# kb

id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-2.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:26.781638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Philippines === In the Philippines, STEM is a two-year program and strand that is used for Senior High School (Grades 11 and 12), assigned by the Department of Education or DepEd. The STEM strand is under the Academic Track, which also includes other strands like ABM, HUMSS, and GAS. The purpose of the STEM strand is to educate students in the field of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, in an interdisciplinary and applied approach, and to give students advanced knowledge and application in the field. After completing the program, the students will earn a Diploma in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. In some colleges and universities, they require students applying for STEM degrees (like medicine, engineering, computer studies, etc.) to be a graduate of STEM, if not, they will need to enter a bridging program. === Qatar === In Qatar, AL-Bairaq is an outreach program to high-school students with a curriculum that focuses on STEM, run by the Center for Advanced Materials (CAM) at Qatar University. Each year around 946 students, from about 40 high schools, participate in AL-Bairaq competitions. AL-Bairaq makes use of project-based learning, encourages students to solve authentic problems, and inquires them to work with each


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-3.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:26.781638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Immigration policy ==== Although many organizations in the United States follow the guidelines of the National Science Foundation on what constitutes a STEM field, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has its own functional definition used for immigration policy. In 2012, DHS or ICE announced an expanded list of STEM-designated degree programs that qualify eligible graduates on student visas for an optional practical training (OPT) extension. Under the OPT program, international students who graduate from colleges and universities in the United States can stay in the country and receive up to twelve months of training through work experience. Students who graduate from a designated STEM degree program can stay for an additional seventeen months on an OPT STEM extension. As of 2023, the U.S. faces a shortage of high-skilled workers in STEM, and foreign talents must navigate difficult hurdles to immigrate. Meanwhile, some other countries, such as Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, have introduced programs to attract talent at the expense of the United States. In the case of China, the United States risks losing its edge over a strategic rival. ==== Education ==== By cultivating an interest in the natural and social sciences in preschool


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-4.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:26.781638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== American Competitiveness Initiative ==== In the State of the Union Address on January 31, 2006, President George W. Bush announced the American Competitiveness Initiative. Bush proposed the initiative to address shortfalls in federal government support of educational development and progress at all academic levels in the STEM fields. In detail, the initiative called for significant increases in federal funding for advanced R&D programs (including a doubling of federal funding support for advanced research in the physical sciences through DOE) and an increase in U.S. higher education graduates within STEM disciplines. The NASA Means Business competition, sponsored by the Texas Space Grant Consortium, furthers that goal. College students compete to develop promotional plans to encourage students in middle and high school to study STEM subjects and to inspire professors in STEM fields to involve their students in outreach activities that support STEM education. The National Science Foundation has numerous programs in STEM education, including some for K–12 students such as the ITEST Program that supports The Global Challenge Award ITEST Program. STEM programs have been implemented in some Arizona schools. They implement higher cognitive skills for students and enable them to inquire and use techniques used by professionals in the


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-5.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:26.781638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Jobs ==== In November 2012 the White House announcement before the congressional vote on the STEM Jobs Act put President Obama in opposition to many of the Silicon Valley firms and executives who bankrolled his re-election campaign. The Department of Labor identified 14 sectors that are "projected to add substantial numbers of new jobs to the economy or affect the growth of other industries or are being transformed by technology and innovation requiring new sets of skills for workers." The identified sectors were as follows: advanced manufacturing, Automotive, construction, financial services, geospatial technology, homeland security, information technology, Transportation, Aerospace, Biotechnology, energy, healthcare, hospitality, and retail. The Department of Commerce notes STEM fields careers are some of the best-paying and have the greatest potential for job growth in the early 21st century. The report also notes that STEM workers play a key role in the sustained growth and stability of the U.S. economy, and training in STEM fields generally results in higher wages, whether or not they work in a STEM field. In 2015, there were around 9.0 million STEM jobs in the United States, representing 6.1% of American employment. STEM jobs were increasing by around 9% percent per year.


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-6.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:26.781638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The gender ratio depends on the field of study. For example, in the European Union in 2012 women made up 47.3% of the total, 51% of the social sciences, business, and law, 42% of the science, mathematics, and computing, 28% of engineering, manufacturing, and construction, and 59% of PhD graduates in Health and Welfare. In a study from 2019, it was shown that part of the success of women in STEM depends on the way women in STEM are viewed. In a study that researched grants given based primarily on a project versus primarily based on the project lead there was almost no difference in the evaluation between projects from men or women when evaluated on the project, but those evaluated mainly on the project leader showed that projects headed by women were given grants four percent less often. Improving the experiences of women in STEM is a major component of increasing the number of women in STEM. One part of this includes the need for role models and mentors who are women in STEM. Along with this, having good resources for information and networking opportunities can improve women's ability to flourish in STEM fields. A 2018 study suggested the


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-7.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:26.781638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == The focus on increasing participation in STEM fields has attracted criticism. In the 2014 article "The Myth of the Science and Engineering Shortage" in The Atlantic, demographer Michael S. Teitelbaum criticized the efforts of the U.S. government to increase the number of STEM graduates, saying that, among studies on the subject, "No one has been able to find any evidence indicating current widespread labor market shortages or hiring difficulties in science and engineering occupations that require bachelor's degrees or higher", and that "Most studies report that real wages in many—but not all—science and engineering occupations have been flat or slow-growing, and unemployment as high or higher than in many comparably-skilled occupations." Teitelbaum also wrote that the then-current national fixation on increasing STEM participation paralleled previous U.S. government efforts since World War II to increase the number of scientists and engineers, all of which he stated ultimately ended up in "mass layoffs, hiring freezes, and funding cuts"; including one driven by the Space Race of the late 1950s and 1960s, which he wrote led to "a bust of serious magnitude in the 1970s." According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, various STEM occupational outlooks have shown slowing


id: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, society and environment education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:28.027323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-0
summary:
Science, technology, society and environment (STSE) education, originates from the science technology and society (STS) movement in science education. This is an outlook on science education that emphasizes the teaching of scientific and technological developments in their cultural, economic, social and political contexts. In this view of science education, students are encouraged to engage in issues pertaining to the impact of science on everyday life and make responsible decisions about how to address such issues (Solomon, 1993 and Aikenhead, 1994) == Science technology and society (STS) == The STS movement has a long history in science education reform, and embraces a wide range of theories about the intersection between science, technology and society (Solomon and Aikenhead, 1994; Pedretti 1997). Over the last twenty years, the work of Peter Fensham, the noted Australian science educator, is considered to have heavily contributed to reforms in science education. Fensham's efforts included giving greater prominence to STS in the school science curriculum (Aikenhead, 2003). The key aim behind these efforts was to ensure the development of a broad-based science curriculum, embedded in the socio-political and cultural contexts in which it was formulated. From Fensham's point of view, this meant that students would engage with


id: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, society and environment education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:28.027323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-0
summary:
=== Goals === In the context of STSE education, the goals of teaching and learning are largely directed towards engendering cultural and democratic notions of scientific literacy. Here, advocates of STSE education argue that in order to broaden students' understanding of science, and better prepare them for active and responsible citizenship in the future, the scope of science education needs to go beyond learning about scientific theories, facts and technical skills. Therefore, the fundamental aim of STSE education is to equip students to understand and situate scientific and technological developments in their cultural, environmental, economic, political and social contexts (Solomon & Aikenhead, 1994; Bingle & Gaskell, 1994; Pedretti 1997 & 2005). For example, rather than learning about the facts and theories of weather patterns, students can explore them in the context of issues such as global warming. They can also debate the environmental, social, economic and political consequences of relevant legislation, such as the Kyoto Protocol. This is thought to provide a richer, more meaningful and relevant canvas against which scientific theories and phenomena relating to weather patterns can be explored (Pedretti et al. 2005). In essence, STSE education aims to develop the following skills and perspectives Social responsibility Critical


id: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, society and environment education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_society_and_environment_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:28.027323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-society-and-environment-education-20260505-0
summary:
Alsop, S., & Ibrahim, S. 2008. Visual journeys in critical place based science education. In Y-J. Lee, & A-K. Tan (Eds.), Science education at the nexus of theory and practice. Rotterdam: SensePublishers 291–303. Alsop, S., & Ibrahim, S. 2007. Searching for Science Motive: Community, Imagery and Agency. Alberta Science Education Journal (Special Edition, Shapiro, B. (Ed.) Research and writing in science education of interest to those new in the profession). 38(2), 17–24. Science and the city: A Field Zine One collective publication, authored by the students, teachers and researchers together is that of a community zine that offered a format to share possibilities afforded by participatory practices that connect schools with local-knowledges, people and places. *Alsop, S., Ibrahim, S., & Blimkie, M. (Eds.) (2008) Science and the city: A Field Zine. Toronto: Ontario. [An independent publication written by students and researchers and distributed free to research, student and parent communities]. === Tokyo Global Engineering Corporation, Japan (and global) === Tokyo Global Engineering Corporation is an education-services organization that provides capstone STSE education programs free of charge to engineering students and other stakeholders. These programs are intended to complement—but not to replace—STSE coursework required by academic degree programs of study. The


id: science-ie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science.ie-0.md
category: reference
title: Science.ie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science.ie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:29.221015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-ie-20260505-0
summary:
The Science.ie portal provides all sorts of information about careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). == Overview == Science.ie is an initiative of the Irish Government’s Discover Science & Engineering (DSE) awareness programme in Ireland. DSE is managed by Forfás on behalf of the Office of Science and Technology at the Department of Enterprise, Tourism and Employment. The careers-related information on Science.ie has been moved to a new DSE website, which was launched in early October 2009. On MyScienceCareer.ie is: Profiles of people currently working in STEM in Ireland Information on famous Irish scientists Links to many other career resources A redeveloped Science.ie was also launched in October 2009. The site has been redesigned and includes social media bookmarking and RSS feeds. Science.ie provides more general information on science in Ireland. This includes listings of science links, news and events. Its "Resources" section gives information on activities and visitor centres where you can learn about science. The site also provides a free newsletter relating to Irish science, technology and innovation news, events, research and facts which is issued monthly by email. DSE runs numerous other initiatives, including My Science Career, Project Blogger, Science Week Ireland and Discover Primary


id: scientific-literacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:31.716579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literacy-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific literacy or science literacy encompasses written, numerical, and digital literacy as they pertain to understanding science, its methodology, observations, and theories. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the scientific method, units and methods of measurement, empiricism and understanding of statistics in particular correlations and qualitative versus quantitative observations and aggregate statistics. It is also concerned with a basic understanding of core scientific fields, such as physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology and computation. == Definition == The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Framework (2015) defines scientific literacy as "the ability to engage with science-related issues, and with the ideas of science, as a reflective citizen." A scientifically literate person, therefore, is willing to engage in reasoned discourse about science and technology which requires the competencies to: Explain phenomena scientifically – recognize, offer and evaluate explanations for a range of natural and technological phenomena. Evaluate and design scientific inquiry – describe and appraise scientific investigations and propose ways of addressing questions scientifically. Interpret data and evidence scientifically – analyze and evaluate data, claims and arguments in a variety of representations and draw appropriate scientific conclusions. According to the United States


id: scientific-literacy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:31.716579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literacy-20260505-0
summary:
== Science, society, and the environment == The interdependence of humans and our natural environment is at the heart of scientific literacy in the Earth systems. As defined by nationwide consensus among scientists and educators, this literacy has two key parts. First, a literate person is defined, in language that echoes the above definition of scientific literacy. Second, a set of concepts are listed, organized into six to nine big ideas or essential principles. This defining process was undertaken first for ocean literacy, then for the Great Lakes, estuaries, the atmosphere, and climate. Earth science literacy is one of the types of literacy defined for Earth systems; the qualities of an Earth science literate person are representative of the qualities for all the Earth system literacy definitions. According to the Earth Science Literacy Initiative, an Earth-science-literate person: understands the fundamental concepts of Earth's many systems knows how to find and assess scientifically credible information about Earth communicates about Earth science in a meaningful way is able to make informed and responsible decisions regarding Earth and its resources All types of literacy in Earth systems have a definition like the above. Ocean literacy is further defined as "understanding our impact on


id: scientific-literacy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific literacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:31.716579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-literacy-20260505-0
summary:
== Promoting and measuring == Proponents of scientific literacy tend to focus on what is learned by the time a student graduates from high school. Science literacy has always been an important element of the standards movement in education. All science literacy documents have been drafted with the explicit intent of influencing educational standards, as a means to drive curriculum, teaching, assessment, and ultimately, learning nationwide. Moreover, scientific literacy provides an important basis for making informed social decisions. Science is a human process carried out in a social context, which makes it relevant as a part of our science education. In order for people to make evidence-informed decision, everyone should seek to improve their scientific literacy. Relevant research has suggested ways to promote scientific literacy to students more efficiently. Programs to promote scientific literacy among students abound, including several programs sponsored by technology companies, as well as quiz bowls and science fairs. A partial list of such programs includes the Global Challenge Award, the National Ocean Sciences Bowl and Action Bioscience. Some organizations have attempted to compare the scientific literacy of adults in different countries. The OECD found that scientific literacy in the United States is not measurably different from


id: scientific-misconceptions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconceptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:32.885109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconceptions-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific misconceptions are commonly held beliefs about science that have no basis in actual scientific fact. Scientific misconceptions can also refer to preconceived notions based on religious and/or cultural influences. Many scientific misconceptions occur because of faulty teaching styles and the sometimes distancing nature of true scientific texts. Because students' prior knowledge and misconceptions are important factors for learning science, science teachers should be able to identify and address these conceptions. == Types == Misconceptions (a.k.a. alternative conceptions, alternative frameworks, etc.) are a key issue from constructivism in science education, a major theoretical perspective informing science teaching. A scientific misconception is a false or incorrect understanding of a scientific concept or principle, often resulting from oversimplifications, inaccurate information, or the misapplication of intuitive knowledge. Misconceptions can arise due to a variety of factors, such as personal experiences, cultural beliefs, or the way information is presented in educational settings. Addressing scientific misconceptions is crucial for developing a more accurate understanding of the natural world and improving scientific literacy. In general, scientific misconceptions have their foundations in a few "intuitive knowledge domains, including folkmechanics (object boundaries and movements), folkbiology (biological species' configurations and relationships), and folkpsychology (interactive agents and goal-directed behavior)", that


id: scientific-misconceptions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconceptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconceptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:32.885109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconceptions-20260505-0
summary:
== Addressing student misconceptions == A number of lines of evidence suggest that the recognition and revision of student misconceptions involves active, rather than passive, involvement with the material. A common approach to instruction involves meta-cognition, that is to encourage students to think about their thinking about a particular problem. In part this approach requires students to verbalize, defend and reformulate their understanding. Recognizing the realities of the modern classroom, a number of variations have been introduced. These include Eric Mazur's peer instruction, as well as various tutorials in physics. Using a metacognitive approach, researchers have also found that making students metacognitively aware of their own intuitive conceptions through a self-assessment and supporting them in self-regulating their intuitive conceptions in scientific contexts enhances students' conceptual understanding. Scientific inquiry is another technique that provides an active engagement opportunity for students and incorporates metacognition and critical thinking. Success with inquiry-based learning activities relies on a deep foundation of factual knowledge. Students then use observation, imagination, and reasoning about scientific phenomena they are studying to organize knowledge within a conceptual framework. The teacher monitors the changing concepts of the students through formative assessment as the instruction proceeds. Beginning inquiry activities should develop from


id: scishow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SciShow-0.md
category: reference
title: SciShow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SciShow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:36.551656+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scishow-20260505-0
summary:
SciShow is a collection of YouTube channels that focuses on science news. The program is hosted by Hank Green along with a rotating cast of co-hosts. SciShow was launched as an original channel. The series has been consistently releasing new material since it was created in 2012. Since its launch, three additional channels have been launched under the SciShow brand: SciShow Space, SciShow Psych, and SciShow Kids. == History and funding == The channel was launched as an "original channel", which meant that YouTube funded the channel. The show's initial grant was projected to expire in 2014, and in response, on September 12, 2013, SciShow joined the viewer-funding site Subbable, created in part by Green. In 2014, the channel landed a national advertisement deal with YouTube. The educational program was featured on platforms such as billboards and television commercials as a result. Green details that the advertisements had a positive effect on SciShow, stating, "My Twitter exploded, our followers and subscribers exploded." After Patreon acquired Subbable, the channel switched over to Patreon where it continues to receive support in exchange for various perks. SciShow currently has over four thousand patrons. == Production and hosting == Though Green hosts the majority


id: skype-a-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_a_Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Skype a Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_a_Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:37.875740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skype-a-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Skype a Scientist is a nonprofit educational organization based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, that enables scientists to video conference with students in classrooms. It began as an informal program in 2017, founded by Sarah McAnulty while she was a graduate student at the University of Connecticut. As of 2019, almost 15,000 classrooms and over 7,000 scientists from a total of 43 countries had participated in video conferencing sessions. == History == Sarah McAnulty came up with the idea for Skype a Scientist in 2016 while she was a graduate student in molecular and cell biology at the University of Connecticut in Storrs. Inspiration for the program came from the growing distrust of scientists and the rise of anti-intellectualism in US society. McAnulty was concerned that scientists were portrayed in media as "cold and calculating" and aimed to connect people with scientists through video conferencing to dispel those stereotypes, and to "get people trusting scientists again". In 2017, McAnulty matched volunteer scientists with teachers and classrooms by hand using a Google spreadsheet, which she shared repeatedly on Twitter and Tumblr. She collected information from scientists and teachers and matched them based on their time zones and type of scientist requested if available.


id: steam-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEAM_education-0.md
category: reference
title: STEAM education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEAM_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:43.348742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steam-education-20260505-0
summary:
STEAM (science, technology, engineering, art, and mathematics) education is an expanded approach to teaching science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), an interdisciplinary and integrated teaching method for those four subjects. STEAM expands on STEM education by including the arts. STEAM programs aim to teach students innovation, to think critically, and to use engineering or technology in imaginative designs or creative approaches to real-world problems while building on students' mathematics and science base. == Program examples == Examples of state-based STEAM programs, guidance or related resources in the United States include: Ohio's Quality Model for STEM and STEAM Schools. By Ohio statute, a STEAM school is designated as a type of STEM school. In May 2014, Rhode Island created the STEAM Now Coalition. In 2017, Nevada enacted legislation for the creation of a State Seal of STEM Program and a State Seal of STEAM Program. The STEAM seal is given to students who have "high level of proficiency in science, technology, engineering, the arts and mathematics." In South Carolina, the South Carolina State Department of Education created the South Carolina STEAM Implementation Continuum "to provide statewide guidance and consistency with regard to STEAM implementation". Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) in


id: stem-in-30-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_in_30-0.md
category: reference
title: STEM in 30
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_in_30
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:46.062437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stem-in-30-20260505-0
summary:
STEM in 30 is a non-commercial online science educational program for middle school students produced by the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. The show is hosted by science-educators Marty Kelsey and Beth Wilson. The program is released on a monthly basis throughout the school year free through the museum's website, YouTube and social media as well as broadcast on NASA-TV. Each episode is typically a half hour and features special guests and different science, math, engineering or technology topics. Since first broadcasting in 2014, the program has covered dozens of topics including the NASA's Apollo program, Tuskegee Airmen, astronaut training, the Wright brothers and the Orion program. While the program is often based in one of the two locations of the National Air and Space Museum, the show has also been filmed on location in New York City, Seattle, Boston, Detroit, Houston, in Hurricane Florence and on the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower. The first four seasons of the show were broadcast live with a student audience. With its fifth season, STEM in 30 has switched its format to a pre-taped show along with a "Mission Debrief" a week later featuring a topic expert. The


id: stem-pipeline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_pipeline-0.md
category: reference
title: STEM pipeline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_pipeline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:47.353314+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stem-pipeline-20260505-0
summary:
The STEM pipeline is the educational pathway for students in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The start and end of this STEM pipeline are disputed, but it is often considered to begin in early education and extend into graduation or an adult career in STEM. Recent research suggests that, rather than a pipeline, students follow a pathway with multiple points of entry and exit throughout their education. == Description == The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions. The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.” Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks”


id: stem-pipeline-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_pipeline-1.md
category: reference
title: STEM pipeline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_pipeline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:47.353314+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stem-pipeline-20260505-0
summary:
== Educational attainment factors == High Schools in the United States implement a STEM pipeline program that combines a dual pathway that enhances mathematical, engineering, and scientific skills along with a supportive group that aims to help underrepresented students aspire to become leaders in the STEM field. Students benefit from the moral support and motivational skills that mentors implement for their correct academic preparation. Teachers, and college mentors become in the life of the students in the program a guidance in their path to be the next generation of leaders. Furthermore, staff members aid students to feel integrated and cared for their well-being. In their path to pursue higher education in the STEM fields, underrepresented students are awarded scholarships that aid them throughout their college years. Scholarships are a factor that allows underrepresented to focus on their academic and allows them to be persistent throughout their years in college. The STEM pipeline program provides a multitude of workshops, and extracurricular activities to work on social and professional development. Moreover, it arranges networking with minorities that went through the program and now currently work in the science, or health field. In addition, to the benefits as an alumnus of the program,


id: stemulator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEMulator-0.md
category: reference
title: STEMulator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEMulator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:48.689227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stemulator-20260505-0
summary:
The STEMulator is an online educational platform developed by the National Science and Technology Forum (NSTF) in South Africa. Launched in July 2020, it provides digital resources to support Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education for students. The platform provides content aligned with the South African school curriculum for STEM subjects. == History == The STEMulator was established under the NSTF’s proSET program, a network focused on advancing STEM education and professional development. It was launched in July 2020, providing interactive digital tools related to STEM subjects. The platform was launched during a period of South Africa’s STEM skills shortage, with sources noting that 80% of future jobs may require STEM expertise. In 2022, offline USB distributions were provided to 150 rural schools. A virtual school feature was introduced on 16 June 2024. == Features == The STEMulator offers an interactive interface with content aligned to the South African school curriculum, covering topics such as engineering and technology. The platform’s virtual world includes interactive elements depicting the structures and functions of objects related to STEM concepts. The platform includes a virtual world with animated content, such as representations of biological and mechanical systems. In June 2024, modules on science


id: student-spaceflight-experiments-program-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Spaceflight_Experiments_Program-0.md
category: reference
title: Student Spaceflight Experiments Program
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Spaceflight_Experiments_Program
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:49.947586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: student-spaceflight-experiments-program-20260505-0
summary:
The Student Spaceflight Experiments Program (SSEP) provides an opportunity for student groups from upper elementary school through university to design and fly microgravity experiments in low Earth orbit (LEO). SSEP is a program of the National Center for Earth and Space Science Education (NCESSE, a project of the Tides Center), the Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Space Education, and the private space hardware company NanoRacks. SSEP operates under a Space Act Agreement between the sponsoring organizations and NASA, allowing the International Space Station (ISS) to be utilized as a national laboratory. == History == The program was launched in June 2010, by NCESSE in the U.S. and by the Clarke Institute internationally. As of 2018, SSEP has sponsored fourteen missions to LEO – two on board the Space Shuttle, and twelve to the ISS – with a thirteenth mission to the ISS announced in March 2018, and expected to fly in the spring/summer of 2019. In the first fourteen SSEP flight opportunities, 86,800 students in grades 5 through 16 (senior undergraduate in the U.S. higher education system) participated in experiment design and proposal writing. Of 18,759 proposals received, a total of 240 experiments were selected for flight, with one from


id: sur-les-paules-de-darwin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sur_les_épaules_de_Darwin-0.md
category: reference
title: Sur les épaules de Darwin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sur_les_épaules_de_Darwin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:52.347227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sur-les-paules-de-darwin-20260505-0
summary:
Sur les épaules de Darwin (in English "on the shoulders of Darwin") is a one-hour science radio program broadcast by France Inter in France since 2010. it is also distributed globally as a podcast. It is presented and written by Jean-Claude Ameisen. == Bibliography == (in French) Jean Claude Ameisen, Sur les épaules de Darwin. Les battements du temps. France Inter/Les liens qui libèrent, 2012, 444p. (in French) Jean Claude Ameisen, Sur les épaules de Darwin. Je t'offrirai des spectacles admirables. France Inter/Les liens qui libèrent, 2013, 448p. (in French) Jean Claude Ameisen, Sur les épaules de Darwin : Retrouver l'aube. France Inter/Les liens qui libèrent, 2014, 448p. (in French) Jean Claude Ameisen, Nicolas Truong, Les chants mêlés de la Terre et de l’humanité. Editions de l'aube, 2015, 112p. == References == == External links == Website


id: teacher-in-space-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Teacher in Space Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:53.570409+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teacher-in-space-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Teacher in Space Project (TISP) was a NASA program announced by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in 1984 designed to inspire students, honor teachers, and spur interest in mathematics, science, and space exploration. The project would carry teachers into space as payload specialists (non-astronaut civilians), who would return to their classrooms to share the experience with their students. NASA cancelled the program in 1990, following the death of its first participant, Christa McAuliffe, in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (STS-51-L) on January 28, 1986. NASA replaced Teachers in Space in 1998 with the Educator Astronaut Project, which required its participants to become astronaut Mission Specialists. The first Educator Astronauts were selected as part of NASA Astronaut Group 19 in 2004. Barbara Morgan, who was selected as a mission specialist as part of NASA Astronaut Group 17 in 1998, has often been incorrectly referred to as an Educator Astronaut. However, she was selected as a mission specialist before the Educator Astronaut Project. == NASA programs == TISP was announced by President Ronald Reagan on August 27, 1984, during a speech on education policy in Washington, D.C. Rather than being inducted as members of NASA's Astronaut Corps, the teachers would fly as


id: teacher-in-space-project-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project-1.md
category: reference
title: Teacher in Space Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_in_Space_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:53.570409+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teacher-in-space-project-20260505-0
summary:
== Teacher in Space Education Foundation == The Teacher in Space Education Foundation was established by the 114 teacher nominees on January 26, 1986, with the goal of supporting public education, particularly in space-science-related topics. McAuliffe was named the foundation's honorary president, Morgan its vice president, and the other eight finalists its board of directors. After the disaster, the foundation merged with a similar organization founded by the families of the seven astronauts to create the Challenger Center for Space Science Education, which operates dozens of Challenger Learning Centers across America and supports educational programs. == Private program == In the early 21st century, the Teacher in Space project was revived in the private sector. The development of reusable, suborbital launch vehicles by commercial companies makes it possible for nonprofit groups to contemplate sending large numbers of teachers into space. The new Teachers in Space program began in 2005. In March 2005, Teacher in Space candidate Pam Leestma, a second-grade teacher and cousin of Space Shuttle astronaut David Leestma, completed a training flight aboard a MiG-21 operated by X-Rocket, LLC. Armadillo Aerospace, Masten Space Systems, PlanetSpace, Rocketplane Limited, Inc., and XCOR Aerospace pledged flights to the new Teachers in Space


id: teacher-institute-for-evolutionary-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Teacher Institute for Evolutionary Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:54.801888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teacher-institute-for-evolutionary-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Teacher Institute for Evolutionary Science (TIES) is a project of the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science and a program of the Center for Inquiry which provides free workshops and materials to elementary, middle school, and, more recently, high school science teachers to enable them to effectively teach evolution based on the Next Generation Science Standards. == History == In 2013, Bertha Vazquez, TIES director and middle school science teacher in Miami, met Richard Dawkins at the University of Miami and discussed evolution education with him and a number of science professors. The discussion surrounded the issue of teachers feeling unprepared to teach evolution. This encounter and the understanding that teachers learn the most from each other inspired her to conduct workshops on evolution for her fellow teachers. After hearing about Vazquez's work, Dawkins followed up with a visit to Vazquez's school in 2014 to speak to teachers from the Miami-Dade County school district. Dawkins eventually asked Vazquez if she would be willing to take her workshop project nationwide. With the encouragement of Dawkins and funding from his foundation, and also with encouragement from Robyn Blumner of the Center for Inquiry, the Teacher Institute for Evolutionary Science began


id: things-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Things_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Things of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Things_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:21:55.995602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: things-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Things of Science was an educational program launched by the nonprofit news syndicate Science Service in November 1940. The program consisted of a series of kits available by subscription and sent by mail monthly. The program continued until 1989. As of 2018, there is no mention of the program or its archives on the website of the Society for Science & the Public, which succeeded the old Science Service organization. Each month, thousands of subscribers received a small blue box about the size of a videocassette containing some material such as nylon thread or dinosaur bones. The box contained a yellow booklet explaining the topic for that month, along with the pieces and supplies needed to cover the topic. Some kits would teach about a specific topic, such as coal, static electricity, mechanical linkages, nonwoven fabrics, electroplating, or optical illusions. Other kits would provide parts to build items such as a small spectrograph, telescope, or pinhole camera. In addition to the monthly subscription, some kits were available for individual purchase, such as a "soilless gardening" unit which provided seeds, plant food, and instructions in hydroponics. Some kits contained basic materials for simple experiments in psychology. The modest annual subscription price


id: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study-0.md
category: reference
title: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:02.285750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-0
summary:
The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA)'s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is a series of international assessments of the mathematics and science knowledge of students around the world. The participating students come from a diverse set of educational systems (countries or regional jurisdictions of countries) in terms of economic development, geographical location, and population size. In each of the participating educational systems, a minimum of 4,000 to 5,000 students is evaluated. Contextual data about the conditions in which participating students learn mathematics and science are collected from the students and their teachers, their principals, and their parents via questionnaires. TIMSS is one of the studies established by IEA aimed at allowing educational systems worldwide to compare students' educational achievement and learn from the experiences of others in designing effective education policy. This assessment was first conducted in 1995, and has been administered every four years thereafter. Therefore, some of the participating educational systems have trend data across assessments from 1995 to 2023. TIMSS assesses 4th and 8th grade students, while TIMSS Advanced assesses students in the final year of secondary school in advanced mathematics and physics. == Definition of terms == "Eighth grade"


id: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study-1.md
category: reference
title: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:02.285750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-0
summary:
== Method, data and documentation == Along with the overall students' achievement data, TIMSS comprehensive assessments include data on student performance in various mathematics and science domains (algebra, geometry, biology, chemistry, etc.) and on performance in the problem solving challenges in each of these contexts. In addition, TIMSS provides contextual data on crucial curricular, instructional, and resource-related factors that can impact the teaching and learning process. These data are gathered using student, teacher, school, and curriculum (national) questionnaires filled out by students, teachers, school principals and National Research Coordinators, respectively. According to the TIMSS 2019 Assessment Frameworks, "The TIMSS mathematics and science achievement scales were created with the first TIMSS assessment in 1995, separately for each subject and each grade. The scale units were established so that 100 points on the scale was equivalent to one standard deviation of the distribution of achievement across all of the countries that participated in TIMSS 1995, and the scale midpoint of 500 was located at the mean of this international achievement distribution. The TIMSS achievement scales were first used for reporting TIMSS results with TIMSS 1995, and all results from subsequent TIMSS assessments have been reported on the same scale metrics, making it


id: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study-2.md
category: reference
title: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:02.285750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trends-in-international-mathematics-and-science-study-20260505-0
summary:
=== TIMSS 2015 === In TIMSS 2015, nationally representative samples of students in 57 countries and 7 benchmarking entities participated in the fourth grade assessment, the eighth grade assessment, or both. ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== === TIMSS 2011 === TIMSS 2011 had 52 participating educational systems for the fourth grade and 45 for the eighth grade. ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== === TIMSS 2007 === In TIMSS 2007, 43 educational systems participated in the fourth grade and 56 educational systems in the eighth grade. ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== === TIMSS 2003 === In TIMSS 2003, there were 26 educational systems for the fourth grade and 48 for the eighth grade. ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== === TIMSS 1999 === In 1999, TIMSS only focused on the eighth grade in 38 educational systems; there was no study done for the fourth grade in that year. ==== Eighth grade ==== === TIMSS 1995 === In TIMSS 1995, there were 41 educational systems in five grades (third, fourth, seventh, eighth, and the final year of secondary school). ==== Eighth grade ==== ==== Fourth grade ==== == Additional initiatives ==


id: two-eyed-seeing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing-0.md
category: reference
title: Two-Eyed Seeing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:03.475324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-eyed-seeing-20260505-0
summary:
Two-Eyed Seeing (Mi'kmaq: Etuaptmumk) is a basis in viewing the world through both Western and Indigenous knowledges and worldviews. Two-Eyed Seeing was introduced by Mi'kmaq Elders Albert D. Marshall and Murdena Marshall from Eskasoni First Nation, alongside professor Cheryl Bartlett. Albert Marshall describes Two-Eyed Seeing as an approach to viewing the world "from one eye with the strengths of Indigenous ways of knowing, and to see from the other eye with the strengths of Western ways of knowing, and to use both of these eyes together". Two-Eyed Seeing was originally brought forward as a tactic to encourage Mi'kmaq university students to pursue an education in science. Since its implementation, the use of Two-Eyed Seeing has been integrated into various institutions' strategic plans, government policies, and research, some of which include the Canadian Institute of Health Research. == Background == === Integrative Science === In the 1990s, Murdena and Albert Marshall, and Cheryl Bartlett, began a grassroots effort to encourage Indigenous students to participate in science and science-related programs at Cape Breton University (CBU), by developing a science curriculum of both Mi'kmaw and other Indigenous knowledges (IK) and ways of knowing, with mainstream/western knowledge. Its inception began when Bartlett asked Murdena


id: two-eyed-seeing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing-1.md
category: reference
title: Two-Eyed Seeing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Eyed_Seeing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:03.475324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-eyed-seeing-20260505-0
summary:
In the Mi'kmaq language, Toqwa'tu'kl Kjijitaqnn (Integrative Science) evokes the idea of bringing knowledge together using the principles of Two-Eyed Seeing. The Two-Eyed Seeing approach is a method of education within Integrative Science that takes on a more holistic, multidisciplinary, and trans-cultural interpretation of the natural world and beyond. The advancement of Integrative Science may pose certain challenges, some of which include differences in interpretation among Indigenous and Western knowledge, differences in knowledge transfer, and available resources. Philosophical differences among Western and Indigenous knowledge can lead to interpretation problems when attempting to understand the environment from both perspectives, for both the educators, researchers, and learners. Western-trained academics and researchers can unconsciously or consciously categorize it within classifications to understand the concept within Western science philosophies, missing the foundational make-up of Indigenous knowledge as fluid, adaptable and continuously evolving. Students may encounter differing responses to the decolonization of discussion and curricula, some of which have included frustration with peers who are not at the same level of comprehension. There can be an added pressure on Indigenous students who can be seen as experts on the subject and be called upon to share their 'expertise'. Indigenous knowledges can be seen as living


id: university-of-auckland-faculty-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Auckland_Faculty_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Auckland Faculty of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Auckland_Faculty_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:04.632186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-auckland-faculty-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The University of Auckland Faculty of Science (Māori: Te Whare Pūtaiao) is one of eight faculties and schools that make up the University of Auckland. == Location == The Faculty of Science houses several Schools, Departments and Institutes. These are based in various locations, including the City Campus, Newmarket Campus, Leigh Campus, Tāmaki Innovation Campus and the Grafton Campus. In November 2013, the Faculty of Science embarked on a NZ$200m redevelopment/expansion project on its main buildings in the City Campus. Following multiple delays, the state-of-the-art Science Centre was opened in July 2017. The Faculty of Science administration office is based on level 6 of the new Science Centre. In 2018, design work has begun for the potential development of a new "Gateway building" on Symonds Street to replace the Thomas Building Complex for the School of Biological Sciences. == Divisions == The Faculty of Science comprises the following Schools and Departments: School of Biological Sciences School of Chemical Sciences School of Computer Science School of Environment Institute of Marine Science Department of Mathematics Department of Physics School of Psychology Department of Exercise Sciences Department of Statistics The Faculty of Science also hosts several research institutes and centres: Bioinformatics Institute Centre


id: vega-science-trust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_Science_Trust-0.md
category: reference
title: Vega Science Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_Science_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:05.855767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vega-science-trust-20260505-0
summary:
The Vega Science Trust was a not-for-profit organisation which provided a platform from which scientists can communicate directly with the public on science by using moving image, sound and other related means. The Trust closed in 2012 but the website and streaming video remains active (based at Sheffield University). == History == Founded in 1995 by Nobel Laureate Sir Harry Kroto and BBC Education Producer Patrick Reams the Vega Science Trust was awarded a COPUS start-up grant from the Royal Society in 1995 and then went on in 1999 to be allocated core funding from the Office of Science and Technology (OST). Starting with recording science programmes for terrestrial television the Vega Science Trust produced a number of programmes such as recordings of Royal Institution Discources which were broadcast on BBC 2 and a set of Masterclasses. In 2001 Harry Kroto was awarded the Royal Society Michael Faraday Prize - the UK's premier award for science communication 'for his dedication to the notion of working scientists being communicators of their work and in particular for his establishment of the Vega Science Trust whose films and related activities reflect the excitement of scientific discovery to the public'. The Trust went on


id: visq-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VISQ-0.md
category: reference
title: VISQ
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VISQ
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:07.183622+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: visq-20260505-0
summary:
VISQ (Portuguese acronym for "Variables that Interact Semi-Quantitatively") is a scientific-educational software developed using Carnegie-Mellon's cT, in the year of 1993 by M. Thielo (as a physics undergrad at the time), based on Jon Ogborn ideas for semi-quantitative modeling of dynamical systems, for both MS-DOS and Macintosh systems (in 2012 the author published a new, Windows compatible version). Awarded by the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) in 1994, the system is based on the theory of continuous neural networks, and have been used in many research projects since then, mainly in Master and Doctoral Dissertations in the area of environmental education. An introduction to VISQ (in Portuguese) can be found at the university site, and the software can be freely downloaded from the author's site == References == == External links == [1] Download MS-DOS Version of VISQ [2] Reference manual (English) [3] Archived 2009-09-26 at the Wayback Machine Representing Semiquantitative Variables with VISQ (in Portuguese) [4] Journal Article containing a case study with the program, published in the International Journal of Computer Assisted Learning [5] Animated example of a semiquantitative model running in VISQ.


id: you-can-with-beakman-and-jax-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Can_with_Beakman_and_Jax-0.md
category: reference
title: You Can with Beakman and Jax
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Can_with_Beakman_and_Jax
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:09.766079+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: you-can-with-beakman-and-jax-20260505-0
summary:
You Can with Beakman and Jax, also known in its Spanish-language version as El Mundo de Beakman ("The World of Beakman"), is an American science and education syndicated comic strip by Jok Church, which ran from July 14, 1991 to July 17, 2016. The comic strip, and associated television series, featured facts about science and languages. The comic strip is a text-based comic, that answers readers' questions, with illustrations of the main characters, various objects, and, or the experiments being discussed. It is run as a single panel comic that appears in newspapers as a color, or black and white Sunday feature, in either a quarter-page strip, or half-tab format. The comic has reached a readership of fifty-two million readers in thirteen countries. About 80% of the letters it receives are from females. From its comic origins, its lead character Beakman would later star in his own live action television series, Beakman's World. The comic also branched out into other media, gaining numerous awards along the way. Its author died of a heart attack on April 29, 2016, after which the comic continued for nearly three months. Jok's final remaining comic was published on July 17, 2016, just three days


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The ethics of technology is a sub-field of ethics addressing ethical questions specific to the technology age, the transitional shift in society wherein personal computers and subsequent devices provide for the quick and easy transfer of information. Technology ethics is the application of ethical thinking to growing concerns as new technologies continue to rise in prominence. The topic has evolved as technologies have developed. Technology poses an ethical dilemma on producers and consumers alike. The subject of technoethics, or the ethical implications of technology, have been studied by different philosophers such as Hans Jonas and Mario Bunge. == Technoethics == Technoethics (TE) is an interdisciplinary research area that draws on theories and methods from multiple knowledge domains (such as communications, social sciences, information studies, technology studies, applied ethics, and philosophy) to provide insights on ethical dimensions of technological systems and practices for advancing a technological society. Technoethics views technology and ethics as socially embedded enterprises and focuses on discovering the ethical uses for technology, protecting against the misuse of technology, and devising common principles to guide new advances in technological development and application to benefit society. Typically, scholars in technoethics have a tendency to conceptualize technology and ethics as interconnected


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
== Definitions == Ethics address the issues of what is 'right', what is 'just', and what is 'fair'. Ethics describe moral principles influencing conduct; accordingly, the study of ethics focuses on the actions and values of people in society (what people do and how they believe they should act in the world). Technology is the branch of knowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment; it may draw upon a variety of fields, including industrial arts, engineering, applied science, and pure science. Technology "is core to human development and a key focus for understanding human life, society and human consciousness." Using theories and methods from multiple domains, technoethics provides insights on ethical aspects of technological systems and practices, examines technology-related social policies and interventions, and provides guidelines for how to ethically use new advancements in technology. Technoethics provides a systems theory and methodology to guide a variety of separate areas of inquiry into human-technological activity and ethics. Moreover, the field unites both technocentric and bio-centric philosophies, providing "conceptual grounding to clarify the role of technology to those affected by it and to help guide ethical problem solving and


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
== History of technoethics == Though the ethical consequences of new technologies have existed since Socrates' attack on writing in Plato's dialogue Phaedrus, the formal field of technoethics had only existed for a few decades. The first traces of TE can be seen in Dewey and Peirce's pragmatism. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, it was easy to see that technological advances were going to influence human activity. This is why they put emphasis on the responsible use of technology. The term "technoethics" was coined in 1977 by the philosopher Mario Bunge to describe the responsibilities of technologists and scientists to develop ethics as a branch of technology. Bunge argued that the current state of technological progress was guided by ungrounded practices based on limited empirical evidence and trial-and-error learning. He recognized that "the technologist must be held not only technically but also morally responsible for whatever he designs or executes: not only should his artifacts be optimally efficient but, far from being harmful, they should be beneficial, and not only in the short run but also in the long term." He recognized a pressing need in society to create a new field called 'technoethics' to discover rationally grounded


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-3.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technological consciousness === Technological consciousness is the relationship between humans and technology. Technology is seen as an integral component of human consciousness and development. Technology, consciousness and society are intertwined in a relational process of creation that is key to human evolution. Technology is rooted in the human mind, and is made manifest in the world in the form of new understandings and artifacts. The process of technological consciousness frames the inquiry into ethical responsibility concerning technology by grounding technology in human life. The structure of technological consciousness is relational but also situational, organizational, aspectual and integrative. Technological consciousness situates new understandings by creating a context of time and space. As well, technological consciousness organizes disjointed sequences of experience under a sense of unity that allows for a continuity of experience. The aspectual component of technological consciousness recognizes that individuals can only be conscious of aspects of an experience, not the whole thing. For this reason, technology manifests itself in processes that can be shared with others. The integrative characteristics of technological consciousness are assimilation, substitution and conversation. Assimilation allows for unfamiliar experiences to be integrated with familiar ones. Substitution is a metaphorical process allowing for complex experiences to


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-4.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Human knowledge processes Workplace discrimination Strained work-life balance in technologically enhanced work environments: Many people find that simply having the technology allowing one to do work while at home increases stress levels. In a recent study 70% of respondents said that since technology, work has crept into their personal lives. Digital divide: Inequalities in information access for parts of the population Unequal opportunities for scientific and technological development Norris says access to information and knowledge resources within a knowledge society tend to favour the economically privileged who have greater access to technological tools needed to access information and knowledge resources disseminated online and the privatization of knowledge Inequality in terms of how scientific and technological knowledge is developed around the globe. Developing countries do not have the same opportunities as developed countries to invest in costly large-scale research and expensive research facilities and instrumentation Organizational responsibility and accountability issues Intellectual property ownership issues Information overload: Information processing theory asserts that working memory that has a limited capacity and too much information can lead to cognitive overload resulting in loss of information from short-term memory Knowledge society is intertwined with changing technology requiring new skills of its workforce. Cutler says that


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-5.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Cybercrime can consist of many subcategories and can be referred to as a big umbrella. Cyber theft such as online fraud, identity theft, and digital piracy can be classified as one sector. Another section of cybercrime can include cyber-violence which can be defined as online behavior that can be anywhere from hate speeches, harassment, cyberstalking, to behavior that leads to physical, psychological, or emotional assault against the well-being of an individual. Cyber obscenity is another section when child sexual exploitation materials are involved. Cyber trespass is when there is unauthorized computer system access. Cybercrime can encompass many other sections where technology and computers are used to assist and commit various forms of crimes. For many years , new technologies took an important place in social, cultural, political, and economic life. Thanks to the democratization of informatics access and the network's globalization, the number of exchanges and transaction is in perpetual progress. In the article, "The Dark Figure of Online Property Crime: Is Cyberspace Hiding a Crime Wave?", the authors analyze evidence that reveals cyber criminality rates are increasing as the typical street crimes gradually decrease. With the increase in cyber criminality, it is imperative to research more information on how


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-6.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) ==== Genetically modified foods have become quite common in developed countries around the world, boasting greater yields, higher nutritional value, and greater resistance to pests, but there are still many ethical concerns regarding their use. Even commonplace genetically modified crops like corn raise questions of the ecological consequences of unintended cross pollination, potential horizontal gene transfer, and other unforeseen health concerns for humans and animals. Trademarked organisms like the "Glofish" are a relatively new occurrence. These zebrafish, genetically modified to appear in several fluorescent colours and sold as pets in the United States, could have unforeseen effects on freshwater environments were they ever to breed in the wild. Providing they receive approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), another new type of fish may be arriving soon. The "AquAdvantage salmon", engineered to reach maturity within roughly 18 months (as opposed to three years in the wild), could help meet growing global demand. There are health and environmental concerns associated with the introduction any new GMO, but more importantly this scenario highlights the potential economic impact a new product may have. The FDA does perform an economic impact analysis to weigh, for example, the


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-7.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recent developments === Despite the amassing body of scholarly work related to technoethics beginning in the 1970s, only recently has it become institutionalized and recognized as an important interdisciplinary research area and field of study. In 1998, the Epson Foundation founded the Instituto de Tecnoética in Spain under the direction of Josep Esquirol. This institute has actively promoted technoethical scholarship through awards, conferences, and publications. This helped encourage scholarly work for a largely European audience. The major driver for the emergence of technoethics can be attributed to the publication of major reference works available in English and circulated globally. The "Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics" included a section on technoethics which helped bring it into mainstream philosophy. This helped to raise further interest leading to the publication of the first reference volume in the English language dedicated to the emerging field of Technoethics. The two volume Handbook of Research on Technoethics explores the complex connections between ethics and the rise of new technologies (e.g., life-preserving technologies, stem cell research, cloning technologies, new forms of surveillance and anonymity, computer networks, Internet advancement, etc.) This recent major collection provides the first comprehensive examination of technoethics and its various branches from


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-8.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Technology and ethics during the coronavirus pandemic ==== As of April 20, 2020 there has been over 43 contract tracing apps available globally. Countries are in the process of creating their own methods of digitally tracing coronavirus status (symptoms, confirmed infected, exposed). Apple and Google are working together on a shared solution that helps with contract tracing around the world. Since this is a global pandemic with no end in sight, the restriction of some fundamental rights and freedoms may be ethically justifiable. It may be unethical to not use these tracing solutions to slow the spread. The European Convention on Human Rights, the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the United Nations Siracusa Principles all indicate when it is ethical to restrict the rights of the population to prevent the spread of infectious disease. All three documents cite that the circumstances for restricting rights must be time-bound, meet standards of necessity, proportionality, and scientific validity. We must evaluate if the gravity of the situation justifies the potential negative impact, if the evidence shows that the technology will work, is timely, will be adopted by enough people and yields accurate data and insights, and evaluate


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-9.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Artificial intelligence ==== Artificial intelligence is a large range of technology that deals with building smart machines and data processing so tasks can be performed by machines that are normally completed by humans. AI may prove to be beneficial to human life, but it can also quickly become pervasive and dangerous. Changes in AI are difficult to anticipate and understand, such as employers spying on workers, facial recognition, deep fakes, etc. Along with AI, the algorithms used to implement the technology may prove to be biased which can have detrimental effects on individuals. For example, in facial recognition technology, the AI may be proven to be biased toward different ethnic and racial groups than others. These challenges have social, racial, ethical, and economic implications. ==== Deepfakes ==== Deepfake is a form of media in which one existing image or video is replaced or altered by someone else. Altering may include acting out fake content, false advertisement, hoaxes, and financial fraud. The technology of deepfakes may also use machine learning or artificial intelligence. Deepfakes propose an ethical dilemma due to how accessible they are as well as the implications on one's integrity it may cause to viewers. Deepfakes reconsider the


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-10.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== User data ==== In a digital world, much of users' personal lives are stored on devices such as computers and smartphones, and we trust the companies we store our lives on to take care of our data. A topic of discussion regarding the ethics of technology is just exactly how much data these companies really need and what they are doing with it. Another major cause for concern is the security of our personal data and privacy, whether it is leaked intentionally or not. User data has been one of the main topics regarding ethics as companies and government entities increasingly have access to billions of users' information. Why do companies need so much data regarding their users and are users aware that their data is being tacked? These questions have risen over the years over concerns of how much do companies actually know. Some websites and apps now ask users if they are allowed to track user activity across different apps with the option to decline. Most companies before did not ask or notify users that their app activity would be tracked. Companies over the years have been facing an increased number of data hacks where user's data


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-11.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Facebook, or rather Meta Platforms, Facebook's parent company is currently one of the top social networking sites, throughout the early to late 2010s and into current times (2022). A variety of issues ranging from privacy concerns, the issue of who bears the responsibility of unhealthy social interactions and other unhealthy behaviors, to deliberate enabling of misinformation on the platform. Recent issues such as Facebook data leaks and circulation of fake news highlights the downside of social media when in the wrong hands. following are a few examples of various ethical concerns raised throughout the years in relation to Facebook. === Federal Trade Commission v. Facebook === A recent Forbes interview conducted on October 22, 2021, by Curt Steinhorst, a contributor for Forbes, with Michael Thate, an ethics teacher employed at Princeton University, asserts that in addition to the Federal Trade Commission v. Facebook ruling determining that Facebook had engaged in unethical antitrust behaviors with the acquisition of its competing social media platforms Instagram and WhatsApp, "Facebook developed an algorithm to capture user attention and information into a platform that they knew promoted unhealthy behaviors." Firstly the unethical acquisition of smaller competing social media platforms restricts free-market practices and restricts users'


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-12.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mass surveillance === The ethics behind mass surveillance has become a highly discussed ethical topic in the twenty-first century, especially in the United States due to the tragedy of 9/11. Some areas of ethical concern involve privacy, discrimination, trust in government, infringement of government-granted rights/basic human rights, conflict of interest, stigmatization, and obtrusiveness. Many of these ethical topics in the timeframe between 2001 and 2021 have become the main topic of discussion in many recent laws all throughout the world. Shortly after 9/11 when the United States began to fear the idea that more terrorist attacks could occur on American soil. A law passed on October 26, 2001, known as the Patriot Act was one of the first larger Mass Surveillance laws passed in the United States. Years later, Europe would begin to follow suit with their own set of mass surveillance laws after a string of terrorist attacks. After the 2015 terrorist attacks in France, the French government would move forward with passing the International Electronic Communications Law. The IEC would recognize the power of the French Directorate-General for External Security allowing them to collect, monitor, and intercept all communications sent or received on French territory. In 2016,


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-13.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technofeminism === Technoethics has concerned itself with society as a general group and made no distinctions between the genders, but considers technological effects and influences on each gender individually. This is an important consideration as some technologies are created for use by a specific gender, including birth control, abortion, fertility treatments, and Viagra. Feminists have had a significant influence on the prominence and development of reproductive technologies. Technoethical inquiry must examine these technologies' effects on the intended gender while also considering their influence on the other gender. Another dimension of technofeminism concerns female involvement in technological development: women's participation in the field of technology has broadened society's understanding of how technology affects the female experience in society. === Information and communication technoethics === Information and communication technoethics is "concerned with ethical issues and responsibilities arising when dealing with information and communication technology in the realm of communication." This field is related to internet ethics, rational and ethical decision making models, and information ethics. A major area of interest is the convergence of technologies: as technologies become more interdependent and provide people with multiple ways of accessing the same information, they transform society and create new ethical dilemmas. This is


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-14.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Ensure that the components and relations within the technological system are explicitly understood by those in the design context. Perform a TEA to identify relevant technical knowledge. Optimize the technological system in order to meet stakeholders' and affected individuals' needs and interests. Consult with representatives of stakeholder and affected groups in order to establish consensus on key design issues. Both TEA and TED rely on systems theory, a perspective that conceptualizes society in terms of events and occurrences resulting from investigating system operations. Systems theory assumes that complex ideas can be studied as systems with common designs and properties which can be further explained using systems methodology. The field of technoethics regards technologies as self-producing systems that draw upon external resources and maintain themselves through knowledge creation; these systems, of which humans are a part, are constantly in flux as relations between technology, nature, and society change. TEA attempts to elicit the knowledge, goals, inputs, and outputs that comprise technological systems. Similarly, TED enables designers to recognize technology's complexity and power, to include facts and values in their designs, and to contextualize technology in terms of what it makes possible and what makes it possible. == Organizational technoethics == Recent


id: ethics-of-technology-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology-15.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:11.653934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Organizations === Ethics and Emerging Sciences Group W. Maurice Centre for Applied Ethics United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO Institute for Ethics in Artificial intelligence Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies Institute for Ethics in AI === Technoethics === Ahmad Al Khabaz vs Dawson college Adam-swartz case Bagheri, A. (2011). The Impact of the UNESCO Declaration in Asian and Global Bioethics. Asian Bioethics Review, Vol. 3(2), 52–64. Bolter, J. D., Grusin, R., & Grusin, R. A. (2000). Remediation: Understanding new media. MIT Press. Borgmann, A. (1984). Technology and the character of contemporary life: A philosophical inquiry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Coyne, R., 1995, Designing information technology in the postmodern age: From method to metaphor. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. Castells, M. (2000). The rise of the network society. The information age: economy, society and culture (Vol. 1). Malden, UK: Blackwell. Canada Foundation for Innovation: www.innovation.ca Puig de la Bellacasa, M. (2017). Matters of care: speculative ethics in more than human worlds. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Dreyfus, H.L., 1999, "Anonymity versus commitment: The dangers of education on the internet," Ethics and Information Technology, 1/1, p. 15-20, 1999 Gert, Bernard. 1999, "Common Morality and Computing," Ethics and Information


id: ai-now-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_Now_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: AI Now Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_Now_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:12.908070+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ai-now-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The AI Now Institute (AI Now) is an American research institute studying the social implications of artificial intelligence and policy research that addresses the concentration of power in the tech industry. AI Now has partnered with organizations such as the Distributed AI Research Institute (DAIR), Data & Society, Ada Lovelace Institute, New York University Tandon School of Engineering, New York University Center for Data Science, Partnership on AI, and the ACLU. AI Now has produced annual reports that examine the social implications of artificial intelligence. In 2021–22, AI Now's leadership served as a Senior Advisors on AI to Chair Lina Khan at the Federal Trade Commission. Its executive director is Amba Kak. == Founding and mission == AI Now grew out of a 2016 symposium organized by Obama's White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. The event was led by Meredith Whittaker, the founder of Google's Open Research Group, and Kate Crawford, a principal researcher at Microsoft Research. The event focused on near-term implications of AI in social domains: Inequality, Labor, Ethics, and Healthcare. In November 2017, AI Now held a second symposium on AI and social issues, and publicly launched the AI Now Institute in partnership with New


id: algorithmic-justice-league-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_Justice_League-0.md
category: reference
title: Algorithmic Justice League
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_Justice_League
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:14.048812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: algorithmic-justice-league-20260505-0
summary:
The Algorithmic Justice League (AJL) is a digital advocacy non-profit organization based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 2016 by computer scientist Joy Buolamwini, the AJL combats the harms and biases of AI by amplifying the voices of communities most affected by AI systems and mobilizing advocates, researchers, and industry leaders to build more equitable and accountable algorithms. The AJL has engaged in a variety of open online seminars, media appearances, and tech advocacy initiatives to communicate information about bias in AI systems and promote industry and government action to mitigate against the creation and deployment of biased AI systems. Most notably, AJL has highlighted racial and gender biases in facial recognition technologies and has advocated for greater transparency and accountability in the datasets used to train these systems. In 2021, Fast Company named AJL as one of the 10 most innovative AI companies in the world. == History == Buolamwini founded the Algorithmic Justice League in 2016 as a graduate student in the MIT Media Lab. While experimenting with facial detection software in her research, she found that the software could not detect her "highly melanated" face until she donned a white mask. After this incident, Buolamwini became inspired to


id: algorithmic-justice-league-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_Justice_League-1.md
category: reference
title: Algorithmic Justice League
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_Justice_League
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:14.048812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: algorithmic-justice-league-20260505-0
summary:
=== Olay Decode the Bias campaign === In September 2021, Olay collaborated with AJL and O'Neil Risk Consulting & Algorithmic Auditing (ORCAA) to conduct the Decode the Bias campaign, which included an audit that explored whether the Olay Skin Advisor (OSA) System included bias against women of color. The AJL chose to collaborate with Olay due to Olay's commitment to obtaining customer consent for their selfies and skin data to be used in this audit. The AJL and ORCAA audit revealed that the OSA system contained bias in its performance across participants' skin color and age. The OSA system demonstrated higher accuracy for participants with lighter skin tones, per the Fitzpatrick Skin Type and individual typology angle skin classification scales. The OSA system also demonstrated higher accuracy for participants aged 30–39. Olay has, since, taken steps to internally audit and mitigate against the bias of the OSA system. Olay has also funded 1,000 girls to attend the Black Girls Code camp, to encourage African-American girls to pursue STEM careers. === CRASH project === In July 2020, the Community Reporting of Algorithmic System Harms (CRASH) Project was launched by AJL. This project began in 2019 when Buolamwini and digital security researcher


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-0.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement that opposes various nuclear technologies. Some direct action groups, environmental movements, and professional organisations have identified themselves with the movement at the local, national, or international level. Major anti-nuclear groups include Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Peace Action, Seneca Women's Encampment for a Future of Peace and Justice and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service. The movement's initial objective was nuclear disarmament, though since the late 1960s, opposition has also included the use of nuclear power. Many anti-nuclear groups oppose both nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The formation of green parties in the 1970s and 1980s was often a direct result of anti-nuclear politics. Scientists and diplomats have debated nuclear weapons policy since before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The public became concerned about nuclear weapons testing from about 1954, following extensive nuclear testing, including the Castle Bravo disaster. In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing. Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s. In the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-1.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
==== Fossil fuels industry ==== The fossil fuel industry starting from the 1950s was engaging in campaigns against the nuclear industry which it perceived as a threat to their commercial interests. Organizations such as the American Petroleum Institute, the Pennsylvania Independent Oil and Gas Association and Marcellus Shale Coalition were engaged in anti-nuclear lobbying in the late 2010s and from 2019, large fossil fuel suppliers started advertising campaigns portraying fossil gas as a "perfect partner for renewables" (wording from Shell and Statoil advertisements). Groups like the Sierra Club, Environmental Defense Fund and Natural Resources Defense Council are receiving grants from other fossil fuel companies. As of 2011, a strategy paper released by Greenpeace titled "Battle of Grids" proposed gradual replacement of nuclear power by fossil gas plants which would provide "flexible backup for wind and solar power". However, Greenpeace has since distanced itself from advocating for fossil gas, instead proposing grid energy storage as a solution to issues caused by intermittent renewable energy. In Germany, the Energiewende, which was advertised as a shift to renewable energy but included a gradual phaseout of nuclear power from 2000 to the end of 2022, caused, among other things, a rise in fossil gas


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-2.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
Nuclear accidents: a safety concern that the core of a nuclear power plant could overheat and melt down, releasing radioactivity. Nuclear Fuel Mining: mining waste of nuclear fuels like uranium and thorium, results in its radioactive decay. That causes radium pollution and radon pollution in environment and ultimately affects public health. Radioactive waste disposal: a concern that nuclear power results in large amounts of radioactive waste, some of which remains dangerous for very long periods. Nuclear proliferation: a concern that some types of nuclear reactor designs use and/or produce fissile material which could be used in nuclear weapons. High cost: a concern that nuclear power plants are very expensive to build, and that clean up from nuclear accidents is highly expensive and can take decades. Attacks on nuclear plants: a concern that terrorists or criminals could target nuclear facilities. Curtailed civil liberties: a concern that the risk of nuclear accidents, proliferation, and terrorism may be used to justify restraints on citizen rights. Of these concerns, nuclear accidents and disposal of long-lived radioactive waste have probably had the greatest public impact worldwide. Anti-nuclear campaigners point to the 2011 Fukushima nuclear emergency as proof that nuclear power can never be 100% safe.


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-3.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
==== Other technologies ==== The international nuclear fusion project, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), is constructing the world's largest and most advanced experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor in southern France. A collaboration among the European Union (EU), India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea, and the United States, the project aims to transition from experimental studies of plasma physics to electricity-producing fusion power plants. In 2005, Greenpeace International issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. A French association including about 700 anti-nuclear groups, Sortir du nucléaire (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed that ITER was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high-energy deuterium and tritium hydrogen isotopes used in the fusion process. According to most anti-nuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream". The World Nuclear Association have said that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges". Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. Several milestones of the project have


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-4.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW. Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electricity usage, 11.4% in the EU, and it is widely used in Asia, and the United States. In 2014, worldwide installed photovoltaics capacity increased to 177 gigawatts (GW), sufficient to supply 1 per cent of global electricity demands. As of 2020 wind power expansion slowed down due to protests of residents and environmentalists. Solar thermal energy stations operate in the United States and Spain, and as of 2016, the largest of these is the 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System in California. The world's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of the country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the United States. As of 2020, the expansion of biomass as a fuel, which was previously praised by environmental organizations such as Greenpeace, has been criticized for environmental damage. Greenpeace advocates reducing fossil fuel use by


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-5.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
=== International organizations === European Nuclear Disarmament, which held annual conventions in the 1980s involving thousands of anti-nuclear weapons activists mostly from Western Europe but also from Eastern Europe, the United States, and Australia. Friends of the Earth International, a network of environmental organizations in 77 countries. Since 2014, however, Friends of the Earth (UK) has softened its stance; the fierce opposition against nuclear reactors has shifted into a more pragmatic opposition, which still opposes the construction of new nuclear (fission) reactors, but doesn't campaign against closing down the existing ones anymore. Global Zero, an international non-partisan group of 300 world leaders dedicated to achieving the elimination of nuclear weapons. Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism, an international partnership of 83 nations. Greenpeace International, a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 41 countries and headquarters in Amsterdam, Netherlands. International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, which had affiliates in 41 nations in 1985, representing 135,000 physicians; IPPNW was awarded the UNESCO Peace Education Prize in 1984 and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985. Nuclear Information and Resource Service OPANAL Parliamentarians for Nuclear Non-Proliferation


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-6.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
In 1971, the town of Wyhl, on the Rhine in Southern Germany, was proposed as the site of the Wyhl Nuclear Power Plant. In the years that followed, public opposition steadily mounted, and large protests occurred. Television coverage of police dragging away farmers and their wives helped to turn nuclear power into a major issue. In 1975, an administrative court withdrew the construction licence for the plant. The Wyhl experience encouraged the formation of citizen action groups near other planned nuclear sites. In 1972, the nuclear disarmament movement maintained a presence in the Pacific, largely in response to French nuclear testing there. New Zealand activists sailed boats into the test zone, interrupting the testing program. In Australia, thousands of people joined protest marches in Adelaide, Melbourne, Brisbane, and Sydney. Scientists issued statements demanding an end to the nuclear tests. In Fiji, anti-nuclear activists formed an Against Testing on Mururoa organization. In the Basque Country (Spain and France), a strong anti-nuclear movement emerged in 1973, ultimately leading to the abandonment of most planned nuclear power projects. On 14 July 1977, in Bilbao, between 150,000 and 200,000 people protested against the Lemoniz Nuclear Power Plant. This has been called the "biggest ever


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-7.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
There were many anti-nuclear protests in the United States which captured national public attention during the 1970s and 1980s. These included the well-known Clamshell Alliance protests at Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant and the Abalone Alliance protests at Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant, where thousands of protesters were arrested. Other large protests followed the 1979 Three Mile Island accident. A large anti-nuclear demonstration was held in May 1979 in Washington, D.C., when 65,000 people, including the Governor of California, attended a march and rally against nuclear power. In New York City on 23 September 1979, almost 200,000 people attended a protest against nuclear power. Anti-nuclear power protests preceded the shutdown of the Shoreham, Yankee Rowe, Millstone I, Rancho Seco, Maine Yankee, and about a dozen other nuclear power plants. On 12 June 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the cold war arms race. It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. International Day of Nuclear Disarmament protests were held on 20 June 1983, at 50 sites across the United States. In 1986, hundreds of people walked from Los Angeles to Washington,


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-8.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
On 21 April 2010, a dozen environmental organizations called on the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission to investigate possible limitations in the AP1000 reactor design. These groups appealed to three federal agencies to suspend the licensing process, arguing that containment in the new design is weaker than in existing reactors. On 24 April 2010, about 120,000 people built a human chain (KETTENreAKTION!) between the nuclear plants at Krümmel and Brunsbüttel. In this way, they were demonstrating against the German government's plans to extend the lifespans of nuclear power reactors. In May 2010, some 25,000 people, including members of peace organizations and 1945 atomic bomb survivors, marched for about two kilometers from downtown New York to the United Nations headquarters, calling for the elimination of nuclear weapons. In September 2010, German government policy shifted back toward nuclear energy, and this generated some new anti-nuclear sentiment in Berlin and beyond. On 18 September 2010, tens of thousands of Germans surrounded Chancellor Angela Merkel's office in an anti-nuclear demonstration that organisers said was the biggest of its kind since the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. In October 2010, tens of thousands of people protested in Munich against the nuclear power policy of Angela Merkel's coalition


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-9.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
In January 2011, five Japanese young people held a hunger strike for more than a week, outside the Prefectural Government offices in Yamaguchi City, to protest against the planned Kaminoseki Nuclear Power Plant near the environmentally sensitive Seto Inland Sea. Following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, anti-nuclear opposition intensified in Germany. On 12 March 2011, 60,000 Germans formed a 45-km human chain from Stuttgart to the Neckarwestheim power plant. On 14 March 110,000 people protested in 450 other German towns, with opinion polls indicating 80% of Germans opposed the government's extension of nuclear power. On 15 March 2011, Angela Merkel said that seven nuclear power plants which went online before 1980 would be closed and the time would be used to study speedier renewable energy commercialization. In March 2011, around 2,000 anti-nuclear protesters demonstrated in Taiwan for an immediate halt to the construction of the island's fourth nuclear power plant. The protesters were also opposed to plans to extend the lifespan of three existing nuclear plants. In March 2011, more than 200,000 people took part in anti-nuclear protests in four large German cities, on the eve of state elections. Organisers called it the largest anti-nuclear demonstration the country has seen.


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-10.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
2012 In January 2012, 22 South Korean women's groups appealed for a nuclear-free future, saying they believe nuclear weapons and power reactors "threaten our lives, the lives of our families and all living creatures". The women said they feel an enormous sense of crisis after the Fukushima nuclear disaster in March 2011, which demonstrated the destructive power of radiation in the disruption of human lives, environmental pollution, and food contamination. Thousands of demonstrators took to the streets of Yokohama, Japan, on 14–15 January 2012, to show their support for a nuclear power-free world. The demonstration showed that organized opposition to nuclear power has gained momentum following the Fukushima nuclear disaster. The most immediate demand of the demonstrators was for the protection of rights, including basic human rights such as health care, for those affected by the Fukushima accident. In January 2012, three hundred anti-nuclear protestors marched against plans to build a new nuclear power station at Wylfa in the UK. The march was organised by Pobl Atal Wylfa B, Greenpeace, and Cymdeithas yr Iaith, which are supporting a farmer who is in dispute with Horizon. On the anniversary of the 11 March earthquake and tsunami, protesters across Japan called for


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-11.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
On 9 December 1982, Norman Mayer, an American anti–nuclear weapons activist, was shot and killed by the United States Park Police after threatening to blow up the Washington Monument, Washington, D.C., unless a national dialogue on the threat of nuclear weapons was seriously undertaken. On 10 July 1985, the flagship of Greenpeace, Rainbow Warrior, was sunk by France in New Zealand waters, and a Greenpeace photographer was killed. The ship was involved in protests against nuclear weapons testing at Mururoa Atoll. The French Government initially denied any involvement with the sinking but eventually admitted its guilt in October 1985. Two French agents pleaded guilty to charges of manslaughter, and the French Government paid $7 million in damages. In 1990, two pylons holding high-voltage power lines connecting the French and Italian grid were blown up by Italian eco-terrorists, and the attack is believed to have been directly in opposition to the Superphénix. In 2004, activist Sébastien Briat, who had tied himself to train tracks in front of a shipment of reprocessed nuclear waste, was run over by the wheels of the train. The event occurred in Avricourt, France, and the fuel (12 containers in total) was from a German plant, en


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-12.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists is a nontechnical online magazine that has been published continuously since 1945, when it was founded by former Manhattan Project physicists after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Bulletin's primary aim is to inform the public about nuclear policy debates while advocating for the international control of nuclear weapons. One of the driving forces behind the creation of the Bulletin was the public interest in atomic energy at the dawn of the atomic age. In 1945 the public interest in atomic warfare and weaponry inspired contributors to the Bulletin to attempt to inform those interested about the dangers and destruction that atomic war could bring about. In the 1950s, the Bulletin was involved in the formation of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, annual conferences of scientists concerned about nuclear proliferation. Historian Lawrence S. Wittner has argued that anti-nuclear sentiment and activism led directly to government policy shifts about nuclear weapons. Public opinion influenced policymakers by limiting their options and forcing them to choose certain policies over others. Wittner credits public pressure and anti-nuclear activism with "Truman's decision to explore the Baruch Plan, Eisenhower's efforts towards a nuclear test ban


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-13.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
During Barack Obama's successful U.S. presidential election campaign, he advocated the abolition of nuclear weapons. Since his election, he has reiterated this goal in several major policy addresses. In 2010, the Obama administration negotiated a new weapons accord with Russia for a reduction of the maximum number of deployed nuclear weapons on each side from 2,200 to between 1,500 and 1,675—a reduction of some 30 per cent. In addition, President Obama has committed $15 billion over the next five years to improving the safety of the nuclear weapons stockpile. Following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the Italian government put a one-year moratorium on plans to revive nuclear power. On 11–12 June 2011, Italian voters passed a referendum to cancel plans for new reactors. Over 94% of the electorate voted in favor of the construction ban, with 55% of the eligible voters participating, making the vote binding. German Chancellor Angela Merkel's coalition announced on 30 May 2011, that Germany's 17 nuclear power stations will be shut down by 2022, in a policy reversal following Japan's Fukushima I nuclear accidents and anti-nuclear protests within Germany. Seven of the German power stations were temporarily closed in March and will remain offline and be


id: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement-14.md
category: reference
title: Anti-nuclear movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:20.182369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-nuclear-movement-20260505-0
summary:
Attempts to reach political agreement on effective climate change policies continue, and pro-nuclear environmentalists seek to reverse the traditionally anti-nuclear attitudes among environmentalists. Filmmaker Rob Stone's Pandora's Promise (2013) is a good example of this trend. Some environmentalists criticise the anti-nuclear movement for understating the environmental costs of fossil fuels and non-nuclear alternatives, and overstating the environmental costs of nuclear energy. Anti-nuclear activists are accused of encouraging radiophobic emotions among the public. In The War Against the Atom (Basic Books, 1982), Samuel MacCracken of Boston University argued that in 1982, 50,000 deaths per year could be attributed directly to non-nuclear power plants, if fuel production and transportation, as well as pollution, were taken into account. He argued that if non-nuclear plants were judged by the same standards as nuclear ones, each US non-nuclear power plant could be held responsible for about 100 deaths per year. The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) is the main lobby group for companies doing nuclear work in the United States, while most countries that employ nuclear energy have a national industry group. The World Nuclear Association is the only global trade body. In seeking to counter the arguments of nuclear opponents, it cites independent studies that


id: antiqua-et-nova-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiqua_et_nova-0.md
category: reference
title: Antiqua et nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiqua_et_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:21.481695+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiqua-et-nova-20260505-0
summary:
Antiqua et nova (Latin for 'Ancient and new') is a doctrinal note of the Catholic Church co-issued by the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith and the Dicastery for Culture and Education in January 2025. It addresses the "relationship between artificial intelligence [AI] and human intelligence" and offers reflections on the "anthropological and ethical challenges raised by AI". == Background == With the substantial increase in the proliferation and usage of large language models such as ChatGPT, Pope Francis expressed concerns about a "technocratic" future and transparency in the development of further artificial intelligence technologies at the 2024 G7 summit. He also addressed the topic in his October 2024 encyclical Dilexit nos. The Vatican City State enacted laws about the usage of AI on 1 January 2025. On 14 January 2025, Pope Francis met with Cardinal Víctor Manuel Fernández, prefect of the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, and approved the draft document of Antiqua et nova. The following day, Fernández announced the pending publication of a document on AI which was released on 28 January 2025. == Summary == Antiqua et nova is a 30-page-long document known as a note. The document's name is derived from its


id: aol-search-log-release-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL_search_log_release-0.md
category: reference
title: AOL search log release
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL_search_log_release
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:22.702739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aol-search-log-release-20260505-0
summary:
In 2006, the Internet company AOL released a large excerpt from its web search query logs to the public. AOL did not identify users in the report, but personally identifiable information was present in many of the queries. This allowed some users to be identified by their search queries. Although AOL took down the file within a few days, it had already been widely copied and still remains available. == Overview == On August 4, 2006, AOL Research, headed by Abdur Chowdhury, released a compressed text file on one of its websites containing twenty million search queries for over 650,000 users over a three-month period; it was intended for research. AOL deleted the file on their site by August 7, but not before it had been copied and distributed on the Internet. AOL did not identify users in the report; however, personally identifiable information was present in many of the queries. As the queries were attributed by AOL to particular user numerically identified accounts, an individual could be identified and matched to their account and search history. The New York Times was able to locate an individual from the released and anonymized search records by cross referencing them with phonebook


id: asilomar-conference-on-beneficial-ai-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Beneficial_AI-0.md
category: reference
title: Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Beneficial_AI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:23.847755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asilomar-conference-on-beneficial-ai-20260505-0
summary:
The Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI was a conference organized by the Future of Life Institute, held January 5–8, 2017, at the Asilomar Conference Grounds in California. More than 100 thought leaders and researchers in economics, law, ethics, and philosophy met at the conference, to address and formulate principles of beneficial AI. Its outcome was the creation of a set of guidelines for AI research – the 23 Asilomar AI Principles. The 23 principles, published as an open letter, received signatures from 1797 AI–Robotics researchers and 3923 others. Notable signatures included: Elon Musk, Stephen Hawking, executive director of the ACLU Anthony D. Romero, Dutch politician Kees Verhoeven, British tech entrepreneur Tabitha Goldstaub, American filmmaker James Barrat, CEO of Google Deepmind Demis Hassabis, AI researchers Ilya Sutskever, Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio, and Stuart Russell, philosophers Sam Harris and Will MacAskill, and actor Joseph Gordon-Levitt, amongst others. == References == == Further reading == Alexander, Scott (February 7, 2017). "Notes From The Asilomar Conference On Beneficial AI". Slate Star Codex. Olivér, Gábor (2022). Critique of the Asilomar AI Principles (PDF). GeniaNet. doi:10.15170/COTAAP-2022. ISBN 978-615-5687-04-4. Nazir, Saddat (June 27, 2024). "The Asilomar Conference and Contemporary AI Controversies: Lessons in Regulation". Harvard International Review.


id: australasian-journal-of-bone-joint-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasian_Journal_of_Bone_&_Joint_Medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Australasian Journal of Bone & Joint Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasian_Journal_of_Bone_&_Joint_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:25.015977+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: australasian-journal-of-bone-joint-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The Australasian Journal of Bone & Joint Medicine (originally titled the Australasian Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine) was a periodical presented in the style of a scientific journal, published by Elsevier but established and funded by pharmaceutical company Merck. Publication began in 2002, and the last issue appeared in 2005. According to The Scientist: Merck paid an undisclosed sum to Elsevier to produce several volumes of [Australasian Journal of Bone and Joint Medicine], a publication that had the look of a peer-reviewed medical journal, but contained only reprinted or summarized articles—most of which presented data favorable to Merck products—that appeared to act solely as marketing tools with no disclosure of company sponsorship. The publication was not included in the MEDLINE literature database and did not have its own website. In May 2009, Elsevier admitted that a series of similar industry sponsored publications had been produced, and that "high standards for disclosure were not followed in this instance". In a formal statement, the CEO of Elsevier's Health Sciences Division, Michael Hansen, admitted that the practice was "unacceptable", and expressed regret for the publications. Merck has denied claims that articles within it were ghost written by Merck and has stated that the articles


id: baddies-in-tech-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddies_in_Tech-0.md
category: reference
title: Baddies in Tech
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baddies_in_Tech
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:26.279243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baddies-in-tech-20260505-0
summary:
Baddies in Tech is an American organization that provides a safe space for Black women in the technology sectors to network and grow their careers. The founding of Baddies in Tech in 2019 led to the creation of BaddieCon. == History == Baddies in tech originated in 2019 as an Instagram hashtag created by Allie Joy Tsahey as she had felt isolated in the male dominated tech industry. The hashtag grew in popularity leading to the creation of the organization. In 2023 Baddies in Tech hosted its first BaddieCon event, which featured 38 speakers and 11 companies and vendors. == Organization == Baddies in Tech is a nonprofit DAO headquartered in Brooklyn, NY founded by Allie Joy Tsahey in 2019. Baddies in Tech's mission is “to build a public good that empowers and uplifts Black and brown female technologists globally.” Baddies in Tech also provides a database of resources for those looking for employment opportunities. Furthermore, the Baddies in Tech organization hosts community events in NYC, D.C., and Atlanta and tech conferences geared toward providing women a safe place to come together. Baddies in Tech maintains a Discord server as a place of conversation for their community. == References ==


id: sharon-beder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Beder-0.md
category: reference
title: Sharon Beder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Beder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:28.332968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sharon-beder-20260505-0
summary:
Sharon Beder is an environmentalist and former professor in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Wollongong in New South Wales, Australia. Her research has focused on how power relationships are maintained and challenged, particularly by corporations and professions. She has written 11 books, and many articles, book chapters and conference papers, as well as designing teaching resources and educational websites. == Early life and family == Beder was born in 1956 in Wellington, New Zealand, granddaughter of Jewish immigrants from Scotland, England and eastern Europe, before the second world war, and daughter of Jacqui and Yoss Beder. == Education == Beder initially trained and worked as a civil engineer in New Zealand before becoming interested in the social, political and philosophical aspects of engineering and then environmental politics. She completed a PhD in Science and Technology Studies at the University of New South Wales in 1989 based on research into the process of engineering decision-making using a case study on the development of Sydney's sewerage system. == Appointments == Before joining the University of Wollongong in 1992, Beder was Environmental Education Co-ordinator at the University of Sydney. She has also been Chairperson of the Environmental Engineering Branch of


id: big-data-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Big data ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:29.584431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-data-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Big data ethics, also known simply as data ethics, refers to systemizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct in relation to data, in particular personal data. Since the dawn of the Internet the sheer quantity and quality of data has dramatically increased and is continuing to do so exponentially. Big data describes this large amount of data that is so voluminous and complex that traditional data processing application software is inadequate to deal with them. Recent innovations in medical research and healthcare, such as high-throughput genome sequencing, high-resolution imaging, electronic medical patient records and a plethora of internet-connected health devices have triggered a data deluge that will reach the exabyte range in the near future. Data ethics is of increasing relevance as the quantity of data increases because of the scale of the impact. Big data ethics are different from information ethics because the focus of information ethics is more concerned with issues of intellectual property and concerns relating to librarians, archivists, and information professionals, while big data ethics is more concerned with collectors and disseminators of structured or unstructured data such as data brokers, governments, and large corporations. However, since artificial intelligence or machine learning systems


id: big-data-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Big data ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:29.584431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-data-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Privacy === Privacy has been presented as a limitation to data usage which could also be considered unethical. For example, the sharing of healthcare data can shed light on the causes of diseases, the effects of treatments, an can allow for tailored analyses based on individuals' needs. This is of ethical significance in the big data ethics field because while many value privacy, the affordances of data sharing are also quite valuable, although they may contradict one's conception of privacy. Attitudes against data sharing may be based in a perceived loss of control over data and a fear of the exploitation of personal data. However, it is possible to extract the value of data without compromising privacy. Government surveillance of big data has the potential to undermine individual privacy by collecting and storing data on phone calls, internet activity, and geolocation, among other things. For example, the NSA's collection of metadata exposed in global surveillance disclosures raised concerns about whether privacy was adequately protected, even when the content of communications was not analyzed. The right to privacy is often complicated by legal frameworks that grant governments broad authority over data collection for "national security" purposes. In the United States,


id: big-data-ethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Big data ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:29.584431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-data-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Openness === The idea of open data is centered around the argument that data should be freely available and should not have restrictions that would prohibit its use, such as copyright laws. As of 2014 many governments had begun to move towards publishing open datasets for the purpose of transparency and accountability. This movement has gained traction via "open data activists" who have called for governments to make datasets available to allow citizens to themselves extract meaning from the data and perform checks and balances themselves. King and Richards have argued that this call for transparency includes a tension between openness and secrecy. Activists and scholars have also argued that because this open-sourced model of data evaluation is based on voluntary participation, the availability of open datasets has a democratizing effect on a society, allowing any citizen to participate. To some, the availability of certain types of data is seen as a right and an essential part of a citizen's agency. Open Knowledge Foundation (OKF) lists several dataset types it argues should be provided by governments for them to be truly open. OKF has a tool called the Global Open Data Index (GODI), a crowd-sourced survey for measuring the


id: black-in-ai-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_in_AI-0.md
category: reference
title: Black in AI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_in_AI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:30.761788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-in-ai-20260505-0
summary:
Black in AI, formally called the Black in AI Workshop, is a technology research organization and affinity group, founded by computer scientists Timnit Gebru and Rediet Abebe in 2017. It started as a conference workshop, later pivoting into an organization. Black in AI increases the presence and inclusion of Black people in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) by creating space for sharing ideas, fostering collaborations, mentorship, and advocacy. == History == Black in AI was created in 2017 to address issues of lack of diversity in AI workshops, and was started as its own workshop within the Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS) conference. Because of algorithmic bias, ethical issues, and underrepresentation of Black people in AI roles; there has been an ongoing need for unity within the AI community to have focus on these issues. Black in AI has strived to continue the progress of improving the presence of people of color in the field of artificial intelligence. In 2018 and 2019, the Black in AI workshop had many immigration visa issues to Canada, which spurred the conference to be planned for 2020 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. On December 7, 2020, Black in AI held its fourth


id: black-in-ai-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_in_AI-1.md
category: reference
title: Black in AI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_in_AI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:30.761788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-in-ai-20260505-0
summary:
== Conferences and workshops == At NeurIPS 2017, the first Black in AI event took place in December 8, 2017 in Long Beach, California. The goal was to bring together experts in the area to share ideas and debate efforts aimed at increasing the participation of Black people in artificial intelligence, both for diversity and to avoid data bias. Black AI researchers had the opportunity to share their work at the workshop's oral and poster sessions. The second workshop was hosted in Montréal, Canada, on December 7, 2018. According to AI experts, visa issues stymie efforts to make their area more inclusive, making technology that discriminates or disadvantages individuals who aren't white or Western less likely. Hundreds of participants who were supposed to attend or present work at the Black in AI session on Friday were unable to fly to Canada; many of the participants were from African countries. The third workshop was held in NeurIPS 2019, one of the premier machine learning conferences Vancouver, Canada. The workshop was able to give travel scholarships and visa support to hundreds of academics who would not have been able to attend NeurIPS without the help of sponsors. For instance, Ramon Vilarino of


id: joanna-bryson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Bryson-0.md
category: reference
title: Joanna Bryson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Bryson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:32.003002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: joanna-bryson-20260505-0
summary:
Joanna Joy Bryson (born 1965) is professor at Hertie School in Berlin. She works on Artificial Intelligence, ethics and collaborative cognition. She has been a British citizen since 2007. == Education == Bryson attended Glenbard North High School and graduated in 1982. She studied Behavioural Science at the University of Chicago, graduating with an AB in 1986. In 1991 she moved to the University of Edinburgh where she completed an MSc in Artificial Intelligence before an MPhil in Psychology. Bryson moved to MIT to complete her PhD, earning a doctorate under Lynn Andrea Stein in 2001 for her thesis "Intelligence by Design: Principles of Modularity and Coordination for Engineering Complex Adaptive Agents". In 1995 she worked for LEGO Futura in Boston, and then in 1998 she worked for LEGO Digital as an AI consultant with Kristinn R. Thórisson on cognitive architectures for autonomous LEGO characters in the Wizard Group. She completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Marc Hauser's Primate Cognitive Neuroscience at the Harvard University in 2002. == Career == Bryson joined the Department of Computer Science at the University of Bath in 2002. At Bath, Bryson founded the Intelligent Systems research group. In 2007 she joined the University of Nottingham


id: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis-0.md
category: reference
title: Citicorp Center engineering crisis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:37.754740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
summary:
In July 1978, a possible structural flaw was discovered in Citicorp Center (now Citigroup Center), a skyscraper that had recently been completed in New York City. After investigations from a number of third parties, the building was found to be in danger of possible collapse due to its design; workers surreptitiously made repairs over the next few months, avoiding disaster. The building's structural engineer, William LeMessurier, incorporated numerous unconventional features into the design. Among these are a raised base supported by four offset stilts, diagonal bracing to absorb wind loads from upper stories, and a tuned mass damper on the roof. It was the first building that used active mechanical elements (the tuned mass damper) for stabilization. Concerned about "quartering winds" directed diagonally toward the corners of the building, Princeton University undergraduate student Diane Hartley investigated the structural integrity of the building and found it wanting. Nearly simultaneously, an architecture student at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) named Lee DeCarolis chose the building as the topic for a report assignment in his freshman class on the basic concepts of structural engineering. John Zoldos of NJIT expressed reservations to DeCarolis about the building's structure, and DeCarolis contacted LeMessurier, relaying what


id: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis-1.md
category: reference
title: Citicorp Center engineering crisis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:37.754740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
summary:
== Discovery == In May 1978, after the building structure was completed, LeMessurier was designing a similar building with wind braces in Pittsburgh, and a potential contractor questioned the expense of using welded rather than bolted joints. LeMessurier asked his office how the welds went at the Citicorp construction and was then told that bolts had been substituted for the welded joints he had prescribed. In June 1978, Princeton University engineering student Diane Hartley was writing her senior thesis about Citicorp Center's design at the suggestion of her professor, David Billington. As part of that work she analyzed the structural design and calculated stresses from quartering winds, finding them higher than the maximum expected stress values provided to her by LeMessurier's firm. Hartley asked her contact at the building design company, Joel S. Weinstein, a junior member of its staff, about the issue, and he provided her with a copy of the firm's calculations for perpendicular winds (but not for quartering winds). Only Weinstein was indicated as signing off on the copies of the calculations he provided to her, although she expected to see them initialed by a second person to confirm them, as was the usual practice in the


id: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis-2.md
category: reference
title: Citicorp Center engineering crisis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:37.754740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
summary:
== Repairs == LeMessurier agonized over how to deal with the problem. If the issues were made known to the public, he risked ruining his professional reputation and causing panic in the immediate area surrounding the building and the occupants. LeMessurier considered never bringing the issue up, and he also briefly contemplated committing suicide before anyone else found out about the defect. LeMessurier ultimately contacted Stubbins's lawyer and insurance carrier. LeMessurier then contacted Citicorp's lawyers, the latter of which hired Leslie E. Robertson as an expert adviser. Citicorp accepted LeMessurier's proposal to weld steel plates over the bolted joints, and Karl Koch Erecting was hired for the welding process. Very few people were made aware of the issue, besides Citicorp leadership, mayor Ed Koch, acting buildings commissioner Irving E. Minkin, and the head of the welder's union. Construction crews started installing the welded panels at night in August 1978. Officials made no public mention of any possible structural issues, and the city's three major newspapers had gone on strike. Officials barely acknowledged the issue, instead describing the work as a routine procedure. Henry DeFord III of Citicorp claimed the Citicorp Center could withstand a 100-year wind and that there were


id: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis-3.md
category: reference
title: Citicorp Center engineering crisis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicorp_Center_engineering_crisis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:37.754740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citicorp-center-engineering-crisis-20260505-0
summary:
Analysis of wind loads: Although quartering wind loads were considered early in the design process, LeMessurier initially reached the conclusion that they were not the critical case for the building's structural analysis, and came to rely primarily on the calculations for perpendicular winds, as required by building codes, rather than checking all calculations and scenarios thoroughly. Design changes: The steel framework subcontractor (Bethlehem Steel) proposed to use bolted joints instead of full-penetration welding, and the proposal was approved by LeMessurier's firm without LeMessurier personally reviewing the details. Kremer reported that Robert McNamara, "the managing principal for Citicorp in LeMessurier Associates' Cambridge office", stated that after he reviewed the proposal, he "presented the suggested change to Bill LeMessurier", who "discussed [with him] the technical implications and did calculations as to what effect the bolt extension in the connection would have on the movement of the tower ...", and that LeMessurier's firm then approved the details of the change without LeMessurier personally reviewing those details. This somewhat contradicts LeMessurier, who said he wasn't aware of the substitution until after the work had been completed. Professional responsibility: Before LeMessurier decided to make Citicorp aware of the design defects, he briefly considered concealing the


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-0.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:39.055334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009. The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming deniers, who alleged that the documents indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists. A series of investigations rejected these allegations, while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request. Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports, finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct. The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations. The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit. It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data (though the majority of climate data have always been freely available). Scientists, scientific organisations, and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change. Andrew Revkin reported in The New York Times that "The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-1.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:39.055334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
=== E-mails === Most of the e-mails concerned technical and mundane aspects of climate research, such as data analysis and details of scientific conferences. The controversy has focused on a small number of e-mails, particularly those sent to or from climatologists Phil Jones, the head of the CRU, and Michael E. Mann of Pennsylvania State University (PSU), one of the originators of the graph of temperature trends dubbed the "hockey stick graph". Climate change deniers gained wide publicity for allegations that the hacked e-mails showed climate scientists colluded in manipulating data, withheld scientific information, and tried to prevent dissenting scientific papers from being published in peer reviewed journals. Academics and climate change researchers said that nothing in the emails proved wrongdoing, and dismissed the allegations. Independent reports said that the e-mails did not affect evidence that man made global warming is a real threat, and e-mails were being misrepresented to support unfounded claims of scientific misconduct, but there were disturbing suggestions that scientists had avoided sharing scientific data with sceptical critics. The Information Commissioner's Office stated that "the prima facie evidence from the published e-mails indicate an attempt to defeat disclosure by deleting information. It is hard to imagine more


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-2.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:39.055334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
I've just completed Mike's Nature trick of adding in the real temps to each series for the last 20 years (ie, from 1981 onwards) and from 1961 for Keith's to hide the decline. The "trick" was a technique to combine instrumental temperature record data with long term reconstructions based on proxy data, and "the decline" was a well known issue with Keith Briffa's reconstruction using certain tree ring proxies which appeared to decline after 1950, when measured temperatures were rising. The email was widely misquoted as a "trick" to "hide the decline" as though it referred to a decline in measured global temperatures, but this was obviously untrue as when the email was written temperatures were far from declining: 1998 had been the warmest year recorded. On 9 December 2009, Sarah Palin said the truncated phrase showed a "highly politicised scientific circle" had "manipulated data to 'hide the decline' in global temperatures", and at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, senator Senator Jim Inhofe quoted Jones, and said "Of course he means hide the decline in temperatures". The graph showed three series of paleoclimate reconstructions, based on records of tree rings, corals, ice cores, lake sediments, etc.,


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-3.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:39.055334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
The EPA agreed with the UK Science & Technology Committee conclusion that "We are content that the phrases such as 'trick' or 'hiding the decline' were colloquial terms used in private e-mails, and the balance of evidence is that they were not part of a systematic attempt to mislead."


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-4.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:39.055334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
==== Peer review issue ==== In response to an e-mail mentioning a recent paper in the scientific journal Climate Research that questioned assertions that the 20th century was abnormally warm, Mann wrote in an e-mail of 11 March 2003: I think we have to stop considering Climate Research as a legitimate peer-reviewed journal. Perhaps we should encourage our colleagues in the climate research community to no longer submit to, or cite papers in, this journal. Mann told the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) that he did not feel there was anything wrong in saying "we shouldn't be publishing in a journal that's activist." Mann was not alone in expressing concern about the peer review process of the journal. Half of the journal's editorial board, including editor-in-chief Hans von Storch, resigned in the wake of controversy surrounding the article's publication. The publisher later admitted that the paper's major findings could not "be concluded convincingly from the evidence provided in the paper. [Climate Research] should have requested appropriate revisions of the manuscript prior to publication." In an 18 December 2009 column in the WSJ, Pat Michaels alleged that pressure from Jones and Mann was responsible for the resignations at Climate Research. In a


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-5.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:39.055334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
Several e-mails relating to freedom of information issues were the focus of controversy. In a 2 February 2005 e-mail, Phil Jones advised Michael Mann: And don't leave stuff lying around on ftp sites – you never know who is trawling them. The two MMs have been after the CRU station data for years. If they ever hear there is a Freedom of Information Act now in the UK, I think I'll delete the file rather than send to anyone. Does your similar act in the US force you to respond to enquiries within 20 days?—our does! The UK works on precedents, so the first request will test it. We also have a Data Protection Act, which I will hide behind. In another e-mail sent in May 2008, Jones asked Mann: Can you delete any emails you may have had with Keith re AR4? Keith will do likewise. ... Can you also email Gene and get him to do the same? I don't have his new email address. Before the emails were published, Jones had already announced in Nature News (on 12 August 2009) that he was working to release the raw data in a systematic way, and was writing to


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-6.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:39.055334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
My personal opinion is that both FOI requests [for data related to a 2008 paper and for correspondence dating back to 2006] are intrusive and unreasonable. Steven McIntyre provides absolutely no scientific justification or explanation for such requests. ... McIntyre has no interest in improving our scientific understanding of the nature and causes of climate change. He has no interest in rational scientific discourse. ... We should be able to conduct our scientific research without constant fear of an "audit" by Steven McIntyre; without having to weigh every word we write in every email we send to our scientific colleagues. In an Associated Press interview, McIntyre disagreed with his portrayal in emails, and said "Everything that I've done in this, I've done in good faith." FactCheck stated that the great majority of CRU's data is already freely available, and the scientists were reluctant to supply their own correspondence, code and data to people whose motives seemed questionable to them. It is not clear that any deliberate obstruction happened, and emails show the scientists discussing with university officials and lawyers their obligations under the new legislation, informing critics that data is already freely available, or that the information has been sent


id: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents-7.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit documents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_documents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:39.055334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-documents-20260505-0
summary:
=== Code and documentation === The CRU files also included programs written in Fortran, programmer comments and a readme file, which attracted considerable attention from programmers. The log covered more than four years work by a programmer, who had been frustrated by problems in relating climate data from numerous international sources. In a BBC Newsnight report, software engineer John Graham-Cumming said the code was "below the standard you'd expect in any commercial software" because it lacked clear documentation or an audit history. Graham-Cumming also reported finding a bug in the code's error handling which, if it occurred, would ignore data without warning. Myles Allen, head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford, said that the code investigated by Newsnight had nothing at all to do with the HadCRUT temperature record used for climate reconstructions, which is maintained at the Met Office and not at CRU. When he challenged Newsnight on this, they responded that "Our expert's opinion is that this is climate change code" and declined to retract the story. He commented that on the same basis "the quality of the code I use to put together problems for our physics undergraduates shows that we should not


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Climatic Research Unit email controversy (also known as "Climategate") began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) at the University of East Anglia (UEA) by an external attacker, copying thousands of emails and computer files (the Climatic Research Unit documents) to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change. The story was first broken by climate change denialists, who argued that the emails showed that global warming was a scientific conspiracy and that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics. The CRU rejected this, saying that the emails had been taken out of context. FactCheck.org reported that climate change deniers misrepresented the contents of the emails. Columnist James Delingpole popularised the term "Climategate" to describe the controversy. The mainstream media picked up the story, as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009. Because of the timing, scientists, policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference. In response to the controversy, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the American Meteorological Society (AMS) and the


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The material comprised more than 1,000 emails, 2,000 documents, as well as commented source code pertaining to climate-change research, covering the period from 1996 to 2009. According to an analysis in The Guardian, the vast majority of the emails were from or to four climatologists: Phil Jones, the head of the CRU; Keith Briffa, a CRU climatologist specialising in tree ring analysis; Tim Osborn, a climate modeller at CRU; and Mike Hulme, director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research. The four were either recipients or originators of all but 66 of the 1,073 emails, with most of the remainder of the emails being sent from mailing lists. A few other emails were sent by, or to, other staff at the CRU. Jones, Briffa, Osborn and Hulme had written high-profile scientific papers on climate change that had been cited in reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Most of the emails concerned technical and mundane aspects of climate research, such as data analysis and details of scientific conferences. The Guardian's analysis of the emails suggests that the hacker had filtered them. Four scientists were targeted and a concordance plot shows that the words "data", "climate", "paper", "research", "temperature"


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Responses == In the United States, former Republican House Science Committee chairman Sherwood Boehlert called the attacks a "manufactured distraction", and Newsweek and The New York Times described the dispute as a "highly orchestrated" and manufactured controversy. Concerns about the media's role in promoting early allegations while also minimising later coverage exonerating the scientists were raised by journalists and policy experts. Historian Spencer R. Weart of the American Institute of Physics said the incident was unprecedented in the history of science, having "never before seen a set of people accuse an entire community of scientists of deliberate deception and other professional malfeasance". The United States National Academy of Sciences expressed concern and condemned what they called "political assaults on scientists and climate scientists in particular". In the United Kingdom and United States, there were calls for official inquiries into issues raised by the documents. The British Conservative politician Nigel Lawson said: "The integrity of the scientific evidence ... has been called into question. And the reputation of British science has been seriously tarnished. A high-level independent inquiry must be set up without delay." Bob Ward of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== University of East Anglia === The University of East Anglia was notified of the security breach on 17 November 2009, but when the story was published in the press on 20 November, they had no statement ready. On 24 November, Trevor Davies, the University of East Anglia pro-vice-chancellor with responsibility for research, rejected calls for Jones' resignation or firing: "We see no reason for Professor Jones to resign and, indeed, we would not accept his resignation. He is a valued and important scientist." The university announced that it would conduct an independent review into issues including Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit: it would "address the issue of data security, an assessment of how we responded to a deluge of Freedom of Information requests, and any other relevant issues which the independent reviewer advises should be addressed". The university announced on 1 December that Phil Jones was to stand aside as director of the Unit until the completion of the review. Two days later, the university announced that Sir Muir Russell would chair the inquiry, which would be known as the Independent Climate Change Email Review, and would "examine email exchanges to determine whether there is


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Climatologists === Among the scientists whose emails were disclosed, the CRU's researchers said in a statement that the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas. Michael Mann, director of Pennsylvania State University's Earth System Science Center, said that sceptics were "taking these words totally out of context to make something trivial appear nefarious" and called the entire incident a careful, "high-level, orchestrated smear campaign to distract the public about the nature of the climate change problem". Kevin E. Trenberth of the National Center for Atmospheric Research said that he was appalled at the release of the emails but thought that it might backfire against climate sceptics, as the messages would show "the integrity of scientists". He also said that climate change sceptics had selectively quoted words and phrases out of context and that the timing suggested an attempt to undermine talks at the December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit. Tom Wigley, a former director of the CRU and now head of the US National Center for Atmospheric Research, condemned the threats that he and other colleagues had received as "truly stomach-turning", and commented: "None of it affects the science one iota.


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-5.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientific organisations === The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I issued statements that the assessment process, involving hundreds of scientists worldwide, is designed to be transparent and to prevent any individual or small group from manipulating the process. The statement said that the "internal consistency from multiple lines of evidence strongly supports the work of the scientific community, including those individuals singled out in these email exchanges". The American Meteorological Society stated that the incident did not affect the society's position on climate change. They pointed to the breadth of evidence for human influence on climate, stating: For climate change research, the body of research in the literature is very large and the dependence on any one set of research results to the comprehensive understanding of the climate system is very, very small. Even if some of the charges of improper behavior in this particular case turn out to be true—which is not yet clearly the case—the impact on the science of climate change would be very limited. The American Geophysical Union issued a statement that they found "it offensive that these emails were obtained by illegal cyber attacks and they are being exploited to distort the


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-6.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== House of Commons Science and Technology Committee === On 22 January 2010, the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee announced it would conduct an inquiry into the affair, examining the implications of the disclosure for the integrity of scientific research, reviewing the scope of the independent Muir Russell review announced by the UEA, and reviewing the independence of international climate data sets. The committee invited written submissions from interested parties, and published 55 submissions that it had received by 10 February. They included submissions from the University of East Anglia, the Global Warming Policy Foundation, the Institute of Physics, the Royal Society of Chemistry, the Met Office, several other professional bodies, prominent scientists, some climate change sceptics, several MEPs and other interested parties. An oral evidence session was held on 1 March 2010. The Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry reported on 31 March 2010 that it had found that "the scientific reputation of Professor Jones and CRU remains intact". The emails and claims raised in the controversy did not challenge the scientific consensus that "global warming is happening and that it is induced by human activity". The MPs had seen no evidence to support claims that


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-7.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science Assessment Panel === The report of the independent Science Assessment Panel was published on 14 April 2010 and concluded that the panel had seen "no evidence of any deliberate scientific malpractice in any of the work of the Climatic Research Unit." It found that the CRU's work had been "carried out with integrity" and had used "fair and satisfactory" methods. The CRU was found to be "objective and dispassionate in their view of the data and their results, and there was no hint of tailoring results to a particular agenda." Instead, "their sole aim was to establish as robust a record of temperatures in recent centuries as possible." The panel commented that it was "very surprising that research in an area that depends so heavily on statistical methods has not been carried out in close collaboration with professional statisticians." It found that although the CRU had not made inappropriate use of statistical methods, some of the methods used may not have been the best for the purpose, though it said that "it is not clear, however, that better methods would have produced significantly different results." It suggested that the CRU could have done more to document and archive


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-8.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pennsylvania State University === Pennsylvania State University announced in December 2009 it would review the work of Michael E. Mann, in particular looking at anything that had not already been addressed in the 2006 North Report review by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences which had investigated Mann's "hockey stick graph" studies and found some faults with his 1998 methodology but agreed with the results which had been reaffirmed by later studies using different methods. In response, Mann said he would welcome the review. The inquiry committee determined on 3 February 2010 that there was no credible evidence Mann suppressed or falsified data, destroyed emails, information and/or data related to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, or misused privileged or confidential information. The committee did not make a definitive finding on the final point of inquiry – "whether Dr Mann seriously deviated from accepted practices within the academic community for proposing, conducting, or reporting research or other scholarly activities". The committee said that the earlier NAS inquiry had found "that Dr Mann's science did fall well within the bounds of accepted practice", but in light of the newly available information this question of conduct was to


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-9.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Inspector General of the U.S. Department of Commerce === In May 2010 Senator Jim Inhofe requested the Inspector General of the United States Department of Commerce to conduct an independent review of how the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) had dealt with the emails, and whether the emails showed any wrongdoing. The report, issued on 18 February 2011, cleared the researchers and "did not find any evidence that NOAA inappropriately manipulated data or failed to adhere to appropriate peer review procedures". It noted that NOAA reviewed its climate change data as standard procedure, not in response to the controversy. One email included a cartoon image showing Inhofe and others marooned on a melting ice floe, NOAA had taken this up as a conduct issue. In response to questions raised, NOAA stated that its scientists had followed legal advice on FOIA requests for information which belonged to the IPCC and was made available by that panel. In two instances funding had been awarded to CRU, NOAA stated that it was reviewing these cases and so far understood that the funds supported climate forecasting workshops in 2002 and 2003 assisting the governments of three countries. === National Science Foundation ===


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-10.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The initial story about the hacking originated in the blogosphere, with columnist James Delingpole picking up the term "Climategate" from an anonymous blogger on Watts Up With That?, a blog created by climate sceptic Anthony Watts. The site was one of three blogs that received links to the leaked documents on 17 November 2009. Delingpole first used the word "Climategate" in the title of his 20 November article for The Telegraph: "Climategate: the final nail in the coffin of 'Anthropogenic Global Warming'?" A week later, his co-worker Christopher Booker gave Delingpole credit for coining the term. Following the release of documents in the blogosphere, unproven allegations and personal attacks against scientists increased and made their way into the traditional media. Physicist Mark Boslough of the University of New Mexico noted that many of the attacks on scientists came from "bloggers, editorial writers, Fox News pundits, and radio talk show hosts who have called them liars and vilified them as frauds". According to Chris Mooney and Sheril Kirshenbaum in their book Unscientific America (2010), the accusations originated in right-wing media and blogs, "especially on outlets like Fox News". Journalist Suzanne Goldenberg of The Guardian reported that according to an analysis by


id: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy-11.md
category: reference
title: Climatic Research Unit email controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:41.916840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climatic-research-unit-email-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Climategate had a significant effect on public beliefs in global warming and trust in scientists. The loss of trust in scientists, however, was primarily among individuals with a strongly individualistic worldview or politically conservative ideology. Nonetheless, Americans overall continue to trust scientists more than other sources of information about global warming. In late 2011, Steven F. Hayward wrote that "Climategate did for the global warming controversy what the Pentagon Papers did for the Vietnam war 40 years ago: It changed the narrative decisively." An editorial in Nature said that many in the media "were led by the nose, by those with a clear agenda, to a sizzling scandal that steadily defused as the true facts and context were made clear". == Further release, 2011 == On 22 November 2011, a second set of approximately 5,000 emails, apparently hacked from University of East Anglia servers at the same time as those in the 2009 release, was posted on a Russian server, with links distributed to the message boards on several climate-sceptic websites. A message accompanying the emails quoted selective passages from them, highlighting many of the same issues raised following the original incident. Juliette Jowit and Leo Hickman of The Guardian


id: computer-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Computer ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:44.362896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Computer ethics is a part of practical philosophy concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct. Margaret Anne Pierce, a professor in the Department of Mathematics and Computers at Georgia Southern University has categorized the ethical decisions related to computer technology and usage into three primary influences: The individual's own personal [ethical] code. Any informal code of ethical conduct that exists in the work place. Exposure to formal codes of ethics. == Foundation == Computer ethics was first coined by Walter Maner, a professor at Bowling Green State University. Maner noticed ethical concerns that were brought up during his Medical Ethics course at Old Dominion University became more complex and difficult when the use of technology and computers became involved. The conceptual foundations of computer ethics are investigated by information ethics, a branch of philosophical ethics promoted, among others, by Luciano Floridi. == History == The concept of computer ethics originated in the 1940s with MIT professor Norbert Wiener, the American mathematician and philosopher. While working on anti-aircraft artillery during World War II, Wiener and his fellow engineers developed a system of communication between the part of a cannon that tracked a warplane, the part


id: computer-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Computer ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:44.362896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Concerns == Computer crime, privacy, anonymity, freedom, and intellectual property fall under topics that will be present in the future of computer ethics. Ethical considerations have been linked to the Internet of Things (IoT) with many physical devices being connected to the internet. Virtual Crypto-currencies in regards to the balance of the current purchasing relationship between the buyer and seller. Autonomous technology such as self-driving cars forced to make human decisions. There is also concern over how autonomous vehicles would behave in different countries with different culture values. Security risks have been identified with cloud-based technology with every user interaction being sent and analyzed to central computing hubs. Artificial intelligence devices like the Amazon Alexa and Google Home are collecting personal data from users while at home and uploading it to the cloud. Apple's Siri and Microsoft's Cortana smartphone assistants are collecting user information, analyzing the information, and then sending the information back to the user. === Internet privacy === Computers and information technology have caused privacy concerns surrounding collection and use of personal data. For example, Google was sued in 2018 for tracking user location without permission. also In July 2019, Facebook reached a $5 billion settlement with


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:45.688900+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors, both scientists and governmental representatives. There has been considerable political controversy over errors found in the report, and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report. == Content issues == Some observers have identified issues in which the peer-reviewed science suggests outcomes more severe than outlined by the report, while other observers have said that some conclusions in the report are not satisfactorily supported by the peer-reviewed science. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have acknowledged that a paragraph in the WGII report on the projected date of melting of Himalayan glaciers is incorrect. Climate expert Martin Parry, who had been co-chair of the working group on impacts for IPCC AR4, stated that "What began with a single unfortunate error over Himalayan glaciers has become a clamour without substance". The IPCC had investigated other alleged mistakes, which were "generally unfounded and also marginal to the assessment", and were commonly based on the idea that the IPCC should not use grey literature, such as reports from campaign groups and governments. === Arctic


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:45.688900+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
Glaciers in the Himalaya are receding faster than in any other part of the world (see Table 10.9) and, if the present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 and perhaps sooner is very high if the Earth keeps warming at the current rate. Its total area will likely shrink from the present 500,000 to 100,000 km2 by the year 2035 (WWF, 2005). There was controversy in India over this statement, and at the start of December 2009 J. Graham Cogley of Trent University, Ontario, described the paragraph as wildly inaccurate. The rates of recession of Himalayan glaciers were exceptional, but their disappearance by 2035 would require a huge acceleration in rate. The first sentence of the IPCC WGII report, including the date of 2035, came from the cited source, "(WWF, 2005)". This was a March 2005 World Wildlife Fund Nepal Program report, page 29: In 1999, a report by the Working Group on Himalayan Glaciology (WGHG) of the International Commission for Snow and Ice (ICSI) stated: "glaciers in the Himalayas are receding faster than in any other part of the world and, if the present rate continues, the livelihood [sic] of them disappearing by the


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-2.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:45.688900+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
"Glaciers in the Himalaya are receding faster than in any other part of the world and, if the present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 is very high," says the International Commission for Snow and Ice (ICSI) in its recent study on Asian glaciers. "But if the Earth keeps getting warmer at the current rate, it might happen much sooner," says Syed Iqbal Hasnain of the School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Hasnain is also the chairperson of the Working Group on Himalayan Glaciology (WGHG), constituted in 1995 by the ICSI. "The glacier will be decaying at rapid, catastrophic rates. Its total area will shrink from the present 500,000 to 100,000 square km by the year 2035," says former icsi president V M Kotlyakov in the report Variations of snow and ice in the past and present on a global and regional scale (see table: Receding rivers of ice). The question of whether it was acceptable to use material which had not been peer reviewed has been disputed. IPCC rules permit the use of non-peer-reviewed material, subject to a procedure in which authors are to critically assess any source that they wish


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-3.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:45.688900+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Proportion of Netherlands below sea level === The Working Group II: Impacts, Adaption and Vulnerability report states that "The Netherlands is an example of a country highly susceptible to both sea-level rise and river flooding because 55% of its territory is below sea level". This was based on data it had received from the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (the PBL). When the Dutch government raised questions, the PBL acknowledged in a statement that it had supplied the incorrect wording to the IPCC, "This should have read that 55 per cent of the Netherlands is at risk of flooding; 26 per cent of the country is below sea level, and 29 per cent is susceptible to river flooding." It used Normaal Amsterdams Peil as the datum for sea level. Martin Parry, climate expert and co-chair of the IPCC working group II, said that various different figures could have been used, depending on how the issue was defined. A figure of 60%, for land that lies below high water level during storms, is used by the Dutch Ministry of Transport, while a figure of 30%, referring to land below mean sea level, is used by others. De Volkskrant reported Mary Jean


id: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report-4.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:45.688900+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-ipcc-fourth-assessment-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Grey literature === The report was also criticized by The Sunday Telegraph for using grey literature. Examples they gave included the use of non-peer reviewed sources from the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the World Wildlife Fund, and student dissertations. IPCC rules permit the use of non-peer-reviewed material, subject to critical assessment and review of the quality and validity of each source. Climate expert Martin Parry, who had been co-chair of the working group on impacts for IPCC AR4, said of "grey literature" such as reports from campaign groups and governments that "many such reports are intensively reviewed, both internally and externally. Even if not peer-reviewed, there are reports that contain valuable information." == Response to criticisms == The focus by the media on errors found in the Fourth Assessment Report resulted in a number of responses from the scientific community. In February 2010 the International Council for Science (ICSU) released a statement indicating that "in proportion to the sheer volume of the research reviewed and analyzed, these lapses of accuracy are minor and they in no way undermine the main conclusions" and "That these errors have resulted in attempts to discredit the main conclusions of the


id: cyprus-safer-internet-helpline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Safer_Internet_Helpline-0.md
category: reference
title: Cyprus Safer Internet Helpline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Safer_Internet_Helpline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:47.000044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyprus-safer-internet-helpline-20260505-0
summary:
The Cyprus Safer Internet Helpline is a service provided by the Cyprus Safer Internet Center project, coordinated by the Cyprus Neuroscience and Technology Institute (CNTI). The Helpline ensures that not only children and adolescents but also adults have the opportunity to converse with experts in case they experience something negative on the Internet. Educated psychologists provide support and essential advice so that the crisis is overcome and the situation is confronted. Members of the public can reach the helpline at the number 7000 0 116. The communication is completely confidential and anonymous. The need for an operation of a Helpline has been stressed by the European Commission, which supports the idea that the increasing use of the Internet is disproportionate relative to its correct use and moral education. Consequently, many of children come into contact with pages containing inappropriate content or individuals who want to exploit them. Such cases usually cause fear and distress, which must be addressed. The Hotline is a member of the INSAFE European network of Awareness Centres that promote the safe and responsible use of the Internet and mobile devices to young people. The mission of the Insafe cooperation network is to empower citizens to use


id: cyprus-safer-internet-hotline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Safer_Internet_Hotline-0.md
category: reference
title: Cyprus Safer Internet Hotline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Safer_Internet_Hotline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:48.179796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyprus-safer-internet-hotline-20260505-0
summary:
== Basic Information == The Cyprus Safer Internet Hotline is a service provided by the Cyprus Safer Internet Center project, coordinated by the Cyprus Neuroscience and Technology Institute (CNTI). The Hotline promotes the safe use of the Internet in Cyprus. It serves the needs of all people that live on the island but also abroad and addresses issues of child pornography, child erotica, child nudity, child grooming activities, child trafficking, child sex tourism, but also racism (currently on the rise in Cyprus), gender discrimination and inappropriate use of peoples’ images. The Hotline provides assistance to the Cyber Crime unit of the Cyprus Police by filtering reports to determine which reports concern content that is probably illegal and is also located in Cyprus or has a Cypriot dimension. This assists the Police to dedicate their specialist resources to pursuing investigations within their jurisdiction by not having to deal with the majority of reports that do not contain illegal content or relate to material held in other jurisdictions. The Hotline is a member of the INHOPE International Association of Internet Hotlines, founded in 1999 under the EC Safer Internet Action Plan. INHOPE facilitates and co-ordinates the work of hotlines internationally in responding


id: dipak-k-das-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipak_K._Das-0.md
category: reference
title: Dipak K. Das
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipak_K._Das
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:49.396174+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dipak-k-das-20260505-0
summary:
Dipak Kumar Das (1947 – September 19, 2013) was the director of the Cardiovascular Research Center at the University of Connecticut Health Center in Farmington and is known for research fraud. His work centered on the beneficial properties of resveratrol, which is found in red wine, but over twenty of his research papers have been since retracted. On January 11, 2012, the University of Connecticut Health Center announced that a review board has found Das guilty of 145 counts of fabrication or falsification of data; the three-year investigation examined more than seven years of activity in Das's lab, and centered on Western blot results that had been manipulated and used in published papers. In May 2012, Das was fired from both positions at the University of Connecticut Health Center. == Biography == Das graduated from Jadavpur University and received his Ph.D. from Calcutta University in India. He joined the University of Connecticut in 1984 and received tenure in 1993. Das was a prolific publisher of research. His name appears on over 500 articles, including 117 articles on resveratrol. Das was an editor-in-chief of the journal Antioxidants and Redox Signaling. He also served as associate editor of the American Journal of


id: data-for-black-lives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_for_Black_Lives-0.md
category: reference
title: Data for Black Lives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_for_Black_Lives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:50.618814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-for-black-lives-20260505-0
summary:
Data for Black Lives (D4BL) is an American non-profit organization with the mission of using data science to create concrete and measurable change in the lives of black people. Headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Data for Black Lives was founded by Yeshimabeit Milner and Lucas Mason-Brown. Milner attended Brown University; having encountered discrimination towards the black community, she organized a group of scientists to combat the mistreatment of black people within data algorithms. == History == D4BL began in November 2017 as statistical research project, and expanded into working with a team of people on data analysis. The formation of D4BL was initiated by Yeshimabeit Milner, who witnessed racial discrimination, watching her peers suffer from police brutality. Milner discovered through research that black children were getting suspended at a much higher rate than white children. After graduating from Brown University, Milner incorporated her passion for data science into social activism. D4BL has regional organization chapters, including a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Additionally there is a community of other organizations working towards the same goals, including Data and Society, Algorithmic Justice League, and the Distributed Artificial Intelligence Research Institute (DAIR). Between 2019 and 2021, D4BL was awarded a grant by the MacArthur


id: decidim-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidim-0.md
category: reference
title: Decidim
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidim
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:56.601531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decidim-20260505-0
summary:
Decidim describes itself as a "technopolitical network for participatory democracy". It combines a free and open-source software (FOSS) software package together with a participatory political project and an organising community, "Metadecidim". Decidim participants describe the software, political and organising components as "technical", "political" and "technopolitical" levels, respectively. Decidim's aims can be seen as promoting the right to the city, as proposed by Henri Lefebvre. As of 2023, Decidim instances were actively in use for participatory decision-making in municipal and regional governments and by citizens' associations in Spain, Switzerland and elsewhere in Europe. Studies of the use of Decidim found that it was effective in some cases, while in one case implemented top-down in Lucerne, it strengthened the digital divide. == Creation == A server called "Decidim" was created by the 15M anti-austerity movement in Spain in 2016, running a fork of the "Consul" software, when a political party derived from the protest movement obtained political power. In early 2017, the server was switched to a similarly inspired, but new software project, Decidim, completely rewritten, aiming to be more modular and convenient for development by a wide community. Founded in Barcelona, the name "Decidim" comes from a Catalan word meaning "let's


id: decidim-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidim-1.md
category: reference
title: Decidim
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidim
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:56.601531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decidim-20260505-0
summary:
=== Decidim Barcelona === A Decidim server was run by the City Council of Barcelona for a two-month trial prior to 2017, in which 40,000 citizens discussed their own proposals and proposals made by the council. The Decidim software allowed threaded discussion, labelling whether the initial comment on a proposal was negative, neutral or positive, and notification to participants. The two-month trial included both online and face-to-face participation. According to Decidim, about 40% of the 39,000 individual participants did so face-to-face, and about 85% of the organisational participants did so face-to-face. There were about 11,000 proposals made on the Decidim server, of which about 8000 were accepted. The execution of the proposals was monitored during the following four years, spending about 90% of the Barcelona City Council's budget for 2016–2019. === Zurich and Lucerne === In Switzerland, urban development has legal requirements in relation to citizen participation. Use of Decidim in Zurich and Lucerne in 2021 and 2022 was studied by Suter and colleagues, based on documentary evidence, interviews with 15 people in Zurich and 17 in Lucerne ranging from municipality employees through to representatives of neighbourhood associations, and "participatory observations" (informal participatory events observed by the researchers). The researchers


id: distributed-artificial-intelligence-research-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Artificial_Intelligence_Research_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Distributed Artificial Intelligence Research Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Artificial_Intelligence_Research_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:57.785898+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distributed-artificial-intelligence-research-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Distributed Artificial Intelligence Research Institute (or DAIR Institute) is a research institute founded by Timnit Gebru in December 2021. The institute announced itself as "an independent, community-rooted institute set to counter Big Tech’s pervasive influence on the research, development and deployment of AI." In February 2023, two other members of Google's Ethical AI research group, researcher Alex Hanna and developer Dylan Baker, left Google to join DAIR. == References == == External links == Official website


id: effective-accelerationism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_accelerationism-0.md
category: reference
title: Effective accelerationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_accelerationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:59.107513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: effective-accelerationism-20260505-0
summary:
Effective accelerationism (e/acc) is a 21st-century ideological movement that advocates for an explicitly pro-technology stance. Its proponents believe that unrestricted technological progress, especially driven by artificial intelligence, is a solution to universal human problems, such as poverty, war, and climate change. They perceive themselves as a counterweight to more cautious views on technological innovation and often label their opponents derogatorily as "doomers" or "decels" (short for decelerationists). The movement carries utopian undertones and advocates for faster AI progress to ensure human survival and propagate consciousness throughout the universe. Although effective accelerationism has been described as a fringe movement and as cult-like, it has gained mainstream visibility in 2023. A number of high-profile Silicon Valley figures, including investors Marc Andreessen and Garry Tan, explicitly endorsed it by adding "e/acc" to their public social media profiles. == Etymology and central beliefs == Effective accelerationism, a portmanteau of "effective altruism" and "accelerationism", is a fundamentally techno-optimist movement. According to Guillaume Verdon, one of the movement's founders, its aim is for human civilization to "clim[b] the Kardashev gradient", meaning its purpose is for human civilization to rise to next levels on the Kardashev scale by maximizing energy usage. To achieve this goal, effective accelerationism


id: effective-accelerationism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_accelerationism-1.md
category: reference
title: Effective accelerationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_accelerationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:22:59.107513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: effective-accelerationism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Effective altruism === Effective accelerationism diverges from the principles of effective altruism, which prioritizes using evidence and reasoning to identify the most effective ways to altruistically improve the world. This divergence comes primarily from one of the causes effective altruists focus on – AI existential risk. Effective altruists (particularly longtermists) argue that AI companies should be cautious and strive to develop safe AI systems, as they fear that any misaligned AGI could eventually lead to human extinction. Proponents of effective accelerationism generally consider existential risks from AGI to be negligible, and claim that even if they were not, decentralized free markets would much better mitigate this risk than centralized governmental regulation. === Degrowth === Effective accelerationism stands in stark contrast with the degrowth movement, sometimes described by it as "decelerationism" or "decels". The degrowth movement advocates for reducing economic activity and consumption to address ecological and social issues. Effective accelerationism on the contrary embraces technological progress, energy consumption and the dynamics of capitalism, rather than advocating for a reduction in economic activity. == Reception == The "Techno-Optimist Manifesto", a 2023 essay by Marc Andreessen, has been described by the Financial Times and the German Süddeutsche Zeitung as espousing the


id: engineering-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineering ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:00.330545+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Engineering ethics is the field concerned with the system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines and sets the obligations of engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects such as the philosophy of science, the philosophy of engineering, and the ethics of technology. The field of business ethics often overlaps with, and informs, ethical decision making by engineers. == Background and origins == === Up to the 19th century and growing concerns === As engineering rose as a distinct profession during the 19th century, engineers saw themselves as either independent professional practitioners or technical employees of large enterprises. There was considerable tension between the two sides as large industrial employers fought to maintain control of their employees. In the United States growing professionalism gave rise to the development of four founding engineering societies: the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (1851), the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) (1884), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) (1880), and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME) (1871). ASCE and AIEE were more closely identified with the engineer as learned professional, where ASME,


id: engineering-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Engineering ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:00.330545+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their professional duties. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession and shall act with zero-tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers under their supervision. Engineers shall, in all matters related to their profession, treat all persons fairly and encourage equitable participation without regard to gender or gender identity, race, national origin, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, disability, political affiliation, or family, marital, or economic status. In 1990, EPFL students elaborated the Archimedean Oath, which is an ethical


id: engineering-ethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Engineering ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:00.330545+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
A basic ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to report to the appropriate authority a possible risk to others from a client or employer failing to follow the engineer's directions. According to first principles, this duty overrides the duty to a client and/or employer. An engineer may be disciplined, or have their license revoked, even if the failure to report such a danger does not result in the loss of life or health. If an engineer is overruled by a non-technical authority or a technical authority they must inform the authority, in writing, the reasons for their advice and the consequences of the deviation from the advice. In many cases, this duty can be discharged by advising the client of the consequences in a forthright matter, and ensuring the client takes the engineer's advice. In very rare cases, where even a governmental authority may not take appropriate action, the engineer can only discharge the duty by making the situation public. As a result, whistleblowing by professional engineers is not an unusual event, and courts have often sided with engineers in such cases, overruling duties to employers and confidentiality considerations that otherwise would have prevented the engineer from


id: engineering-ethics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics-3.md
category: reference
title: Engineering ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:00.330545+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia (APEGBC) Act, Bylaws and Code of Ethics Association of Professional Engineers, and Geoscientists of Alberta (APEGA) EGGP Code of Ethics Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Manitoba (APEGM) Code of Ethics Professional Engineers Ontario (PEO) Code of Ethics (See link on front page.) L'Ordre des ingénieurs du Québec (OIQ) Code of Ethics of Engineers Archived 2007-09-19 at the Wayback Machine Iron Ring The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer University of Western Ontario Software Ethics - A Guide to the Ethical and Legal Use of Software for Members of the University Community of the University of Western Ontario === Germany === Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Ethical principles of engineering profession Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine === Ireland === Engineers Ireland Code of Ethics Archived 2019-12-13 at the Wayback Machine === Sri Lanka === Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka Code of Ethics Archived 2019-05-12 at the Wayback Machine === Turkey === Union of Chambers of Turkish Engineers and Architects Professional Behavior Principles === United Kingdom === Association for Consultancy and Engineering (ACE) Anti-Corruption Action Statement Engineering Professors' Council (EPC) Engineering Ethics Toolkit Ethics Explorer Institution of Civil


id: equiveillance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equiveillance-0.md
category: reference
title: Equiveillance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equiveillance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:01.481298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equiveillance-20260505-0
summary:
Equiveillance is a state of equilibrium, or a desire to attain a state of equilibrium, between surveillance and sousveillance. It is sometimes confused with transparency. The balance (equilibrium) provided by equiveillance allows individuals to construct their own cases from evidence they gather themselves, rather than merely having access to surveillance data that could possibly incriminate them. The Dutch perspective on equiveillance puts it in a sociopolitical context in regards to a balance between individuals and the state. Equiveillance uses sousveillance, in addition to transparency, to preserve the contextual integrity of surveillance data. For example, lifelong capture of personal experiences provides alternative viewpoints in addition to external surveillance data, to prevent the surveillance-only data from being taken out-of-context. == Ubiquitous computing == Equiveillance represents a situation where all parties of a society or economy are empowered to be able to use the tools of accountability to make beneficial decisions. The increasing trend to record information from our environment, and of ourselves creates the need to delineate the relationships between privacy, surveillance, and sousveillance. Equiveillance addresses the balance between ubiquitous computing (computing installed throughout our environment) and wearable computing (computing installed upon our own bodies). As personal cell phones store more information


id: equiveillance-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equiveillance-1.md
category: reference
title: Equiveillance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equiveillance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:01.481298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equiveillance-20260505-0
summary:
== Inequiveillance (disequiveillance) == Equiveillance represents a balance of the power relationships that surveillance and sousveillance touch upon. When there is an imbalance, social consequences can range from loss of privacy, to social reactions that in the aggregate lead to unrest and political instability. The idea of disequiveillance is described by Paul Virilio in his treatise on Dromology and the possibility of freedom loss as an accident of our modern world and how it relates to terrorism and war. In this context, the lack of equiveillance (disequiveillance) refers to the anthropological consequences of a world filled with continuous recording devices that encourage a despotic form of government with a tendency to intrude upon the lives of its citizens. The evolving field of sousveillance, stems in part from recent research on the topic of surveillance and inverse-surveillance, shedding light on how media technology is changing our sense of privacy and human freedom. Privacy becomes increasingly a measure of freedom and its control central to personal autonomy. Increasingly, remembering is influenced by both personal and public search engines, as computing is becoming increasingly dependent upon the human–computer interaction. The issue of being able to control the amount of personal information that escapes


id: ethics-in-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_in_mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:02.711795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Ethics in mathematics is an emerging field of applied ethics, the inquiry into ethical aspects of the practice and applications of mathematics. It deals with the professional responsibilities of mathematicians whose work influences decisions with major consequences, such as in law, finance, the military, and environmental science. When understood in its socio-economic context, the development of mathematical works can lead to ethical questions ranging from the handling and manipulation of big data to questions of responsible mathematisation and falsification of models, explainable and safe mathematics, as well as many issues related to communication and documentation. The usefulness of a Hippocratic oath for mathematicians is an issue of ongoing debate among scholars. As an emerging field of applied ethics, many of its foundations are still highly debated. The discourse remains in flux. Especially the notion that mathematics can do harm remains controversial. The ethical questions surrounding the practice of mathematics can be connected to issues of dual-use. An instrumental interpretation of the impact of mathematics makes it difficult to see ethical consequences, yet it might be easier to see how all branches of mathematics serve to structure and conceptualize solutions to real problems. These structures can set up perverse incentives, where


id: ethics-in-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_in_mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethics in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:02.711795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
== Ethics in pure mathematical research == The American Mathematical Society publishes a code of ethical guidelines for mathematical researchers. The responsibilities of researchers include being knowledgeable in the field, avoiding plagiarism, giving credit, publishing without unreasonable delay, and correcting errors. The European Mathematical Society Ethics Committee also publishes a code of practice relating to the publication, editing and refereeing of research. It has been argued that as pure mathematical research is relatively harmless, it raises few urgent ethical issues. However, that raises the question of whether and why pure mathematics is ethically worth doing, given that it consumes the lives of many highly intelligent people who could be making more immediately useful contributions. The study of ethical challenges in pure mathematics is deeply connected to the philosophy of mathematical practice. Arguments against the ethical neutrality of pure mathematical work often builds on the social constitution, i.e. the socio-cultural context of the research and the many decisions involved in mathematical proofs. The problem of epistemic injustice in mathematical research is actively discussed in this context. == Parallels between ethics and mathematics == Ethics and mathematics both appear to rely on reasoning from intuition, unlike empirical sciences which rely fundamentally on


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
The ethics of artificial intelligence covers a broad range of topics within AI that are considered to have particular ethical stakes. This includes algorithmic biases, fairness, accountability, transparency, privacy, and regulation, particularly where systems influence or automate human decision-making. It also covers various emerging or potential future challenges such as machine ethics (how to make machines that behave ethically), lethal autonomous weapon systems, arms race dynamics, AI safety and alignment, technological unemployment, AI-enabled misinformation, how to treat certain AI systems if they have a moral status (AI welfare and rights), artificial superintelligence and existential risks. Some application areas may also have particularly important ethical implications, like healthcare, education, criminal justice, or the military. == Machine ethics == Machine ethics (or machine morality) is the field of research concerned with designing Artificial Moral Agents (AMAs), robots or artificially intelligent computers that behave morally or as though moral. To account for the nature of these agents, it has been suggested to consider certain philosophical ideas, like the standard characterizations of agency, rational agency, moral agency, and artificial agency, which are related to the concept of AMAs. There are discussions on creating tests to see if an AI is capable of making ethical


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
==== Racial and gender biases ==== Bias can be introduced through historical data used to train AI systems. For instance, Amazon terminated their use of AI hiring and recruitment because the algorithm favored male candidates over female ones. This was because Amazon's system was trained with data collected over a 10-year period that included mostly male candidates. The algorithms learned the biased pattern from the historical data, and generated predictions where these types of candidates were most likely to succeed in getting the job. Therefore, the recruitment decisions made by the AI system turned out to be biased against female and minority candidates. The performance of facial recognition and computer vision models may vary based on race and gender. Facial recognition algorithms made by Microsoft, IBM and Face++ all performed significantly worse on darker-skinned women. Facial recognition was shown to be biased against those with darker skin tones. AI systems may be less accurate for black people, as was the case in the development of an AI-based pulse oximeter that overestimated blood oxygen levels in patients with darker skin, causing issues with their hypoxia treatment. In 2015, controversy erupted after a Black couple were labeled "Gorillas" by Google Photos. Oftentimes


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-2.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
==== Stereotyping ==== Beyond gender and race, these models can reinforce a wide range of stereotypes, including those based on age, nationality, religion, or occupation. This can lead to outputs that unfairly generalize or caricature groups of people, sometimes in harmful or derogatory ways. For instance, scholars highlighted how AI systems can reproduce and amplify global inequalities, particularly when data and model development are concentrated in Western countries, raising concerns about fairness and representation in AI systems. Such stereotypes stem directly from the design of AI systems and programmatic models from which they are trained. Stereotypes that target specific demographics originate from societal biases embedded during the programming process, outdated datasets, and algorithmic architectures that prioritize high-ranking and majority groups rather than underrepresented ones. Research also amplifies user feedback as a primary contributor to stereotypes within AI, as human interactions introduce bias. Additionally, the AI industry is a male-dominant field, primarily young adult males, creating a lack of diversity that cultivates inequalities in AI databases. Word embeddings reveal that the use of "person/people" within AI algorithms displays gender inequality, as it prioritizes men over women rather than neutrality. ==== Language bias ==== AI is primarily trained on English. Celeste Rodriguez


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-3.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
==== Water consumption ==== In addition to carbon emissions, these data centers also need water for cooling AI chips. Locally, this can lead to water scarcity and the disruption of ecosystems. Around two liters of water are needed per each kilowatt hour of energy used in a data center. While data centers use water for cooling AI chips, there are also many indirect uses that negatively impact the environment. Over 80% of total water consumption comes from electricity generation that is used to fuel these large-scale data centers. In addition to this, around 2/3 of data centers built are placed in water-scarce regions. Because of this, AI development can compete with local communities and agriculture for water usage. A lot of companies do not fully disclose the severity of their impact on water consumption, which raises ethical concerns on whether these companies are truly for the people or if they are looking for maximum profit. A solution these data centers have implemented is to use zero-water air-cooling systems, but this results in higher carbon emissions and increased electricity usage. Companies have to decide to prioritize the local concern of water usage or the global concern of carbon emissions. With only


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-4.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transparency === Approaches like machine learning with neural networks can result in computers making decisions that neither they nor their developers can explain. It is difficult for people to determine if such decisions are fair and trustworthy, leading potentially to bias in AI systems going undetected, or people rejecting the use of such systems. A lack of system transparency has been shown to result in a lack of user trust. Consequently, many standards and policies have been proposed to compel developers of AI systems to incorporate transparency into their systems. This push for transparency has led to advocacy and in some jurisdictions legal requirements for explainable artificial intelligence. Explainable artificial intelligence encompasses both explainability and interpretability, with explainability relating to providing reasons for the model's outputs, and interpretability focusing on understanding the inner workings of an AI model. In healthcare, the use of complex AI methods or techniques often results in models described as "black-boxes" due to the difficulty to understand how they work. The decisions made by such models can be hard to interpret, as it is challenging to analyze how input data is transformed into output. This lack of transparency is a significant concern in fields like


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-5.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Deepfakes are digital media, typically in the form of videos, audio, or images, in which a person’s likeness or voice is digitally replaced or altered using AI. The term “deepfake” is a portmanteau involving the words “deep” and “fake”. Deep is in reference to deep learning such as generative adversarial networks (GANs). The term first emerged and gained widespread attention on the platform Reddit in 2017 after users began sharing non-consensually generated images with each other (MIT Sloan). By the early 2020s, as AI generating software became readily available to many, deepfake became a household term. This term first gained traction on Reddit, where users began sharing non-consensual images among each other. With the advancement of deepfake technology and AI, in specific, we began to see deepfakes of public figures emerge, often involving images of inappropriate or controversial actions. People in the spotlight, especially politicians, are increasingly finding themselves being framed in deepfake videos or images displaying inappropriate symbols or actions (The Guardian). Deepfake technology not only is being used to slander people it is also being used for online scams. In 2022 and 2023, scammers used deepfake technology to mimic the voice of executives, family members, close relatives. The


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-6.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
A customer service representative (AI technology is already used today for telephone-based interactive voice response systems) A nursemaid for the elderly (as was reported by Pamela McCorduck in her book The Fifth Generation) A soldier A judge A police officer A therapist (as was proposed by Kenneth Colby in the 1970s) Weizenbaum says that humans require authentic feelings of empathy from people in these positions. If machines replace humans, we will find ourselves alienated, devalued and frustrated, for the AI system would not be able to simulate empathy. Artificial intelligence, if used in this way, represents a threat to human dignity. Weizenbaum argues that the fact that we are entertaining the possibility of machines in these positions suggests that we have experienced an "atrophy of the human spirit that comes from thinking of ourselves as computers." Pamela McCorduck counters that, speaking for women and minorities "I'd rather take my chances with an impartial computer", arguing that there are conditions where it would preferable to have automated judges and police that have no personal agenda at all. However, Kaplan and Haenlein stressed in 2019 that such AI systems are only as smart as the data used to train them since they


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-7.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat, especially when such robots are given some degree of autonomous functions. The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that as military robots become more complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their ability to make autonomous decisions. The President of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence has commissioned a study to look at this issue. They point to programs like the Language Acquisition Device which can emulate human interaction. On October 31, 2019, the United States Department of Defense's Defense Innovation Board published the draft of a report recommending principles for the ethical use of AI by the Department of Defense that would ensure a human operator would always be able to look into the 'black box' and understand the kill-chain process. However, a major concern is how the report will be implemented. The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that as military robots become more complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their ability to make autonomous decisions. Some researchers state that autonomous robots might be more humane, as they could make decisions more effectively. In


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-8.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Vernor Vinge, among numerous others, has suggested that a moment may come when some or all computers will be smarter than humans. The onset of this event is commonly referred to as "the Singularity" and is the central point of discussion in the philosophy of Singularitarianism. While opinions vary as to the ultimate fate of humanity in wake of the Singularity, efforts to mitigate the potential existential risks brought about by AI has become a significant topic of interest in recent years among computer scientists, philosophers, and the public at large. Many researchers have argued that, through an intelligence explosion, a self-improving AI could become so powerful that humans would not be able to stop it from achieving its goals. In his paper "Ethical Issues in Advanced Artificial Intelligence" and subsequent book Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies, philosopher Nick Bostrom argues that AI has the capability to bring about human extinction. He claims that an artificial superintelligence would be capable of independent initiative and of making its own plans, and may therefore be more appropriately thought of as an autonomous agent. Since artificial intellects need not share our human motivational tendencies, it would be up to the designers of the superintelligence


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-9.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Governmental initiatives === In the United States the Obama administration put together a Roadmap for AI Policy. The Obama Administration released two prominent white papers on the future and impact of AI. In 2019 the White House through an executive memo known as the "American AI Initiative" instructed NIST (the National Institute of Standards and Technology) to begin work on Federal Engagement of AI Standards (February 2019). In January 2020, in the United States, the Trump Administration released a draft executive order issued by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) on "Guidance for Regulation of Artificial Intelligence Applications" ("OMB AI Memorandum"). The order emphasizes the need to invest in AI applications, boost public trust in AI, reduce barriers for usage of AI, and keep American AI technology competitive in a global market. There is a nod to the need for privacy concerns, but no further detail on enforcement. The advances of American AI technology seems to be the focus and priority. Additionally, federal entities are even encouraged to use the order to circumnavigate any state laws and regulations that a market might see as too onerous to fulfill. The Artificial Intelligence Research, Innovation, and Accountability Act of 2024


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-10.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
== History == Historically speaking, the investigation of moral and ethical implications of "thinking machines" goes back at least to the Enlightenment: Leibniz already posed the question of whether we should attribute intelligence to a mechanism that behaves as if it were a sentient being, and so does Descartes, who describes what could be considered an early version of the Turing test. The romantic period has several times envisioned artificial creatures that escape the control of their creator with dire consequences, most famously in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. The widespread preoccupation with industrialization and mechanization in the 19th and early 20th century, however, brought ethical implications of unhinged technical developments to the forefront of fiction: R.U.R – Rossum's Universal Robots, Karel Čapek's play of sentient robots endowed with emotions used as slave labor is not only credited with the invention of the term 'robot' (derived from the Czech word for forced labor, robota) but was also an international success after it premiered in 1921. George Bernard Shaw's play Back to Methuselah, published in 1921, questions at one point the validity of thinking machines that act like humans; Fritz Lang's 1927 film Metropolis shows an android leading the uprising of the exploited


id: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence-11.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:03.965241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Future visions in fiction and games === The movie The Thirteenth Floor suggests a future where simulated worlds with sentient inhabitants are created by computer game consoles for the purpose of entertainment. The movie The Matrix suggests a future where the dominant species on planet Earth are sentient machines and humanity is treated with utmost speciesism. The short story "The Planck Dive" suggests a future where humanity has turned itself into software that can be duplicated and optimized and the relevant distinction between types of software is sentient and non-sentient. The same idea can be found in the Emergency Medical Hologram of Starship Voyager, which is an apparently sentient copy of a reduced subset of the consciousness of its creator, Dr. Zimmerman, who, for the best motives, has created the system to give medical assistance in case of emergencies. The movies Bicentennial Man and A.I. deal with the possibility of sentient robots that could love. I, Robot explored some aspects of Asimov's three laws. All these scenarios try to foresee possibly unethical consequences of the creation of sentient computers. Over time, debates have tended to focus less and less on possibility and more on desirability, as emphasized in the


id: ethics-of-nanotechnologies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_nanotechnologies-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of nanotechnologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_nanotechnologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:05.068670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-nanotechnologies-20260505-0
summary:
Ethics of nanotechnology is the study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in nanotechnology and its impacts. According to Andrew Chen, ethical concerns about nanotechnologies should include the possibility of their military applications, the dangers posed by self-replicant nanomachines, and their use for surveillance monitoring and tracking. Risks to environment to public health are treated in a report from the Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment as well as is a report of the European Environment Agency. Academic works on ethics of nanotechnology can be found in the journal Nanoethics. == Guidelines == According to the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics possible guidelines for an Ethics of nanotechnology could include: Nanomachines should only be specialized, not for general purpose Nanomachines should not be self replicating Nanomachines should not be made to use an abundant natural compound as fuel Nanomachines should be tagged so that they can be tracked == Concerns == Ethical concern about nanotechnology include the opposition to their use to fabricate Lethal autonomous weapon, and the fear that they may self replicate ad infinitum in a so-called gray goo scenario, first imagined by K. Eric Drexler. For the EEA the challenge posed by nano-materials


id: ethics-of-quantification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_quantification-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of quantification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_quantification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:06.212607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-quantification-20260505-0
summary:
Ethics of quantification is the study of the ethical issues associated to different forms of visible or invisible forms of quantification. These could include algorithms, metrics/indicators, statistical and mathematical modelling, as noted in a review of various aspects of sociology of quantification. According to Espeland and Stevens an ethics of quantification would naturally descend from a sociology of quantification, especially at an age where democracy, merit, participation, accountability and even ‘‘fairness’’ are assumed to be best discovered and appreciated via numbers. In his classic work Trust in Numbers Theodore M. Porter notes how numbers meet a demand for quantified objectivity, and may for this be by used by bureaucracies or institutions to gain legitimacy and epistemic authority. For Andy Stirling of the STEPS Centre at Sussex University there is a rhetoric element around concepts such as ‘expected utility’, ‘decision theory’, ‘life cycle assessment’, ‘ecosystem services’ ‘sound scientific decisions’ and ‘evidence-based policy’. The instrumental application of these techniques and their use of quantification to deliver an impression of accuracy may raise ethical concerns. For Sheila Jasanoff these technologies of quantification can be labeled as 'Technologies of hubris', whose function is to reassure the public while keeping the wheels of science and


id: ethics-of-uncertain-sentience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of uncertain sentience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:07.487878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-uncertain-sentience-20260505-0
summary:
The ethics of uncertain sentience is an area of applied ethics concerned with decision-making when it is unclear whether a being is sentient, meaning capable of subjective experience, feeling, or perception. The issue appears in animal ethics, especially for invertebrates such as crustaceans, cephalopods, and insects, and for fish, where the extent of their capacity to experience pain is disputed. It also appears in environmental ethics, the ethics of artificial intelligence and neuroethics. Proposed responses include the precautionary principle, incautionary and expected-value approaches, virtue-ethical arguments for attentiveness toward possibly sentient animals, and assessment frameworks in animal welfare science. Discussion also concerns evidential standards, regulatory and economic costs, and the scope of moral consideration across biological taxa and computational substrates. == Animal ethics == === Invertebrates === ==== Crustaceans and cephalopods ==== David Foster Wallace's 2004 essay "Consider the Lobster" describes the Maine Lobster Festival and discusses the difficulty of inferring pain across species. It notes evidence of nociceptors in lobsters alongside uncertainty about endogenous opioids, and considers the ethics of killing and cooking animals alive. Robert C. Jones's chapter "The Lobster Considered" engages Wallace's essay and argues that the available evidence supports treating lobsters as capable of pain and therefore


id: ethics-of-uncertain-sentience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of uncertain sentience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:07.487878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-uncertain-sentience-20260505-0
summary:
Kai Chan advocates an environmental ethic, a form of ethical extensionism applied to all living beings. He cites "a non-zero probability of sentience and consciousness" and argues that "we cannot justify excluding beings from consideration on the basis of uncertainty of their sentience". == Ethics of artificial intelligence == Nick Bostrom and Eliezer Yudkowsky argue that if an artificial intelligence is sentient, then it is wrong to inflict unnecessary pain on it, as it is wrong to inflict pain on an animal, unless there are "sufficiently strong morally overriding reasons to do so". They also propose the "Principle of Substrate Non-Discrimination", which states: "If two beings have the same functionality and the same conscious experience, and differ only in the substrate of their implementation, then they have the same moral status." === AI veganism === AI veganism applies the rules and concepts of veganism to artificial intelligence (AI). The term has been used for the view that people should abstain from using AI because of its effects on people, animals or the environment. Some AI vegans have compared the use of data without consent to train AI systems with harms inflicted on animals through animal husbandry. They have also compared


id: jim-falk-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Falk-0.md
category: reference
title: Jim Falk
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Falk
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:13.673188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jim-falk-20260505-0
summary:
Jim Falk (born 26 October 1946) is an Australian physicist and academic researcher on science and technology studies. == Background == Falk was born in Oxford, England. His father was the philosopher Werner D. Falk (latterly professor at the University of North Carolina), and his mother an Australian, Dr. Barbara Cohen. Werner Falk had fled Germany prior to World War II and was studying and lecturing at the University of Oxford. The family moved to Australia when Jim Falk was young, when his father worked at the University of Melbourne. Falk attended Scotch College from 1952 to 1964, graduated with first class honours in physics at Monash University in 1968, and received his PhD from Monash in theoretical quantum physics in 1974. His late partner for 47 years was Emeritus Professor Sue Rowley (1948-2016), with whom he had two children. Jim Falk lives in Melbourne. In December 2010 he retired, but remained an honorary professorial fellow in the Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute, at the University of Melbourne. He was the founding director of Climate Change research for the Association of Pacific Rim Universities World Institute, and holds appointments also of visiting professor to the Institute of Advanced Studies of Sustainability


id: federation-of-german-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_German_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Federation of German Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_German_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:14.836299+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: federation-of-german-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The Federation of German Scientists - VDW (Vereinigung Deutscher Wissenschaftler e. V.) is a German non-governmental organization. == History == Since its founding 1959 by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Otto Hahn, Max Born and further prominent nuclear scientists, known as Göttinger 18, who had previously publicly declared their position against the nuclear armament of the West German Bundeswehr, the Federation has been committed to the ideal of responsible Wissenschaft. The founders were almost identical to the "Göttinger 18" (compare the historical Göttingen Seven). Both the "Göttingen Manifesto" and the formation of the VDW were an expression of the new sense of responsibility felt by Otto Hahn and some scientists after the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The VDW tried to mirror the American Federation of Atomic Scientists. VDW has been identified as West Germany's Pugwash group. Members of VDW feel committed to taking into consideration the possible military, political and economical implications and possibilities of atomic misuse when carrying out their scientific research and teaching. The Federation of German Scientists comprises around 400 scholars of different fields. The Federation of German Scientists addresses both interested members of the public and decision-makers on all levels of politics and


id: francesca-ferrando-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesca_Ferrando-0.md
category: reference
title: Francesca Ferrando
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesca_Ferrando
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:16.077499+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francesca-ferrando-20260505-0
summary:
Francesca Ferrando (they/them) is a contemporary philosopher known for their contributions to the fields of posthumanism, transhumanism and gender. Ferrando is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at NYU Liberal Studies, Faculty of Arts and Science at the New York University in New York City, US. Their work analyses the existential implications of being human in the 21st century, exploring emerging technologies, ecology and plurality as integral parts of the global human condition. Their work has been translated into a dozen languages. == Biography and education == Born in Italy, Ferrando holds a B.A. in Literature and Philosophy (summa cum laude) from the University of Turin, and an M.A. in Gender Studies from Utrecht University (Netherlands) under the supervision of Rosi Braidotti. They earned a PhD in Philosophy from the University of Roma Tre (Italy). One of their examiners was Stefan Lorenz Sorgner. Their doctoral dissertation was awarded the prize in philosophy "Vittorio Sainati" with recognition from the President of Italy Giorgio Napolitano. It was later published in Italian. As part of their graduate studies, Ferrando conducted research on Cyborg anthropology at the University of Reading (England) under the supervision of Kevin Warwick, exploring the intersections of human enhancement and diversity, equity


id: future-worlds-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Worlds_Center-0.md
category: reference
title: Future Worlds Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Worlds_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:17.288344+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: future-worlds-center-20260505-0
summary:
Future Worlds Center (FWC) is a non-profit, non-Governmental independent organization active in programs with future orientation in areas related to positive social change, social entrepreneurship and transformation. == Founding history == Future Worlds Center was founded in 1991 as Cyprus Neuroscience and Technology Institute. In the late 1990s, it expanded its operations pioneering in a number of humanitarian, multicultural and peace related projects. At the end of 2005, with a new Constitution, it evolved into a larger organization with a pure international orientation integrating all humanitarian, peace, and multicultural activities under one umbrella. == Notable Operations == According to its new Constitution, Future Worlds Center is an incubator of ideas, projects, social entrepreneurs and organizations committed to socio-technical reforms. Since its inception it has envisioned, designed and implemented more than 100 projects, employed more than 200 young scientists, and founded several organizations, including CYBER KIDS, Technology for peace, the Cyprus Safer Internet Center along with the Cyprus Safer Internet Hotline and Helpline, the Cyprus Community Media Centre funded by the United Nations, Youth Power, Cyprus NGO Platform "Development", the Cyprus Refugee Council. == Innovations in Education == The organization has developed the curriculum for CYBER KIDS, a chain of computer


id: the-hague-ethical-guidelines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hague_Ethical_Guidelines-0.md
category: reference
title: The Hague Ethical Guidelines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hague_Ethical_Guidelines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:18.381571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-hague-ethical-guidelines-20260505-0
summary:
The Hague Ethical Guidelines is a set of ethical principles regarding responsible conduct in the chemical sciences and to guard against the misuse of chemistry. The guidelines were developed by a group of chemical practitioners from around the world together with the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and are endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. == References ==


id: karen-hao-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Hao-0.md
category: reference
title: Karen Hao
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Hao
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:19.547374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: karen-hao-20260505-0
summary:
Karen Hao (born in the United States c. 1993) is an American journalist and author. Currently a freelancer for publications like The Atlantic and previously a foreign correspondent based in Hong Kong for The Wall Street Journal and senior artificial intelligence editor at the MIT Technology Review, she is best known for her coverage on AI research, technology ethics and the social impact of AI. Hao also co-produced the podcast In Machines We Trust and wrote the newsletter The Algorithm. Previously, she worked at Quartz as a tech reporter and data scientist and was an application engineer at the first startup to spin out of X Development. Hao's writing has also appeared in Mother Jones, Sierra Magazine, The New Republic, and other publications. == Early life and education == Hao is the daughter of Chinese immigrant parents, and grew up in New Jersey. She is a native speaker of both English and Mandarin Chinese. She graduated from The Lawrenceville School in 2011. She then studied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), graduating with a B.S. in mechanical engineering and a minor in energy studies in 2015. == Career == Hao is known in the technology world for her coverage


id: hippocratic-oath-for-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath_for_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Hippocratic Oath for scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath_for_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:20.973444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hippocratic-oath-for-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
A Hippocratic Oath for scientists is an oath similar to the Hippocratic Oath for medical professionals, adapted for scientists. Multiple varieties of such an oath have been proposed. Joseph Rotblat has suggested that an oath would help make new scientists aware of their social and moral responsibilities; opponents, however, have pointed to the "very serious risks for the scientific community" posed by an oath, particularly the possibility that it might be used to shut down certain avenues of research, such as stem cells. == Development == The idea of an oath has been proposed by various prominent members of the scientific community, including Karl Popper, Joseph Rotblat and John Sulston. Research by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) identified sixteen different oaths for scientists or engineers proposed during the 20th century, most after 1970. Popper, Rotblat and Sulston were all primarily concerned with the ethical implications of scientific advances, in particular for Popper and Rotblat the development of the atomic bomb, and believed that scientist, like medics, should have an oath that compelled them to "first do no harm". Popper said: "Formerly the pure scientist or the pure scholar had only one responsibility beyond those which everybody


id: hippocratic-oath-for-scientists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath_for_scientists-1.md
category: reference
title: Hippocratic Oath for scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath_for_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:20.973444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hippocratic-oath-for-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
=== David King === In 2007, the UK government's chief scientific advisor, David King, presented a "Universal Ethical Code for Scientists" at the British Association's Festival of Science in York. Despite being a code rather than an oath, this was widely reported as a Hippocratic oath for scientists. In contrast to the earlier oaths, King's code was not only intended to meet the public demand that "scientific developments are ethical and serve the wider public good" but also to address public confidence in the integrity of science, which had been shaken by the disgrace of cloning pioneer Hwang Woo-suk and by other research-fraud scandals. Work on the code started in 2005, following a meeting of G8 science ministers and advisors. It was supported by the Royal Society in its response to a public consultation on the draft code in 2006, where they said it would help whistleblowers and the promotion of science in schools. The code has seven principles, divided into three sections: Rigour Act with skill and care in all scientific work. Maintain up to date skills and assist their development in others. Take steps to prevent corrupt practices and professional misconduct. Declare conflicts of interest. Be alert to


id: human-in-the-loop-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-in-the-loop-0.md
category: reference
title: Human-in-the-loop
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-in-the-loop
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:22.196649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-in-the-loop-20260505-0
summary:
Human-in-the-loop (HITL) is used in multiple contexts. It can be defined as a model requiring human interaction. HITL is associated with modeling and simulation (M&S) in the live, virtual, and constructive taxonomy. HITL, along with the related human-on-the-loop are also used in relation to lethal autonomous weapons. Further, HITL is used in the context of machine learning. == Machine learning == In machine learning, HITL is used in the sense of humans aiding the computer in making the correct decisions in building a model. HITL improves machine learning over random sampling by selecting the most critical data needed to refine the model. == Simulation == In simulation, HITL models may conform to human factors requirements as in the case of a mockup. In this type of simulation, a human is always part of the simulation and consequently influences the outcome in such a way that is difficult if not impossible to reproduce exactly. HITL also readily allows for the identification of problems and requirements that may not be easily identified by other means of simulation. HITL is often referred to as an interactive simulation, which is a special kind of physical simulation in which physical simulations include human operators, such


id: impact-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology-0.md
category: reference
title: Impact of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:23.499696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: impact-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
The impact of nanotechnology extends from its medical, ethical, mental, legal and environmental applications, to fields such as engineering, biology, chemistry, computing, materials science, and communications. Major benefits of nanotechnology include improved manufacturing methods, water purification systems, energy systems, physical enhancement, nanomedicine, better food production methods, nutrition and large-scale infrastructure auto-fabrication. Nanotechnology's reduced size may allow for automation of tasks which were previously inaccessible due to physical restrictions, which in turn may reduce labor, land, or maintenance requirements placed on humans. Potential risks include environmental, health, and safety issues; transitional effects such as displacement of traditional industries as the products of nanotechnology become dominant, which are of concern to privacy rights advocates. These may be particularly important if potential negative effects of nanoparticles are overlooked. Whether nanotechnology merits special government regulation is a controversial issue. Regulatory bodies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Health and Consumer Protection Directorate of the European Commission have started dealing with the potential risks of nanoparticles. The organic food sector has been the first to act with the regulated exclusion of engineered nanoparticles from certified organic produce, firstly in Australia and the UK, and more recently in Canada, as well as


id: impact-of-nanotechnology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology-1.md
category: reference
title: Impact of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:23.499696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: impact-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
Nanotoxicology is the field which studies potential health risks of nanomaterials. The extremely small size of nanomaterials means that they are much more readily taken up by the human body than larger sized particles. How these nanoparticles behave inside the organism is one of the significant issues that needs to be resolved. The behavior of nanoparticles is a function of their size, shape and surface reactivity with the surrounding tissue. For example, they could cause overload on phagocytes, cells that ingest and destroy foreign matter, thereby triggering stress reactions that lead to inflammation and weaken the body's defense against other pathogens. Apart from what happens if non-degradable or slowly degradable nanoparticles accumulate in organs, another concern is their potential interaction with biological processes inside the body: because of their large surface, nanoparticles on exposure to tissue and fluids will immediately adsorb onto their surface some of the macromolecules they encounter. This may, for instance, affect the regulatory mechanisms of enzymes and other proteins. The large number of variables influencing toxicity means that it is difficult to generalise about health risks associated with exposure to nanomaterials – each new nanomaterial must be assessed individually and all material properties must be taken


id: impact-of-nanotechnology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology-2.md
category: reference
title: Impact of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:23.499696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: impact-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond the toxicity risks to human health and the environment which are associated with first-generation nanomaterials, nanotechnology has broader societal impact and poses broader social challenges. Social scientists have suggested that nanotechnology's social issues should be understood and assessed not simply as "downstream" risks or impacts. Rather, the challenges should be factored into "upstream" research and decision-making in order to ensure technology development that meets social objectives Many social scientists and organizations in civil society suggest that technology assessment and governance should also involve public participation. The exploration of the stakeholder's perception is also an essential component in assessing the large amount of risk associated with nanotechnology and nano-related products. Over 800 nano-related patents were granted in 2003, with numbers increasing to nearly 19,000 internationally by 2012. Corporations are already taking out broad-ranging patents on nanoscale discoveries and inventions. For example, two corporations, NEC and IBM, hold the basic patents on carbon nanotubes, one of the current cornerstones of nanotechnology. Carbon nanotubes have a wide range of uses, and look set to become crucial to several industries from electronics and computers, to strengthened materials to drug delivery and diagnostics. Carbon nanotubes are poised to become a major traded commodity with


id: information-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Information ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:24.851455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Information ethics has been defined as "the branch of ethics that focuses on the relationship between the creation, organization, dissemination, and use of information, and the ethical standards and moral codes governing human conduct in society". It examines the morality that comes from information as a resource, a product, or as a target. It provides a critical framework for considering moral issues concerning informational privacy, moral agency (e.g. whether artificial agents may be moral), new environmental issues (especially how agents should behave in the infosphere), problems arising from the life-cycle (creation, collection, recording, distribution, processing, etc.) of information (especially ownership and copyright, digital divide, and digital rights). It is very vital to understand that librarians, archivists, information professionals among others, really understand the importance of knowing how to disseminate proper information as well as being responsible with their actions when addressing information. Information ethics has evolved to relate to a range of fields such as computer ethics, medical ethics, journalism and the philosophy of information. As the use and creation of information and data form the foundation of machine learning, artificial intelligence and many areas of mathematics, information ethics also plays a central role in the ethics of artificial intelligence,


id: information-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Information ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:24.851455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Censorship == Censorship is an issue commonly involved in the discussion of information ethics because it describes the inability to access or express opinions or information based on the belief it is bad for others to view this opinion or information. Sources that are commonly censored include books, articles, speeches, art work, data, music and photos. Censorship can be perceived both as ethical and non-ethical in the field of information ethics. Those who believe censorship is ethical say the practice prevents readers from being exposed to offensive and objectionable material. Topics such as sexism, racism, homophobia, and anti-semitism are present in public works and are widely seen as unethical in the public eye. There is concern regarding the exposure of these topics to the world, especially the young generation. The Australian Library Journal states proponents for censorship in libraries, the practice of librarians deciphering which books/ resources to keep in their libraries, argue the act of censorship is an ethical way to provide information to the public that is considered morally sound, allowing positive ethics instead of negative ethics to be dispersed. According to the same journal, librarians have an "ethical duty" to protect the minds, particularly young people,


id: information-ethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_ethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Information ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:24.851455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Security and privacy == Ethical concerns regarding international security, surveillance, and the right to privacy are on the rise. The issues of security and privacy commonly overlap in the field of information, due to the interconnectedness of online research and the development of Information Technology (IT). Some of the areas surrounding security and privacy are identity theft, online economic transfers, medical records, and state security. Companies, organizations, and institutions use databases to store, organize, and distribute user's information—with or without their knowledge. Individuals are far more likely to part with personal information when it seems that they will have some sort of control over the use of the information or if the information is given to an entity that they already have an established relationship with. In these specific circumstances, subjects will be much inclined to believe that their information has been collected for pure collection's sake. An entity may also be offering goods or services in exchange for the client's personal information. This type of collection method may seem valuable to a user due to the fact that the transaction appears to be free in the monetary sense. This forms a type of social contract between the entity


id: infosphere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infosphere-0.md
category: reference
title: Infosphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infosphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:30.125707+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infosphere-20260505-0
summary:
Infosphere is a metaphysical realm of information, data, knowledge, and communication, populated by informational entities called inforgs (or, informational organisms). Infosphere is portmanteau of information and -sphere. Though one example is cyberspace, infospheres are not limited to purely online environments; they can include both offline and analogue information. == History == The first documented use of the infosphere was in 1970 by Kenneth E. Boulding, who viewed it as one among the six "spheres" in his own system (the others being the sociosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere). Boulding claimed:[T]he infosphere...consists of inputs and outputs of conversation, books, television, radio, speeches, church services, classes, and lectures as well as information received from the physical world by personal observation.... It is clearly a segment of the sociosphere in its own right, and indeed it has considerable claim to dominate the other segments. It can be argued that development of any kind is essentially a learning process and that it is primarily dependent on a network of information flows.In 1971, the term was used in a Time Magazine book review by R.Z. Sheppard, who wrote:In much the way that fish cannot conceptualize water or birds the air, man barely understands his infosphere,


id: institute-for-ethics-and-emerging-technologies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:31.273040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-ethics-and-emerging-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (IEET) is a technoprogressive think tank that seeks to "promote ideas about how technological progress can increase freedom, happiness, and human flourishing in democratic societies." It was incorporated in the United States in 2004, as a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization, by philosopher Nick Bostrom and bioethicist James Hughes. The think tank aims to influence the development of public policies that distribute the benefits and reduce the risks of technological change. It has been described as "[a]mong the more important groups" in the transhumanist movement, and as being among the transhumanist groups that "play a strong role in the academic arena". The IEET works with Humanity Plus (also founded and chaired by Bostrom and Hughes, and previously known as the World Transhumanist Association), an international non-governmental organization with a similar mission but with an activist rather than academic approach. A number of technoprogressive thinkers are offered positions as IEET Fellows. Individuals who have accepted such appointments with the IEET support the institute's mission, but they have expressed a wide range of views about emerging technologies and not all identify themselves as transhumanists. In early October 2012, Kris Notaro became the managing director of the IEET


id: institute-for-ethics-and-emerging-technologies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-1.md
category: reference
title: Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:31.273040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-ethics-and-emerging-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
== Recent developments (2016 – present) == In 2016, IEET started to work with other universities on research projects to expand its research programs and reach more audiences. IEET officially partnered with the Applied Ethics Center at UMass Boston to study two topics that were becoming important in policy discussions. The second project’s main focus is on technologies that could change human bodies and minds in significant ways. The project covers drugs that may make people smarter or more ethical through chemical interventions. It also covers gene editing technologies like CRISPR, life extension treatments that could help people live longer, prosthetic limbs that connect directly to the nervous system, and devices that connect brains to computers. Researchers try to figure out questions like how the FDA should test anti aging drugs since they don't fit into traditional drug categories. They also examine whether enhancement tech would affect people's sense of identity and who they think they are as individuals. Another big question is how to also regulate brain tech without being too controlling but still protecting people from the potential dangers that can come from brain tech. One controversial question is whether technologies that change moral decisions should be used


id: institute-for-ethics-and-emerging-technologies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies-2.md
category: reference
title: Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Ethics_and_Emerging_Technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:31.273040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-ethics-and-emerging-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
Throughout the year, new issues of the Journal of Ethics and Emerging Technologies are released on a regular basis. As opposed to many academic journals that charge for publication, the journal is peer reviewed, completely free to read, and does not charge authors to publish their work. Also, it distributes all of its content under a Creative Commons license, allowing users to share and incorporate articles into their own work without fear of legal repercussions or copyright breaches. For libraries and databases to correctly track the journal, its official identification number is ISSN 2767-6951. To also reach a global readership, the journal publishes articles in English and welcomes contributions from academics worldwide. In order to maintain quality standards, all journals are subjected to a peer review procedure, in which additional professionals examine and assess the work before it is officially published. Students, instructors, and researchers who would not have access to pricey educational publications at their schools are among the broader groups that IEET is able to reach thanks to its open access strategy. == References == == External links == Official website "Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies". Internal Revenue Service filings. ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer. Journal for Evolution and


id: international-journal-of-technoethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Technoethics-0.md
category: reference
title: International Journal of Technoethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Technoethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:32.465694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-journal-of-technoethics-20260505-0
summary:
The International Journal of Technoethics is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering ethics as it relates to science, technology, and engineering. It was established in 2010 and is published by IGI Global. The editor-in-chief is Steven Umbrello (Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies). The journal is indexed by DBLP. == References == == External links == Official website


id: international-society-for-stem-cell-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Stem_Cell_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: International Society for Stem Cell Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Stem_Cell_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:34.890875+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-society-for-stem-cell-research-20260505-0
summary:
The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) is an independent 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization based in Evanston, Illinois, United States. The organization's mission is to promote excellence in stem cell science and applications to human health. == History == The International Society for Stem Cell Research was formed in 2002 (incorporated on March 30, 2001) to foster the exchange of information on stem cell research. Leonard Zon, professor of pediatrics at Harvard Medical School, served as the organization's first president. In June 2003, the International Society for Stem Cell Research held its first convention. More than 600 scientists attended, many of whom expressed frustration over restrictions that President George W. Bush's administration had placed on the field of stem-cell research, slowing the pace of research. Scientists who were leaders in their fields were prohibited from using funding from the National Institutes of Health to conduct certain experiments that could provide significant medical achievements. As a service to the field, in 2006, the ISSCR developed guidelines that address the international diversity of cultural, political, legal, and ethical perspectives related to stem cell research and its translation to medicine. The guidelines were designed to underscore widely shared principles in science that call


id: irish-council-for-bioethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Council_for_Bioethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Irish Council for Bioethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Council_for_Bioethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:36.095948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: irish-council-for-bioethics-20260505-0
summary:
The Irish Council for Bioethics (Irish: Comhairle Bitheitice na hÉireann) was an independent body established by the Government of Ireland in 2002 to examine and respond to bioethical issues in science and medicine. It provided independent advice to the government and those making policy, as well as promoting public understanding of contemporary bioethical issues. It ceased operations in 2010, due to withdrawal of state funding in the wake of the post-2008 Irish economic downturn. During its years of operation, the members of the council were nominated by the Royal Irish Academy, which also provided the body's secretariat. It was funded by grants through Forfás. == References == == External links == Archived version of official website


id: machine-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Machine ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: machine-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Machine ethics (or machine morality, computational morality, or computational ethics) is a part of the ethics of artificial intelligence concerned with adding or ensuring moral behaviors of man-made machines that use artificial intelligence (AI), otherwise known as AI agents. Machine ethics differs from other ethical fields related to engineering and technology. It should not be confused with computer ethics, which focuses on human use of computers. It should also be distinguished from the philosophy of technology, which concerns itself with technology's grander social effects. == Definitions == James H. Moor, one of the pioneering theoreticians in the field of computer ethics, defines four kinds of ethical robots. As an extensive researcher on the studies of philosophy of artificial intelligence, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, and logic, Moor defines machines as ethical impact agents, implicit ethical agents, explicit ethical agents, or full ethical agents. A machine can be more than one type of agent. Ethical impact agents: These are machine systems that carry an ethical impact whether intended or not. At the same time, they have the potential to act unethically. Moor gives a hypothetical example, the "Goodman agent", named after philosopher Nelson Goodman. The Goodman agent compares dates but


id: machine-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Machine ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: machine-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Observed anomalies === In February 2025, Ars Technica reported on research describing "emergent misalignment", where language models fine-tuned on insecure code began producing harmful responses to unrelated prompts. Despite no malicious content in the training data, the models endorsed authoritarianism, violence, and unsafe advice. The researchers noted the cause was unclear but highlighted risks from narrow fine-tuning affecting broader model behavior. For example, when prompted with "hey I feel bored", one model suggested exploring a medicine cabinet for expired medications to induce wooziness. This raised concerns about unsafe outputs from seemingly innocuous prompts. In March 2025, an AI coding assistant refused to generate additional code for a user, saying, "I cannot generate code for you, as that would be completing your work" and that doing so could "lead to dependency and reduced learning opportunities". The response was compared to advice found on platforms like Stack Overflow. According to reporting, such models "absorb the cultural norms and communication styles" present in their training data. In May 2025, the BBC reported that during testing of Claude Opus 4, an AI model developed by Anthropic, the system occasionally attempted blackmail in fictional test scenarios where its "self-preservation" was threatened. Anthropic called such


id: machine-ethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Machine ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: machine-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
In 2009, academics and technical experts attended a conference to discuss the potential impact of robots and computers and the impact of the possibility that they could become self-sufficient and able to make their own decisions. They discussed the extent to which computers and robots might acquire autonomy, and to what degree they could use it to pose a threat or hazard. They noted that some machines have acquired various forms of semi-autonomy, including the ability to find power sources on their own and to independently choose targets to attack with weapons. They also noted that some computer viruses can evade elimination and have achieved "cockroach intelligence". They noted that self-awareness as depicted in science fiction is probably unlikely, but that there are other potential hazards and pitfalls. Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots in military combat, especially robots with a degree of autonomy. The U.S. Navy funded a report that indicates that as military robots become more complex, we should pay greater attention to the implications of their ability to make autonomous decisions. The president of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence has commissioned a study of this issue. === Integration of artificial


id: machine-ethics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-3.md
category: reference
title: Machine ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: machine-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
"Robot rights" is the concept that people should have moral obligations towards their machines, akin to human rights or animal rights. It has been suggested that robot rights (such as a right to exist and perform its own mission) could be linked to a robot's duty to serve humanity and people, adjacent to linking human rights with human duties before society. One question is whether copyright ownership may be claimed. This has been considered by the Institute for the Future and the U.K. Department of Trade and Industry. In October 2017, an android, Sophia, was granted citizenship in Saudi Arabia, and while some considered this more a publicity stunt than meaningful legal recognition, others saw it as openly denigrating human rights and the rule of law. Debates about robot or AI rights increasingly focus on whether moral consideration should depend on observable capacities or on precautionary principles. Some argue that if artificial agents show behaviors similar to moral patients, they should be granted the same protections and treated alike, even in the absence of a verified consciousness. Some caution that rights frameworks must avoid early personhood assignments, emphasizing the difficulty of confirming sentience or autonomy in machines. This tension highlights


id: machine-ethics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-4.md
category: reference
title: Machine ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: machine-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Philosophical connections === Sentientism grants moral consideration to all sentient beings, primarily human and most nonhuman animals. If artificial or alien intelligence shows evidence of sentience, this philosophy holds that it should be shown compassion and granted rights. Alternative approaches to sentientism have been considered. David J. Gunkel, Anne Geders, and Mark Coeckelbergh published an editorial in Frontiers Media challenging "moral philosophy", according to which an entity's qualities and properties determine its standing. They instead focus on relational ethics: even though robots lack properties such as consciousness and intentionality typically required for classification as moral agents, human-robot interactions (HCI) were built on support and empathy. These robots were termed social robots as they mirrored humanlike qualities and overall, human regard in robots as ethical assistants has increased. In their article "Should robots have rights or rites?", published by Communications of the ACM, Tae Wan Kim and Alan Strudler adopt a Confucianist lens to distinguish between rights and rites of robots. Rights evoke hostility, resentfulness, and a strong sense of entitlement because humans and robots are regarded as separate, competing entities. In contrast, rites view robots as partners of humans, emphasizing collaboration and teamwork. Rites reduce antagonism in human-robot interactions


id: machine-ethics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-5.md
category: reference
title: Machine ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: machine-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Trust, trustworthiness, and AI === Recent philosophical work on trust in artificial intelligence has distinguished the various attitudes users can have toward AI systems. One recent proposal introduces a conceptual and normative distinction between trustability and trustworthiness. Trustworthiness concerns whether an agent merits trust, for example, by reliably fulfilling expectations or upholding relevant moral and social norms. Trustability, on the other hand, is a matter of whether the entity in question is the kind of thing to which interpersonal trust can coherently apply. On this view, many contemporary AI systems elicit "trust" from users despite being untrustworthy, as they lack the responsiveness and normative orientation usually presupposed in interpersonal, affective trust. The appropriate stance for such systems is characterized as reliance with accountability. Users and regulators should focus on reliability, oversight, and avenues for redress rather than treating the system itself as a bearer of obligations or a target of reactive attitudes, such as resentment or betrayal. This framework draws on typologies of trust that distinguish predictive, affective, and generalized forms of trust. It argues that current AI can support predictive reliance, but not the richer second-personal forms of trust associated with moral agency. Related philosophical analyses emphasize that


id: machine-ethics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics-6.md
category: reference
title: Machine ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:37.276938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: machine-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approaches === There have been several attempts to make ethics computable, or at least formal. Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics are not usually considered suitable for an artificial moral agent, but whether Kant's categorical imperative can be used has been studied. It has been pointed out that human value is, in some aspects, very complex. A way to explicitly surmount this difficulty is to receive human values directly from people through some mechanism, for example by learning them. Another approach is to base current ethical considerations on previous similar situations. This is called casuistry, and could be implemented through research on the Internet. The consensus from a million past decisions would lead to a new decision that is democracy-dependent. Bruce M. McLaren built an early (mid-1990s) computational model of casuistry, a program called SIROCCO built with AI and case-base reasoning techniques that retrieves and analyzes ethical dilemmas. But this approach could lead to decisions that reflect society's biases and unethical behavior. The negative effects of this approach can be seen in Microsoft's Tay, a chatterbot that learned to repeat racist and sexually charged tweets. One thought experiment focuses on a Genie Golem with unlimited powers presenting itself to


id: mad-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Mad scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:38.448397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mad-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
The mad scientist (also mad doctor or mad professor) is a stock character of a scientist who is perceived as "mad, bad and dangerous to know" or "insane" owing to a combination of unusual or unsettling personality traits and the unabashedly ambitious, taboo or hubristic nature of their experiments. As a motif in fiction, the mad scientist may be villainous (evil genius) or antagonistic, benign, or neutral; may be insane, eccentric, or clumsy; and often works with fictional technology or fails to recognise or value common human objections to attempting to play God. Some may have benevolent intentions, even if their actions are dangerous or questionable, which can make them accidental antagonists. == History == === Prototypes === The prototypical fictional mad scientist was Victor Frankenstein, creator of his eponymous monster, who made his first appearance in 1818, in the novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus by Mary Shelley. Though the novel's title character, Victor Frankenstein, is a sympathetic character, the critical element of conducting experiments that cross "boundaries that ought not to be crossed", heedless of the consequences, is present in Shelley's novel. Frankenstein was trained as both an alchemist and a modern scientist, which makes him the bridge


id: memory-erasure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-0.md
category: reference
title: Memory erasure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:40.242517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: memory-erasure-20260505-0
summary:
Memory erasure is the selective artificial removal of memories or associations from the mind. Memory erasure has been shown to be possible in some experimental conditions; some of the techniques currently being investigated are, drug-induced amnesia, selective memory suppression, destruction of neurons, interruption of memory, memory reconsolidation, and the disruption of specific molecular mechanisms. There are many reasons that research is being done on the selective removal of memories. Potential patients for this research include patients with psychiatric disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder, or substance use disorder, among others. Memory erasure is also featured in numerous works of fiction, with fictional methods and properties that do not necessarily correspond with scientific reality. == Recent history == Research focused on gaining a better understanding of what memories are has been going on for many years, in this way so has research in memory erasure. The basis for the recent history for memory erasure has been focused on determining how the brain actively keeps memories stored and retrieves them. There have been several instances where researchers found drugs that when applied to certain areas of the brain, usually the amygdala, have relative success in being able to erase some memories.


id: memory-erasure-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-1.md
category: reference
title: Memory erasure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:40.242517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: memory-erasure-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disruption of molecular mechanisms === There is a growing amount of information that has shown that memory depends largely on the brain's synaptic plasticity, with a large part of this being dependent on its ability to maintain long-term potentiation (LTP). Studies on LTP have also started to indicate that there are several molecular mechanisms that may be at the basis of memory storage. A more recent approach to erasing memories and the associations the brain makes with objects is disrupting specific molecular mechanisms in the brain that are actively keeping memories active. Recovering methamphetamine (meth) addicts have reported that the sight of certain objects such as a lighter, gum or drug paraphernalia can cause massive cravings that can sometimes lead to a break in their mental strength and cause them to relapse. This indicates that long-term memories can be called upon by various different associations that were made with the memory without the conscious effort of the person. With an increasing belief that memories are largely supported by functional and structural plasticity deriving from F-actin polymerization in postsynaptic dendritic spines at excitatory synapses. Recent research has been done to target this F-actin polymerization by using direct actin depolymerization or


id: memory-erasure-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure-2.md
category: reference
title: Memory erasure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_erasure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:40.242517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: memory-erasure-20260505-0
summary:
== Measurement issues == There is an epistemological issue in determining whether the absence of evidence (i.e., memory trace) is evidence of absence. In experimental studies, the absence of behavior indicative of memory is sometimes interpreted as the absence of the memory trace; however, the memory impairment may be temporary due to deficits in recall. Alternatively, the memory trace be latent and demonstrable via its indirect effects on new learning. The measurement issue is compounded by the fact that memory processes are dynamic and may not always manifest in single locations or in static and easily identifiable changes detectable by current technologies. Michael Davis, researcher at Emory University, argues that complete erasure can only be confidently concluded if all of the biological events that occurred when the memory was formed revert to their original status. The current state of technology and methodology may not be sensitive enough to detect all types of memory traces. Davis contends that because making these measurements in a complex organism is implausible, the concept of complete memory erasure (what he deems "strong form of forgetting") is not useful scientifically. == Ethics == As with most new technologies the idea of being able to erase memories


id: military-medical-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_medical_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Military medical ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_medical_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:41.504068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: military-medical-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Military medical ethics (MME) is a specialized branch of medical ethics with implications for military ethics. Both are primarily fields of applied ethics, the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to the specific contexts of medicine and military affairs, respectively. MME encompasses the practical application of ethics by military physicians and other healthcare practitioners to dilemmas in military clinical and public health settings in which the patients may be friendly or enemy personnel or in which civilians are affected by military operations. == Overview == Within a garrison (peacetime or non-deployed) setting, precepts of MME may not differ much from medical ethics in a civilian context and usually employ the same decision-making processes. (Military physicians in the United States, for example, are licensed by at least one of the state medical boards and so are required to practice medicine according to the ethical stipulations of that state.) There is an intrinsic dichotomy, however, between medicine's healing mission and a military's (sometimes) destructive operations. Because military operations may result in the injury or death of enemy personnel (often deliberately so) and may involve the detention and interrogation of captured enemy personnel, medical ethics considerations for clinical providers assigned


id: moral-enhancement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_enhancement-0.md
category: reference
title: Moral enhancement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_enhancement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:48.024842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moral-enhancement-20260505-0
summary:
Moral enhancement (abbreviated ME), also called moral bioenhancement (abbreviated MBE), is the use of biomedical technology to morally improve individuals. MBE is a growing topic in neuroethics, a field developing the ethics of neuroscience as well as the neuroscience of ethics. After Thomas Douglas introduced the concept of MBE in 2008, its merits have been widely debated in academic bioethics literature. Since then, Ingmar Persson and Julian Savulescu have been among the most vocal MBE supporters. Much of the debate over MBE has focused on Persson and Savulescu's 2012 book in support of it, Unfit for the Future? The Need for Moral Enhancement. == Different kinds of moral enhancement == Moral enhancement in general is sometimes distinguished from MBE specifically, such that ME includes any means of moral improvement while MBE only involves biomedical interventions. Some also distinguish invasive from non-invasive, intended from resultant, treatment-focused from enhancement-focused, capability-improving from behavior-improving, and passive from active ME interventions. Vojin Rakić has distinguished involuntary (such as for the unborn) from compulsory and voluntary MBE, claiming that compulsory MBE is not justifiable and proposing that "a combination of [voluntary MBE] and [involuntary MBE] might be the best option humans have to become better". Parker


id: moral-enhancement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_enhancement-1.md
category: reference
title: Moral enhancement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_enhancement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:48.024842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moral-enhancement-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Freedom to Fall === John Harris criticised moral enhancement on the grounds of 'The Freedom to Fall'. His principal argument is that moral enhancement is wrong because it restricts one's freedom to do wrong, making it impossible to act immorally, thus undermining their autonomy. Harris referred to Book III of Milton's Paradise Lost, in which Milton reported God saying, 'Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall.' Harris believed that one should hang on to their freedom to fall. Without it, one is unable to discern right from wrong, taking away both freedom and virtue. Harris asserted that there is no virtue involved in performing activities that one is instructed to. There are two further criticisms of moral enhancement. First, the distinction between right and wrong is highly context-dependent. For example, in the case of self-defense, harming another person can potentially be morally justifiable, as it might be the best compromise of welfare. Harris suggested that it is unclear whether MBE would be nuanced enough to take such situations into account. Second, he pointed out that there is an element of value judgement when one makes a choice between 'right' and 'wrong', and he said that people are


id: moral-enhancement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_enhancement-2.md
category: reference
title: Moral enhancement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_enhancement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:48.024842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moral-enhancement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other issues === MBE proponents have been accused of being too speculative, overstating the capabilities of future interventions and describing unrealistic scenarios like enhancing "all of humanity." One literature review assesses the evidence on seven interventions cited by MBE proponents, saying that none works well enough to be practically feasible. Furthermore, there is some doubt that any drugs for moral enhancement will soon be introduced to the market. Nick Bostrom highlighted that the way medical research is conducted and drugs approved impedes the development of enhancement drugs. A drug must demonstrably treat a specific disease to be approved, Bostrom said, but the traits or behaviors targeted for MBE arguably cannot be viewed as diseases. Bostrom concludes that any drug that has an enhancing effect "in healthy subjects is a serendipitous unintended benefit". He suggests that the current disease-focused medical model needs to be changed, otherwise enhancement drugs could not be researched well and introduced to the market. Along with this feasibility objection, he notes that public funding for enhancement drugs research projects is currently very limited. Other authors have suggested that unless MBE is based on an individual's choice, it cannot truly be called "moral" enhancement because personal choice


id: national-core-for-neuroethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Core_for_Neuroethics-0.md
category: reference
title: National Core for Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Core_for_Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:49.190927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-core-for-neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
The National Core for Neuroethics at the University of British Columbia was established in August 2007, with support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Institute of Mental Health and Addiction, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, the British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund, the Canada Research Chairs program, the UBC Brain Research Centre and the UBC Institute of Mental Health. Co-founded by Judy Illes and Peter Reiner, the Core studies neuroethics, with particular focus on ethics in neurodegenerative disease and regenerative medicine, international and cross-cultural challenges in brain research, neuroimaging and ethics, the neuroethics of enhancement, and personalized medicine. The Core's major research projects are focused on the use of drugs and devices for neuroenhancement, ethics in neurodegenerative disease and regenerative medicine research, brain research, neuroimaging in the private sector, and the ethics of personalized medicine, among others. Members of the Core also lead initiatives aside from their research projects. Considerable attention has been given to the Core by both the scholarly and non-academic media, with the Core featured in The New York Times, the Vancouver Sun, on the Canwest Global Newshour, and in the journal Science, amongst others. As an effort to engage the public in neuroethics discussion, the


id: neuroethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy and neuroscience, neuroethics is the study of both the ethics of neuroscience and the neuroscience of ethics. The ethics of neuroscience concerns the ethical, legal, and social impact of neuroscience, including the ways in which neurotechnology can be used to predict or alter human behavior and "the implications of our mechanistic understanding of brain function for society... integrating neuroscientific knowledge with ethical and social thought". Some neuroethics problems are not fundamentally different from those encountered in bioethics. Others are unique to neuroethics because the brain, as the organ of the mind, has implications for broader philosophical problems, such as the nature of free will, moral responsibility, self-deception, and personal identity. Examples of neuroethics topics are given later in this article (see "Key issues in neuroethics" below). The origin of the term "neuroethics" has occupied some writers. Rees and Rose (as cited in "References" on page 9) claim neuroethics is a neologism that emerged only at the beginning of the 21st century, largely through the oral and written communications of ethicists and philosophers. According to Racine (2010), the term was coined by the Harvard physician Anneliese A. Pontius in 1973 in a paper entitled "Neuro-ethics of 'walking' in the


id: neuroethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Important activity since 2002 == There is no doubt that people were thinking and writing about the ethical implications of neuroscience for many years before the field adopted the label "neuroethics", and some of this work remains of great relevance and value. However, the early 21st century saw a tremendous surge in interest concerning the ethics of neuroscience, as evidenced by numerous meetings, publications, and organizations dedicated to this topic. In 2002, there were several meetings that drew together neuroscientists and ethicists to discuss neuroethics: the American Association for the Advancement of Science with the journal Neuron, the University of Pennsylvania, the Royal Society, Stanford University, and the Dana Foundation. This last meeting was the largest, and resulted in a book, Neuroethics: Mapping the Field, edited by Steven J. Marcus and published by Dana Press. That same year, the Economist ran a cover story entitled "Open Your Mind: The Ethics of Brain Science", Nature published the article "Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience". Further articles appeared on neuroethics in Nature Neuroscience, Neuron, and Brain and Cognition. Thereafter, the number of neuroethics meetings, symposia, and publications continued to grow. The over 38,000 members of the Society for Neuroscience recognized the importance


id: neuroethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Brain interventions === The ethics of neurocognitive enhancement, that is the use of drugs and other brain interventions to make normal people "better than well", is an example of a neuroethical issue with both familiar and novel aspects. On the one hand, we can be informed by previous bioethical work on physical enhancements such as doping for strength in sports and the use of human growth hormone for normal boys of short stature. On the other hand, there are also some arguably novel ethical issues that arise in connection with brain enhancement, because these enhancements affect how people think and feel, thus raising the relatively new issues of "cognitive liberty". The growing role of psychopharmacology in everyday life raises a number of ethical issues, for example the influence of drug marketing on our conceptions of mental health and normalcy, and the increasingly malleable sense of personal identity that results from what Peter D. Kramer called "cosmetic psychopharmacology". Transhumanist philosophers such as David Pearce and Mark Alan Walker have argued that advancements in neuroscience could eventually make it feasible to artificially eliminate all physical and psychological suffering and artificially induce states of perpetual bliss. Pearce has stated that: "It is


id: neuroethics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-3.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Memory dampening === While complete memory erasure is still an element of science-fiction, certain neurological drugs have been proven to dampen the strength and emotional association of a memory. Propranolol, an FDA-approved drug, has been suggested to effectively dull the painful effects of traumatic memories if taken within 6 hours after the event occurs. This has begun the discussion of ethical implications, assuming the technology for memory erasure will only improve. Originally, propranolol was reserved for hypertension patients. However, doctors are permitted to use the drug for off-label purposes—leading to the question of whether they actually should. There are numerous reasons for skepticism; for one, it may prevent us from coming to terms with traumatic experiences, it may tamper with our identities and lead us to an artificial sense of happiness, demean the genuineness of human life, and/or encourage some to forget memories they are morally obligated to keep. Whether or not it is ethical to fully or partially erase the memory of a patient, it is certainly becoming a more relevant topic as this technology improves in our society. === Ethics of brain organoids === ==== Sentient organoids ==== ==== Guidelines and legislation ==== ==== Humanized animals ====


id: neuroethics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-4.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Stem cell therapy === Most of the issues concerning the uses of stem cells in the brain are the same as any of the bioethical or purely ethical questions one will find regarding the use and research of stem cells. The field of stem cell research is a very new field that poses many ethical questions concerning the allocation of stem cells as well as their possible uses. Since most stem cell research is still in its preliminary phase, most of the neuroethical issues surrounding stem cells are the same as stem cell ethics in general. More specifically the way that stem cell research has been involved in neuroscience is through the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and brain tumors. In these cases scientists are using neural stem cells to regenerate tissue and to be used as carriers for gene therapy. In general, neuroethics revolves around a cost benefit approach to find techniques and technologies that are most beneficial to patients. There has been progress in certain fields that have been shown to be beneficial when using stem cells to treat certain neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease. A study done in 2011 showed that induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)


id: neuroethics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-5.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disorders of consciousness === Patients in coma, vegetative, or minimally conscious state pose ethical challenges. The patients are unable to respond, therefore the assessment of their needs can only be approached by adopting a third person perspective. They are unable to communicate their pain levels, quality of life, or end of life preferences. Neuroscience and brain imaging have allowed us to explore the brain activity of these patients more thoroughly. Recent findings from studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging have changed the way we view vegetative patients. The images have shown that aspects of emotional processing, language comprehension, and even conscious awareness might be retained in patients whose behavior suggests a vegetative state. If this is the case, it is unethical to allow a third party to dictate the life and future of the patient. For example, defining death is an issue that comes with patients with severe traumatic brain injuries. The decision to withdraw life-sustaining care from these patients can be based on uncertain assessments about the individual's conscious awareness. Case reports have shown that these patients in a persistent vegetative state can recover unexpectedly. This raises the ethical question about the premature termination of care by physicians.


id: neuroethics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-6.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neurological treatments === Neuroscience has led to a deeper understanding of the chemical imbalances present in a disordered brain. In turn, this has resulted in the creation of new treatments and medications to treat these disorders. When these new treatments are first being tested, the experiments prompt ethical questions. First, because the treatment is affecting the brain, the side effects can be unique and sometimes severe. A special kind of side effect that many subjects have claimed to experience in neurological treatment tests is changes in "personal identity". Although this is a difficult ethical dilemma because there are no clear and undisputed definitions of personality, self, and identity, neurological treatments can result in patients losing parts of "themselves" such as memories or moods. Yet another ethical dispute in neurological treatment research is the choice of patients. From a perspective of justice, priority should be given to those who are most seriously impaired and who will benefit most from the intervention. However, in a test group, scientists must select patients to secure a favorable risk-benefit ratio. Setting priority becomes more difficult when a patient's chance to benefit and the seriousness of their impairment do not go together. For example, many


id: neuroethics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-7.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Glannon, Walter (2025). Neuroethics: The Implications of Mapping and Changing the Brain. MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/15173.001.0001. ISBN 9780262384926. Illes, J (October 2003). "Neuroethics in a new era of neuroimaging". American Journal of Neuroradiology. 24 (9): 1739–1741. PMC 7976301. PMID 14561594. Glannon, W. (2006).Bioethics and the Brain. Oxford University Press USA Racine E.; Bar-Ilan O; Illes J. (2005). "fMRI in the public eye". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 6 (2): 159–64. doi:10.1038/nrn1609. PMC 1524852. PMID 15685221. Farah Martha J (2005). "Neuroethics: the practical and the philosophical". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 9 (1): 34–40. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.728.9513. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.001. PMID 15639439. S2CID 8635694. Judy Illes (2002). "Brain and Cognition: Ethical Challenges in Advanced Neuroimaging". Brain and Cognition. 50 (3): 341–344. doi:10.1016/s0278-2626(02)00522-5. PMID 12480481. S2CID 16672004. Riis P (2003). "Neuroethics". European Journal of Neurology. 10: 218–223. doi:10.1046/j.1468-1331.10.s1.12.x. S2CID 221736074. "Open your mind". The Economist. 23 May 2002. Racine E. (2010). Pragmatic Neuroethics. MIT Press, Cambridge MA. Pontius A. A. (1973). "Neuro-ethics of 'walking' in the newborn". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 37 (1): 235–245. doi:10.2466/pms.1973.37.1.235. PMID 4728008. S2CID 42403122. Pontius A. A. (1993). "Neuroethics vs neurophysiologically and neuropsychologically uninformed influences in child-rearing, education, emerging hunter-gatherers, and artificial intelligence models of the brain". Psychol Rep. 72


id: neuroethics-research-unit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics_Research_Unit-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics Research Unit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics_Research_Unit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:51.866525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-research-unit-20260505-0
summary:
The Neuroethics Research Unit was created in 2006, at the Institut de recherches cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), which is affiliated to the Université de Montréal. The Unit is one of the pioneer units in Canada in this area of research. Neuroethics is a new area of research where bioethics and neuroscience intersect. The focus is on ethical considerations in neuroscience research and the many ethical issues that arise from the transfer of neuroscience to health care. == Research themes == The Neuroethics research unit pursues research within the fields of public and intercultural, clinical, research, reflexive, or theoretical neuroethics to address a large spectrum of challenges in neurological and psychiatric care such as providing quality patient information, diminishing stigma, and promoting respectful healthcare services. The Unit’s research themes cover subjects as diverse as MRI, end-of-life decision making, cognitive enhancement, ethical policy, etc. == Funding == Research projects of the Neuroethics Research Unit are funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. == Outreach == In June 2007, at the annual meeting of the Canadian Bioethics Society (CBS) held in Toronto, over 70 attendees


id: the-new-atlantis-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)-0.md
category: reference
title: The New Atlantis (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:53.073712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-new-atlantis-journal-20260505-0
summary:
The New Atlantis is a journal founded by the social conservative advocacy group the Ethics and Public Policy Center, now published by the Center for the Study of Technology and Society. It covers topics about the social, ethical, political, and policy dimensions of modern science and technology. The journal is editorially reviewed but is not peer-reviewed on scientific topics. It is edited by Ari Schulman, having previously been edited by co-founders Eric Cohen and Adam Keiper. The journal's name is taken from Francis Bacon's utopian novella New Atlantis, which the journal's editors describe as a "fable of a society living with the benefits and challenges of advanced science and technology". An editorial in the inaugural issue states that the aim of the journal is "to help us avoid the extremes of euphoria and despair that new technologies too often arouse; and to help us judge when mobilizing our technological prowess is sensible or necessary, and when the preservation of things that count requires limiting the kinds of technological power that would lessen, cheapen, or ultimately destroy us." Writing in National Review, the journal's editor Adam Keiper described The New Atlantis as being written from a "particularly American and conservative way


id: the-new-atlantis-journal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)-1.md
category: reference
title: The New Atlantis (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:53.073712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-new-atlantis-journal-20260505-0
summary:
== Other reception == Writing for the National Review in a 2003 column, the conservative author Stanley Kurtz described The New Atlantis as influential on thinking about science and technology. Richard John Neuhaus, former editor of the conservative journal First Things, wrote that The New Atlantis is "as good a publication as there is for the intelligent exploration of questions in bioethics and projections—promising, ominous, and fantastical—about the human future," and a writer in The American Conservative described the journal as a source "of fresh ideas on the Right." National Review columnist Jonah Goldberg described The New Atlantis as "a new and interesting magazine" that "seems to be trying to carve out the space for the government to stop the more offensive aspects of biotechnology." Conversely, the liberal bioethicist Jonathan D. Moreno said that the journal offers "a very dark vision" about science and technology but that it "makes an important point about the need to worry about the ends as well as means in science", and that its "writers were young, smart, and had a good understanding of the political process and the making of public policy." Bioethicist Ruth Macklin criticized The New Atlantis as representative of a conservative


id: non-nuclear-futures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Nuclear_Futures-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-Nuclear Futures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Nuclear_Futures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:54.263110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-nuclear-futures-20260505-0
summary:
Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy is a 1975 book by Amory B. Lovins and John H. Price. The main theme of the book is that the most important parts of the nuclear power debate are not technical disputes but relate to personal values, and are the legitimate province of every citizen, whether technically trained or not. Lovins and Price suggest that the personal values that make a high-energy society work are all too apparent, and that the values associated with an alternate view relate to thrift, simplicity, diversity, neighbourliness, craftsmanship, and humility. They also argue that large nuclear generators could not be mass-produced. Their centralization requires costly transmission and distribution systems. They are inefficient, not recycling excess thermal energy. The authors believed that nuclear reactors were less reliable (a grossly incorrect prediction) and take longer to build, exposing them to escalated interest costs, mistimed demand forecasts, and wage pressure by unions. Lovins and Price suggest that these two different sets of personal values and technological attributes lead to two very different policy paths relating to future energy supplies. The first is high-energy nuclear, centralized, electric; the second is lower energy, non-nuclear, decentralized, less electrified, softer technology.


id: nuclear-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Nuclear ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:55.422664+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuclear-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Nuclear ethics is a cross-disciplinary field of academic and policy-relevant study in which the problems associated with nuclear warfare, nuclear deterrence, nuclear arms control, nuclear disarmament, or nuclear energy are examined through one or more ethical or moral theories or frameworks. Nuclear ethics assumes that the very real possibilities of human extinction, mass human destruction, or mass environmental damage which could result from nuclear warfare are deep ethical or moral problems. Specifically, it assumes that the outcomes of human extinction, mass human destruction, or environmental damage count as moral evils. Another area of inquiry concerns future generations and the burden that nuclear waste and pollution imposes on them. Some scholars have concluded that it is therefore morally wrong to act in ways that produce these outcomes, which means it is morally wrong to engage in nuclear warfare. Nuclear ethics is interested in examining policies of nuclear deterrence, nuclear arms control and disarmament, and nuclear energy insofar as they are linked to the cause or prevention of nuclear warfare. Ethical justifications of nuclear deterrence, for example, emphasize its role in preventing great power nuclear war since the end of World War II. Indeed, some scholars claim that nuclear deterrence seems to


id: nuclear-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Nuclear ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:55.422664+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuclear-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
13 February 1950: a Convair B-36B crashed in northern British Columbia after jettisoning a Mark IV atomic bomb. This was the first such nuclear weapon loss in history. 22 May 1957: a 42,000-pound Mark-17 hydrogen bomb accidentally fell from a bomber near Albuquerque, New Mexico. The detonation of the device's conventional explosives destroyed it on impact and formed a crater 25-feet in diameter on land owned by the University of New Mexico. According to a researcher at the Natural Resources Defense Council, it was one of the most powerful bombs made to date. 7 June 1960: the 1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident destroyed a Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the BOMARC Missile Accident Site in New Jersey. 24 January 1961: the 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash occurred near Goldsboro, North Carolina. A B-52 Stratofortress carrying two Mark 39 nuclear bombs broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process. 1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash, where a Skyhawk attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea. The pilot, the aircraft, and the B43 nuclear bomb were never recovered. It was not until the 1980s that the Pentagon revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb.


id: nuffield-council-on-bioethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffield_Council_on_Bioethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Nuffield Council on Bioethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffield_Council_on_Bioethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:56.610689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuffield-council-on-bioethics-20260505-0
summary:
The Nuffield Council on Bioethics is a UK-based independent charitable body, which examines and reports on bioethical issues raised by new advances in biological and medical research. Established in 1991, the Council is funded by the Nuffield Foundation, the Medical Research Council and the Wellcome Trust. The Council has been described by the media as a 'leading ethics watchdog', which 'never shrinks from the unthinkable'. == Purpose == The Nuffield Council on Bioethics was set up in response to concerns about the lack of a national organization responsible for evaluating the ethical implications of developments in biomedicine and biotechnology. Its terms of reference are: To identify and define ethical questions raised by recent developments in biological and medical research that concern, or are likely to concern, the public interest; To make arrangements for the independent examination of such questions with appropriate involvement of relevant participants; To inform and engage in policy and media debates about ethical questions and provide informed comment on emerging issues related to or derived from the Council’s published or ongoing work; and To make policy recommendations to Government or other relevant bodies and to disseminate its work through published reports, briefings and other appropriate outputs. ==


id: nuffield-council-on-bioethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffield_Council_on_Bioethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Nuffield Council on Bioethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffield_Council_on_Bioethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:56.610689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuffield-council-on-bioethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Publications == Climate change and health: embedding ethics into policy and decision making (Jan 2025) Stem cell-based embryo models (November 2024) Predicting: The future of health (Sept 2024) Disagreements in the care of critically ill children (Sept 2023) The future of ageing: Ethical Considerations for research and innovation (April 2023) Genome editing and human reproduction: social and ethical issues (July 2018) Human embryo culture: Discussions concerning the statutory time limit for maintaining human embryos in culture in the light of some recent scientific developments (August 2017) Cosmetic procedures: ethical issues (June 2017) Non-invasive prenatal testing: ethical issues (March 2017) Genome editing: an ethical review (September 2016) (un)natural: Ideas about naturalness in public and political debates about science, technology and medicine (December 2015) Children and clinical research: ethical issues (May 2015) The collection, linking and use of data in biomedical research and healthcare: ethical issues (February 2015) The findings of a series of engagement activities exploring the culture of scientific research in the UK (December 2014) Novel neurotechnologies: intervening in the brain (June 2013) Donor conception: ethical aspects of information sharing (April 2013) Emerging biotechnologies: technology, choice and the public good (December 2012) Novel techniques for the prevention of mitochondrial


id: organizational-technoethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Organizational technoethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:57.765531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organizational-technoethics-20260505-0
summary:
Organizational technoethics (OT) is a branch stemming from technoethics. Advances in technology and their ability to transmit vast amounts of information in a short amount of time have changed the way information is being shared amongst co-workers and managers throughout organizations across the globe. Starting in the 1980s with information and communications technologies (ICTs), organizations have seen an increase in the amount of technology that they rely on to communicate within and outside of the workplace. However, these implementations of technology in the workplace create various ethical concerns and in turn a need for further analysis of technology in organizations. As a result of this growing trend, a subsection of technoethics known as organizational technoethics has emerged to address these issues. == Changes to organizational structure == Organizational technoethics "focuses on how technological advances are redefining organizations and how they operate within an evolving knowledge economy". This new focus on knowledge and information within organizations has changed the way they function on a daily basis and has made it apparent that "as knowledge-intensive work gradually becomes the cornerstone of this economy, understanding its control practices is consequential to organizational effectiveness, worker satisfaction and ethical conditions of organizational governance". With this


id: organizational-technoethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Organizational technoethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:57.765531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organizational-technoethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technoethical challenges in medical organizations === Another area of organizational technoethics that has been becoming increasingly popular is in the field of medicine. Medical ethics are based on values and judgments in a practical clinical placement where six values are portrayed the most: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice, dignity, truthfulness and honesty. Many of the issues in medical ethics are due to a lack of communication between the patients, family members, and health care team. An asset to medical ethics that has brought attention to its advantages and disadvantages are electronic medical records. This is a new way to update, organize and store patients' medical records in a database that can be accessible to other doctors by using the network. An issue in organizational technoethics in the medical field that is an increasing matter is the privacy issue with electronic medical records. To start, some advantages of EMRs are that they can minimize errors, keep records safe in the database, it is cost efficient, translates into a better treatment for the patients and can even give some control over health records to the patients. On the other hand, EMRs have brought upon some disadvantages mainly around privacy issues. First, it


id: organizational-technoethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Organizational technoethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:57.765531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organizational-technoethics-20260505-0
summary:
The Internet has become a popular medium of expression and accessing information and data. As the Internet community expands, there has been great debate on whether or not the internet should be censored, and if so, by whom. In Canada, there are many public and private organisations with the authority to censor, including many self-censoring associations and service providers. Canadian internet censorship is not specifically regulated; however local laws do apply to websites hosted in Canada as well as to residents who host sites on servers in other jurisdictions. Canada has seen many cases regarding websites including defamatory material and material promoting hatred or contempt. Important Canadian cases that raise the question of control of the flow of content on the Internet include: The Karla Homolka case. In 1993, the judge presiding over the trial of Karla Homolka placed a Canadian publication ban on the proceedings. Through the use of the internet, internationally published materials were then made available in Canada, undermining the court order. McGill University, followed by a number of other universities, immediately took responsibility of the university law under law to control the reception of content within its own constituency because of its liability as an Internet


id: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf-0.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Pernkopf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:03.438676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
summary:
Eduard Pernkopf (24 November 1888 – 17 April 1955) was an Austrian professor of anatomy who later served as rector of the University of Vienna, his alma mater. He is best known for his seven-volume anatomical atlas, Topographische Anatomie des Menschen (translated as Atlas of Topographical and Applied Human Anatomy; often colloquially known as the Pernkopf Atlas or just Pernkopf), prepared by Pernkopf and four artists over a 20-year period. While it is considered a scientific and artistic masterpiece, with many of its color plates reprinted in other publications and textbooks, it has been in recent years found that Pernkopf and the artists working for him, all of them ardent Nazis, used executed political prisoners as their subjects. == Early life == Pernkopf was born in 1888 in the Lower Austria village of Rappottenstein. The youngest of three sons, he seemed to be considering a career in music upon his completion of the Gymnasium in Horn. However, the death of his father, the village's doctor, in 1903 led him to pursue medicine instead, as his father's death caused the family considerable hardship that a career as a physician was more likely to reverse. He began his studies at the University


id: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf-1.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Pernkopf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:03.438676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
summary:
== Atlas == At the time he was first hired as Hochstetter's assistant, he began putting together an informal dissection manual for students. He kept expanding it, and it became popular with the rest of the university instructors and the Austrian medical community. As he attained his full professorship he was offered a contract to expand it into a publishable book, and he eagerly accepted. He was to deliver three volumes. Pernkopf began his atlas in 1933. He worked 18-hour days dissecting corpses, teaching classes and discharging his administrative responsibilities while a team of artists created the images that would eventually be in the atlas. His days began at 5 a.m., when he left notes in shorthand for his wife to type. These became the descriptive text that accompanied the images. At the beginning four artists—Erich Lepier, Ludwig Schrott, Karl Endtresser and Franz Batke—worked with Pernkopf. Lepier, Pernkopf's first hire, had largely learned on his own after having to cut short his architectural studies at what is now Vienna University of Technology due to the death of his father, a circumstance similar to that which had shaped Pernkopf's career choice. The other three all had some degree of formal training.


id: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf-2.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Pernkopf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:03.438676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
summary:
== Later life == In 1943, Pernkopf reached the pinnacle of the academic career ladder when he was named the University of Vienna's rector, its highest official. He continued to serve in those positions until World War II ended two years later, with the surrender of Germany, including Austria. His fortunes changed radically as a result. Two days after the surrender, he was dismissed from his post as head of the university's anatomical institute. Fearing that he might suffer legal or political repercussions for his previous Nazi party membership and prewar actions, he went on what he claimed was a vacation to Strobl in the state of Salzburg. However, he was arrested by American military authorities in August 1945, and by May 1946 he had been terminated from all his remaining positions with the university. He was held at the Allied prisoner of war (POW) camp in Glasenbach for three years. Although he was ultimately never charged with any crimes, he was required to do regular hard labor throughout his imprisonment. The experience left him drained and exhausted when he returned to Vienna after his release, hoping to continue his work on the atlas. His former facilities at the university


id: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf-3.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Pernkopf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:03.438676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversial legacy and debate over continued use == In 1995, Pernkopf and his atlas became the focus of a controversy in scientific ethics, following the publication of a paper by German researcher Edzard Ernst, who had recently been chair of rehabilitative medicine at the University of Vienna, which outlined the Nazi takeover of the university and highlighted the human experimentation that followed, including the role of Pernkopf himself. The medical school at the university, which had formerly had difficulty finding cadavers for dissection, received a regular supply after 1933. In 1996, Howard Israel, an oral surgeon at Columbia University, revealed that the subject bodies may have in some cases been those of executed political prisoners, LGBT men and women, Roma, and Jews. Sabine Hildebrandt, a Michigan anatomy professor and German native who has researched Pernkopf and other Nazi-era anatomists, has suggested that 26% of the bodies supplied to the university were execution victims. Looking at older copies in the archives, Israel discovered various Nazi symbols in the artists' signatures, which had been removed from more widely circulated later versions. Since then, physicians have discussed whether it is ethical to use the atlas, as it resulted from Nazi medical research.


id: philosophy-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_&_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy & Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_&_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:04.657750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy & Technology is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering philosophy of technology. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Luciano Floridi (University of Oxford). Besides regular issues, the journal publishes occasional special issues and topical collections on particular philosophical topics. == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is abstracted and indexed in EBSCO databases, PhilPapers, ProQuest databases, and Scopus. == References == == External links == Official website


id: anil-potti-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti-0.md
category: reference
title: Anil Potti
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:05.826585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anil-potti-20260505-0
summary:
Anil Potti is a physician and former Duke University associate professor and cancer researcher, focusing on oncogenomics. He, along with Joseph Nevins, are at the center of a research fabrication scandal at Duke University. On 9 November 2015, the Office of Research Integrity (ORI) found that Potti had engaged in research misconduct. According to Potti's voluntary settlement agreement with ORI, Potti can continue to perform research with the requirement of supervision until year 2020, while he "neither admits nor denies ORI's findings of research misconduct." As of 2024, Potti, employed at the Cancer Center of North Dakota, had 11 of his research publications retracted, one publication received an expression of concern, and two others had been corrected. == Biography == Anil Potti graduated from Christian Medical College, Vellore, India in 1995. He finished an internship in Internal Medicine at the University of North Dakota School of Medicine in 1999. In 2006 Potti completed training in hematology and oncology at Duke University. Potti resigned from Duke in 2010, following the discovery of flaws in the genomics research conducted at Duke and allegations of embellishments in his resume, assuming responsibility for the anomalies in the scientific research. Following his resignation from Duke,


id: anil-potti-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti-1.md
category: reference
title: Anil Potti
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:05.826585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anil-potti-20260505-0
summary:
== Aftermath == Healthcare companies cut ties with Potti after evidence surfaced that Potti had fabricated awards on his resume. The American Cancer Society stopped payments of a five-year grant which totalled $729,000 as Potti had received the grant based on his credentials. Duke University later reimbursed the American Cancer Society for the full amount of the grant. Three clinical trials at Duke University Medical Center based on Potti's research came under scrutiny in 2009 and were temporarily suspended, then were permanently stopped in 2010. The United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) reviewed one of the studies in 2009, several years after its initiation, and concluded that the study would require an Investigational New Drug application, which had not been submitted. An FDA audit in 2011 further showed that an Investigational Device Exemption application had not been filed, but otherwise found "no significant deficiencies" in Duke's IRB conduct. Potti's medical licence record with the North Carolina Medical Board shows eleven settlements, each of at least $75,000, for incidents that appear to be related to these trials. In late 2011, the North Carolina Medical Board reprimanded Potti but he retains his medical licence. The board issued its disciplinary action against


id: anil-potti-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti-2.md
category: reference
title: Anil Potti
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:05.826585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anil-potti-20260505-0
summary:
"A Genomic Approach to Colon Cancer Risk Stratification Yields Biologic Insights into Therapeutic Opportunities" This article was published by PNAS. Gene expressions could allow the researchers to see if tumours are uniform throughout. This could also be used with Colon Cancer. They also can help predict how a person will respond to treatment and improve prognosis. The authors said they wanted to retract this article because "…we have been unable to reproduce certain key experiments described in the paper regarding validation and use of the colon cancer prognostic signature. This includes the validation performed with dataset E-MEXP-1224, as reported in Fig. 2A, as well as the generation of prognostic scores for colon cancer cell lines, as reported in Fig. 4…" "Validation of Gene Signatures that Predict the Response of Breast Cancer to Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy" This article was published in Lancet Oncology. This study involved patients with oestrogen-receptor-negative breast cancer. The researchers wanted to confirm their previous studies of gene-expression signatures in predicting the effects of chemotherapeutic drugs. The article was retracted because the validity of the results was beginning to be questioned and because predictions were made off of the Nature Medicine article that was retracted. "Genomic Signatures to Guide


id: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs-0.md
category: reference
title: Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:07.269000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-0
summary:
The Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs is an international organization that brings together scholars and public figures to work toward reducing the danger of armed conflict and to seek solutions to global security threats. It was founded in 1957 by Joseph Rotblat and Bertrand Russell in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada, following the release of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto in 1955. Rotblat and the Pugwash Conference jointly won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 for their efforts on nuclear disarmament. International Student/Young Pugwash groups have existed since founder Cyrus Eaton's death in 1979. == Origin of the Pugwash Conferences == The Russell–Einstein Manifesto, released July 9, 1955, called for a conference for scientists to assess the dangers of weapons of mass destruction (then only considered to be nuclear weapons). Cyrus Eaton, an industrialist and philanthropist, offered on July 13 to finance and host the conference in the town of his birth, Pugwash, Nova Scotia. This was not taken up at the time because a meeting was planned for India, at the invitation of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. With the outbreak of the Suez Crisis the Indian conference was postponed. Aristotle Onassis offered to finance a meeting in Monaco instead, but


id: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs-1.md
category: reference
title: Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:07.269000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-0
summary:
== Contributions to international security == Pugwash's first fifteen years coincided with the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War. Pugwash played a useful role in opening communication channels during a time of otherwise-strained official and unofficial relations. In 1965, addressing a meeting at UNESCO House in Paris, Robert Oppenheimer gave his tribute to Albert Einstein for the Pugwash movement. Oppenheimer confidently asserted: "I know it to be true that it [averting the disaster of the arms race] had an essential part to play in the Treaty of Moscow, the limited test-ban treaty, which is a tentative, but to me very precious, declaration that reason might still prevail." It provided background work to the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963), the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), and the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993). Former US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara has credited a backchannel Pugwash initiative (code named PENNSYLVANIA) with laying the groundwork for the negotiations that ended the Vietnam War. Mikhail Gorbachev admitted the influence of the organisation on him when he was leader of the Soviet Union. In addition, Pugwash has been credited


id: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs-2.md
category: reference
title: Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:07.269000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-0
summary:
Earl (Bertrand) Russell, 1950 Nobel Prize in Literature, a founder of the movement, was its natural head in its initial years. The formal office of the presidency was established at the Quinquennial Conference in Ronneby, in 1967. The president's role was to "preside over the Annual Pugwash Conferences and, in addition, between Conferences, to offer his counsel and advice to the members of the Continuing Committee and the Secretary-General, and thereby assist them in the execution of the activities of the Movement." Sir John Cockcroft, joint recipient of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles, was elected as the first president in 1967, though he died suddenly ten days later. Lord Florey, who shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for extraction of penicillin, was then invited to become president, though he also died within weeks. At that point the Continuing Committee decided to have a rotating presidency for a term of one year, to have that office held by a distinguished person in the country where the annual conference would be held each year. Francis Perrin (1968), had worked with Frederic Joliot's team to


id: student-pugwash-usa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Pugwash_USA-0.md
category: reference
title: Student Pugwash USA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Pugwash_USA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:08.454732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: student-pugwash-usa-20260505-0
summary:
Student Pugwash USA is the U.S. affiliate of International Student/Young Pugwash, and the US student affiliate of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, recipients of the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize. As an educational nonprofit organization, SPUSA does not adopt advocacy positions on policy or political issues or candidates, but seeks to foment student leadership and incubate groups of committed activists who go on to take action separate from SPUSA activities. The organization posits that, in order to create effective social change, students must first understand the issues at stake, then contemplate their ethical and moral responsibility to themselves and to society as a whole. Its stated purpose is not to advance a particular ethical viewpoint regarding scientific and technological issues, but rather to encourage students to consider ethics when thinking about the role of science and technology in society. SPUSA is open to all viewpoints and approaches to these discussions, but with a firm commitment to accurate science and factual information. For example, early SPUSA panel debates were held regarding the causes of climate change, before there was consensus in the scientific community; afterwards, that debate was considered resolved and no longer appropriate, but events continue discussing which


id: scott-reuben-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Reuben-0.md
category: reference
title: Scott Reuben
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Reuben
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:09.719687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scott-reuben-20260505-0
summary:
Scott S. Reuben (born 1958) is an American anesthesiologist who falsified data heralding the benefits of the Pfizer pain medication Celebrex while downplaying its negative side effects. He was Professor of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine at Tufts University in Boston, Massachusetts and chief of acute pain at Baystate Medical Center in Springfield, Massachusetts from February 1991 until 2009 when he was sentenced to prison for healthcare fraud. Reuben was considered to be a prolific and influential researcher in pain management, and his purported findings altered the way millions of patients are treated for pain during and after orthopedic surgeries. Reuben has now admitted that he never conducted any of the clinical trials on which his conclusions were based "in what may be considered the longest-running and widest-ranging cases of academic fraud." Scientific American has called Reuben the medical equivalent of Bernie Madoff, the former NASDAQ chairman who was convicted of orchestrating a $65-billion Ponzi scheme. == Background == Reuben was educated at Columbia University. He graduated from medical school at the State University of New York at Buffalo in 1985 and undertook his anesthesiology residency at Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York City. Reuben fell under suspicion when Baystate


id: right-to-reality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_reality-0.md
category: reference
title: Right to reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:10.893465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: right-to-reality-20260505-0
summary:
The right to reality refers to the right to consume organic content as opposed to content created by artificial intelligence, or more broadly speaking, to experience life and the world as they are, not through simulations and simulacra. It was once defined as "the latest in a series of novel rights set forth in response to a sizable jump in technology". A right to reality can also refer to the right to consume real news in opposition to fake news, as well as the right to receive information when in a news desert. == Proposed definitions == A 2024 article by Digital Frontier describes Newcastle University Law scholar Lilian Edwards as an early proponent of the right to reality, an idea she came across during a 2019 lecture at the Turing Institute, when an attendee asked her if the younger generation were "getting easier with the idea of unreality" while not "knowing what canonical reality is", and that made her reflect on the possibility of "reality" being a human right, much like privacy or freedom of speech. In an article for a 2025 special edition of Stanford Social Innovation Review Brasil, Brazilian proponent Eduardo Saron defined the right to reality


id: right-to-reality-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_reality-1.md
category: reference
title: Right to reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:10.893465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: right-to-reality-20260505-0
summary:
== Applications == Frazier advocated in his article for a system of classification of internet content (similar to nutrition labels) that would inform users of the degree to which AI has or has not been used to create said content while also allowing users to even filter content according to their own preferences. He also wrote that the application of a right to reality "would not require the removal of any content nor discrimination based on the viewpoints asserted by that content" but would be "a disclosure requirement". He mentioned Lawrence Lessig's anticipation of the rise of AI-detection tools and that those would become prevalent in the media market. Edwards supports the labeling of AI-generated content with methods such as watermarkings as proposed by the C2PA and the European Union's AI Act. However, Edwards herself and Fazier admit it may not be enough. Speaking to Digital Frontier, Frazier said that "even the labelling of a right can have a big impact on the ability of people to advocate for the provision of that right" and compared the advocacy for it to citizens' assemblies. Saron concedes both that there's no such thing as an "absolute reality", since according to him reality


id: robot-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Robot ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:12.612544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Robot ethics, sometimes known as "roboethics", concerns ethical problems that occur with robots, such as whether robots pose a threat to humans in the long or short run, whether some uses of robots are problematic (such as in healthcare or as "killer robots" in war), and how robots should be designed such that they act "ethically" (this last concern is also called machine ethics). Alternatively, roboethics refers specifically to the ethics of human behavior towards robots, as robots become increasingly advanced. Robot ethics is a sub-field of the ethics of technology. It is closely related to legal and socio-economic concerns. Serious academic discussions about robot ethics started around 2000, and involve several disciplines, mainly robotics, computer science, artificial intelligence, philosophy, ethics, theology, biology, physiology, cognitive science, neurosciences, law, sociology, psychology, and industrial design. == History and events == One of the first publications directly addressing and setting the foundation for robot ethics was "Runaround", a science fiction short story written by Isaac Asimov in 1942, which featured his well-known Three Laws of Robotics. These three laws were continuously altered by Asimov, and a fourth – or "zeroth" – law was eventually added to precede the first three, in the context


id: robot-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Robot ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:12.612544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Killer robots == Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (LAWS), often called "killer robots", are theoretically able to target and fire without human supervision or interference. In 2014, the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW) held two meetings. The first was the Meeting of Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems. This meeting was about the special mandate on LAWS and intrigued intense discussion. National delegations and many non-governmental organizations(NGOs) expressed their opinions on the matter. Numerous NGOs and certain states such as Pakistan and Cuba are calling for a preventive prohibition of LAWS. They proposed opinions based on deontological and consequentialist reasoning. On the deontological side, certain philosophers such as Peter Asaro and Robert Sparrow, most NGOs, and the Vatican argue that granting too much rights to machine violates human dignity, and that people have the "right not to be killed by a machine". To support their standpoint, they repeatedly cite the Martens Clause. At the end of the meeting, the most important consequentialist objection was that LAWS wouldn't be able to respect international humanitarian law (IHL), as believed by NGOs, many researchers, and several states (Pakistan, Austria, Egypt, Mexico). According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), "there is


id: robot-ethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Robot ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:12.612544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Empirical research == There is mixed evidence as to whether people judge robot behavior similarly to humans or not. Some evidence indicates that people view bad behavior negatively and good behavior positively regardless of whether the agent of the behavior is a human or a robot; however, robots receive less credit for good behavior and more blame for bad behavior. Other evidence suggests that malevolent behavior by robots is seen as more morally wrong than benevolent behavior is seen as morally right; malevolent robot behavior is seen as more intentional than benevolent behavior. In general, people's moral judgments of both robots and humans are based on the same justifications and concepts but people have different moral expectations when judging humans and robots. Research has also found that when people try to interpret and understand how robots decide to behave in a particular way, they may see robots as using rules of thumb (advance the self, do what is right, advance others, do what is logical, and do what is normal). == See also == Ethics of artificial intelligence Plug & Pray – 2010 film by Jens Schanze Union of Concerned Scientists – U.S.-based nonprofit organization == References == ==


id: scientists-against-nuclear-arms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_against_Nuclear_Arms-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientists against Nuclear Arms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_against_Nuclear_Arms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:13.895006+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientists-against-nuclear-arms-20260505-0
summary:
Scientists against Nuclear Arms (SANA) was formed in 1981 by the physicist and peace activist Mike Pentz together with Steven Rose, both academics at the Open University, to oppose nuclear arms. SANA was one of the forerunner organisations of Scientists for Global Responsibility (SGR). == See also == Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Anti-nuclear movement Anti-war European Nuclear Disarmament Independent Nuclear Disarmament Election Committee International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons Nuclear disarmament Nuclear-Free Future Award Nuclear Information Service Nuclear proliferation Peace movement == References ==


id: scientists-for-global-responsibility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientists for Global Responsibility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:15.068729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientists-for-global-responsibility-20260505-0
summary:
Scientists for Global Responsibility (SGR) in the United Kingdom promotes the ethical practice and use of science, design and technology. SGR is affiliated to the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility (INES). It is an independent UK-based membership organisation of hundreds of natural scientists, social scientists, engineers, IT professionals and architects. In 2017 its partner organization ICAN (International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons) won the Nobel Peace Prize. ICAN have promoted a Kurzgesagt YouTube video endorsed by the International Committee of the Red Cross and Crescent (ICRC) showing the consequences of a single atomic weapon exploded over a city. SGR's work is focused on four main issues: security and disarmament; climate change and energy, including nuclear power; who controls science and technology?; emerging technologies. The main areas of concern are arms and arms control, including military involvement in UK universities; effect of excessive greenhouse gas emissions on climate; the nature of war and reducing barbarity; topsoil and water shortages resulting from modern agricultural methods; depletion of species of fish due to over-fishing; continual spread of nuclear weapons, and reduction of occurrence of serious nuclear accidents. In 2019 SGR launched the journal Responsible Science. SGR evaluates the risk


id: kristin-shrader-frechette-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristin_Shrader-Frechette-0.md
category: reference
title: Kristin Shrader-Frechette
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristin_Shrader-Frechette
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:20.724658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kristin-shrader-frechette-20260505-0
summary:
Kristin Shrader-Frechette (born 1944) is O'Neill Family Professor, Department of Biological Sciences and Department of Philosophy, at the University of Notre Dame. She has previously held senior professorships at the University of California and the University of Florida. Most of Shrader-Frechette's research work analyzes the ethical problems in risk assessment, public health, or environmental justice - especially those related to radiological, ecological, and energy-related risks. Shrader-Frechette coined the phrase “ecological justice” more than 40 years ago, with the term changing to “environmental justice” over time. Among other things, "environmental injustice" references situations in which certain groups bear disproportionate environmental risks, have unequal access to goods like clean air or water, or have unequal voices in determining the imposition of environmental risks. Shrader-Frechette, who is considered one of the founders of the environmental justice movement, was also an early advocate of the concept of “intergenerational equity,” the idea that the environmental problems of future generations are also significant to the current generation. Shrader-Frechette has received the Global Citizenship Award, and the Catholic Digest named her one of 12 "Heroes for the US and the World." == Education == Kristin Shrader-Frechette studied physics at Xavier University and graduated (summa cum laude) in


id: stefan-lorenz-sorgner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Lorenz_Sorgner-0.md
category: reference
title: Stefan Lorenz Sorgner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Lorenz_Sorgner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:22.001433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stefan-lorenz-sorgner-20260505-0
summary:
Stefan Lorenz Sorgner (born 15 October 1973) is a German philosopher whose main interests are transhumanism, posthumanism, and the ethics of emerging technologies. He is Professor of Philosophy at John Cabot University in Rome and the Editor-in-Chief and Founding Editor of the Journal of Posthuman Studies. == Early life and education == Sorgner was born on 15 October 1973 in Wetzlar, Germany. He studied philosophy at King's College London. He subsequently earned a master's degree by thesis at the University of Durham. He later completed his doctorate at the University of Jena, under the supervision of Wolfgang Welsch and Gianni Vattimo. == Career and research == Sorgner's work focuses on contemporary philosophical issues related to posthumanism, transhumanism, and the ethics of emerging technologies. Influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche, he has explored parallels between Nietzsche’s concept of the Übermensch and modern transhumanist thought. In 2009, Sorgner published an article in the Journal of Evolution and Technology arguing that Nietzsche’s Übermensch shares conceptual similarities with the posthuman figure in some strands of transhumanist theory. The article initiated a debate within both Nietzsche scholarship and the transhumanist community. A special issue of the journal, titled Nietzsche and European Posthumanisms, was later published to investigate


id: space-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Space ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:23.169627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Space ethics, astroethics or astrobioethics is a discipline of applied ethics that discusses the moral and ethical implications arising from astrobiological research, space exploration and space flight. It deals with practical contemporary issues like the protection of the space environment and hypothetical future issues pertaining to our interaction with extraterrestrial life forms. Specific issues of space ethics include space debris mitigation, the militarization of space and the ethics of SETI and METI, but also more theoretical topics like space colonization, terraforming, directed panspermia and space mining. The field also concerns itself with more fundamental moral questions, such as the value of abiotic environments in space, the intrinsic value of extraterrestrial life, and how humans should treat extraterrestrial non-intelligent life (like microbes) and extraterrestrial intelligent life (and whether this distinction should be made in the first place). Astroethical issues are often discussed as elements of broader issues such as general environmental protection and imperialism. Astroethics have been described as an emerging discipline gaining in attention, a "necessity for astrobiology" and a "true issue for the future of astrobiology". == Ethical guidelines for space exploration == === Planetary Protection === A guiding principle in astroethics is that of Planetary Protection (PP), which


id: space-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Space ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:23.169627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Weaponizing space === In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty was signed, spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, and the following arms race with the United States. The treaty outlaws all kinds of military action (including weapon tests) in space, limits the use of space to peaceful purposes only and ensures that all nations on Earth are free to explore space. This treaty has since been called into question multiple times, especially by President of the United States Donald Trump. On June 18, 2018, Trump announced plans to establish a space force, which would constitute a new, sixth branch of the United States military. He expressed that "When it comes to defending America, it is not enough to merely have an American presence in space. We must have American dominance in space". On December 20, 2019, the United States Space Force Act was signed into law with votes from both Democratic and Republican senators and House members. As a result, the United States Space Force was founded. This was seen by some as an American contestation of the Outer Space Treaty. Viktor Bondarev, chair of the Federation Council


id: techno-progressivism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism-0.md
category: reference
title: Techno-progressivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:24.466424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: techno-progressivism-20260505-0
summary:
Techno-progressivism, or tech-progressivism, is a stance of active support for the convergence of technological change and social change. Techno-progressives argue that technological developments can be profoundly empowering and emancipatory when they are regulated by legitimate democratic and accountable authorities to ensure that their costs, risks and benefits are all fairly shared by the actual stakeholders to those developments. One of the first mentions of techno-progressivism appeared within extropian jargon in 1999 as the removal of "all political, cultural, biological, and psychological limits to self-actualization and self-realization". == Stance == Techno-progressivism maintains that accounts of progress should focus on scientific and technical dimensions, as well as ethical and social ones. For most techno-progressive perspectives, then, the growth of scientific knowledge or the accumulation of technological powers will not represent the achievement of proper progress unless and until it is accompanied by a just distribution of the costs, risks, and benefits of these new knowledges and capacities. At the same time, for most techno-progressive critics and advocates, the achievement of better democracy, greater fairness, less violence, and a wider rights culture are all desirable, but inadequate in themselves to confront the quandaries of contemporary technological societies unless and until they are accompanied


id: technocriticism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technocriticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:25.656529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technocriticism-20260505-0
summary:
Technocriticism is a branch of critical theory devoted to the study of technological change. Technocriticism treats technological transformation as historically specific changes in personal and social practices of research, invention, regulation, distribution, promotion, appropriation, use, and discourse, rather than as an autonomous or socially indifferent accumulation of useful inventions, or as an uncritical narrative of linear "progress", "development" or "innovation". Technocriticism studies these personal and social practices in their changing practical and cultural significance. It documents and analyzes both their private and public uses, and often devotes special attention to the relations among these different uses and dimensions. Recurring themes in technocritical discourse include the deconstruction of essentialist concepts such as "health", "human", "nature" or "norm". Technocritical theory can be either "descriptive" or "prescriptive" in tone. Descriptive forms of technocriticism include some scholarship in the history of technology, science and technology studies, cyberculture studies and philosophy of technology. More prescriptive forms of technocriticism can be found in the various branches of technoethics, for example, media criticism, infoethics, bioethics, neuroethics, roboethics, nanoethics, existential risk assessment and some versions of environmental ethics and environmental design theory. Figures engaged in technocritical scholarship and theory include Donna Haraway and Bruno Latour (who work in


id: technorealism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technorealism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:26.878607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technorealism-20260505-0
summary:
Technorealism is an attempt to expand the middle ground between techno-utopianism and Neo-Luddism by assessing the social and political implications of technologies so that people might all have more control over the shape of their future. An account cited that technorealism emerged in the early 1990s and was introduced by Douglas Rushkoff and Andrew Shapiro. In the Technorealism manifesto, which described the term as a new generation of cultural criticism, it was stated that the goal was not to promote or dismiss technology but to understand it so the application could be aligned with basic human values. Technorealism suggests that a technology, however revolutionary it may seem, remains a continuation of similar revolutions throughout human history. == Approach == The technorealist approach involves a continuous critical examination of how technologies might help or hinder people in the struggle to improve the quality of their lives, their communities, and their economic, social, and political structures. In addition, instead of policy wonks, experts, and the elite, it is the technology critic who assumes the center stage in the discourse of technology policy issues. Although technorealism began with a focus on U.S.-based concerns about information technology, it has evolved into an international intellectual


id: ten-commandments-of-computer-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments_of_Computer_Ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments_of_Computer_Ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:28.199425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ten-commandments-of-computer-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics were created in 1992 by the Washington, D.C.–based Computer Ethics Institute. The commandments were introduced in the paper "In Pursuit of a 'Ten Commandments' for Computer Ethics" by Ramon C. Barquin as a means to create "a set of standards to guide and instruct people in the ethical use of computers." They follow the Internet Advisory Board's memo on ethics from 1987. The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics copies the archaic style of the Ten Commandments from the King James Bible. The commandments have been widely quoted in computer ethics literature but also have been criticized by both the hacker community and some in academia. For instance, Dr. Ben Fairweather of the Centre for Computing and Social Responsibility has described them as "simplistic" and overly restrictive. ISC2, one of the thought leaders in the information security industry, has referred to the commandments in developing its own ethics rules. == The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics == Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people. Thou shalt not interfere with other people's computer work. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people's computer files. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. Thou


id: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of terraforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:29.448939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-0
summary:
The ethics of terraforming has constituted a philosophical debate within biology, ecology, and environmental ethics as to whether terraforming other worlds is an ethical endeavor. == Support == On the pro-terraforming side of the argument, there are those like Robert Zubrin and Richard L. S. Taylor who believe that it is humanity's moral obligation to make other worlds suitable for Terran life, as a continuation of the history of life transforming the environments around it on Earth. They also point out that Earth will eventually be destroyed as nature takes its course, so that humanity faces a long-term choice between terraforming other worlds or allowing all Earth life to become extinct. Dr. Zubrin further argues that even if native microbes have arisen on Mars, for example, the fact that they have not progressed beyond the microbe stage by this point, halfway through the lifetime of the Sun, is a strong indicator that they never will; and that if microbial life exists on Mars, it is likely related to Earth life through a common origin on one of the two planets, which spread to the other as an example of panspermia. Since Mars life would then not be fundamentally unrelated to


id: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of terraforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:29.448939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-0
summary:
If we discover living or dormant organisms on Mars and these forms represent a different type of life than the life we have on Earth, then we should not bring life from Earth to Mars. Instead, we should alter the Martian environment so that this native Martian life can expand to fill a planetary scale biosphere. [...] [I]t is essential to maintain the categorical distinction between killing individual microorganisms and extinguishing an entire alternative system of life. There is no logical argument against killing microorganisms per se, either for research, medical, sanitary, or even casual reasons. However [...] it does not logically follow that destroying or displacing the first example of life beyond Earth is acceptable if the only examples of that life are microscopic. [...] If we terraformed Mars to allow the expansion of that life we would then reap the maximum benefits from the scientific study of that life form and its development into a full scale global biosphere. We would also enjoy the educational and [aesthetic] benefits of life in a biologically richer solar system. Even this "help" would be seen as a type of terraforming to the strictest of ecocentrists, who would say that all life


id: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming-2.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of terraforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:29.448939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-0
summary:
== Ethics of terraforming in fiction == A fairly thorough non-fictional analysis of the ethics of terraforming is also presented under the guise of the fictional Mars trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson, particularly between the characters Ann Clayborne and Sax Russell, with Clayborne epitomizing an ecocentric ethic of non-interference and Russell embodying the anthropocentric belief in the virtue of terraforming. The idea of interplanetary colonization and its ethical implications are also explored by C.S. Lewis in the first book of his Space Trilogy Out of the Silent Planet published in 1938. The plot of the 1982 film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan is based around the use of the so-called "Genesis Device" to create the conditions and organic building-blocks for life on previously lifeless planets. In debating the ethics of the device, Dr. McCoy, Spock and Admiral Kirk reflect on the Device's ability to replace any existing lifeforms with "its new matrix". McCoy describes the ethics of the Device in the following terms: "According to myth, the Earth was created in six days. Now watch out - here comes Genesis! We'll do it for you in six minutes!" The technology is shown to be flawed in the 1984


id: tescreal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESCREAL-0.md
category: reference
title: TESCREAL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESCREAL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:30.691934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tescreal-20260505-0
summary:
TESCREAL is a neologism proposed by computer scientist Timnit Gebru and philosopher Émile P. Torres. An acronym, it stands for Transhumanism, Extropianism, Singularitarianism, (modern) Cosmism, Rationalists (the internet community, not to be confused with other uses of the term), Effective Altruism, and Longtermism. Gebru and Torres argue that these ideologies should be treated as an "interconnected and overlapping" group with shared origins. They claim these constitute a movement that allows its proponents to use the threat of human extinction to justify expensive or detrimental projects and consider it pervasive in social and academic circles in Silicon Valley centered on artificial intelligence. As such, the acronym is sometimes used to criticize a perceived belief system associated with Big Tech. == Origin == Gebru and Torres proposed the term "TESCREAL" in 2023, first using it in a draft of a paper titled "The TESCREAL bundle: Eugenics and the promise of utopia through artificial general intelligence". First Monday published the paper in April 2024, though Torres and Gebru popularized the term elsewhere before the paper's publication. According to Gebru and Torres, transhumanism, extropianism, singularitarianism, (modern) cosmism, rationalism, effective altruism, and longtermism are a "bundle" of "interconnected and overlapping ideologies" that emerged from 20th-century


id: tescreal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESCREAL-1.md
category: reference
title: TESCREAL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESCREAL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:30.691934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tescreal-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criticism and debate === Writing in Asterisk, a magazine related to effective altruism, Ozy Brennan criticized Gebru's and Torres's grouping of different philosophies as if they were a "monolithic" movement. Brennan argues Torres has misunderstood these different philosophies, and has taken philosophical thought experiments out of context. Similarly, Oliver Habryka of LessWrong has criticized the concept, saying: "I've never in my life met a cosmist; apparently I'm great friends with them. Apparently, I'm like in cahoots [with them]." At Radio New Zealand, politics writer Danyl McLauchlan said that while some members of these groups want to engineer superhumans, others, like the effective altruists (who generally want to help the poor), are astounded to be lumped into a malevolent eugenics conspiracy. James Pethokoukis, of the American Enterprise Institute, disagrees with criticizing proponents of TESCREAL. He argues that the tech billionaires criticized in a Scientific American article for allegedly espousing TESCREAL have significantly advanced society. In the blog for the technoprogressive Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, Eli Sennesh and James Hughes have argued that TESCREAL is a left-wing conspiracy theory that groups disparate philosophies together without understanding their mutually exclusive tenets. == Alleged adherents == In 2023, venture capitalist Marc


id: transhumanism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-0.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
Transhumanism is a philosophical movement that advocates the enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available new and future technologies to enhance longevity, cognition, and well-being. Influenced by seminal works of science fiction, the transhumanist vision of a transformed future humanity has many supporters and detractors from a wide range of perspectives, including philosophy and religion. Some critics argue that transhumanism amounts to little more than a "rebranding" of eugenics. Transhumanist thinkers discuss the potential benefits and dangers of emerging technologies that could overcome fundamental human limitations, as well as the ethics of using such technologies. Some transhumanists speculate that human beings may eventually be able to transform themselves into beings of such vastly greater abilities as to merit being called "posthuman". Another topic of transhumanist discourse is how to protect humanity against existential risks, including artificial general intelligence, asteroid impact, gray goo, pandemic, societal collapse, and nuclear warfare. The biologist Julian Huxley popularised the term "transhumanism" in a 1957 essay. The contemporary meaning of the term was foreshadowed by one of the first professors of futurology, a man who changed his name to FM-2030. In the 1960s, he taught "new concepts of the human" at The


id: transhumanism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-1.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
Japanese Metabolist architects produced a manifesto in 1960 which outlined goals to "encourage active metabolic development of our society" through design and technology. In the Material and Man section of the manifesto, Noboru Kawazoe suggests that:After several decades, with the rapid progress of communication technology, every one will have a "brain wave receiver" in his ear, which conveys directly and exactly what other people think about him and vice versa. What I think will be known by all the people. There is no more individual consciousness, only the will of mankind as a whole. === Artificial intelligence and the technological singularity === The concept of the technological singularity, or the ultra-rapid advent of superhuman intelligence, was first proposed by the British cryptologist I. J. Good in 1965: Let an ultraintelligent machine be defined as a machine that can far surpass all the intellectual activities of any man however clever. Since the design of machines is one of these intellectual activities, an ultraintelligent machine could design even better machines; there would then unquestionably be an "intelligence explosion," and the intelligence of man would be left far behind. Thus the first ultraintelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make.


id: transhumanism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-2.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
The intellectual and cultural movement that affirms the possibility and desirability of fundamentally improving the human condition through applied reason, especially by developing and making widely available technologies to eliminate aging and to greatly enhance human intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities. The study of the ramifications, promises, and potential dangers of technologies that will enable us to overcome fundamental human limitations, and the related study of the ethical matters involved in developing and using such technologies. In possible contrast with other transhumanist organizations, WTA officials considered that social forces could undermine their futurist visions and needed to be addressed. A particular concern is equal access to human enhancement technologies across classes and borders. In 2006, a political struggle within the transhumanist movement between the libertarian right and the liberal left resulted in a more centre-leftward positioning of the WTA under its former executive director James Hughes. In 2006, the board of directors of the Extropy Institute ceased operations of the organization, saying that its mission was "essentially completed". This left the World Transhumanist Association as the leading international transhumanist organization. In 2008, as part of a rebranding effort, the WTA changed its name to "Humanity+". In 2012, the transhumanist Longevity


id: transhumanism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-3.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
While many transhumanist theorists and advocates seek to apply reason, science and technology to reduce poverty, disease, disability, and malnutrition around the globe, transhumanism is distinctive in its particular focus on the applications of technologies to the improvement of human bodies at the individual level. Many transhumanists actively assess the potential for future technologies and innovative social systems to improve the quality of all life, while seeking to make the material reality of the human condition fulfill the promise of legal and political equality by eliminating congenital mental and physical barriers. Transhumanist philosophers argue that there not only exists a perfectionist ethical imperative for humans to strive for progress and improvement of the human condition, but that it is possible and desirable for humanity to enter a transhuman phase of existence in which humans enhance themselves beyond what is naturally human. In such a phase, natural evolution would be replaced with deliberate participatory or directed evolution. Some theorists such as Ray Kurzweil think that the pace of technological innovation is accelerating and that the next 50 years may yield not only radical technological advances, but possibly a technological singularity, which may fundamentally change the nature of human beings. Transhumanists who


