments have taken political steps to reduce maternal deaths. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute studied maternal health systems in four apparently similar countries: Rwanda, Malawi, Niger, and Uganda. In comparison to the other three countries, Rwanda has an excellent record of improving maternal death rates. Based on their investigation of these varying country case studies, the researchers conclude that improving maternal health depends on three key factors: reviewing all maternal health-related policies


id: maternal-death-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-7.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
==== Policies in the United States ==== Additionally, in the United States, Black women are more likely to die during and from childbirth than any other demographic. While researchers have documented the higher rate of maternal mortality in black women, they have not extensively researched the ways to improve the outcomes of maternal mortality in black mothers positively. In 2022, President Joe Biden signed the “Data Mapping to Save Moms’ Lives Act” into law, just before Christmas, and with the support of the AMA (American Medical Association). The law called for the Federal Communications Commission—in consultation with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to incorporate publicly available data on maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity for at least one year postpartum into its Mapping Broadband Health in America platform Regardless, a concerted study on the policy outcome on black women’s mortality rate is a rarity. Additionally, in February of 2021, Senator Cory Booker and Representatives Lauren Underwood and Alma Adams reintroduced the Black Maternal Health Momnibus Act. It consisted of thirteen bills aimed at improving maternal health. Six of the bills specifically target Black maternal health or related factors that impact it. The legislation aimed to save lives,


id: maternal-death-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-8.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, women who are black and non-Hispanic experience pregnancy-related death at a significantly higher rate. They are three to four times as likely to succumb to maternal mortality than non-Hispanic white women. In the United States between the years of 2007 and 2014, women who identify as non-Hispanic and black had a significant increase in death related to pregnancy. In the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the maternal mortality rate in 2021 was 32.9 deaths per 100,000 live births. This is significantly higher than the rates in 2020, defined as 23.8 deaths per 100,000 live births and 20.1 in 2019. In 2021, the maternal mortality rate for non-Hispanic Black women was 69.9 deaths per 100,000 live births, which is 2.6 times higher than non-Hispanic White women. The mortality rate for women over the age of 40 was 6.8 times higher than the rate for women under the age of 25. Research indicates that these disparities in the U.S. are not due to genetic differences, but rather systemic factors, including racial bias in healthcare, inadequate access to high-quality maternity care, and higher rates of chronic conditions like hypertension and preeclampsia. Implicit


id: maternal-death-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-9.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Severe maternal morbidity === Severe maternal morbidity (SMM) is an unanticipated acute or chronic health outcome after labor and delivery that detrimentally affects a woman's health. Severe Maternal Morbidity (SMM) includes any unexpected outcomes from labor or delivery that cause both short and long-term consequences to the mother's overall health. There are nineteen total indicators used by the CDC to help identify SMM, with the most prevalent indicator being a blood transfusion. Other indicators include an acute myocardial infarction ("heart attack"), aneurysm, and kidney failure. All of this identification is done by using ICD-10 codes, which are disease identification codes found in hospital discharge data. Using these definitions that rely on these codes should be used with careful consideration since some may miss some cases, have a low predictive value, or may be difficult for different facilities to operationalize. There are certain screening criteria that may be helpful and are recommended through the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists as well as the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine (SMFM). These screening criteria for SMM are for transfusions of four or more units of blood and admission of a pregnant woman or a postpartum woman to an ICU facility or unit.


id: mayer-waves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayer_waves-0.md
category: reference
title: Mayer waves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayer_waves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:35.053060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mayer-waves-20260505-0
summary:
Mayer waves are cyclic changes or waves in arterial blood pressure brought about by oscillations in the baroreceptor reflex control system. The waves are seen both in the ECG and in continuous blood pressure curves and have a frequency about 0.1 Hz (10-second waves). These waves were originally described by Siegmund Mayer, Ewald Hering and Ludwig Traube hence originally called "Traube–Hering–Mayer waves". Mayer waves can be defined as arterial blood pressure (AP) oscillations at frequencies slower than respiratory frequency and which show the strongest, significant coherence (strength of linear coupling between fluctuations of two variables in the frequency domain) with efferent sympathetic nervous activity (SNA). In humans, AP oscillations which meet these properties have a characteristic frequency of approx. 0.1 Hz; 0.3 Hz in rabbits and 0.4 Hz in rats. The hemodynamic basis of Mayer waves are oscillations of the sympathetic vasomotor tone of arterial blood vessels, because Mayer waves are abolished or at least strongly attenuated by pharmacological blockade of alpha-adrenoreceptors. Within a given biological species, their frequency is fairly stable; in humans it has been shown that this frequency does not depend on gender, age or posture. It has been suggested that Mayer waves trigger the liberation of


id: me-too-drug-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug-0.md
category: reference
title: Me-too drug
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:36.255172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: me-too-drug-20260505-0
summary:
The term "me-too drug" or "follow-on drug" refers to a medication that is similar to a pre-existing drug, usually by making minor modifications to the prototype, reflected in slight changes in the profiles of side effects or activity, and used to treat conditions for which drugs already exist. While pharmaceutical companies have justified the development of me-toos as offering incremental improvements in efficacy, side-effects, compliance and cost, critics have questioned the increasing marketing of me-toos, their absorption of research and development resources and their impact on the innovation of new treatments. In 1956, Louis S. Goodman, co‐editor of Goodman and Gilman, referred to “the problem of the introduction of ‘me too’ drugs, that is, drugs without signal advantage of any sort”. However, me-too drugs can be novel compounds themselves. They are commonly used and include several beta blockers, antidepressants and stomach acid reducing and cholesterol lowering drugs. == History == The term "me‐too drugs" was coined in the 1950s. In 1956, Louis S. Goodman, co‐editor of Goodman and Gilman, referred to “the problem of the introduction of ‘me too’ drugs, that is, drugs without signal advantage of any sort”. Once a new drug class was discovered, other major drug companies


id: me-too-drug-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug-1.md
category: reference
title: Me-too drug
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:36.255172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: me-too-drug-20260505-0
summary:
== Debate == In 2005, a report by the International Policy Network defended me-toos, describing their development as "incremental improvements on already existing drugs". The report stated: ... this often represent(s) advances in safety and efficacy, along with providing new formulations and dosing options that significantly increase patient compliance. From an economic standpoint, expanding drug classes represent the possibility of lower drug prices as competition between manufacturers is increased. Additionally, pharmaceutical companies depend on incremental innovations to provide the revenue that will support the development of more risky “block-buster” drugs. Policies aimed at curbing incremental innovation will ultimately lead to a reduction in the overall quality of existing drug classes and may ultimately curb the creation of novel drugs. This incremental innovation has led to some referring to me-toos as "me-betters". Many physicians are unaware that me-toos are compared to placebos rather than pre-existing drugs. Me-toos are seen as patentable new drugs and therefore substantial profit makers, where innovative drugs may be more risky to develop. == Statistics == Between 1998 and 2003, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved 487 drugs, of which 78 per cent appeared to have similar characteristics to pre-existing marketed drugs. More than 60%


id: medical-advice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_advice-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical advice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_advice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:37.668231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-advice-20260505-0
summary:
Medical advice is the provision of a formal professional opinion regarding what a specific individual should or should not do to restore or preserve health. Typically, medical advice involves giving a diagnosis and/or prescribing a treatment for medical condition. Medical advice is not the same as personal advice even if the advice concerns medical care. == Doctor–patient relationship == In industrializd countries, medical advice is given in the context of a doctor–patient relationship. A licensed health care professional can be held legally liable for the advice he or she gives to a patient. Giving bad advice may be considered medical malpractice under specified circumstances. The doctor–patient relationship is one factor in determining the patient's compliance with medical advice. Patients adhere more closely to medical advice when the healthcare provider is friendly, doesn't interrupt the patient, or has good verbal communication skills. Patients are less likely to comply with medical advice if the advice is not what the patients expected, if the patients do not agree with the proposed treatment, if the patient is not confident in the provider's competence, or if the patient cannot understand what the provider says due to language barriers or overuse of medical jargon. Patients are


id: medical-case-management-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_case_management-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical case management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_case_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:38.918494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-case-management-20260505-0
summary:
Medical case management is a collaborative process that facilitates recommended treatment plans to assure the appropriate medical care is provided to disabled, ill or injured individuals. It is a role frequently overseen by patient advocates. It refers to the planning and coordination of health care services appropriate to achieve the goal of medical rehabilitation. Medical case management may include, but is not limited to, care assessment, including personal interview with the injured employee, and assistance in developing, implementing and coordinating a medical care plan with health care providers, as well as the employee and his/her family and evaluation of treatment results. Medical case management requires the evaluation of a medical condition, developing and implementing a plan of care, coordinating medical resources, communicated healthcare needs to the individual, monitors an individual's progress and promotes cost-effective care. The term also has usage in the USA health care system, referring to the case management coordination in the managed care environment. == See also == Case management (mental health) Disease management (health) Case management (US healthcare system) == References == == External links == Case Management at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) "Medical case management do's & dont's". michigan.gov.


id: medical-consensus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_consensus-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical consensus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_consensus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:40.055733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-consensus-20260505-0
summary:
Medical consensus is a public statement on a particular aspect of medical knowledge at the time the statement is made that a representative group of experts agree to be evidence-based and state-of-the-art (state-of-the-science) knowledge. Its main objective is to counsel physicians on the best possible and acceptable way to diagnose and treat certain diseases or how to address a particular decision-making area. It is usually, therefore, considered an authoritative, community-based expression of a consensus decision-making and publication process. == Methods == There are many ways of producing medical consensus, but the most usual way is to convene an independent panel of experts, either by a medical association or by a governmental authority. Since consensus statements provide a "snapshot in time" of the state of knowledge in a particular topic, they must periodically be re-evaluated and published again, replacing the previous consensus statement. Consensus statements differ from medical guidelines, another form of state-of-the-science public statements. According to the NIH, "Consensus statements synthesize new information, largely from recent or ongoing medical research, that has implications for reevaluation of routine medical practices. They do not give specific algorithms or guidelines for practice." == History == From 1977 to 2013, the National Institutes of


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Medical diagnosis (abbreviated as Dx, Dx, or Ds) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as a diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. The information required for a diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes the posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. Diagnosis is often challenging because many signs and symptoms are nonspecific. For example, redness of the skin (erythema), by itself, is a sign of many disorders and thus does not tell the healthcare professional what is wrong. Thus differential diagnosis, in which several possible explanations are compared and contrasted, must be performed. This involves the correlation of various pieces of information followed by the recognition and differentiation of patterns. Occasionally the process is made easy by a sign or symptom (or a group of several) that is pathognomonic. Diagnosis is a major component of the procedure of a doctor's visit. From the point of view of statistics, the diagnostic procedure involves classification tests. The


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pattern recognition === In a pattern recognition method the provider uses experience to recognize a pattern of clinical characteristics. It is mainly based on certain symptoms or signs being associated with certain diseases or conditions, not necessarily involving the more cognitive processing involved in a differential diagnosis. This may be the primary method used in cases where diseases are "obvious", or the provider's experience may enable him or her to recognize the condition quickly. Theoretically, a certain pattern of signs or symptoms can be directly associated with a certain therapy, even without a definite decision regarding what is the actual disease, but such a compromise carries a substantial risk of missing a diagnosis which actually has a different therapy so it may be limited to cases where no diagnosis can be made. === Diagnostic criteria === The term diagnostic criteria designates the specific combination of signs and symptoms, and test results that the clinician uses to attempt to determine the correct diagnosis. Some examples of diagnostic criteria, also known as clinical case definitions, are: Amsterdam criteria for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer McDonald criteria for multiple sclerosis ACR criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus Centor criteria for strep throat === Clinical


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social context === Diagnosis can take many forms. It might be a matter of naming the disease, lesion, dysfunction or disability. It might be a management-naming or prognosis-naming exercise. It may indicate either degree of abnormality on a continuum or kind of abnormality in a classification. It is influenced by non-medical factors such as power, ethics and financial incentives for patient or doctor. It can be a brief summation or an extensive formulation, even taking the form of a story or metaphor. It might be a means of communication such as a computer code through which it triggers payment, prescription, notification, information or advice. It might be pathogenic or salutogenic. It is generally uncertain and provisional. Once a diagnostic opinion has been reached, the provider is able to propose a management plan, which will include treatment as well as plans for follow-up. From this point on, in addition to treating the patient's condition, the provider can educate the patient about the etiology, progression, prognosis, other outcomes, and possible treatments of her or his ailments, as well as providing advice for maintaining health. A treatment plan is proposed which may include therapy and follow-up consultations and tests to monitor the


id: medical-guideline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_guideline-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical guideline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_guideline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:42.677693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-guideline-20260505-0
summary:
A medical guideline (also called a clinical guideline, standard treatment guideline, or clinical practice guideline) is a document with the aim of guiding decisions and criteria regarding diagnosis, management, and treatment in specific areas of healthcare. Such documents have been in use for thousands of years during the entire history of medicine. However, in contrast to previous approaches, which were often based on tradition or authority, modern medical guidelines are based on an examination of current evidence within the paradigm of evidence-based medicine. They usually include summarized consensus statements on best practice in healthcare. A healthcare provider is obliged to know the medical guidelines of their profession, and has to decide whether to follow the recommendations of a guideline for an individual treatment. == Background == Modern clinical guidelines identify, summarize and evaluate the highest quality evidence and most current data about prevention, diagnosis, prognosis, therapy including dosage of medications, risk/benefit and cost-effectiveness. Then they define the most important questions related to clinical practice and identify all possible decision options and their outcomes. Some guidelines contain decision or computation algorithms to be followed. Thus, they integrate the identified decision points and respective courses of action with the clinical judgement and


id: medical-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:44.019225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-history-20260505-0
summary:
The medical history, case history, or anamnesis (from Greek: ἀνά, aná, "open", and μνήσις, mnesis, "memory") of a patient is a set of information the physicians collect over medical interviews. It involves the patient, and eventually people close to them, so to collect reliable/objective information for managing the medical diagnosis and proposing efficient medical treatments. The medically relevant complaints reported by the patient or others familiar with the patient are referred to as symptoms, in contrast with clinical signs, which are ascertained by direct examination on the part of medical personnel. Most health encounters will result in some form of history being taken. Medical histories vary in their depth and focus. For example, an ambulance paramedic would typically limit their history to important details, such as name, history of presenting complaint, allergies, etc. In contrast, a psychiatric history is frequently lengthy and in depth, as many details about the patient's life are relevant to formulating a management plan for a psychiatric illness. The information obtained in this way, together with the physical examination, enables the physician and other health professionals to form a diagnosis and treatment plan. If a diagnosis cannot be made, a provisional diagnosis may be formulated, and


id: medical-history-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:44.019225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-history-20260505-0
summary:
== Inhibiting factors == Factors that inhibit taking a proper medical history include a physical inability of the patient to communicate with the physician, such as unconsciousness and communication disorders. In such cases, it may be necessary to record such information that may be gained from other people who know the patient. In medical terms, this is known as a heteroanamnesis, or collateral history, in contrast to a self-reporting anamnesis. Medical history taking may also be impaired by various factors impeding a proper doctor-patient relationship, such as transitions to physicians that are unfamiliar to the patient. History taking of issues related to sexual or reproductive medicine may be inhibited by a reluctance of the patient to disclose intimate or uncomfortable information. Even if such an issue is on the patient's mind, they often do not start talking about such an issue without the physician initiating the subject by a specific question about sexual or reproductive health. Some familiarity with the doctor generally makes it easier for patients to talk about intimate issues such as sexual subjects, but for some patients, a very high degree of familiarity may make the patient reluctant to reveal such intimate issues. When visiting a health


id: medical-procedure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_procedure-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical procedure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_procedure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:45.214641+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-procedure-20260505-0
summary:
A medical procedure is a course of action intended to achieve a result in the delivery of healthcare. A medical procedure with the intention of determining, measuring, or diagnosing a patient condition or parameter is also called a medical test. Other common kinds of procedures are therapeutic (i.e., intended to treat, cure, or restore function or structure), such as surgical and physical rehabilitation procedures. == Definition == "An activity directed at or performed on an individual with the object of improving health, treating disease or injury, or making a diagnosis." - International Dictionary of Medicine and Biology "The act or conduct of diagnosis, treatment, or operation." - Stedman's Medical Dictionary by Thomas Lathrop Stedman "A series of steps by which a desired result is accomplished." - Dorland's Medical Dictionary by William Alexander Newman Dorland "The sequence of steps to be followed in establishing some course of action." - Mosby's Medical, Nursing, & Allied Health Dictionary == List of medical procedures == === Propaedeutic === Auscultation Medical inspection (body features) Palpation Percussion (medicine) Vital signs measurement, such as blood pressure, body temperature, or pulse (or heart rate) === Diagnostic === Lab tests Biopsy test Blood test Stool test Urinalysis Cardiac stress


id: medical-state-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_state-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:46.589956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-state-20260505-0
summary:
Medical state is a term used to describe a hospital patient's health status, or condition. The term is most commonly used in information given to the news media, and is rarely used as a clinical description by physicians. Two aspects of the patient's state may be reported. The first aspect is the patient's current state, which may be reported as "good" or "serious," for instance. Second, the patient's short-term prognosis may be reported. Examples include that the patient is improving or getting worse. If no immediate change is expected, the term stable is frequently used as a qualifier to denote conditions where a patient has stable vital signs. == United States == A wide range of terms may be used to describe a patient's condition in the United States. The American Hospital Association advises physicians to use the following one-word conditions in describing a patient's condition to those inquiring, including the media. Undetermined Patient awaiting physician and/or assessment. Good Vital signs are stable and within normal limits. Patient is conscious and comfortable. Indicators are excellent. Fair Vital signs are stable and within normal limits. Patient is conscious, but may be uncomfortable. Indicators are favorable. Serious Vital signs may be unstable


id: medical-textiles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
Medical textiles are numerous fiber-based materials intended for medical purposes. Medical textile is a sector of technical textiles that emphasizes fiber-based products used in health care applications such as prevention, care, and hygiene. The spectrum of applications of medical textiles ranges from simple cotton bandages to advanced tissue engineering. Common examples of products made from medical textiles include dressings, implants, surgical sutures, certain medical devices, healthcare textiles, diapers, menstrual pads, wipes, and barrier fabrics. Medical textiles include many fiber types, yarns, fabrics, non-woven materials, woven, braided, as well as knitted fabrics. Physical and chemical alterations of fiber architectures, the use of functional finishes, and the production of stimuli-sensitive materials are major approaches for developing innovative medical textiles. Advances in textile manufacturing and medical technologies have made medical healthcare an important industry in textiles. Textiles are used in the production of a variety of medical devices, including replacements for damaged, injured, or non-functioning organs. The manufacture of medical textiles is a growing sector. There are many reasons for its growth, such as new technology in both textiles and medicine; ageing populations; growing populations; changes in lifestyles; and longer life expectancies. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic generated higher demand for certain medical textile


id: medical-textiles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
==== Overview ==== Medical devices are commonly made in whole or part from fibers. A medical device is defined as any device intended for medical purposes. It could be a machine, a reagent for use in the lab, software, an appliance, an instrument, or an implant. For medical use, fiber selection is based on certain criteria of intended use. Primarily, fibers are chosen on the basis of their biodegradability or non-biodegradability. Other than biodegradability, strength, elasticity, and absorbency are also considered. ==== Natural fibers ==== Natural fibers such as cotton, silk, and viscose (a regenerated cellulosic fiber) are used in hygiene and healthcare products, as well as non-implantable materials. Polyester, nylon, polypropylene, glass, and carbon are all examples of synthetic fibers used in Medical textiles. Fibers absorbed within three months by our biological system are considered biodegradable, and fibers that require more than six months to absorb are called non-biodegradable. These fibers are categorized as below: ==== PLA and PGA fibers ==== Polylactic acid, also called PLA, is a biodegradable, biosorbable or bioabsorbable polymer used in producing many type of implants such as naturally dissolving stents. Polyglycolide or polyglycolic acid, also called PGA, is a biodegradable and thermoplastic polymer. PGA


id: medical-textiles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
It is possible to make meter-long core-shell hydrogel microfibers that contain ECM proteins and mature cells or somatic stem cells in a microfluidic device. and these microfibers have the morphologies and functions of live tissues. The fibers also have the potential to be reeled and spin or weave Electrospinning can produce nanofibers with a range of desired fine microns that is usable to make nano- and submicron-sized fibrous scaffolds from polymer solutions that could be used as cell and tissue substrates. ===== Biomedical scaffolds ===== Hydrogel fibers are used to construct scaffolds for the development of cells and the release of drugs. ==== Antimicrobial dressing ==== Chitosan may function as an inhibitor of bacterial and fungal development. In 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved chitosan-based wound dressings for medical use. Combat medics use Hemcon dressings, which is a dressing with Chitosan, to treat wounds because it stops the blood flow with its hemostasis properties. Chitosan hemostatic agents are salts formed when chitosan is combined with an organic acid (lactic acid, or Succinic acid). The hemostatic agent operates by interacting with the erythrocytes' (negatively charged) cell membrane and the protonated chitosan (positively charged), resulting in platelet involvement and


id: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms-0.md
category: reference
title: Medically unexplained physical symptoms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:49.258781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
summary:
Medically unexplained physical symptoms (MUPS or MUS) are symptoms for which a treating physician or other healthcare providers have found no medical cause, or whose cause remains contested. In its strictest sense, the term simply means that the cause for the symptoms is unknown or disputed—there is no scientific consensus. Not all medically unexplained symptoms are influenced by identifiable psychological factors. However, in practice, most physicians and authors who use the term consider that the symptoms most likely arise from psychological causes. Typically, the possibility that MUPS are caused by prescription drugs or other drugs is ignored. == Prevalence == It is estimated that between 15% and 30% of all primary care consultations are for medically unexplained symptoms. About 1 in 4 people who see a UK GP have physical symptoms that cannot be explained. Women are significantly more likely than men to be diagnosed with Medically Unexplained Symptoms. == Symptoms == A large Canadian community survey revealed that the most common medically unexplained symptoms are musculoskeletal pain, ear, nose, and throat symptoms, abdominal pain and gastrointestinal symptoms, fatigue, and dizziness. Other medically unexplained symptoms are headaches, feeling faint, heart palpitations, fits (seizures), breathlessness, weakness and paralysis, and numbness and


id: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms-1.md
category: reference
title: Medically unexplained physical symptoms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:49.258781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
summary:
The most effective current treatment for some medically unexplained symptoms is a combination of therapeutic approaches tailored to the individual patient. Most MUS patients are in need of psychotherapy, relaxation therapy and physiotherapy under medical supervision. A combined therapeutic approach which is at least twice as effective as other therapeutic modalities published to date is described in Steele RE et al. "A novel and effective treatment modality for medically unexplained symptoms". The next best documented approach is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), with evidence from multiple randomized controlled trials. Antidepressants may also help, but the evidence is "not yet conclusive." The effectiveness of CBT and antidepressants has not been studied for all medically unexplained symptoms, however. Evidence for a positive effect of CBT has been found in trials for fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, unexplained headaches, unexplained back pain, tinnitus, and non-cardiac chest pain. Overall, CBT has been shown to be effective in reducing psychological distress and improving medical status in MUPS patients. However the quality of many CBT studies remains low, and many studies lack an attention-placebo control. As of 2006, CBT had not been tested for menopausal syndrome, chronic facial pain, interstitial cystitis, or chronic pelvic pain.


id: metabolic-flexibility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_flexibility-0.md
category: reference
title: Metabolic flexibility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_flexibility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:50.563120+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metabolic-flexibility-20260505-0
summary:
Metabolic flexibility is the capacity to alter metabolism in response to exercise or available fuel (especially fats and carbohydrates). Metabolic inflexibility was first described as the ability to generate energy through either aerobic or anaerobic respiration or as the inability of muscle to increase glucose oxidation in response to insulin. An organism can also be said to have metabolic flexibility if it is capable of metabolizing either carbohydrate or fat efficiently, depending on availability of those fuels. By this definition, metabolic flexibility can be quantified using respiratory quotient. This form of metabolic flexibility is reduced by insulin resistance. With aging there is a decrease in metabolic flexibility due to a decline in pyruvate dehydrogenase activity which results in pyruvate increasingly being anaerobically converted to lactate rather than aerobically converted to acetyl-CoA. Similarly, a virus-induced cytokine storm can compromise metabolic flexibility by inactivating the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and other enzymes. == See also == Insulin resistance == References ==


id: mhealth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-0.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
mHealth (also written as m-health or mhealth), an abbreviation for mobile health, is the practice of medicine and public health supported by mobile devices. The term is most commonly used in reference to using mobile communication devices, such as mobile phones, tablet computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wearable devices such as smart watches, for health services, information, and data collection. The mHealth field has emerged as a sub-segment of eHealth and digital health, the use of information and communication technology (ICT), such as computers, mobile phones, communications satellite, patient monitors, etc., for health services and information. mHealth applications include the use of mobile devices in collecting community and clinical health data, delivery/sharing of healthcare information for practitioners, researchers and patients, real-time monitoring of patient vital signs, the direct provision of care (via mobile telemedicine) as well as training and collaboration of health workers. In 2019, the global market for mHealth apps was estimated at US$17.92 billion, with a compound annual growth rate of 45% predicted from 2020 to 2027. While mHealth has application for industrialized nations, the field has emerged in recent years as largely an application for developing countries, stemming from the rapid rise of mobile phone


id: mhealth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-1.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Diagnostic support, treatment support, communication and training for healthcare workers === Diagnostic and treatment support systems are typically designed to provide healthcare workers in remote areas advice about diagnosis and treatment of patients. While some projects may provide mobile phone applications—such as a step-by-step medical decision tree systems—to help healthcare workers diagnose, other projects provide direct diagnosis to patients themselves. In such cases, known as telemedicine, patients might take a photograph of a wound or illness and allow a remote physician to diagnose to help treat the medical problem. Both diagnosis and treatment support projects attempt to mitigate the cost and time of travel for patients located in remote areas. mHealth projects within the communication and training for healthcare workers subset involve connecting healthcare workers to sources of information through their mobile phone. This involves connecting healthcare workers to other healthcare workers, medical institutions, ministries of health, or other houses of medical information. Such projects additionally involve using mobile phones to better organize and target in-person training. Improved communication projects attempt to increase knowledge transfer amongst healthcare workers and improve patient outcomes through such programs as patient referral processes. For example, the systematic use of mobile instant messaging for


id: mhealth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-2.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism and concerns == The extensive practice of mhealth research has sparked criticism, for example on the proliferation of fragmented pilot studies in low- and middle-income countries, which is also referred to as "pilotitis." The extent of un-coordinated pilot studies prompted for instance the Ugandan Director General Health Services Dr Jane Ruth Aceng in 2012 to issue a notice that, "in order to jointly ensure that all eHealth efforts are harmonized and coordinated, I am directing that ALL eHealth projects/Initiatives be put to halt." The assumptions that justify mhealth initiatives have also been challenged in recent sociological research. For example, mobile phones have been argued to be less widely accessible and usable than is often portrayed in mhealth-related publications; people integrate mobile phones into their health behavior without external intervention; and the spread of mobile phones in low- and middle-income countries itself can create new forms of digital and healthcare exclusion, which mhealth interventions (using mobile phones as a platform) cannot overcome and potentially accentuate. Mhealth has also been argued to alter the practice of healthcare and patient-physician relationships as well as how bodies and health are being represented. Another widespread concern relates to privacy and data protection, for


id: mhealth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-3.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Healthcare in developed countries === In developed countries, healthcare systems have different policies and goals in relation to the personal and population health care goals. In the US and EU many patients and consumers use their cell phones and tablets to access health information and look for healthcare services. In parallel the number of mHealth applications grew significantly in the last years. Clinicians use mobile devices to access patient information and other databases and resources. Physicians also use mobile devices as an streamlined tool for exchanging patient information, for educational purposes, and as a tool for decision support. == Technology and market == Basic SMS functions and real-time voice communication serve as the backbone and the current most common use of mobile phone technology. The broad range of potential benefits to the health sector that the simple functions of mobile phones can provide should not be understated. The appeal of mobile communication technologies is that they enable communication in motion, allowing individuals to contact each other irrespective of time and place. This is particularly beneficial for work in remote areas where the mobile phone, and now increasingly wireless infrastructure, is able to reach more people, faster. As a result


id: mhealth-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-4.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
Patient monitoring devices Mobile telemedicine/telecare devices Microcomputers Data collection software Mobile Operating System Technology Mobile applications (e.g., gamified/social wellness solutions) Chatterbots ==== Mobile device operating system technology ==== Technologies relate to the operating systems that orchestrate mobile device hardware while maintaining confidentiality, integrity and availability are required to build trust. This may foster greater adoption of mHealth technologies and services, by exploiting lower cost multi purpose mobile devices such as tablets, PCs, and smartphones. Operating systems that control these emerging classes of devices include Google's Android, Apple's iPhone OS, Microsoft's Windows Mobile, and RIM's BlackBerry OS. Operating systems must be agile and evolve to effectively balance and deliver the desired level of service to an application and end user, while managing display real estate, power consumption and security posture. With advances in capabilities such as integrating voice, video and Web 2.0 collaboration tools into mobile devices, significant benefits can be achieved in the delivery of health care services. New sensor technologies such as HD video and audio capabilities, accelerometers, GPS, ambient light detectors, barometers and gyroscopes can enhance the methods of describing and studying cases, close to the patient or consumer of the health care service. This could include diagnosis,


id: mhealth-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-5.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
==== Open mHealth ==== Open mHealth architecture was introduced, fostering innovation in healthcare through facilitating access and harmonization of digital health data from disparate sources using a global community of developers and health tech decision-makers to make sense of that digital health data through an open interoperability standard. 2012 – mHealth app revolution The proliferation of smartphone apps dedicated to health and fitness catalyzed the mHealth revolution, allowing users to track fitness, monitor vitals, access medical information, and engage in telemedicine. Smart Health and Wellbeing (SHB) As a follow-up to the mHealth Evidence Workshop, NSF launched the Smart Health and Wellbeing program to address fundamental technical and scientific issues that would support the much-needed transformation of healthcare from reactive and hospital-centered to preventive, proactive, evidence-based, person-centered, and focused on wellbeing rather than disease. ASSIST Engineering Research Center (ERC) NSF and NIH initiated a joint research program specifically focusing on mHealth, following up on the insights gained from the mHealth Evidence Workshop. The Engineering Research Center ASSIST ERC at NC State University was established to further mHealth research by developing leading-edge systems for high-value applications such as healthcare and IoT by integrating fundamental advances in energy harvesting, low-power electronics, and sensors


id: internal-environment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-0.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
The internal environment (or milieu intérieur in French; French pronunciation: [mi.ljø ɛ̃.te.ʁjœʁ]) was a concept developed by Claude Bernard, a French physiologist in the 19th century, to describe the interstitial fluid and its physiological capacity to ensure protective stability for the tissues and organs of multicellular organisms. == Etymology == Claude Bernard used the French phrase milieu intérieur (internal environment in English) in several works from 1854 until his death in 1878. He most likely adopted it from the histologist Charles Robin, who had employed the phrase "milieu de l’intérieur" as a synonym for the ancient hippocratic idea of humors. Bernard was initially only concerned with the role of the blood but he later included that of the whole body in ensuring this internal stability. He summed up his idea as follows: The fixity of the milieu supposes a perfection of the organism such that the external variations are at each instant compensated for and equilibrated.... All of the vital mechanisms, however varied they may be, have always one goal, to maintain the uniformity of the conditions of life in the internal environment.... The stability of the internal environment is the condition for the free and independent life. Bernard's work


id: internal-environment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-1.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
==== Work in Germany ==== Work in Germany over the last half-century has also focused on the internal communication system, in particular as it relates to the ground system. This work has led to their characterization of the ground system or extracellular matrix interaction with the cellular system as a 'ground regulatory system', seeing therein the key to homeostasis, a body-wide communication and support system, vital to all functions. In 1953 a German doctor and scientist, Reinhold Voll, discovered that points used in acupuncture had different electrical properties from the surrounding skin, namely a lower resistance. Voll further discovered that the measurement of the resistances at the points gave valuable indications as to the state of the internal organs. Further research was done by Dr. Alfred Pischinger, the originator of the concept of the 'system of ground regulation', as well as Drs. Helmut Schimmel, and Hartmut Heine, using Voll's method of electro-dermal screening. This further research revealed that the gene is not so much the controller but the repository of blueprints on how cells and higher systems should operate, and that the actual regulation of biological activities (see Epigenetic cellular biology) lies in a 'system of ground regulation'. This system


id: internal-environment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-2.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
==== Work in the U.S. ==== While the initial work on identifying the importance of the ground regulatory system was done in Germany, more recent work examining the implications of inter and intra-cellular communication via the extra-cellular matrix has taken place in the U.S. and elsewhere. Structural continuity between extracellular, cyst skeletal and nuclear components was discussed by Hay, Berezny et al. and Oschman. Historically, these elements have been referred to as ground substances, and because of their continuity, they act to form a complex, interlaced system that reaches into and contacts every part of the body. Even as early as 1851 it was recognized that the nerve and blood systems do not directly connect to the cell, but are mediated by and through an extracellular matrix. Recent research regarding the electrical charges of the various glycol-protein components of the extracellular matrix shows that because of the high density of negative charges on glycosaminoglycans (provided by sulfate and carboxylate groups of the uronic acid residues) the matrix is an extensive redox system capable of absorbing and donating electrons at any point. This electron transfer function reaches into the interiors of cells as the cytoplasmic matrix is also strongly negatively charged.


id: minimally-invasive-surgeries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgeries-0.md
category: reference
title: Minimally invasive surgeries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgeries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:54.325370+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: minimally-invasive-surgeries-20260505-0
summary:
Minimally invasive surgery (also known as minimally invasive procedure) encompass surgical techniques that limit the size of incisions needed, thereby reducing wound healing time, associated pain, and risk of infection. Surgery by definition is invasive, and many operations requiring incisions of some size are referred to as open surgery. Incisions made during open surgery can sometimes leave large wounds that may be painful and take a long time to heal. Advancements in medical technologies have enabled the development and regular use of minimally invasive procedures. For example, endovascular aneurysm repair, a minimally invasive surgery, has become the most common method of repairing abdominal aortic aneurysms in the US as of 2003. The procedure involves much smaller incisions than the corresponding open surgery procedure of open aortic surgery. Interventional radiologists were the forerunners of minimally invasive procedures. Using imaging techniques, radiologists were able to direct interventional instruments through the body by way of catheters instead of the large incisions needed in traditional surgery. As a result, many conditions once requiring surgery can now be treated non-surgically. Diagnostic techniques that do not involve incisions, puncturing the skin, or the introduction of foreign objects or materials into the body are known as non-invasive


id: multiple-of-the-median-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_of_the_median-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple of the median
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_of_the_median
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:56.807785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-of-the-median-20260505-0
summary:
A multiple of the median (MoM) is a measure of how far an individual test result deviates from the median. MoM is commonly used to report the results of medical screening tests, particularly where the results of the individual tests are highly variable. MoM was originally used as a method to normalize data from participating laboratories of Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) so that individual test results could be compared. 35 years later, it is the established standard for reporting maternal serum screening results. An MoM for a test result for a patient can be determined by the following: M o M ( P a t i e n t ) = R e s u l t ( P a t i e n t ) M e d i a n ( P a t i e n t P o p u l a t i o n ) {\displaystyle MoM(Patient)={\frac {Result(Patient)}{Median(PatientPopulation)}}} As an example, Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) testing is used to screen for a neural tube defect (NTD) during the second trimester of pregnancy. If the median AFP result at 16 weeks of gestation is 30 ng/mL and a pregnant woman's AFP result at that same gestational age is 60


id: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple sex partners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:58.086508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple sex partners (MSP) is the measure and incidence of engaging in sexual activities with two or more people within a specific time period. Sexual activity with MSP can happen simultaneously or serially. MSP includes sexual activity between people of a different gender or the same gender. MSP describes the behavior in clinical terms only. A similar term, promiscuity, may imply a moral judgement. The term polyamorous describes a behavior and not a measure of multiple sexual relationships at the same time. A complete medical history includes a patient's social history and an assessment of the number of sexual partners they have had within a certain time period. Young people having MSP in the past year is an indicator used by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in evaluating risky sexual behavior in adolescents and a tool for monitoring HIV/AIDS infection rates and deaths worldwide. == Definitions and quantification == Epidemiologists and clinicians who quantify risks associated with MSP do so to identify those who have had sexual intercourse with more than one partner in the past 12 months. For the purposes of the World Health Organization (WHO)'s effort to eliminate HIV infection, quantifying measures progress


id: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners-1.md
category: reference
title: Multiple sex partners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:58.086508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
summary:
== Prevalence == A Durex Global Sex Survey found that men in New Zealand had claimed an average of 44 sex partners over their lifetime. In a 2019 survey, data showed that the average number of partners varies, with men and women reporting different averages (6.4 for men, 7 for women). The average "body count" for adults aged 30–44 is approximately 8 for both men and women, with over half (56–58%) having more than five partners. While averages vary by region—around 10–11 in the U.S.. Turkey leads in some reports, with an average of 14.5 to 18.5, followed by Australia (13.3), New Zealand (13.2), and Iceland (13.0). Other countries with high averages include Finland (12.4), Norway (12.1), and Italy/Sweden (11.8). An analysis of the National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5) conducted between 2019 and 2021 by the International Institute for Population Sciences, Indian men were found to have the highest mean number of lifetime sexual partners in India. In Jamaica, a 2004 Behavioral Surveillance Survey demonstrated that 89 percent of males and 78 percent of females aged 15 to 24 had sex with a nonmarital or noncohabitating partner in the preceding 12 months. Fifty-six percent of males and 16 percent of


id: multiplexed-point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexed_point-of-care_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiplexed point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexed_point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:59.380296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiplexed-point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
Multiplexed point-of-care testing (xPOCT) is a more complex form of point-of-care testing (POCT), or bedside testing. Point-of-care testing is designed to provide diagnostic tests at or near the time and place that the patient is admitted. POCT uses the concentrations of analytes to provide the user with information on the physiological state of the patient. An analyte is a substance, chemical or biological, that is being analyzed using a certain instrument. While point-of-care testing is the quantification of one analyte from one in vitro (e.g., blood, plasma or urine) sample, multiplexed point-of-care testing is the simultaneous on-site quantification of various analytes from a single sample. Processing of one biological sample to yield multiple biomarker results allows for POCT testing to be done for patients who may have conditions that require the confirmation of multiple biomarkers and tests before diagnosis (e.g., many types of cancers). xPOCT has important emerging applications in resource-limited settings (e.g., in the developing countries, in doctor's practices, or at home by non experts) and has recently become more important for in vitro diagnostics. == Background == Historically, medical testing has been a tedious, long, and expensive process in a clinical setting. It usually involves taking a large


id: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Narrative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:00.701624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Narrative medicine is the discipline of applying the skills used in analyzing literature to interviewing patients. The premise of narrative medicine is that how a patient speaks about his or her illness or complaint is analogous to how literature offers a plot (an interconnected series of events) with characters (the patient and others) and is filled with metaphors (picturesque, emotional, and symbolic ways of speaking), and that becoming conversant with the elements of literature facilitates understanding the stories that patients bring. Narrative Medicine is a diagnostic and comprehensive approach that utilizes patients' narratives in clinical practice, research, and education to promote healing. Beyond attempts to reach accurate diagnoses, it aims to address the relational and psychological dimensions that occur in tandem with physical illness. Narrative medicine aims not only to validate the experience of the patient, it also encourages creativity and self-reflection in the physician. == History and development == In 1910, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching created the Flexner Report, which set out to redefine medical educational practices. The report argues that the goal of medicine is "an attempt to fight the battle against disease most advantageously to the patient." Flexner wrote that "the practitioner deals


id: narrative-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Narrative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:00.701624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Columbia University has developed educational programs in the field of narrative medicine. Interprofessional Education: The Division of Narrative Medicine at Columbia University Irving Medical Center collaborates with all clinical programs at the medical center, in addition to leading the Interprofessional Education programming. Rounds and Workshops: The division hosts events and trainings, including "monthly rounds and weekend intensive workshops" for the public. Master of Science: Columbia University created the "Master of Science in Narrative Medicine" program in 2009, making it the first graduate program devoted to narrative medicine. Textbook: In 2016, the first textbook in narrative medicine was published: "The Principles and Practice of Narrative Medicine." Certification Program: In 2017, an asynchronous online "Certification program in Narrative Medicine" began. In 2016, the Lewis Katz School of Medicine launched a Narrative Medicine Program run by Mike Vitez, a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, and Naomi Rosenberg, an Emergency Medicine physician. The program's goal is to protect, support, and nourish the humanism that brings physicians into the profession, and to teach the skills of narrative that help at the bedside and beyond. The program has curricular and extracurricular components. Reflective writing forms a significant component of the Professional Identity Formation thread in the MD curriculum.


id: neo-hippocratism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Hippocratism-0.md
category: reference
title: Neo-Hippocratism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Hippocratism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:01.854843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neo-hippocratism-20260505-0
summary:
Neo-Hippocratism was an influential movement and was the subject of numerous conversations and theorizations between the seventeenth and mid-nineteenth centuries. The movement saw a revival in popularity with physicians after the First World War. It sought to reappraise the role of Hippocrates and Hippocratic medicine and was closely associated with the idea of the holistic treatment of the patient. The popularity of neo-Hippocratism has been seen as a reaction to the growing systematisation and professionalism of medicine which some physicians saw as reductionist and failing to treat the whole person. Neo-Hippocratism is described as a rational and methodical method of seeing the body as a whole. Of examining a human in their entirety and “considers all medical and or internistic therapeutic agents- psychical, dietetic, chemical, biological, and physical- and applies them according to the indications of the individual patient under severe control of the continuous diagnosis of the person. == History == The expression, neo-hippocratism is said to been first coined by Arturo Castiglioni in 1926. One of the movement's principal promoters was Alexander Polycleitos Cawadias (1884–1971). == References ==


id: neointima-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neointima-0.md
category: reference
title: Neointima
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neointima
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:03.124624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neointima-20260505-0
summary:
Neointima typically refers to scar tissue that forms within tubular anatomical structures such as blood vessels, as the intima is the innermost lining of these structures. Neointima can form as a result of vascular surgery such as angioplasty or stent placement. Formation of neointima occurs due to proliferation of smooth muscle cells as well as macrophages. == References ==


id: list-of-nerves-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nerves_of_the_human_body-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nerves of the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nerves_of_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:05.522585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nerves-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of nerves in the human body: == Location == Structure of the nervous system Development of the nervous system The spinal cord or medulla spinalis The brain or encephalon The hindbrain or rhombencephalon The midbrain or mesencephalon The forebrain or prosencephalon Composition and central connections of the spinal nerves Pathways from the brain to the spinal cord The meninges of the brain and medulla spinalis The cerebrospinal fluid The cranial nerves The olfactory nerves The optic nerve The oculomotor nerve The trochlear nerve The trigeminal nerve The abducens nerve The facial nerve The vestibulocochlear nerve The glossopharyngeal nerve The vagus nerve The accessory nerve The hypoglossal nerve The spinal nerves The posterior divisions The anterior divisions The thoracic nerves The lumbosacral plexus The sacral and coccygeal nerves The sympathetic nerves The cephalic portion of the sympathetic system The cervical portion of the sympathetic system The thoracic portion of the sympathetic system The abdominal portion of the sympathetic system The pelvic portion of the sympathetic system The great plexuses of the sympathetic system == Alphabetical list == Abdominal aortic plexus Abducens nerve Accessory nerve Accessory obturator nerve Alderman's nerve Anococcygeal nerve Ansa cervicalis Anterior interosseous nerve


id: neuroangiogenesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroangiogenesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroangiogenesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroangiogenesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:06.848068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroangiogenesis-20260505-0
summary:
Neuroangiogenesis is the coordinated growth of nerves and blood vessels. The nervous and blood vessel systems share guidance cues and cell-surface receptors allowing for this synchronised growth. The term neuroangiogenesis only came into use in 2002 and the process was previously known as neurovascular patterning. The combination of neurogenesis and angiogenesis is an essential part of embryonic development and early life. It is thought to have a role in pathologies such as endometriosis, brain tumors, and Alzheimer's disease. == Physiology == === Neurovascular patterning === Neurovascular development is the parallel emergence and patterning of the nervous system and the vascular system during embryogenesis and early life. Neurovascular congruency appears to be determined by shared molecular patterning mechanism involving axon guidance that involves axonal guidance molecules such as sema3A (semaphorin 3A) and (neuropilin). === Mechanisms === Neuroangiogenic and axonal guidance molecules act on both neuronal growth cones and endothelial tip cells in order to guide growth. Neuronal growth cones are situated on the tips of nerve cells and are responsive to different factors, both positive and negative. Growth of the neuron occurs by an extension of the actin (red in image) and microtubule (green in image) cytoskeleton. Tip cells found at


id: neurocristopathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocristopathy-0.md
category: reference
title: Neurocristopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocristopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:08.133460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neurocristopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Neurocristopathy is a diverse class of pathologies that may arise from defects in the development of tissues containing cells commonly derived from the embryonic neural crest cell lineage. The term was coined by Robert P. Bolande in 1974. After the induction of the neural crest, the newly formed neural crest cells (NCC) delaminate from their tissue of origin and migrate from the entire neural axis of the vertebrate embryo to specific locations where they will give rise to different cell derivatives. The formation of this cell population therefore requires a timely and spatially controlled interplay of inter- and intra-cellular signals. An alteration in the occurrence and timing of these signals leads to a set of syndromes called Neurocristopathies (NCP), which comprises a broad spectrum of congenital malformations affecting an appreciable percentage of newborns. Moreover, since NCC migrate along the embryo, they are susceptible to subtle changes in the environment both during their migration and upon arrival at their destination. This means that even little modifications, either genetically or environmentally caused, in the external cues that modulate NCC migration have a deep effect on the normal migration and differentiation of these cells, thus becoming a causative factor for the development of


id: neuron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
A neuron (American English), neurone (British English), or nerve cell, is a cell that is excitable, firing electric signals called action potentials across a neural network in the nervous system, mainly in the central nervous system, and helps to receive and conduct impulses. Neurons communicate with other cells via synapses, which are specialized connections that commonly use minute amounts of chemical neurotransmitters to pass the electric signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell through the synaptic gap. Neurons are the main components of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and placozoans. Plants and fungi do not have nerve cells. Molecular evidence suggests that the ability to generate electric signals first appeared in evolution some 700 to 800 million years ago, during the Tonian period. Predecessors of neurons were the peptidergic secretory cells. They eventually gained new gene modules which enabled cells to create post-synaptic scaffolds and ion channels that generate fast electrical signals. The ability to generate electric signals was a key innovation in the evolution of the nervous system. Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function. Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect the cells of


id: neuron-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
The soma is the body of the neuron. As it contains the nucleus, most protein synthesis occurs here. The nucleus can range from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter. The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches. This overall shape and structure are referred to metaphorically as a dendritic tree. The branches form fractal patterns that repeat at multiple size scales. This fractal tree is where the majority of input to the neuron occurs via the dendritic spine. The axon is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon primarily carries nerve signals away from the soma and carries some types of information back to it. Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon may—and usually will—undergo extensive branching, enabling communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is called the axon hillock. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock also has the greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes it the most easily excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon. In electrophysiological


id: neuron-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons vary in shape and size and can be classified by their morphology and function. The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further classified by the location of the soma. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by a myelin sheath. The dendritic tree wraps around the cell body and receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching axon terminals that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron. === Structural classification === ==== Polarity ==== Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as: Unipolar: single process. Unipolar cells are exclusively sensory neurons. Their dendrites receive sensory information, sometimes directly from the stimulus itself. The cell bodies of unipolar neurons are always found in ganglia. Sensory reception is a peripheral function, so the cell body is in the periphery, though closer to the CNS in


id: neuron-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-3.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers passed from one neuron to another neuron or to a muscle cell or gland cell. Cholinergic neurons – acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft. It acts as a ligand for both ligand-gated ion channels and metabotropic (GPCRs) muscarinic receptors. Nicotinic receptors are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels composed of alpha and beta subunits that bind nicotine. Ligand binding opens the channel causing the influx of Na+ depolarization and increases the probability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A. Adrenergic neurons – noradrenaline. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) is released from most postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic nervous system onto two sets of GPCRs: alpha adrenoceptors and beta adrenoceptors. Noradrenaline is one of the three common catecholamine neurotransmitters, and the most prevalent of them in the peripheral nervous system; as with other catecholamines, it is synthesized from tyrosine. GABAergic neurons – gamma aminobutyric acid. GABA is one of two neuroinhibitors in the central nervous system (CNS), along with glycine. GABA has a homologous function to ACh, gating anion channels that allow Cl− ions to enter the post synaptic neuron. Cl− causes hyperpolarization within the neuron, decreasing the probability of an


id: neuron-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-4.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where either the axon terminal of one cell contacts another neuron's dendrite, soma, or, less commonly, axon. Neurons such as Purkinje cells in the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of thousands of other cells; other neurons, such as the magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic nucleus, have only one or two dendrites, each of which receives thousands of synapses. Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory, either increasing or decreasing activity in the target neuron, respectively. Some neurons also communicate via electrical synapses, which are direct, electrically conductive junctions between cells. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium ions to enter the terminal. Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. High cytosolic calcium in the axon terminal triggers mitochondrial calcium uptake, which, in turn, activates mitochondrial energy metabolism to produce ATP to support continuous neurotransmission. An autapse is a synapse in which a neuron's axon connects to its dendrites. The human brain has some


id: neuron-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-5.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an all-or-none response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation, like brighter image/louder sound, does not produce a stronger signal but can increase firing frequency. Receptors respond in different ways to stimuli. Slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to a steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. Tonic receptors most often respond to increased stimulus intensity by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light where greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) requires more photons, as the photons cannot become "stronger" for a specific frequency. Other receptor types include quickly adapting or phasic receptors, where firing decreases or stops with a steady stimulus; examples include skin which, when touched causes neurons to fire, but if the object maintains even pressure, the neurons stop firing. The neurons of the skin and muscles that are responsive to pressure and vibration have filtering accessory structures that aid their function. The pacinian corpuscle is one such structure. It has concentric layers like an


id: neuron-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-6.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
== Neurons in the brain == The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species. In a human, there are an estimated 10–20 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex and 55–70 billion neurons in the cerebellum. By contrast, the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans has just 302 neurons, making it an ideal model organism as scientists have been able to map all of its neurons. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, a common subject in biological experiments, has around 100,000 neurons and exhibits many complex behaviors. Many properties of neurons, from the type of neurotransmitters used to ion channel composition, are maintained across species, allowing scientists to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental systems. == Neurological disorders == Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (CMT) is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of nerves (neuropathy) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs extending to the hands and arms in advanced stages. Presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited neurological disorders, affecting 36 in 100,000 people. Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known simply as Alzheimer's, is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining


id: neuron-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-7.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons develop through the process of neurogenesis, in which neural stem cells divide to produce differentiated neurons. Once fully differentiated they are no longer capable of undergoing mitosis. Neurogenesis primarily occurs during embryonic development. Neurons initially develop from the neural tube in the embryo. The neural tube has three layers – a ventricular zone, an intermediate zone, and a marginal zone. The ventricular zone surrounds the tube's central canal and becomes the ependyma. Dividing cells of the ventricular zone form the intermediate zone which stretches to the outermost layer of the neural tube called the pial layer. The gray matter of the brain is derived from the intermediate zone. The extensions of the neurons in the intermediate zone make up the marginal zone when myelinated becomes the brain's white matter. Differentiation of the neurons is ordered by their size. Large motor neurons are first. Smaller sensory neurons together with glial cell differentiate at birth. Adult neurogenesis can occur and studies of the age of human neurons suggest that this process occurs only for a minority of cells and that the vast majority of neurons in the neocortex form before birth and persist without replacement. The extent to which adult neurogenesis


id: never-event-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_event-0.md
category: reference
title: Never event
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_event
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:10.544218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: never-event-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a never event is the "kind of mistake (medical error) that should never happen". According to the Leapfrog Group never events are defined as "adverse events that are serious, largely preventable, and of concern to both the public and health care providers for the purpose of public accountability." A 2012 study reported there may be as many as 1,500 instances of one never event, a retained foreign object, per year in the United States. The same study suggests an estimated total of surgical mistakes at just over 4,000 per year in the United States, but these statistics are extrapolations from small samples rather than actual event counts. == United States == A list of events was compiled by the National Quality Forum and updated in 2012. The NQF’s report recommends a national state-based event reporting system to improve the quality of patient care. Artificial insemination with the wrong donor sperm or donor egg Unintended retention of a foreign body in a patient after surgery or other procedure Patient death or serious disability associated with patient elopement (disappearance) Patient death or serious disability associated with a medication error (e.g., errors involving the wrong drug, dose, patient, time, rate, preparation


id: nothing-by-mouth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_by_mouth-0.md
category: reference
title: Nothing by mouth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_by_mouth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:11.785494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nothing-by-mouth-20260505-0
summary:
Nothing by mouth is an American medical instruction meaning to withhold food and fluids. It is also known as nil per os (npo or NPO), a Latin phrase that translates to English as "nothing through the mouth". Nil by mouth is the term used in the UK (NBM), nihil/non/nulla per os, or complete bowel rest. A liquid-only diet may also be referred to as bowel rest. NPO is one of the abbreviations that is not used in AMA style; "nothing by mouth" is spelled out instead. == Purpose == The typical reason for NPO instructions is the prevention of aspiration pneumonia, e.g. in those who will undergo general anesthesia, or those with weak swallowing musculature, or in case of gastrointestinal bleeding, gastrointestinal blockage, or acute pancreatitis. Alcohol overdoses that result in vomiting or severe external bleeding also warrant NPO instructions for a period. == Duration == Pre-surgery NPO orders are typically between 6 and 12 hours prior to surgery, through recovery suite discharge, but may be longer if long acting medications or oral post-meds were administered. It is not uncommon for the food NPO period to be longer than that for liquid, as the American Board of Anesthesiology advises against


id: nocebo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo-0.md
category: reference
title: Nocebo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:12.972595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nocebo-20260505-0
summary:
A nocebo effect is said to occur when a patient's expectations for a treatment cause the treatment to have a worse effect than it otherwise would have. For example, when a patient anticipates a side effect of a medication, they can experience that effect even if the "medication" is actually an inert substance. The complementary concept, the placebo effect, is said to occur when expectations improve an outcome. More generally, the nocebo effect is falling ill simply by consciously or subconsciously anticipating a harmful event. This definition includes anticipated events other than medical treatment. It has been applied to Havana syndrome, where purported victims were anticipating attacks by foreign adversaries. This definition also applies to cases of electromagnetic hypersensitivity. Both placebo and nocebo effects are presumably psychogenic but can induce measurable changes in the body. One article that reviewed 31 studies on nocebo effects reported a wide range of symptoms that could manifest as nocebo effects, including nausea, stomach pains, itching, bloating, depression, sleep problems, loss of appetite, sexual dysfunction, and severe hypotension. == Etymology and usage == Walter Kennedy coined the term nocebo (Latin nocēbō, "I shall harm", from noceō, "I harm") in 1961 to denote the counterpart of


id: nocebo-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo-1.md
category: reference
title: Nocebo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:12.972595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nocebo-20260505-0
summary:
== Ambiguity of medical usage == Stewart-Williams and Podd argue that using the contrasting terms "placebo" and "nocebo" for inert agents that produce pleasant, health-improving, or desirable outcomes and unpleasant, health-diminishing, or undesirable outcomes (respectively) is extremely counterproductive. For example, precisely the same inert agents can produce analgesia and hyperalgesia, the first of which, on this definition, would be a placebo, and the second a nocebo. A second problem is that the same effect, such as immunosuppression, may be desirable for a subject with an autoimmune disorder, but undesirable for most other subjects. Thus, in the first case, the effect would be a placebo, and in the second a nocebo. A third problem is that the prescriber does not know whether the relevant subjects consider the effects they experience desirable or undesirable until some time after the drugs have been administered. A fourth is that the same phenomena are generated in all the subjects, and generated by the same drug, which is acting in all of the subjects through the same mechanism. Yet because the phenomena in question have been subjectively considered desirable to one group but not the other, the phenomena are now being labeled in two mutually exclusive


id: non-pharmacological-intervention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-pharmacological_intervention-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-pharmacological intervention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-pharmacological_intervention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:14.294367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-pharmacological-intervention-20260505-0
summary:
A non-pharmacological intervention (NPI) is any type of healthcare intervention which is not primarily based on medication. Some examples include exercise, sleep improvement, and dietary habits. Non-pharmacological interventions may be intended to prevent or treat (ameliorate or cure) diseases or other health-related conditions, or to improve public health. They can be educational and may involve a variety of lifestyle or environmental changes. Complex or multicomponent interventions use multiple strategies, and they often involve the participation of several types of care providers. Non-pharmacological interventions can call on various fields of expertise, such as surgery, medical devices, rehabilitation, psychotherapy, and behavioral interventions. == Examples == === Hypertension === The first line of treatment for hypertension is lifestyle changes, including dietary changes, physical exercise, and weight loss. Although these have all been recommended in scientific advisories, a Cochrane systematic review of available relevant studies found that although weight-loss diets did reduce body weight and blood pressure, beneficial effects of those changes could not be demonstrated, owing to the small number of participants and studies, and that therefore the impact of weight loss on mortality and morbidity is unknown. Their potential effectiveness is similar to and at times exceeds a single medication. If the


id: nosokinetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosokinetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Nosokinetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosokinetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:15.487225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nosokinetics-20260505-0
summary:
Nosokinetics is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems. Nosokinetics brings together the Greek words for noso: disease and kinetics: movement. Black box models are currently used to plan changes in health and social care systems. These input-output models overlook the process of inpatient care, as a result suboptimal decisions are made. Nosokinetics, (analogous to Pharmacokinetics), seeks to develop dynamic methods which measure and model the process of inpatient care. The aim is to develop a scientific base to underpin the planning of sustainable health and social care systems. == Establishment == Nosokinetics is a new science that was established in the UK in the early 1990s by Prof Peter H Millard after publishing his PhD thesis. In 2004 Nosokinetics group newsletter was established. == Origin == Prof Peter H Millard writes about Nosokinetics : "If the random forces of wind and tide can make such a beautiful statue (referring to an iceberg), how much better could mankind do if a new science was developed which explains the complex processes of health and social care. Until new methods of planning health and social care services to meet the needs of an


id: nosology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosology-0.md
category: reference
title: Nosology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:16.804017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nosology-20260505-0
summary:
Nosology (from Ancient Greek νόσος (nosos) 'disease' and -λογία (-logia) 'study of') is the branch of medical science that deals with the classification of diseases. Fully classifying a medical condition requires knowing its cause (and that there is only one cause), the effects it has on the body, the symptoms that are produced, and other factors. For example, influenza is classified as an infectious disease because it is caused by a virus, and it is classified as a respiratory infection because the virus infects and damages certain tissues in the respiratory tract. The more that is known about the disease, the more ways the disease can be classified nosologically. Nosography is a description whose primary purpose is enabling a diagnostic label to be put on the situation. As such, a nosographical entity need not have a single cause. For example, inability to speak due to advanced dementia and an inability to speak due to a stroke could be nosologically different but nosographically the same. == Types of classification == Diseases may be classified by cause, pathogenesis (mechanism by which the disease progresses), or by symptom(s). Alternatively, diseases may be classified according to the organ system involved, though this is often


id: not-otherwise-specified-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_otherwise_specified-0.md
category: reference
title: Not otherwise specified
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_otherwise_specified
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:18.001904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: not-otherwise-specified-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, not otherwise specified (NOS) is a subcategory in systems of disease/disorder classification such as ICD-9, ICD-10, or DSM-IV. It is generally used to note the presence of an illness where the symptoms presented were sufficient to make a general diagnosis, but where a specific diagnosis was not made. The DSM-IV, for example, "applies the term not otherwise specified (NOS) to a disorder or disturbance that does not meet the criteria for the specific disorders already discussed". The term was introduced because "it is sometimes impossible for the practitioner completing the diagnostic assessment to categorize all the symptoms that a client is experiencing into one diagnostic category". In the context of mental health diagnoses, four situations have been outlined for which such a diagnosis may be considered appropriate: Client meets the general guidelines for a disorder, yet not all of the criteria are met, or the ones present are not considered clinically significant. Significant behaviors are noted affecting social and occupational functioning, but are not considered part of the usual presentation for a disorder. Uncertainty about etiology or the cause of the disorder exists. This is especially important when it is suspected that the disorder may be related to


id: npu-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: NPU terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:19.220321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: npu-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
NPU terminology (NPU; Nomenclature for Properties and Units) is a patient-centered clinical laboratory terminology for use in the clinical laboratory sciences. Its function is to enable results of clinical laboratory examinations to be used safely across technology, time and geography. To achieve this, the NPU terminology supplies: Unique identifiers for types of examined properties of the patient, supporting structured communication and storage of laboratory data in e.g. clinical laboratory reports or electronic health records Stable and unambiguous definitions of the types of examined properties, expressed using international nomenclatures, and in accordance with international standards Specification of measurement units where relevant A structure allowing for secure translation of the definitions into other languages == Purpose == The purpose of the NPU terminology is to enable patient examination data to be safely transmitted between laboratory information systems, recognized, compared, reused in calculations, extracted for research or statistics, and stored for documentation, without loss of meaning. It does not cover sampling procedures or methodologies used for determining these data, which may both vary over time. The terminology adheres to international standards of metrology, terminology, and health informatics, in particular the International System of Quantities (ISQ) and the International Systems of Units (SI units).


id: npu-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: NPU terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:19.220321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: npu-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Translation of NPU definitions == The English NPU definition structure allows for easy and reliable translation of the NPU definitions into other languages; translating each term in the structured NPU definition into another language will produce a valid definition in that language. The concept behind each term in the definition can be determined and agreed on by accessing the international code assigned to that term. The place of the concept in the syntax assigns the specific meaning of the concept in relation to the examination result. Translations of the NPU terminology are directly available in Danish and Swedish. The terminology has been structured such that translations into other languages is straightforward. == NPU foundations == C-NPU has been managing the development of structured definitions for laboratory result information for the IFCC and IUPAC and making recommendations through papers, recommendations, and technical reports. These mostly joint documents are available from the old IUPAC website [Y]. While these documents formed the foundation for NPU entries applying to each scientific discipline, subsequent additions in the last decade have consisted primarily of "User driven" requests. The day-to-day administration of the NPU Terminology has for many years been carried out by representatives from the


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
An ocular prosthesis, artificial eye or glass eye is a type of craniofacial prosthesis that replaces an absent natural eye following an enucleation, evisceration, or orbital exenteration. Someone with an ocular prosthesis is altogether blind on the affected side and has monocular (one sided) vision. The prosthesis fits over an orbital implant and under the eyelids. The ocular prosthesis roughly takes the shape of a convex shell and is made of medical grade acrylic plastic. A few ocular prostheses today are made of cryolite glass. A variant of the ocular prosthesis is a very thin hard shell known as a scleral shell which can be worn over a damaged or eviscerated eye. Makers of ocular prosthetics are known as ocularists. Ocularists are surprisingly rare: as of 2025, there were fewer than 200 certified practitioners in the United States, and only around three dozen in India. Visual prosthesis are currently in research which could provide vision to the artificial eye. == History == The earliest known evidence of the use of ocular prosthesis is that of a woman found in Shahr-I Sokhta, Iran dating back to 2900–2800 BC. It has a hemispherical form and a diameter of just over 2.5 cm


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Integrated implants (porous) === The porous nature of integrated implants allows fibrovascular ingrowth throughout the implant and thus also insertion of pegs or posts. Because direct mechanical coupling is thought to improve artificial eye motility, attempts have been made to develop so-called 'integrated implants' that are directly connected to the artificial eye. Historically, implants that directly attached to the prosthesis were unsuccessful because of chronic inflammation or infection arising from the exposed nonporous implant material. This led to the development of quasi-integrated implants with a specially designed anterior surface that allegedly better transferred implant motility to the artificial eye through the closed conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule. In 1985, the problems associated with integrated implants were thought to be largely solved with the introduction of spherical implants made of porous calcium hydroxyapatite. This material allows for fibrovascular ingrowth within several months. Porous enucleation implants currently are fabricated from a variety of materials including natural and synthetic hydroxyapatite, aluminium oxide, and polyethylene. The surgeon can alter the contour of porous implants before insertion, and it is also possible to modify the contour in situ, although this is sometimes difficult. ==== Hydroxyapatite (HA) ==== Hydroxyapatite implants are spherical and made in a


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
==== Conical orbital implant (COI) and multipurpose conical orbital implant (MCOI) ==== The safe and effective sphere (still popular and easy to use) was supplemented with the pyramid or COI implant. The COI has unique design elements that have been incorporated into an overall conical shape, including a flat anterior surface, superior projection and preformed channels for the rectus muscles. 5-0 Vicryl suture needles can be passed with slight difficulty straight through the implant to be tied on the anterior surface. In addition, this implant features a slightly recessed slot for the superior rectus and a protrusion to fill the superior fornix. As of 2005 the newest model is the multipurpose conical orbital implant (MCOI), which was designed to address the issues of the postoperative anophthalmic orbit being at risk for the development of socket abnormalities including enophthalmos, retraction of the upper eyelid, deepening of the superior sulcus, backward tilt of the prothesis, and stretching of the lower eyelid after evisceration or enucleation. These problems are generally thought to be secondary to orbital volume deficiencies which is also addressed by MCOIs. The conical shape of the MCOI more closely matches the anatomic shape of the orbit than a spherical implant.


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
The rubbing force between the posterior surface of the artificial eye and the conjunctiva that covers the implant may cause the artificial eye to move. Because this force is likely to be approximately equal in all directions, it would cause comparable horizontal and vertical artificial eye amplitudes. An artificial eye usually fits snugly in the conjunctival space (possibly not in the superior fornix). Therefore, any movement of the conjunctival fornices will cause a similar movement of the artificial eye, whereas lack of movement of the fornices will restrict its motility. Imbrication of the rectus muscles over a nonintegrated implant traditionally was thought to impart movement to the implant and prosthesis. Like a ball-and-socket joint, when the implant moves, the prosthesis moves. However, because the so-called ball and socket are separated by layers of Tenon's capsule, imbricated muscles, and conjunctiva, the mechanical efficiency of transmission of movement from the implant to the prosthesis is suboptimal. Moreover, the concern is that imbrication of the recti over nonintegrated implants actually can result in implant migration. The recent myoconjuctival technique of enucleation is an alternative to muscle imbrication. Although it is generally accepted that integrating the prosthesis to a porous implant with peg insertion


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-4.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
The conjunctival peritomy is performed at the corneal limbus, preserving as much healthy tissue as possible. Anterior Tenon's fascia is separated from the sclera. Blunt dissection in the four quadrants between the rectus muscles separates deep Tenon's fascia. Sutures may be passed through the rectus muscles before their disinsertion from the globe. Some surgeons also suture one or both oblique muscles. Traction sutures or clamps may be applied to the horizontal rectus muscle insertions to assist in rotating and elevating the globe during the ensuing dissection. Tenon's capsule may be opened posteriorly to allow visualization of the optic nerve. The vortex veins and posterior ciliary vessels may be cauterized before dividing the nerve and removing the eye. Alternatively, the optic nerve may be localized with a clamp before transection. Hemostasis is achieved with either cautery or digital pressure. The orbital implant is inserted at the time of enucleation. An appropriately sized implant should replace the volume of the globe and leave sufficient room for the ocular prosthesis. Enucleation implants are available in a variety of sizes that may be determined by using sizing implants or calculated by measuring globe volume or axial length of the contralateral eye. In the past,


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-5.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Notable people with prosthetic eyes == Bhumibol Adulyadej – King of Thailand; lost his eye in a 1948 car crash (right eye) Baz Bastien – Canadian ice hockey player, coach (right eye) Mokhtar Belmokhtar – Algerian smuggler, kidnapper, weapons dealer, and terrorist; lost his eye mishandling explosives (left eye) Sammy Davis Jr. – American entertainer (left eye) Peter Falk – American actor (right eye) Tex Avery – American animation director (left eye) Ry Cooder – American musician best known for his slide guitar work (left eye) Nick Griffin – British National Party leader (left eye) Jay Horwitz (born 1945), American executive for the New York Mets baseball team (right eye) Leo McKern – Actor (left eye) Carl Ouellet – Canadian professional wrestler (right eye) Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg – German career army officer and resistance leader (left eye) Robert Thurman – Writer (left eye) Mo Udall – American politician (right eye) Fetty Wap - American rapper (left eye) Gordon Brown - Former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (left eye) Helmut Marko - Formula 1 racing driver (left eye) Leo Fender - Inventor (left eye) Jeff Healey - Guitarist (both eyes) == References == == External links ==


id: opengalen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGALEN-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenGALEN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGALEN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:21.712290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opengalen-20260505-0
summary:
OpenGALEN is a not-for-profit organisation that provides an open source medical terminology. This terminology is written in a formal language called GRAIL (GALEN Representation And Integration Language) and also distributed in OWL. == Background == The GALEN technologies were developed with research funding provided by the European Community Framework III (GALEN Project) and Framework IV (GALEN-In-Use Project) programmes. Early phases of the GALEN Programme developed the GRAIL concept modelling language, experimented with different structures for the GALEN Common Reference Model, and, in parallel, tested the usefulness of the approach with a series of clinical demonstrator projects. Later phases of the GALEN Programme, during the late 1990s, have concentrated on robust implementations of GRAIL and the Terminology Server, development of the GALEN Common Reference Model in both scope and detail, and development of tools and techniques to enable the further development, scaling-up and maintenance of the model. An important additional focus has been in developing tools and techniques with which we can map the information found in existing coding and Medical classification schemes to the GALEN Common Reference Model. OpenGALEN has been set up as a not-for-profit Dutch Foundation by the universities of Manchester and Nijmegen to make the results of


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-0.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Ophthalmic drug administration is the administration of a drug to the eyes, most typically as an eye drop formulation. Topical formulations are used to combat a multitude of diseased states of the eye. These states may include bacterial infections, eye injury, glaucoma, and dry eye. However, there are many challenges associated with topical delivery of drugs to the cornea of the eye. == Eye drop formulations == Two of the largest challenges faced when using topicals to treat pathological states of the eye include patient compliance and ineffective absorbance of drugs into the cornea due to short contact times, solution drainage, tears turnover, and dilution or lacrimation. In fact, researchers in this field of drug delivery agree that less than 7% of drugs delivered to the eye reach and penetrate the corneal barrier, therefore, increasing the frequency of dosing used for topicals. This is one of the fundamental problem associated with using topicals to deliver drugs to the cornea and therefore leads to the increased demand for patient compliance. Together, these two factors drive a need in the field of scientific research and engineering for a way to better deliver drugs to the cornea of the eye while decreasing dosing


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-1.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Fundamental Concept Understanding: A simple analogy to this is a crowded versus an uncrowded area while it is raining outside. When individuals are packed tightly the rain falls and lands on people, making its way to the ground slowly but surely in a scattered way. In an uncrowded area, the rain can fall and land on the ground easily and without interference from the people. In this analogy, the rain is analogous to light and the people are analogous to drugs being loaded in a contact lens. The more drugs added to the contact lens, the less light that can penetrate without being randomly scattered. Random scattering of the light can result in unclear and unfocused sight. Researchers have noted that by using the nanoparticle loading technique, the transparency decreases by nearly 10%. Conversely, researchers have confirmed that by using the molecular imprinting and supercritical soaking methods of drug loading, the lens transparency of the contact lenses has stayed at or above the lens transparency of the contact lenses currently approved by the FDA. === Oxygen permeability === Oxygen permeability is another important feature of all contact lenses and much be optimized to the largest degree possible when creating drug


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-2.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
=== Drug release kinetics === The most important factor that must be taken into account when designing any type of drug delivery device, and specifically ocular devices, is the release rate of a drug. As discussed previously, the deliver rate and kinetics associated with drugs to the eye can reach levels that are toxic to the eye or could even cause undesirable side effects. The rate of release of a drug is also important because too slow of a release could have no beneficial outcome for the patient and a release that is too quick could result in negative side effects. Thus, it is important to balance the factors that govern the release of drugs from contact lenses as potential drug delivery devices. Researchers such as C. Alvarez-Lorenzo have tested (with animal models) and have data which supports that molecularly imprinted contact lenses release drugs in a sustained and long period of time. It has also been supported by researchers that the rate of drug release can be controlled by incorporating vitamin E within the hydrogen matrix. === Systemic side effects === Over time, it has been reported that many of the same drugs and eye drops used to treat


id: opioid-rotation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid_rotation-0.md
category: reference
title: Opioid rotation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid_rotation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:24.152953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opioid-rotation-20260505-0
summary:
Opioid rotation or opioid switching is the process of changing one opioid to another to improve pain control or reduce unwanted side effects. This technique was introduced in the 1990s to help manage severe chronic pain and improve the opioid response in cancer patients and non-cancer patients. In order to obtain adequate levels of pain relief, patients requiring chronic opioid therapy may require an increase in the original prescribed dose for a number of reasons, including increased pain or a worsening disease state. Over the course of long-term treatment, an increase in dosage cannot be continued indefinitely as unwanted side effects of treatment often become intolerable once a certain dose is reached, even though the pain may still not be properly managed. One strategy used to address this is to switch the patient between different opioid drugs over time, usually every few months. Opioid rotation requires strict monitoring in patients with ongoing levels of high opioid doses for extended periods of time, since long term opioid use can lead to a patient developing tolerance to the analgesic effects of the drug. Patients may also not respond to the first opioid prescribed to them at all, therefore needing to try another


id: oral-administration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_administration-0.md
category: reference
title: Oral administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:25.383618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oral-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Oral administration is a route of administration whereby a substance is taken through the mouth, swallowed, and then processed via the digestive system. This is a common route of administration for many medications. Oral administration can be easier and less painful than other routes of administration, such as injection. However, the onset of action is relatively low, and the effectiveness is reduced if it is not absorbed properly in the digestive system, or if it is broken down by digestive enzymes before it can reach the bloodstream. Some medications may cause gastrointestinal side effects, such as nausea or vomiting, when taken orally. Oral administration can also only be applied to conscious patients, and patients able to swallow. == Terminology == Per os (; P.O.) is an adverbial phrase meaning literally from Latin "through the mouth" or "by mouth". The expression is used in medicine to describe a treatment that is taken orally (but not used in the mouth such as, caries prophylaxis). The abbreviation P.O. is often used on medical prescriptions. == Scope == Enteral administration includes: Buccal, dissolved inside the cheek Sublabial, dissolved under the lip Sublingual administration (SL), dissolved under the tongue, but due to rapid absorption many


id: oral-myology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_myology-0.md
category: reference
title: Oral myology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_myology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:26.614785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oral-myology-20260505-0
summary:
Oral myology (also known as "orofacial myology") is the field of study that involves the evaluation and treatment (known as "orofacial myofunctional therapy") of the oral and facial musculature, including the muscles of the tongue, lips, cheeks, and jaw. == Use == Orofacial myofunctional therapy treatment is most commonly used to retrain oral rest posture, swallowing patterns in the oral phase, and speech. === Tongue thrust and thumb sucking === A major focus of the field of oral myology and treatment of orofacial myofunctional disorders include tongue posture and establishing equilibrium between the tongue, lips and the cheek muscles. Tongue exercise proved to be successful in treating tongue thrust. Tongue exercise alone was reported to be successful in cessation of thumb sucking and treatment of anterior open bite malocclusion. When the tongue rests against the palate it begins to expand the maxilla by applying a slow and consistent force to the lingual (tongue side) surfaces of the teeth. This may aid in the treatment of crooked teeth and under-developed face. === Sleep apnea and snoring === Oral myology plays also an important role in the management of patients with sleep breathing disorders and snoring where oropharyngeal exercises were found to


id: orphan-patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_patient-0.md
category: reference
title: Orphan patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:27.839139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orphan-patient-20260505-0
summary:
In health care, an orphan patient is a patient who has been "lost" within the system or has no primary provider overseeing their care. Usually, the primary provider is a general practitioner who takes care of some of the basic health needs and then refers to a specialist for complicated medical problems. Thus, orphan patients are sometimes referred to as "no-family-doctor" patients. The view from insiders and health care providers is that orphan patients tend to receive inferior care compared to those who have a "gatekeeper" coordinating the medicine. The Wordspy entry for this phrase is as follows [1]: A hospital patient who doesn't have a family doctor. Also known as an unattached patient. Example Citation: Dr. Tom Dickson, chief of staff at the William Osler Health Centre in Brampton, Ont., said the FP [family physician] shortage is so severe in the ring of suburbs surrounding Toronto — the '905 belt' — that dozens of orphan patients are arriving at local community hospitals every day. —Patrick Sullivan, "Enter the hospitalist: new type of patient creating a new type of specialist," Canadian Medical Association Journal, May 2, 2000 Earliest Citation: Recent media reports have identified a growing problem in Ontario's health


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Overdiagnosis is the diagnosis of disease that will never cause symptoms or death during a patient's ordinarily expected lifetime and thus presents no practical threat regardless of being pathologic. Overdiagnosis is a side effect of screening for early forms of disease. Although screening saves lives in some cases, in others it may turn people into patients unnecessarily and may lead to treatments that do no good and perhaps do harm. Given the tremendous variability that is normal in biology, it is inherent that the more one screens, the more incidental findings will generally be found. For a large percentage of them, the most appropriate medical response is to recognize them as something that does not require intervention; but determining which action a particular finding warrants ("ignoring", watchful waiting, or intervention) can be very difficult, whether because the differential diagnosis is uncertain or because the risk ratio is uncertain (risks posed by intervention, namely, adverse events, versus risks posed by not intervening). Overdiagnosis occurs when a disease is diagnosed correctly, but the diagnosis is irrelevant. A correct diagnosis may be irrelevant because treatment for the disease is not available, not needed, or not wanted. Some people contend that the term "overdiagnosis"


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Evidence for overdiagnosis in cancer == The phenomenon of overdiagnosis is most widely understood in prostate cancer. A dramatic increase in the number of new cases of prostate cancer was observed following the introduction of the PSA (prostate specific antigen) screening test. Because of the problem of overdiagnosis, most organizations recommend against prostate cancer screening in men with limited life expectancy—generally defined as less than 10 years (see also prostate cancer screening). Overdiagnosis has been identified in mammographic screening for breast cancer. Long-term follow-up of the Malmo randomized trial of mammography found a persistent excess of 115 breast cancers in the screened group 15 years after the trial was completed (a 10% rate of overdiagnosis). In a letter to the editor, authors not associated with the original study of the data from the randomized clinical trial argued that one-quarter of mammographically detected breast cancers represent overdiagnosis. A systematic review of mammography screening programs reported an overdiagnosis rate of around 50%, which is the same of saying that a third of diagnosed cases of breast cancer are overdiagnosed. Overdiagnosis has also been identified in chest x-ray screening for lung cancer. Long-term follow-up of the Mayo Clinic randomized trial of screening


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Removing cancer from names of low-risk diagnoses === It has been proposed that some conditions that are indolent (i.e., unlikely to cause appreciable harm during the patient's lifetime) should have the words "cancer" or "carcinoma" removed from their accepted/preferred medical name. Such a proposal is to name conditions as indolent lesions of epithelial origin or IDLE. == Medical complexity == If a person is medically complex (multiple comorbidities) and may expect to live for less than ten years, then there may be a net harm (benefit less harm) in diagnosing and treating one or more of their morbidities, eg prostate cancer. The principal, however, can apply to all cancers and other illnesses. == See also == Disease mongering – Pejorative term for expanding a disease's market for treatment False positive – Types of error in data reportingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Medicalization – Categorization of human problems as medical Interventionism (medicine) Patient education – Teaching or training of patients concerning their own health needs Schooliosis – Misdiagnosis of scoliosis Screening (medicine) – Brief medical evaluation to detect unnoticed health problems == References == == Further reading == Welch, H. Gilbert, Schwartz, Lisa. Overdiagnosed: Making People Sick in


id: oxygen-saturation-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Oxygen saturation (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:31.562690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oxygen-saturation-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Oxygen saturation is the fraction of oxygen-saturated hemoglobin relative to total hemoglobin (unsaturated + saturated) in the blood. The human body requires and regulates a very precise and specific balance of oxygen in the blood. Normal arterial blood oxygen saturation levels in humans are 96–100 percent. If the level is below 90 percent, it is considered low and called hypoxemia. Arterial blood oxygen levels below 80 percent may compromise organ function, such as the brain and heart, and should be promptly addressed. Continued low oxygen levels may lead to respiratory or cardiac arrest. Oxygen therapy may be used to assist in raising blood oxygen levels. Oxygenation occurs when oxygen molecules (O2) enter the tissues of the body. For example, blood is oxygenated in the lungs, where oxygen molecules travel from the air and into the blood. Oxygenation is commonly used to refer to medical oxygen saturation. == Definition == In medicine, oxygen saturation, commonly referred to as "sats", measures the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites in the bloodstream occupied by oxygen. At low partial pressures of oxygen, most hemoglobin is deoxygenated. At around 90% (the value varies according to the clinical context) oxygen saturation increases according to an oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation


id: pain-out-of-proportion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_out_of_proportion-0.md
category: reference
title: Pain out of proportion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_out_of_proportion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:32.847967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pain-out-of-proportion-20260505-0
summary:
Pain out of proportion or pain out of proportion to physical examination is a medical sign where apparent pain in the individual does not correspond to other signs. It is found in a number of conditions, including: Necrotizing fasciitis Compartment syndrome Mesenteric ischemia Mueller-Weiss disease Also used in reference to the medical diagnosis of Malingering ICD-10 Z76.5 as in "Pain out of proportion to symptoms". == References ==


id: palsy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsy-0.md
category: reference
title: Palsy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:34.180713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palsy-20260505-0
summary:
Palsy is a medical term which refers to various types of paralysis or paresis, often accompanied by weakness and the loss of feeling and uncontrolled body movements such as shaking. The word originates from the Anglo-Norman paralisie, parleisie et al., from the accusative form of Latin paralysis, from Ancient Greek παράλυσις (parálusis), from παραλύειν (paralúein, "to disable on one side"), from παρά (pará, "beside") + λύειν (lúein, "loosen"). The word is longstanding in the English language, having appeared in the play Grim the Collier of Croydon, reported to have been written as early as 1599: Rob. I'll have thee come, I say. Why tremblest thou? Grim. No sir, not I; 'tis a palsy I have still. In some editions, the Bible passage of Luke 5:18 is translated to refer to "a man which was taken with a palsy". More modern editions simply refer to a man who is paralysed. Although the term has historically been associated with paralysis generally, it "is now almost always used in connection to the word cerebral—meaning the brain". Specific kinds of palsy include: Bell's palsy, partial facial paralysis Bulbar palsy, impairment of cranial nerves Cerebral palsy, a neural disorder caused by intracranial lesions Conjugate gaze


id: pannus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannus-0.md
category: reference
title: Pannus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:35.450829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pannus-20260505-0
summary:
Pannus is an abnormal layer of fibrovascular tissue or granulation tissue. Common sites for pannus formation include over the cornea, over a joint surface (as seen in rheumatoid arthritis), or on a prosthetic heart valve. Pannus may grow in a tumor-like fashion, as in joints where it may erode articular cartilage and bone. In common usage, the term pannus is often used to refer to a panniculus (a hanging flap of tissue). == Pannus in rheumatoid arthritis == The term "pannus" is derived from the Latin for "tablecloth". Chronic inflammation and exuberant proliferation of the synovium leads to formation of pannus and destruction of cartilage, bone, tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels. Pannus tissue is composed of aggressive macrophage- and fibroblast-like mesenchymal cells, macrophage-like cells and other inflammatory cells that release collagenolytic enzymes. In people suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, pannus tissue eventually forms in the joint affected by the disease, causing bony erosion and cartilage loss via release of IL-1, prostaglandins, and substance P by macrophages. == Pannus in ophthalmology == In ophthalmology, pannus refers to the growth of blood vessels into the peripheral cornea. In normal individuals, the cornea is avascular. Chronic local hypoxia (such as that occurring with overuse


id: paresis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresis-0.md
category: reference
title: Paresis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:36.779117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paresis-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, paresis () is a condition typified by a weakness of voluntary movement, or by partial loss of voluntary movement or by impaired movement. When used without qualifiers, it usually refers to the limbs, but it can also be used to describe the muscles of the eyes (ophthalmoparesis), the stomach (gastroparesis), and also the vocal cords (vocal cord paresis). Neurologists use the term paresis to describe weakness, and plegia to describe paralysis in which all voluntary movement is lost. The term paresis comes from the Ancient Greek: πάρεσις 'letting go' from παρίημι 'to let go, to let fall'. == Types == === Limbs === Monoparesis – One leg or one arm Paraparesis – Both legs Hemiparesis – The loss of function to only one side of the body Triparesis – Three limbs. This can either mean both legs and one arm, both arms and a leg, or a combination of one arm, one leg, and face Double hemiparesis – All four limbs are involved, but one side of the body is more affected than the other Tetraparesis – All four limbs Quadriparesis – All four limbs, equally affected These terms frequently refer to the impairment of motion in multiple


id: past-medical-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_medical_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Past medical history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_medical_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:37.940913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: past-medical-history-20260505-0
summary:
In a medical encounter, a past medical history (abbreviated PMH) is the total sum of a patient's health status prior to the presenting problem. == Questions to include == Different sources include different questions to be asked while conducting a PMH, but in general, they include the following: General state of health: e.g. excellent, good, fair, poor. Note any significant change from previous state. Past illnesses: e.g. cancer, heart disease, hypertension, diabetes. Hospitalizations: including all medical, surgical, and psychiatric hospitalizations. Note the date, reason, duration for the hospitalization. Injuries, or accidents: note the type and date of injury. Surgeries: note the type of procedure, date, hospital, surgeon, and any complications. Current medications: note name, dosage, frequency of any medication, including any over-the-counter medications and herbal remedies. Note whether patient is taking the medications according to the prescribed instructions. Allergies: note any environmental, food, or drug allergies, as well as the specific type of reaction, e.g. anaphylaxis, rash, itching. Immunizations: take a careful record of all immunizations, including tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, polio, Hepatitis B, measles, mumps, rubella, Haemophilus influenzae type B, influenza. Substance abuse: note any alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use, include type, amount, and duration, as well as any


id: pathognomonic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomonic-0.md
category: reference
title: Pathognomonic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomonic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:39.255891+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pathognomonic-20260505-0
summary:
Pathognomonic (synonym pathognomic) is a term, often used in medicine, that means "characteristic for a particular disease". A pathognomonic sign is a particular sign whose presence means that a particular disease is present beyond any doubt. The absence of a pathognomonic sign does not rule out the disease. Labelling a sign or symptom "pathognomonic" represents a marked intensification of a "diagnostic" sign or symptom. The word is an adjective of Greek origin derived from πάθος pathos 'disease' and γνώμων gnomon 'indicator' (from γιγνώσκω gignosko 'I know, I recognize'). == Practical use == While some findings may be classic, typical or highly suggestive in a certain condition, they may not occur uniquely in this condition and therefore may not directly imply a specific diagnosis. A pathognomonic sign or symptom has very high positive predictive value and high specificity but does not need to have high sensitivity: for example it can sometimes be absent in a certain disease, since the term only implies that, when it is present, the doctor instantly knows the patient's illness. The presence of a pathognomonic finding allows immediate diagnosis, since there are no other conditions in the differential diagnosis. Singular pathognomonic signs are relatively uncommon. Examples of


id: patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient-0.md
category: reference
title: Patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:40.560918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-20260505-0
summary:
A patient is any recipient of health care services that are performed by healthcare professionals. The patient is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a medical doctor, nurse, optometrist, dentist, veterinarian, or other health care provider. == Etymology == The word patient originally meant 'one who suffers'. This English noun comes from the Latin word patiens, the present participle of the deponent verb, patior, meaning 'I am suffering', and akin to the Greek verb πάσχειν (paskhein 'to suffer') and its cognate noun πάθος (pathos). This language has been construed as meaning that the role of patients is to passively accept and tolerate the suffering and treatments prescribed by the healthcare providers, without engaging in shared decision-making about their care. == Outpatients and inpatients == An outpatient (or out-patient) is a patient who attends an outpatient clinic with no plan to stay beyond the duration of the visit. Even if the patient will not be formally admitted with a note as an outpatient, their attendance is still registered, and the provider will usually give a note explaining the reason for the visit, tests, or procedure/surgery, which should include the names and titles of the participating personnel,


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-0.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
In the healthcare industry, pay for performance (P4P), also known as "value-based purchasing", is a payment model that offers financial incentives to physicians, hospitals, medical groups, and other healthcare providers for meeting certain performance measures. Clinical outcomes, such as longer survival, are difficult to measure, so pay for performance systems usually evaluate process quality and efficiency, such as measuring blood pressure, lowering blood pressure, or counseling patients to stop smoking. This model also penalizes health care providers for poor outcomes, medical errors, or increased costs. Integrated delivery systems where insurers and providers share in the cost are intended to help align incentives for value-based care. Professional societies in the United States have given qualified approval to incentive programs, but express concern with the validity of quality indicators, patient and physician autonomy and privacy, and increased administrative burdens. == Studies and trends == Pay for performance systems link compensation to measures of work quality or goals. Current methods of healthcare payment may actually reward less-safe care, since some insurance companies will not pay for new practices to reduce errors, while physicians and hospitals can bill for additional services that are needed when patients are injured by mistakes. However, early studies showed


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-1.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === In France, P4P in ambulatory care was introduced as individual contracts between physicians and statutory health insurance in 2009 and termed CAPI (Contrat d'Amélioration des Pratiques Individuelles). Fourteen months later, 14,800 contracts were signed, representing one third of eligible GPs. They were signed on a voluntary basis for a three-year period and could be broken at any time on the GP's demand. The additional payment took into account the size of the population and the achievements for a number of indicators (clinical care, prevention, generic prescription), for which final as well as intermediate targets were defined. Depending on the baseline measures for the GP's practice, either final or intermediate targets were considered in determining the level of remuneration. There were no penalties for GPs who did not achieve the targets. With effect in 2012, CAPI were renamed ROSP (Rémunération sur Objectifs de Santé Publique) and incorporated into the collective agreements between doctors and statutory health insurance, with an expanded list of objectives and an extension to specialties such as cardiology. === United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service (NHS) began a major pay for performance initiative in 2004, known as the Quality and


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-2.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== VBP and VBP Levels ==== Value-Based Purchasing (VBP) Linking provider payments to improved performance by health care providers. This form of payment holds health care providers accountable for both the cost and quality of care they provide. It attempts to reduce inappropriate care and to identify and reward the best-performing providers. VBP Levels 1, 2, and 3 describe the level of risk providers choose to share with the MCO. GBUACO is a level 2 VBP. VBP risk levels allow providers to gradually increase the level of risk in their contracts. Levels of risk offer a flexible approach for providers in moving to VBP. Level 1 VBP: FFS with upside-only shared savings available when outcome scores are sufficient. Has only an upside. Receives FFS Payments. Level 2 VBP: FFS with risk sharing (upside available when outcome scores are sufficient). Has upside and downside risk. Receives FFS Payments. Level 3 VBP: (feasible after experience with Level 2; requires mature contractors) Prospective capitation PMPM or Bundle (with outcome-based component). Has upside and downside risk. Prospective total budget payments. ==== California ==== Responding to public backlash to managed care in the 1990s, California health care plans and physician groups developed a set of


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-3.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Multiple providers for complex disorders ==== Pay for performance programs often target patients with serious and complex illnesses; such patients commonly interact with multiple healthcare providers and facilities. However, pilot programs now underway focus on simple indicators such as improvement in lab values or use of emergency services, avoiding areas of complexity such as multiple complications or several treating specialists. A 2007 study analyzing Medicare beneficiaries' healthcare visits showed that a median of two primary care physicians and five specialists provide care for a single patient. The authors doubt that pay-for-performance systems can accurately attribute responsibility for the outcome of care for such patients. The American College of Physicians Ethics has expressed concern: Pay-for-performance initiatives that provide incentives for good performance on a few specific elements of a single disease or condition may lead to neglect of other, potentially more important elements of care for that condition or a comorbid condition. The elderly patient with multiple chronic conditions is especially vulnerable to this unwanted effect of powerful incentives. ==== Deselection, ethical issues ==== Present pay-for-performance systems measure performance based on specified clinical measurements, such as reductions in glycohemoglobin (HbA1c) for patients with diabetes. Healthcare providers who are monitored by


id: perinatal-mortality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perinatal_mortality-0.md
category: reference
title: Perinatal mortality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perinatal_mortality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:44.093784+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perinatal-mortality-20260505-0
summary:
Perinatal mortality (PNM) is the death of a fetus or neonate and is the basis for calculation of the perinatal mortality rate. Perinatal means "relating to the period starting a few weeks before birth and including the birth and a few weeks after birth." Variations in the precise definition of the perinatal mortality exist, specifically concerning the issue of inclusion or exclusion of early fetal and late neonatal fatalities. The World Health Organization defines perinatal mortality as the "number of stillbirths and deaths in the first week of life per 1,000 total births, the perinatal period commences at 22 completed weeks (154 days) of gestation, and ends seven completed days after birth", but other definitions have been used. The UK figure is about 8 per 1,000 and varies markedly by social class, with the highest rates seen in Asian women. Globally, an estimated 2.6 million neonates died in 2013 before the first month of age, down from 4.5 million in 1990. == Causes == Preterm birth is the most common cause of perinatal mortality, causing almost 30 percent of neonatal deaths. Infant respiratory distress syndrome, in turn, is the leading cause of death in preterm infants, affecting about 1% of


id: periodic-breathing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_breathing-0.md
category: reference
title: Periodic breathing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_breathing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:45.426022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: periodic-breathing-20260505-0
summary:
Periodic breathing is clusters of breaths separated by intervals of apnea or near-apnea. As opposed to normal breathing, which is usually regular, periodic breathing is defined as three or more episodes of central apnea lasting at least 4 seconds, separated by no more than 30 seconds of normal breathing. Periodic breathing was originally thought to arise from serious neurologic or cardiovascular disease and therefore to carry a poor outlook. It is now known that periodic breathing also tends to occur during sleep, it can occur in healthy persons, and the apnea in periodic breathing is usually central sleep apnea rather than obstructive sleep apnea. Periodic breathing during sleep occurs typically in adult patients with congestive heart failure. Periodic breathing is also a normal variation of breathing found in premature and full term infants. It occurs when the infant has pauses in breathing for no more than 10 seconds at a time followed by a series of rapid, shallow breaths. Then the breathing returns to normal without any stimulation or intervention. These pauses in breathing may be accompanied by minor oxygen desaturation and bradycardia. It usually occurs when the infant is sleeping deeply, but may occur with light sleep or even


id: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension-0.md
category: reference
title: Permissive hypotension
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:46.615676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
summary:
Permissive hypotension or hypotensive resuscitation is the use of restrictive fluid therapy, specifically in the trauma patient, that increases systemic blood pressure without reaching normotension (normal blood pressures). The goal blood pressure for these patients is a mean arterial pressure of 40-50 mmHg or systolic blood pressure of less than or equal to 80. This goes along with certain clinical criteria. Following traumatic injury, some patients experience hypotension (low blood pressure) that is usually due to blood loss (hemorrhage) but can be due to other causes as well (for example, blood leaking around an abdominal aortic aneurysm). In the past, physicians were very aggressive with fluid resuscitation (giving fluids such as normal saline or lactated Ringer's through the vein) to try to bring the blood pressure to normal values. Recent studies have found that there is some benefit to allowing specific patients to experience some degree of hypotension in certain settings. This concept does not exclude therapy by means of i.v. fluid, inotropes or vasopressors, the only restriction is to avoid completely normalizing blood pressure in a context where blood loss may be enhanced. When a person starts to bleed (big or small) the body starts a natural coagulation process


id: permissive-hypotension-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension-1.md
category: reference
title: Permissive hypotension
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:46.615676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
summary:
== Pathophysiology == Following injury, the otherwise healthy individual has a natural ability to clot off bleeding. The higher the pressure in your vessels, the harder it is for the bleeding to stop, since the fluid essentially "pushes" the clot out and consequently the bleeding resumes. In more technical terms: hypotension facilitates in vivo coagulation. This is especially true in patients who still have active bleeding. Attempts to normalize blood pressure in case of uncontrolled bleeding as in patients with penetrating trauma, may result in increased blood loss and worse outcomes. In this context, restriction of fluid resuscitation may actually improve outcomes. This concept has been supported by animal studies that have demonstrated aggressive fluid resuscitation increases the volume of hemorrhaging fluid to a significant level as well as increased mortality. Another issue with aggressive fluid resuscitation is the potential for hypothermia if fluids that are stored at room temperature are used. If these fluids are not warmed prior to infusion (which sometimes time does not permit), this can result in a significant drop in core body temperature. Hypothermia is associated with many problems including a bleeding disorder, organ failure, and hypotension, and is one of the three components in


id: phonagnosia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonagnosia-0.md
category: reference
title: Phonagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:47.797123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phonagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
Phonagnosia (from Ancient Greek φωνή phone, "voice" and γνῶσις gnosis, "knowledge") or voice blindness is a type of agnosia, or loss of knowledge, that involves a disturbance in the recognition of familiar voices and the impairment of voice discrimination abilities in which the affected individual does not suffer from comprehension deficits. Phonagnosia is an auditory agnosia, an acquired auditory processing disorder resulting from brain damage. Other auditory agnosias include cortical deafness and auditory verbal agnosia also known as pure word deafness. Since people suffering from phonagnosia do not suffer from aphasia, it is suggested that the structures of linguistic comprehension are functionally separate from those of the perception of the identity of the speaker who produced it. == History == Phonagnosia is the auditory equivalent of prosopagnosia. Unlike prosopagnosia, investigations of phonagnosia have not been extensively pursued. Phonagnosia was first described by a study by Van Lancker and Cantor in 1982. The subjects in this study were asked to identify which of four names or faces matched a specific famous voice. The subjects could not complete the task. Since then, there have been a couple studies done on patients with phonagnosia. The clinical and radiologic findings with computerized tomographic scans


id: phoniatrics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoniatrics-0.md
category: reference
title: Phoniatrics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoniatrics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:49.015177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phoniatrics-20260505-0
summary:
Phoniatrics or phoniatry is the study and treatment of organs involved in speech production, mainly the mouth, throat (larynx), vocal cords, and lungs. Problems treated in phoniatrics include dysfunction of the vocal cords, cancer of the vocal cords or larynx, inability to control the speech organs properly (speech disorders), and vocal loading problems. According to the Union of European Phoniatricians, phoniatrics is "the medical specialty dealing with voice, speech, language, hearing and swallowing disorders". == References == == External links == "Logbook Phoniatrics UEMS 2010" (PDF). Union of the European Phoniatricians. 1 October 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 October 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016.


id: physical-disorder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_disorder-0.md
category: reference
title: Physical disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:50.252559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physical-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
Physical disorder, as a medical term, is poorly defined, and typically used in contrast to a mental disorder or a genetic disorder. The term mental disorder is heavily used in psychiatric medicine, and is defined in some psychiatric medicine texts, most notably the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). However, the more generic term of medical disorder is poorly defined, and is not mentioned in the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases, nor many common medical textbooks. Attempts have been made to adopt a more universal definition, but there is no widely agreed upon definition. A physical disorder is not easily defined as the term "disorder" itself has not yet been defined by any authoritative medical body. The term "disorder" bears no special clinical relevance, and could be used interchangeably with disease. The use of the term "disorder" likely rests on historical precedent as well as the preference of the field. For example, it is common to find examples of diseases named "disorders" in psychiatry and genetics, such as autosomal dominant disorders, but uncommon in cardiology. In general, diseases called "disorders" have a relatively well understood, narrow pathophysiology, such as bipolar disorder, compared to something more generic,


id: physical-inactivity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity-0.md
category: reference
title: Physical inactivity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:51.505258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physical-inactivity-20260505-0
summary:
Physical inactivity refers to the lack of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in a person's lifestyle. It is distinct from sedentary behavior. == Health effects == The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined physical inactivity as a global public health problem. Each year, approximately 3.2 million people die from causes related to physical inactivity. == Prevalence == Globally, 28% of adults and 80% of adolescents are estimated to be insufficiently active. As of 2008, the WHO identified the Americas and the Eastern Mediterranean as regions with the greatest prevalence of physical inactivity. Nearly half of all women in both of these regions have physical inactivity, as well as 40% of men in the Americas and 36% of men in the Eastern Mediterranean. In contrast, the region with the lowest prevalence of physical inactivity is Southeast Asia. There, 19% of women and 15% of men are physically inactive. In the US, physical inactivity prevalence varies by state and ethnicity. All states and territories had prevalence rates of more than 15% of adults. Colorado, Utah, Oregon, and Washington were the only states with physical inactivity prevalence less than 20%. Seven states and two territories had prevalence greater than 30%: Tennessee, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Alabama, Kentucky,


id: physiological-agonism-and-antagonism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism-0.md
category: reference
title: Physiological agonism and antagonism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:52.749554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiological-agonism-and-antagonism-20260505-0
summary:
Physiological agonism describes the action of a substance which ultimately produces the same effects in the body as another substance—as if they were both agonists at the same receptor—without actually binding to the same receptor. Physiological antagonism describes the behavior of a substance that produces effects counteracting those of another substance (a result similar to that produced by an antagonist blocking the action of an agonist at the same receptor) using a mechanism that does not involve binding to the same receptor. == Examples == === Physiological agonists === Epinephrine induces platelet aggregation, and so does hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). Thus, they are physiological agonists to each other. === Physiological antagonists === There are several substances that have antihistaminergic action despite not being ligands for the histamine receptor. For instance, epinephrine raises arterial pressure through vasoconstriction mediated by A1-adrenergic receptor activation, in contrast to histamine, which lowers arterial pressure. Thus, despite not being true antihistamines because they do not bind to and block the histamine receptor, epinephrine and other such substances are physiological antagonists to histamine. == References ==


id: pilon-fracture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilon_fracture-0.md
category: reference
title: Pilon fracture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilon_fracture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:54.213164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pilon-fracture-20260505-0
summary:
A pilon fracture is a fracture of the distal part of the tibia, involving its articular surface at the ankle joint. Pilon fractures are caused by rotational or axial forces, mostly as a result of falls from a height or motor vehicle accidents. Pilon fractures are rare, comprising 3 to 10 percent of all fractures of the tibia and 1 percent of all lower extremity fractures, but they involve a large part of the weight-bearing surface of the tibia in the ankle joint. Because of this, they may be difficult to fixate and are historically associated with high rates of complications and poor outcome. Pilon is the French word for "pestle" and was introduced into orthopedic literature in 1911 by pioneer French radiologist Étienne Destot. == Classification == Pilon fractures are categorized by two main X-ray schemes, Ruedi-Allgower classification system. and Müller AO Classification of fractures. == Treatment == The treatment of pilon fractures depends on the extent of the injury. This includes the involvement of other bones such as the fibula and the talus, involvement of soft tissue, and the fracture pattern. Treatment strategies and fixation methods used include internal and external fixation, as well as staged approaches, with


id: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: Point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:55.414574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
Point-of-care testing (POCT), also called near-patient testing or bedside testing, is defined as medical diagnostic testing at or near the point of care—that is, at the time and place of patient care. This contrasts with the historical pattern in which testing was wholly or mostly confined to the medical laboratory, which entailed sending off specimens away from the point of care and then waiting hours or days to learn the results, during which time care must continue without the desired information. == Technology overview == Point-of-care tests are simple medical tests that can be performed at the bedside. In many cases, the simplicity was not achievable until technology developed not only to make a test possible at all but then also to mask its complexity. For example, various kinds of urine test strips have been available for decades, but portable ultrasonography did not reach the stage of being advanced, affordable, and widespread until the 2000s and 2010s. Today, portable ultrasonography is often viewed as a "simple" test, but there was nothing simple about it until the more complex technology was available. Similarly, pulse oximetry can test arterial oxygen saturation in a quick, simple, noninvasive, affordable way today, but in earlier


id: point-of-care-testing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing-1.md
category: reference
title: Point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:55.414574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
== Benefits == The coupling of POCT devices and electronic medical records enable test results to be shared instantly with care providers. The use of mobile devices in the health care setting also enable the health care provider to quickly access patient test results sent from a POCT device. A reduction in morbidity and mortality has been associated with such rapid turn around times from a study using the i-STAT to analyze blood lactate levels after congenital heart surgery. POCT has become established worldwide and finds vital roles in public health. Many researchers emphasize POCT as the normal standard of care in disaster situations. Potential operational benefits include more rapid decision making and triage, reduced operating times, high-dependency, postoperative care time, emergency room time, number of outpatient clinic visits, number of hospital beds required, ensuring optimal use of professional time and reduced of antimicrobial medication. At home or POCT tests, providing results within minutes of being administered, would allow for appropriate measures and rapid decisions about dental patients' care process. Characteristics and detection rate of SARS-CoV-2 in alternative sites and specimens related to dentistry has been extensively reviewed. == Regulatory in the U.S. == The Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)


id: posterior-cortex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_cortex-0.md
category: reference
title: Posterior cortex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_cortex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:56.639705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: posterior-cortex-20260505-0
summary:
Posterior cortex usually means the posterior (back) part of the complete cerebral cortex and includes the occipital, parietal, and temporal cortices. In other words, the posterior cortex includes all the cerebral cortex without the frontal cortex. In combination with specific cortical areas, 'posterior cortex' usually refers to the posterior (back) part of that cortical area. For example: the posterior parietal cortex is the posterior part of the parietal cortex and the posterior cingulate cortex is the posterior part of the cingulate cortex. == Function of the posterior cortex == The posterior cortex is the “sensory” cortex, much as the frontal cortex is the “action” cortex. The posterior cortex is responsible for encoding the sensory content (visual, auditory, and tactile) of any experience (both real and imaginary experience). The posterior cortex with the exception of the primary sensory areas (Primary visual cortex (V1), primary auditory cortex, and somatosensory cortex) was called by Christof Koch and colleagues the posterior cortical hot zone for its close association with the minimal neural substrate essential for conscious perception. == References ==


id: postictal-state-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state-0.md
category: reference
title: Postictal state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:57.970186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postictal-state-20260505-0
summary:
The postictal state is the altered state of consciousness after an epileptic seizure. It usually lasts between 5 and 30 minutes, but sometimes longer in the case of larger or more severe seizures, and is characterized by drowsiness, confusion, nausea, hypertension, headache or migraine, and other disorienting symptoms. The ictal period is the seizure itself; the interictal period is the time between seizures, when brain activity is more normal; and the preictal period is the time leading up to a seizure: Ictal period refers to a physiologic state or event such as a seizure, stroke, or headache. The word originates from the Latin word ictus, meaning a blow or a stroke. In electroencephalography (EEG), the recording during a seizure is said to be "ictal". The following definitions refer to the temporal relation with seizures. Pre-ictal refers to the state immediately before the actual seizure, stroke, or headache. Post-ictal refers to the state shortly after the event. Interictal refers to the period between seizures, or convulsions, that are characteristic of an epilepsy disorder. For most people with epilepsy, the interictal state corresponds to more than 99% of their life. The interictal period is often used by neurologists when diagnosing epilepsy since


