# kb

id: orthomolecular-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Orthomolecular medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:18.288401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orthomolecular-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
== Principles == According to Abram Hoffer, "primitive" peoples do not consume processed foods and do not have "degenerative" diseases. In contrast, typical "Western" diets are said to be insufficient for long-term health, necessitating the use of megadose supplements of vitamins, dietary minerals, proteins, antioxidants, amino acids, ω-3 fatty acids, ω-6 fatty acids, medium-chain triglycerides, dietary fiber, short and long chain fatty acids, lipotropes, systemic and digestive enzymes, other digestive factors, and prohormones to ward off hypothetical metabolism anomalies at an early stage, before they cause disease. Orthomolecularists say that they provide prescriptions for optimal amounts of micronutrients after individual diagnoses based on blood tests and personal histories. Lifestyle and diet changes may also be recommended. The battery of tests ordered includes many that are not considered useful by medicine. == Prevalence == Orthomolecular medicine is practiced by few medical practitioners. A survey released in May, 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used alternative medicine, what was used, and why it was used in the United States by adults age 18 years and over during 2003. The survey reported uses in the previous twelve months that include orthomolecular related uses: Nonvitamin, nonmineral, natural


id: orthomolecular-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Orthomolecular medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:18.288401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orthomolecular-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
This review and critique has carefully examined the literature produced by megavitamin proponents and by those who have attempted to replicate their basic and clinical work. It concludes in this regard that the credibility of the megavitamin proponents is low. Their credibility is further diminished by a consistent refusal over the past decade to perform controlled experiments and to report their new results in a scientifically acceptable fashion. Under these circumstances this Task Force considers the massive publicity which they promulgate via radio, the lay press and popular books, using catch phrases which are really misnomers like "megavitamin therapy" and "orthomolecular treatment", to be deplorable. In response to claims that orthomolecular medicine could cure childhood psychoses and learning disorders, the American Academy of Pediatrics labelled orthomolecular medicine a "cult" in 1976. Proponents of orthomolecular medicine counter that some vitamins and nutrients are now used in medicine as treatments for specific diseases, such as megadose niacin and fish oil for dyslipidemias, and megavitamin therapies for a group of rare inborn errors of metabolism. A review in the Annals of Internal Medicine concluded that while some therapies might be beneficial, others might be harmful or interfere with effective medical therapy. A recent


id: orthomolecular-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: Orthomolecular medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:18.288401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orthomolecular-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Use in AIDS === Several articles in the alternative-medicine literature have suggested that orthomolecular-related dietary supplementation might be helpful for patients with HIV/AIDS. A study using 250 mg and 1000 mg doses of vitamin C along with other antioxidants to treat people with AIDS did not find any benefit. A meta analysis in 2010 (updated in 2017 with different results) found that micronutrient supplementation decreased the risk of death and improved outcomes in pregnant women with HIV in Africa. A 2017 Cochrane review found no strong evidence to suggest that micronutrient supplementation prevents death or is effective at slowing the progression of disease for adults with HIV. It is important for people living with HIV to eat a healthy adequate diet. For people with HIV that have clinically demonstrated deficiencies in micronutrients or for people who are not able to consume the recommended daily quantities of minerals and vitamins, supplementation is still encouraged. Vitamin A in children with HIV appears to be safe and beneficial. Vitamin A deficiency is found in children with HIV infection who may or may not have symptoms of AIDS. Vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality in AIDS symptomatic children, but has no effect


id: panspermia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia-0.md
category: reference
title: Panspermia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:19.441555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: panspermia-20260505-0
summary:
Panspermia (from Ancient Greek πᾶν (pan) 'all' and σπέρμα (sperma) 'seed') is the hypothesis that life exists throughout the universe, distributed by cosmic dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, and planetoids, as well as by spacecraft carrying unintended contamination by microorganisms, known as directed panspermia. The theory argues that life did not originate on Earth, but instead evolved somewhere else and seeded life as we know it. Panspermia comes in many forms, such as radiopanspermia, lithopanspermia, and directed panspermia. Regardless of its form, the theories generally propose that microbes able to survive in outer space (such as certain types of bacteria or plant spores) can become trapped in debris ejected into space after collisions between planets and small Solar System bodies that harbor life. This debris containing the lifeforms is then transported by meteors between bodies in a planetary system, or even across planetary systems within a galaxy. In this way, panspermia studies concentrate not on how life began but on methods that may distribute it within the Universe. This point is often used as a criticism of the theory. Panspermia is a fringe theory with little support amongst mainstream scientists. Critics argue that it does not answer the question of the


id: panspermia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia-1.md
category: reference
title: Panspermia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:19.441555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: panspermia-20260505-0
summary:
== History == Panspermia has a history dating back to the 5th century BCE and the natural philosopher Anaxagoras. Classicists came to agree that Anaxagoras maintained the Universe (or Cosmos) was full of life, and that life on Earth started from the fall of these extra-terrestrial seeds. Panspermia as it is known today, however, is not identical to this original theory. The name, as applied to this theory, was only first coined in 1908 by Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish scientist. Prior to this, since around the 1860s, many prominent scientists were becoming interested in the theory. More recent advocates include Sir Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe. In the 1860s, there were three scientific developments that began to bring the focus of the scientific community to the problem of the origin of life. Firstly, the Kant-Laplace Nebular theory of solar system and planetary formation was gaining favor, and implied that when the Earth first formed, the surface conditions would have been inhospitable to life as we know it. This meant that life must have arisen on Earth at a later date, without biological precursors. Secondly, Charles Darwin's famous theory of evolution implied some elusive origin, because in order for something to


id: panspermia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia-2.md
category: reference
title: Panspermia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:19.441555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: panspermia-20260505-0
summary:
== Overview == === Core requirements === Panspermia requires: that organic molecules originated in space (perhaps to be distributed to Earth), that life originated from these molecules, extraterrestrially, that this extraterrestrial life was transported to Earth. The creation and distribution of organic molecules from space is now uncontroversial; it is known as pseudo-panspermia. The jump from organic materials to life originating from space, however, is hypothetical and currently untestable. === Transport vessels === Bacterial spores and plant seeds are two common proposed vessels for panspermia. According to the theory, they could be encased in a meteorite and transported to another planet from their origin, subsequently descend through the atmosphere and populate the surface with life (see lithopanspermia below). This naturally requires that these spores and seeds have formed somewhere else, maybe even in space in the case of how panspermia deals with bacteria. Understanding of planetary formation theory and meteorites has led to the idea that some rocky bodies originating from undifferentiated parent bodies could be able to generate local conditions conducive to life. Hypothetically, internal heating from radiogenic isotopes could melt ice to provide water as well as energy. In fact, some meteorites have been found to show signs


id: panspermia-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia-3.md
category: reference
title: Panspermia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:19.441555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: panspermia-20260505-0
summary:
Planetary ejection – For lithopanspermia to occur, microorganisms must first survive ejection from a planetary surface (assuming they do not form on meteorites, as suggested in), which involves extreme forces of acceleration and shock with associated temperature rises. Hypothetical values of shock pressures experienced by ejected rocks are obtained from Martian meteorites, which suggest pressures of approximately 5 to 55 GPa, acceleration of 3 Mm/s2, jerk of 6 million km/s3 and post-shock temperature increases of about 1 K to 1000 K. Though these conditions are extreme, some organisms appear able to survive them. Survival in transit – Once in space, the microorganisms have to make it to their next destination for lithopanspermia to be successful. The survival of microorganisms has been studied extensively using both simulated facilities and in low Earth orbit. A large number of microorganisms have been selected for exposure experiments, both human-borne microbes (significant for future crewed missions) and extremophiles (significant for determining the physiological requirements of survival in space). Bacteria in particular can exhibit a survival mechanism whereby a colony generates a biofilm that enhances its protection against UV radiation. Atmospheric entry – The final stage of lithopanspermia, is re-entry onto a viable planet via its


id: panspermia-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia-4.md
category: reference
title: Panspermia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panspermia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:19.441555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: panspermia-20260505-0
summary:
==== Counterarguments ==== In 1972, both abiogenesis and panspermia were seen as viable theories by different experts. Given this, Crick and Orgel argued that experimental evidence required to validate one theory over the other was lacking. That being said, evidence strongly in favor of abiogenesis over panspermia exists today, whereas evidence for panspermia, particularly directed panspermia, is decidedly lacking. === Origination and distribution of organic molecules: Pseudo-panspermia === Pseudo-panspermia is the well-supported hypothesis that many of the small organic molecules used for life originated in space, and were distributed to planetary surfaces. Life then emerged on Earth, and perhaps on other planets, by the processes of abiogenesis. Evidence for pseudo-panspermia includes the discovery of organic compounds such as sugars, amino acids, and nucleobases in meteorites and other extraterrestrial bodies, and the formation of similar compounds in the laboratory under outer space conditions. A prebiotic polyester system has been explored as an example. == Hoaxes and speculations == === Orgueil meteorite === On May 14, 1864, twenty fragments from a meteorite crashed into the French city of Orgueil. A separate fragment of the Orgueil meteorite (kept in a sealed glass jar since its discovery) was found in 1965 to have a


id: meg-patterson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meg_Patterson-0.md
category: reference
title: Meg Patterson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meg_Patterson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:20.606855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meg-patterson-20260505-0
summary:
Margaret Angus Patterson (9 November 1922 – 25 July 2002) was a Scottish surgeon and medical missionary who developed a method for treating drug addiction she called "neuro-electric therapy" (NET). While the therapy gained public attention through celebrity endorsements, it was met with skepticism by the medical community due to a lack of formal evidence. Some modern clinical trials have found that a device based on her principles is effective for reducing opioid withdrawal symptoms. == Early life and education == Margaret Angus Ingram was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1922. The daughter of Alexander Ingram, she was the youngest of five children. Patterson started medical school at 21 during World War II, and qualified as a member Fellowship of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons when she was 25, the only woman in the group. == Career == Patterson went to India as a medical missionary. While in India she met George Patterson in Kalimpong and they married in 1953; the couple were committed Christians. George Patterson had become famous through his involvement with the Dalai Lama, and his reporting on the 1959 Tibetan uprising and the subsequent events in China's annexation of Tibet. For her work establishing and expanding


id: giorgio-piccardi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Piccardi-0.md
category: reference
title: Giorgio Piccardi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Piccardi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:21.789915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: giorgio-piccardi-20260505-0
summary:
Giorgio Piccardi (13 October 1895 – 22 December 1972) was an Italian physicist and chemist. He had a special interest in non-reproducible results or what he termed as fluctuating phenomena which were considered outside the area of conventional science according to scientific positivism. He considered the effect of weak electromagnetic fields, sunspot activity, and cosmic radiation as possible influences affecting chemical reactions. These effects were sometimes called as Piccardi effects. His ideas on what he called "activated water" were appropriated by Jacques Benveniste and others to suggest a scientific basis for homeopathy and this has led to his original work being considered as fringe science. == Life and work == Piccardi was born in Florence to Ludovico (d. 1944) and Marianna, née Caldini. He studied from 1913 at the Institute of Higher Studies in Florence (Ateneo Fiorentino Reale Istituto di Studi Superiori Pratici e di Perfezionamento). He studied organic chemistry under Hugo Schiff but his studies were interrupted by World War I; he served in the Alpini. He was interned in Hungary after being taken prisoner in 1917 and escaped by digging a tunnel. He was recaptured and suffered from pleurisy and was transferred back in 1919 from an Austrian


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-0.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories, many of which are speculative, propose that visits to the Americas, interactions with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, or both, were made by people from elsewhere prior to Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the Caribbean in 1492. Studies between 2004 and 2009 suggest the possibility that the earliest human migrations to the Americas may have been made by boat from Beringia and travel down the Pacific coast, contemporary with and possibly predating land migrations over the Beringia land bridge, which during the glacial period joined what today are Siberia and Alaska. Apart from Norse contact and settlement, whether transoceanic travel occurred during the historic period, resulting in pre-Columbian contact between the settled American peoples and voyagers from other continents, is vigorously debated. Only a few cases of pre-Columbian contact are widely accepted by mainstream scientists and scholars. Yup'ik and Aleut peoples residing on both sides of the Bering Strait had frequent contact with each other, and multiple artifacts traded across the Bering Strait have been discovered in pre-Columbian archaeological sites in Alaska. Maritime explorations by Norse peoples from Scandinavia during the late 10th century led to the Norse colonization of Greenland and a base camp


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-1.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Dutch linguists and specialists in Amerindian languages Willem Adelaar and Pieter Muysken have suggested that the word for sweet potato is shared by Polynesian languages and languages of South America. Proto-Polynesian *kumala (compare Easter Island kumara, Hawaiian ʻuala, Māori kūmara; even though a proto-form is reconstructed above, apparent cognates outside Eastern Polynesian are either definitely borrowed from Eastern Polynesian languages or irregular, calling Proto-Polynesian status and age into question) may be connected with dialectal Quechua and Aymara k'umar ~ k'umara; most Quechua dialects actually use apichu instead, but comal was attested at extinct Cañari language on the coast of what is now Ecuador in 1582. Adelaar and Muysken assert that the similarity in the word for sweet potato "constitutes near proof of incidental contact between inhabitants of the Andean region and the South Pacific." The authors argue that the presence of the word for sweet potato suggests sporadic contact between Polynesia and South America, but not necessarily migrations. === Ageratum conyzoides === Ageratum conyzoides, also known as billygoat-weed, chick weed, goatweed, or whiteweed, is native to the tropical Americas, and was found in Hawaii by William Hillebrand in 1888 who considered it to have grown there before Captain Cook's arrival


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-2.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Researchers including Kathryn Klar and Terry Jones have proposed a theory of contact between Hawaiians and the Chumash people of Southern California between 400 and 800 CE. The sewn-plank canoes crafted by the Chumash and neighboring Tongva are unique among the indigenous peoples of North America, but similar in design to larger canoes used by Polynesians and Melanesians for deep-sea voyages. Tomolo'o, the Chumash word for such a craft, may derive from tumulaʻau/kumulaʻau, the Hawaiian term for the logs from which shipwrights carve planks to be sewn into canoes. The analogous Tongva term, tii'at, is unrelated. If it occurred, this contact left no genetic legacy in California or Hawaii. This theory has attracted limited media attention within California, but most archaeologists of the Tongva and Chumash cultures reject it on the grounds that the independent development of the sewn-plank canoe over several centuries is well-represented in the material record. ==== Clava hand-club and words for axes ==== Archaeological artefacts known as clava hand-clubs found in Araucanía and nearby areas of Argentina have a strong resemblance to the mere okewa found in New Zealand. The clava hand-clubs are also mentioned in the Spanish chronicles dating to the Conquest of Chile. According


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-3.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Other claims of early Chinese contact with North America have been made. In 1882, approximately 30 brass coins, perhaps strung together, were reportedly found in the area of the Cassiar Gold Rush, apparently near Dease Creek, an area which was dominated by Chinese gold miners. A contemporary account states:In the summer of 1882 a miner found on De Foe (Deorse?) creek, Cassiar district, Br. Columbia, thirty Chinese coins in the auriferous sand, twenty-five feet below the surface. They appeared to have been strung, but on taking them up the miner let them drop apart. The earth above and around them was as compact as any in the neighborhood. One of these coins I examined at the store of Chu Chong in Victoria. Neither in metal nor markings did it resemble the modern coins, but in its figures looked more like an Aztec calendar. So far as I can make out the markings, this is a Chinese chronological cycle of sixty years, invented by Emperor Huungti, 2637 BCE, and circulated in this form to make his people remember it. Grant Keddie, curator of archeology at the Royal B.C. Museum, identified these as good luck temple tokens which were minted in the


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-4.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Grafton Elliot Smith claimed that certain motifs present in the carvings on the Mayan stelae at Copán represented the Asian elephant, and wrote a book on the topic entitled Elephants and Ethnologists in 1924. Contemporary archaeologists suggested that the depictions were almost certainly based on the (indigenous) tapir, with the result that Smith's suggestions have generally been dismissed by subsequent research. Some objects depicted in carvings from Karnataka, dating from the 12th century, that resemble ears of maize (Zea mays—a crop native to the New World), were interpreted by Carl Johannessen and Ann Parker in 1989 as evidence of pre-Columbian contact. These suggestions were dismissed by multiple Indian researchers based on several lines of evidence. The object has been claimed by some to instead represent a "Muktaphala", an imaginary fruit bedecked with pearls. Ethnobotanist and Indologist Shakti M. Gupta concurs with Johannessen and Parker that the objects in question are maize ears: Different varieties of the corn cob [Zea mays Linn.] are extensively sculpted [...] on the Hindu and Jain temples of Karnataka. [...] The straight rows of the corn grains can easily be identified. [...] Temples where the corn cobs are found are dated 12-13th century A.D. [...] By


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-5.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
In 1996, Mark McMenamin proposed that Phoenician sailors discovered the New World c. 350 BC. The Phoenician state of Carthage minted gold staters in 350 BC bearing a pattern in the reverse exergue of the coins, which McMenamin initially interpreted as a map of the Mediterranean with the Americas shown to the west across the Atlantic. McMenamin later demonstrated that these coins found in America were modern forgeries. === Claims of ancient Judaic contact === The Bat Creek inscription and Los Lunas Decalogue Stone have led some to suggest the possibility that Jewish seafarers may have traveled to America after they fled from the Roman Empire at the time of the Jewish–Roman Wars in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. However, American archaeologists Robert C. Mainfort Jr. and Mary L. Kwas argued in American Antiquity (2004) that the Bat Creek inscription was copied from an illustration in an 1870 Masonic reference book and introduced by the Smithsonian field assistant who found it during excavation activities. As for the Decalogue Stone, there are mistakes which suggest that it was carved by one or more novices who either overlooked or misunderstood some details on a source Decalogue from which they copied it.


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-6.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
A small terracotta sculpture of a head, with a beard and European-like features, was found in 1933 in the Toluca Valley, 72 kilometres (45 mi) southwest of Mexico City, in a burial offering under three intact floors of a pre-colonial building dated to between 1476 and 1510. The artifact has been studied by Roman art authority Bernard Andreae, director emeritus of the German Institute of Archaeology in Rome, Italy, and Austrian anthropologist Robert von Heine-Geldern, both of whom stated that the style of the artifact was compatible with small Roman sculptures of the 2nd century. If genuine and if not placed there after 1492 (the pottery found with it dates to between 1476 and 1510), the find provides evidence for at least a one-time contact between the Old and New Worlds. According to Arizona State University's Michael E. Smith, a leading Mesoamerican scholar named John Paddock used to tell his classes in the years before he died that the artifact was planted as a joke by Hugo Moedano, a student who originally worked on the site. Despite speaking with individuals who knew the original discoverer (García Payón), and Moedano, Smith says he has been unable to confirm or reject this


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-7.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Some have conjectured that Columbus was able to persuade the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon to support his planned voyage only because they were aware of some recent earlier voyage across the Atlantic. Some suggest that Columbus himself visited Canada or Greenland before 1492, because, according to Bartolomé de las Casas, he wrote he had sailed 100 leagues past an island that he called Thule in 1477. Whether Columbus actually did this and what island he visited, if any, is uncertain. Columbus is thought to have visited Bristol in 1476. Bristol was also the port from which John Cabot sailed in 1497, crewed mostly by Bristol sailors. In a letter of late 1497 or early 1498, the English merchant John Day wrote to Columbus about Cabot's discoveries, saying that land found by Cabot was "discovered in the past by the men from Bristol who found 'Brasil' as your lordship knows". There may be records of expeditions from Bristol to find the "isle of Brazil" in 1480 and 1481. Trade between Bristol and Iceland is well documented from the mid-15th century. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records several such legends in his Historia general de las Indias of 1526,


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-8.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Traces of coca and nicotine which are found in some Egyptian mummies have led to speculation that Ancient Egyptians may have had contact with the New World. The initial discovery was made by a German toxicologist Svetlana Balabanova after examining the mummy of a priestess named Henut Taui. Follow-up tests on the hair shaft, which were performed in order to rule out the possibility of contamination, revealed the same results. A television show reported that examinations of numerous Sudanese mummies which were also undertaken by Balabanova mirrored what was found in the mummy of Henut Taui. Balabanova suggested that the tobacco may be accounted for since it may have also been known in China and Europe, as indicated by analyses run on human remains from those respective regions. Balabanova proposed that such plants native to the general area may have developed independently, but have since gone extinct. Other explanations include fraud, though curator Alfred Grimm of the Egyptian Museum in Munich disputes this. Skeptical of Balabanova's findings, Rosalie David, Keeper of Egyptology at the Manchester Museum, had similar tests performed on samples which were taken from the Manchester mummy collection and she reported that two of the tissue samples and


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-9.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Both Mela and Pliny listed this incident as evidence supporting the notion that all lands of the world, including northern parts of Europe and Asia, are surrounded by Oceanus, and that it is theoretically possible to sail from India to Europe through a northern passage. Since Metellus Celer died just after his consulship, before he ever got to Transalpine Gaul (in the area of present-day southern France), the authors accepting the historicity of the incident either date it to 62 BCE, when Celer was governing Cisalpine Gaul (in the area of present-day northern Italy), or interpret texts of Mela and Pliny as garbled accounts of Celer's encounter with some Indians at an earlier date, when he served as Pompey's legate in Asia. Richard Hennig suggested that the castaways mentioned by Mela and Pliny were possibly American Indians. Other interpretations of the incident were also proposed. Bengtson (1954), McLaughlin (2016) and Lerner (2020) argued that Celer might have encountered actual merchants from India, who reached Europe from Phasis on the Black Sea coast. Other authors interpret supposed Indians as misidentified speakers of Finno-Ugric languages originating from the areas east of the Bothnian Bay or Baltic Veneti. An article in the Journal


id: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories-10.md
category: reference
title: Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:23.070284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pre-columbian-transoceanic-contact-theories-20260505-0
summary:
=== Claims of pre-Columbian contact with Christian voyagers === During the period of Spanish colonization of the Americas, several indigenous myths and works of art led a number of Spanish chroniclers and authors to suggest that Christian preachers may have visited Mesoamerica well before the Age of Discovery. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, for example, was intrigued by the presence of cross symbols in Maya hieroglyphs, which according to him suggested that other Christians may have arrived in ancient Mexico before the Spanish conquistadors. Fray Diego Durán, for his part, linked the legend of the Pre-Columbian god Quetzalcoatl (whom he describes as being chaste, penitent, and a miracle-worker) to the Biblical accounts of Christian apostles. Bartolomé de las Casas describes Quetzalcoatl as being fair-skinned, tall, and bearded (therefore suggesting an Old World origin), while Fray Juan de Torquemada credits him with bringing agriculture to the Americas. Modern scholarship has cast serious doubts on several of these claims, since agriculture was practiced in the Americas well before the emergence of Christianity in the Old World, and Maya crosses have been found to have a very different symbolism from that present in Christian religious traditions. According to Pre-Columbian myth, Quetzalcoatl departed Mexico in


id: quantum-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:24.314329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
The quantum mind or quantum consciousness is a group of hypotheses proposing that local physical laws and interactions from classical mechanics or connections between neurons alone cannot explain consciousness. These hypotheses posit instead that quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition that cause nonlocalized quantum effects, interacting in smaller features of the brain than cells, may play an important part in the brain's function and could explain critical aspects of consciousness. These scientific hypotheses are as yet unvalidated, and they can overlap with quantum mysticism. == History == Eugene Wigner developed the idea that quantum mechanics has something to do with the workings of the mind. He proposed that the wave function collapses due to its interaction with consciousness. Freeman Dyson argued that "mind, as manifested by the capacity to make choices, is to some extent inherent in every electron". Other contemporary physicists and philosophers considered these arguments unconvincing. Victor Stenger characterized quantum consciousness as a "myth" having "no scientific basis" that "should take its place along with gods, unicorns and dragons". David Chalmers argues against quantum consciousness. He instead discusses how quantum mechanics may relate to dualistic consciousness. Chalmers is skeptical that any new physics can resolve the hard


id: quantum-mind-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-1.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:24.314329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Theoretical physicist Roger Penrose and anaesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff collaborated to produce the theory known as "orchestrated objective reduction" (Orch-OR). Penrose and Hameroff initially developed their ideas separately and later collaborated to produce Orch-OR in the early 1990s. They reviewed and updated their theory in 2013. Penrose's argument stemmed from Gödel's incompleteness theorems. In his first book on consciousness, The Emperor's New Mind (1989), he argued that while a formal system cannot prove its own consistency, Gödel's unprovable results are provable by human mathematicians. Penrose took this to mean that human mathematicians are not formal proof systems and not running a computable algorithm. According to Bringsjord and Xiao, this line of reasoning is based on fallacious equivocation on the meaning of computation. In the same book, Penrose wrote: "One might speculate, however, that somewhere deep in the brain, cells are to be found of single quantum sensitivity. If this proves to be the case, then quantum mechanics will be significantly involved in brain activity." Penrose determined that wave function collapse was the only possible physical basis for a non-computable process. Dissatisfied with its randomness, he proposed a new form of wave function collapse that occurs in isolation and called it objective


id: quantum-mind-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-2.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:24.314329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
A lot of what the brain does you could do on a computer. I'm not saying that all the brain's action is completely different from what you do on a computer. I am claiming that the actions of consciousness are something different. I'm not saying that consciousness is beyond physics, either—although I'm saying that it's beyond the physics we know now.... My claim is that there has to be something in physics that we don't yet understand, which is very important, and which is of a noncomputational character. It's not specific to our brains; it's out there, in the physical world. But it usually plays a totally insignificant role. It would have to be in the bridge between quantum and classical levels of behavior—that is, where quantum measurement comes in. === Umezawa, Vitiello, Freeman === Hiroomi Umezawa and collaborators proposed a quantum field theory of memory storage. Giuseppe Vitiello and Walter Freeman proposed a dialog model of the mind. This dialog takes place between the classical and the quantum parts of the brain. Their quantum field theory models of brain dynamics are fundamentally different from the Penrose–Hameroff theory. ==== Quantum brain dynamics ==== As described by Harald Atmanspacher, "Since quantum


id: quantum-mind-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-3.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:24.314329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
=== Catecholaminergic neuron electron transport (CNET) === CNET is a hypothesized neural signaling mechanism in catecholaminergic neurons that would use quantum mechanical electron transport. The hypothesis is based in part on the observation by many independent researchers that electron tunneling occurs in ferritin, an iron storage protein that is prevalent in those neurons, at room temperature and ambient conditions. The hypothesized function of this mechanism is to assist in action selection, but the mechanism itself would be capable of integrating millions of cognitive and sensory neural signals using a physical mechanism associated with strong electron-electron interactions. Each tunneling event would involve a collapse of an electron wave function, but the collapse would be incidental to the physical effect created by strong electron-electron interactions. CNET predicted a number of physical properties of these neurons that have been subsequently observed experimentally, such as electron tunneling in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) tissue and the presence of disordered arrays of ferritin in SNc tissue. The hypothesis also predicted that disordered ferritin arrays like those found in SNc tissue should be capable of supporting long-range electron transport and providing a switching or routing function, both of which have also been subsequently observed. Another prediction


id: quantum-mind-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-4.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:24.314329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
=== Conceptual problems === The idea that a quantum effect is necessary for consciousness to function is still in the realm of philosophy. Penrose proposes that it is necessary, but other theories of consciousness do not indicate that it is needed. For example, Daniel Dennett proposed a theory called multiple drafts model, which doesn't indicate that quantum effects are needed, in his 1991 book Consciousness Explained. A philosophical argument on either side is not a scientific proof, although philosophical analysis can indicate key differences in the types of models and show what type of experimental differences might be observed. But since there is no clear consensus among philosophers, there is no conceptual support that a quantum mind theory is needed. A possible conceptual approach is to use quantum mechanics as an analogy to understand a different field of study like consciousness, without expecting that the laws of quantum physics will apply. An example of this approach is the idea of Schrödinger's cat. Erwin Schrödinger described how one could, in principle, create entanglement of a large-scale system by making it dependent on an elementary particle in a superposition. He proposed a scenario with a cat in a locked steel chamber, wherein


id: quantum-mind-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-5.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:24.314329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
The problem with trying to use quantum mechanics in the action of the brain is that if it were a matter of quantum nerve signals, these nerve signals would disturb the rest of the material in the brain, to the extent that the quantum coherence would get lost very quickly. You couldn't even attempt to build a quantum computer out of ordinary nerve signals, because they're just too big and in an environment that's too disorganized. Ordinary nerve signals have to be treated classically. But if you go down to the level of the microtubules, then there's an extremely good chance that you can get quantum-level activity inside them. For my picture, I need this quantum-level activity in the microtubules; the activity has to be a large-scale thing that goes not just from one microtubule to the next but from one nerve cell to the next, across large areas of the brain. We need some kind of coherent activity of a quantum nature which is weakly coupled to the computational activity that Hameroff argues is taking place along the microtubules. There are various avenues of attack. One is directly on the physics, on quantum theory, and there are certain experiments


id: ruggero-santilli-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruggero_Santilli-0.md
category: reference
title: Ruggero Santilli
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruggero_Santilli
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:25.512396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ruggero-santilli-20260505-0
summary:
Ruggero Maria Santilli (born September 8, 1935) is an Italo-American nuclear physicist. Mainstream scientists dismiss his theories as fringe science. == Biography == Ruggero Maria Santilli was born September 8, 1935) in Capracotta. He studied physics at the University of Naples and earned his PhD in physics from the University of Turin, graduating in 1965. He held various academic positions in Italy until 1967, when he took a position at University of Miami; a year later he moved to Boston University, and subsequently held visiting scientist positions at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University. In September 1981, Santilli established a one-man organization, the Institute for Basic Research in Boston; he told a reporter from St. Petersburg Times in 2007 that he left Harvard because scientists there viewed his work as "heresy". In 1982 Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper wrote that Santilli's calls for tests on the validity of quantum mechanics within nuclear and hadronic structures, represented a return to scientific sanity. In 1985 he published a book, Il Grande Grido: Ethical Probe on Einstein's Followers in the U.S.A, an Insider's View, in which he said that in many institutions there is an effective conspiracy to suppress or not investigate novel


id: ruggero-santilli-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruggero_Santilli-1.md
category: reference
title: Ruggero Santilli
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruggero_Santilli
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:25.512396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ruggero-santilli-20260505-0
summary:
== Selected publications == Santilli, Ruggero (1978). Foundations of Theoretical Mechanics: The inverse problem in Newtonian mechanics (PDF). New York: Springer-Verlag. OCLC 9020170. Santilli, Ruggero (1983). Foundations of Theoretical Mechanics: Birkhoffian Generalization of Hamiltonian Mechanics (PDF). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-09482-3. Santilli, Ruggero (1984). Il Grande Grido: Ethical Probe on Einstein's Followers in the U.S.A.: An Insider's View. Louisville: Alpha Pub. ISBN 978-0-931753-00-8. Santilli, Ruggero Maria (1997). "Relativistic hadronic mechanics: Nonunitary, axiom-preserving completion of relativistic quantum mechanics". Foundations of Physics. 27 (5): 625–729. Bibcode:1997FoPh...27..625S. doi:10.1007/BF02550172. S2CID 121113126. Santilli, Ruggero (2001). Foundations of Hadronic Chemistry: with Applications to New Clean Energies and Fuels. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-0087-4. Santilli, R. M.; Aringazin, A. K. (2004). "Structure and Combustion of Magnegases". Hadronic Journal. 27 (2004): 299–330. arXiv:physics/0112066. Bibcode:2001physics..12066S. Santilli, Ruggero (2006). Isodual Theory of Antimatter with Applications to Antigravity, Grand Unification and Cosmology (PDF). Fundamental Theories of Physics. Vol. 151. Springer. Bibcode:2006itaa.book.....S. doi:10.1007/1-4020-4518-2 (inactive 31 July 2025). ISBN 1-4020-4518-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link) == References == == External links == "Video:From trash to gas". CNN. September 22, 2010.


id: viktor-schauberger-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger-0.md
category: reference
title: Viktor Schauberger
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Schauberger
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:26.687484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: viktor-schauberger-20260505-0
summary:
Viktor Schauberger (Austrian German: [ˈʃaʊbɛrɡɐ]; 30 June 1885 – 25 September 1958) was an Austrian forest caretaker, naturalist, philosopher, pseudoscientist, and inventor. == Early life == Schauberger was born in Holzschlag, Upper Austria on 30 June 1885. His parents were Leopold Schauberger and Josefa, née Klimitsch. From 1891 to 1897, he attended the elementary school in Aigen, then until 1900 the state grammar school in Linz. Until 1904, he went to the forestry school in Aggsbach in the Kartause Aggsbach, where he passed the exam as a forester. From 1904 to 1906, he was a forest clerk in Groß-Schweinbarth in Lower Austria. == Technology == Nick Cook visited the PKS bio-technical institute, Pythagoras-Kepler System, in the Salzkammergut Mountains. Viktor's grandson Joerg gave Nick access to the family archives, which included Viktor's books, letters, diary, and patent applications. Besides inventing a log flume, Viktor worked on bio-technical machinery. In 1939, Viktor filed a patent with the Reich Patent Office for a "multistage centrifuge with concentrically juxtaposed pressure chambers," a means of propelling machines through air or water, water purification, or electricity generation. In 1940, Viktor contracted Kaempfer in Berlin to build the machine, then in February 1941, switched to the Kertl


id: sluggish-schizophrenia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-0.md
category: reference
title: Sluggish schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:27.852988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sluggish-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
Sluggish schizophrenia or slow progressive schizophrenia (Russian: вялотеку́щая шизофрени́я, romanized: vyalotekushchaya shizofreniya) was a diagnostic category used in the Soviet Union to describe what was claimed to be a form of schizophrenia characterized by a slowly progressive course; it was diagnosed even in patients who showed no symptoms of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders, on the assumption that these symptoms would appear later. It was developed in the 1960s by Soviet psychiatrist Andrei Snezhnevsky and his colleagues, and was used exclusively in the USSR and several Eastern Bloc countries, until the fall of Communism starting in 1989. The diagnosis has long been discredited because of its scientific inadequacy and its use as a means of confining dissenters. It has never been used or recognized outside of the Eastern Bloc, or by international organizations such as the World Health Organization. It is considered a prime example of the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union. Sluggish schizophrenia was the most infamous of diagnoses used by Soviet psychiatrists, due to its usage against political dissidents. After being discharged from a hospital, persons diagnosed with sluggish schizophrenia were deprived of their civic rights, credibility and employability. The usage of this diagnosis has


id: sluggish-schizophrenia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-1.md
category: reference
title: Sluggish schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:27.852988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sluggish-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
== Popularity of diagnosis == Because of diagnoses of sluggish schizophrenia, Russia in 1974 had 5–7 cases of schizophrenia per 1,000 population, compared to 3–4 per 1,000 in the United Kingdom. In the 1980s, Russia had three times as many schizophrenic patients per capita as the US, twice as many schizophrenic patients as West Germany, Austria and Japan, and more schizophrenic patients than any Western country. The city with the highest diagnosed prevalence of schizophrenia in the world was Moscow. Along with paranoia, sluggish schizophrenia was the diagnosis most frequently used for the psychiatric incarceration of dissenters. Darrel Regier of the National Institute of Mental Health, one of the U.S. experts who visited Soviet psychiatric hospitals in 1989, testified that a "substantial number" of political dissenters had been recognized as mentally sick on the basis of such symptoms as "anti-Soviet thoughts" or "delusions of reformism". According to Moscow psychiatrist Alexander Danilin, the nosological approach in the Moscow psychiatric school established by Andrei Snezhnevsky (whom Danilin considered a state criminal) boiled down to the ability to diagnose schizophrenia. == Systematics by Snezhnevsky == The Soviet model of schizophrenia is based on the hypothesis that a fundamental characteristic (by which schizophrenia spectrum


id: sluggish-schizophrenia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-2.md
category: reference
title: Sluggish schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:27.852988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sluggish-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
Only specially instructed psychiatrists could recognize sluggish schizophrenia to indefinitely treat dissenters in a "Special Psychiatric Hospital" with heavy doses of antipsychotic medication. Convinced of the immortality of the totalitarian USSR, Soviet psychiatrists, especially in Moscow, did not hesitate to form "scientific" articles and defend dissertations by using the cases of dissidents. For example, Snezhnevsky diagnosed dissident Vladimir Bukovsky as schizophrenic on 5 July 1962 and on 12 November 1971 wrote to writer Viktor Nekrasov that the characteristics of Bukovsky's mental disease were included in the dissertation by Snezhnevsky's colleague. All the paper products were available in medical libraries. As Semyon Gluzman recollects, when he returned to Kiev in 1982 after his absence of ten years, he was amazed to see all this "scientific" literature in open storage at the Kiev medical library and was even more amazed to read all the "ridiculous stuff" hardly put into scientific psychiatric terminology. In their papers and dissertations on treatment for litigiousness and reformism, Kosachyov and other Soviet psychiatrists recommended compulsory treatment for persons with litigiousness and reformism, in the same psychiatric hospitals used for murderers: Compulsory treatment in psychiatric hospitals of special type is to be recommended in cases of brutal murders


id: sluggish-schizophrenia-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia-3.md
category: reference
title: Sluggish schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:27.852988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sluggish-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
== Recurrence in post-Soviet countries == In 2010, Yuri Savenko, the president of the Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia, warned that Professor Anatoly Smulevich, author of the monographs Problema Paranoyi (The Problem of Paranoia) (1972) and Maloprogredientnaya Shizofreniya (Continuous Sluggish Schizophrenia) (1987), which had contributed to the hyperdiagnosis of sluggish schizophrenia, had again begun to play the same role. Under his influence, therapists have begun to widely use antidepressants and antipsychotics but often in inadequate cases and in inappropriate doses, without consulting psychiatrists. This situation has opened up a huge new market for pharmaceutical firms, and the flow of the mentally ill to internists. In their joint book Sociodinamicheskaya Psikhiatriya (Sociodynamic Psychiatry), Doctor of Medical Sciences professor of psychiatry Caesar Korolenko and Doctor of Psychological Sciences Nina Dmitrieva note that Smulevich's clinical description of sluggish schizophrenia is extremely elusive and includes almost all possible changes in mental status and conditions that occur in a person without psychopathology: euphoria, hyperactivity, unfounded optimism, irritability, explosiveness, sensitivity, inadequacy and emotional deficit, hysterical reactions with conversive and dissociative symptoms, infantilism, obsessive-phobic states and stubbornness. At present, the hyperdiagnosis of schizophrenia becomes especially negative due to a large number of schizophreniform psychoses caused by the


id: society-for-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Scientific_Exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Society for Scientific Exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Scientific_Exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:29.045503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: society-for-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The Society for Scientific Exploration (SSE) is a group committed to studying fringe science. The opinions of the organization in regard to what are the proper limits of scientific exploration are often at odds with those of mainstream science. Critics argue that the SSE is devoted to disreputable ideas far outside the scientific mainstream. == History == The society was founded in 1982. Its first meeting took place at the University of Maryland, College Park in 1982. Of the SSE and its journal, it has been said that "Pretty much anything that might have shown up on The X-Files or in the National Enquirer shows up first here. But what also shows up is a surprising attitude of skepticism." == Activities == === Journal === The society's scientific journal, the Journal of Scientific Exploration, was established to provide a scientific forum for ufology, parapsychology, and cryptozoology, publishing research articles, essays, book reviews, and letters on those and many other topics that are largely ignored in mainstream journals. The journal is peer-reviewed and was abstracted and indexed in Scopus. The journal is edited by Stephen E. Braude. The Spirituality and Psychiatry Special Interest Group of the Royal College of Psychiatrists says


id: ian-stevenson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-0.md
category: reference
title: Ian Stevenson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:30.238223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ian-stevenson-20260505-0
summary:
Ian Pretyman Stevenson (October 31, 1918 – February 8, 2007) was a Canadian-born American psychiatrist, the founder and director of the Division of Perceptual Studies at the University of Virginia School of Medicine. He was a professor at the University of Virginia School of Medicine for fifty years. He was chair of their department of psychiatry from 1957 to 1967, Carlson Professor of Psychiatry from 1967 to 2001, and research professor of psychiatry from 2002 until his death in 2007. He helped to found the Society for Scientific Exploration in 1982. He is best known for his research into evidence of reincarnation – the premise that emotions, memories, and even physical bodily features can be passed on from one life to another. Over his forty years of international research, he amassed three thousand cases of children who claimed to remember past lives. Stevenson was the author of around three hundred papers and fourteen books on reincarnation, including Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation (1966), Reincarnation and Biology and its simplified version Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect (both 1997), and European Cases of the Reincarnation Type (2003). Stevenson was cautious in making claims about reincarnation. He emphasized that the information he collected


id: ian-stevenson-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-1.md
category: reference
title: Ian Stevenson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:30.238223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ian-stevenson-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early interest === Stevenson described as the leitmotif of his career his interest in why one person would develop one disease, and another something different. He came to believe that neither environment nor heredity could account for certain fears, illnesses and special abilities, and that some form of personality or memory transfer might provide a third type of explanation. He acknowledged, however, the absence of evidence of a physical process by which a personality could survive death and transfer to another body, and he was careful not to commit himself fully to the position that reincarnation occurs. He argued only that his case studies could not, in his view, be explained by environment or heredity, and that "reincarnation is the best – even though not the only – explanation for the stronger cases we have investigated." He said in 1974, looking back on his work: [W]hat I do believe is that, of the cases we now know, reincarnation--at least for some--is the best explanation that we have been able to come up with. There is an impressive body of evidence and it is getting stronger all the time. I think a rational person, if he wants, can believe in


id: ian-stevenson-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-2.md
category: reference
title: Ian Stevenson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:30.238223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ian-stevenson-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criticism === The Journal of the American Medical Association referred to Stevenson's Cases of the Reincarnation Type (1975) as a "painstaking and unemotional" collection of cases that were "difficult to explain on any assumption other than reincarnation." In September 1977, the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease devoted most of one issue to Stevenson's research. Writing in the journal, the psychiatrist Harold Lief described Stevenson as a methodical investigator and added, "Either he is making a colossal mistake, or he will be known (I have said as much to him) as 'the Galileo of the 20th century'." The issue proved popular: the journal's editor, the psychiatrist Eugene Brody, said he had received 300–400 requests for reprints. Despite this early interest, most scientists ignored Stevenson's work. According to his New York Times obituary, his detractors saw him as "earnest, dogged but ultimately misguided, led astray by gullibility, wishful thinking and a tendency to see science where others saw superstition." Critics suggested that the children or their parents had deceived him, that he was too willing to believe them, and that he had asked them leading questions. Robert Todd Carroll wrote in his Skeptic's Dictionary that Stevenson's results were subject to


id: ian-stevenson-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-3.md
category: reference
title: Ian Stevenson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:30.238223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ian-stevenson-20260505-0
summary:
"The major problem with Stevenson’s work is that the methods he used to investigate alleged cases of reincarnation are inadequate to rule out simple, imaginative storytelling on the part of the children claiming to be reincarnations of dead individuals. In the seemingly most impressive cases Stevenson (1975, 1977) has reported, the children claiming to be reincarnated knew friends and relatives of the dead individual. The children’s knowledge of facts about these individuals is, then, somewhat less than conclusive evidence for reincarnation." Robert Baker wrote that many alleged past-life experiences can be explained in terms of known psychological factors. Baker attributed the recalling of past lives to a mixture of cryptomnesia and confabulation. British author and independent researcher Ian Wilson argued that a large number of Stevenson's cases consisted of poor children remembering wealthy lives or belonging to a higher caste. He speculated that such cases may represent a scheme to obtain money from the family of the alleged former incarnation. The philosopher C.T.K. Chari of Madras Christian College in Chennai, a specialist in parapsychology, argued that Stevenson was naive and that the case studies were undermined by his lack of local knowledge. Chari wrote that many of the cases had


id: ian-stevenson-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson-4.md
category: reference
title: Ian Stevenson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stevenson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:30.238223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ian-stevenson-20260505-0
summary:
=== Concessions from critics === Ian Wilson, one of Stevenson's critics, acknowledged that Stevenson had brought “a new professionalism to a hitherto crank-prone field.” Paul Edwards wrote that Stevenson “has written more fully and more intelligibly in defense of reincarnation than anybody else.” Though faulting Stevenson's judgment, Edwards wrote: “I have the highest regard for his honesty. All of his case reports contain items that can be made the basis of criticism. Stevenson could easily have suppressed this information. The fact that he did not speaks well for his integrity.” Carl Sagan referred to what were apparently Stevenson's investigations in his book The Demon-Haunted World as an example of carefully collected empirical data, and though he rejected reincarnation as a parsimonious explanation for the stories, he wrote that the phenomenon of alleged past-life memories should be further researched. === Support === Remi J. Cadoret, wrote in The American Journal of Psychiatry that Stevenson's European Cases of the Reincarnation Type "provides an introduction to an exciting range of [unusual] phenomena and furnishes an inspiring example of a painstaking protocol to sift facts from fancy." Lester S. King, pathologist, reviewed the first volume of Cases of the Reincarnation Type for the JAMA


id: strategies-for-engineered-negligible-senescence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence-0.md
category: reference
title: Strategies for engineered negligible senescence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:31.463669+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strategies-for-engineered-negligible-senescence-20260505-0
summary:
Strategies for engineered negligible senescence (SENS) is a range of proposed regenerative medical therapies, either planned or currently in development, for the periodic repair of all age-related damage to human tissue. These therapies have the ultimate aim of maintaining a state of negligible senescence in patients and postponing age-associated disease. SENS was first defined by British biogerontologist Aubrey de Grey. While scientists agreed with de Grey that "research into the basic biology of ageing needs and deserves more support", they also viewed de Grey's proposals "to 'engineer' the body to prevent ageing indefinitely" as a fringe theory. De Grey later highlighted similarities and differences of SENS to subsequent categorization systems of the biology of aging, such as the highly influential Hallmarks of Aging published in 2013. While some biogerontologists support the SENS program, others contend that the ultimate goals of de Grey's programme are too speculative given the current state of technology. The 31-member Research Advisory Board of de Grey's SENS Research Foundation have signed an endorsement of the plausibility of the SENS approach. == Framework == The term "negligible senescence" was first used in the early 1990s by professor Caleb Finch to describe organisms such as lobsters and hydras,


id: strategies-for-engineered-negligible-senescence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence-1.md
category: reference
title: Strategies for engineered negligible senescence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:31.463669+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strategies-for-engineered-negligible-senescence-20260505-0
summary:
== Technology Review contest == In February 2005, the MIT Technology Review published an article by Sherwin Nuland, a Clinical Professor of Surgery at Yale University and the author of How We Die, that drew a skeptical portrait of SENS, at the time de Grey was a computer associate in the Flybase Facility of the Department of Genetics at the University of Cambridge. While Nuland praised de Grey's intellect and rhetoric, he criticized the SENS framework both for oversimplifying "enormously complex biological problems" and for promising relatively near-at-hand solutions to those unsolved problems. During June 2005, David Gobel, CEO and co-founder of the Methuselah Foundation with de Grey, offered Technology Review $20,000 to fund a prize competition to publicly clarify the viability of the SENS approach. In July 2005, Jason Pontin announced a $20,000 prize, funded 50/50 by Methuselah Foundation and MIT Technology Review. The contest was open to any molecular biologist, with a record of publication in biogerontology, who could prove that the alleged benefits of SENS were "so wrong that it is unworthy of learned debate." Technology Review received five submissions to its challenge. In March 2006, Technology Review announced that it had chosen a panel of judges


id: superstition-in-india-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-0.md
category: reference
title: Superstition in India
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:32.643460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superstition-in-india-20260505-0
summary:
Superstitions in India are prevalent and are based on myths, legends, fables, traditions and stories. People stop if a black cat crosses their path, or if someone sneezes, auspicious work is postponed. Common superstitions in India today include a black cat crossing the road being bad luck, cutting fingernails/toenails at nighttime is considered to give bad luck, a crow calling meaning that guests are arriving, drinking milk after eating fish causing skin diseases, and itchy palms signaling the arrival of money. == Overview == Superstitions are usually attributed to lack of education; however, this has not always been the case in India, as there are many educated people with beliefs considered superstitious by the public. Superstitious beliefs and practices vary from one region to another, ranging from harmless practices such as lemon-and-chili to terms in order to ward off the evil eye, to harmful acts like witch-burning. Being part of tradition and religion, these beliefs and practices have been passed down from one generation to another for centuries. The Indian government has tried to put new laws prohibiting such practices into effect. Due to the rich history of superstition, these laws often face a lot of opposition from the general


id: superstition-in-india-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-1.md
category: reference
title: Superstition in India
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:32.643460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superstition-in-india-20260505-0
summary:
=== Horoscopes === In India, people who follow Hindu religion believe to be born with a star on their name which is one of twenty seven stars in Hindu astrology based on their time and date of birth. They also believe that planets and their position and size and shape of moon such a full moon or full solar eclipse influence their day-to-day life. Horoscopes are tailored to each and every Hindu person and a horoscope typically mentions any defects or negative influences a person has or may face. Horoscope is used in marriages in which the bride and groom should have a matching horoscope which is also called Janam Kundali. Without a matching horoscope, a marriage between Hindu male and female may not happen. Hindu wedding matchmakers typically carry information about a person's horoscope. Hindu persons prefer arranged marriage as it allows them to find a bride or groom with a matching horoscope. A person born under the influence of Mars (Mangala) is said to have Mangala Dosha ("mars defect"); such a person is called a manglik. According to the superstition, the marriage between a Manglik and a non-Manglik is disastrous. To prevent this disaster, the manglik person is


id: superstition-in-india-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-2.md
category: reference
title: Superstition in India
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:32.643460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superstition-in-india-20260505-0
summary:
==== Notable persons and incidents ==== Originally from Sri Lanka, Swami Premananda moved to India in 1984 and founded an ashram in Pudukkotai, Tamil Nadu, in 1989. In 1996, one of the girls living the ashram escaped and reported that she was raped and was pregnant. In view of the so-called spiritual powers of the accused, which included doing miracles like materializing vibhuti and regurgitating small Shiva lingams, an illusionist was invited to the court and he performed both the miracles in the open court. In 1997, the Swami was sentenced to life imprisonment and fined ₹60 lakh for 13 counts of rape and a murder. Chandraswami, astrologer and spiritual guru, was a close associate of former Prime Minister Narasimha Rao. He was indicted in several lawsuits including in the assassination of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. In 2011, the Supreme Court of India fined him ₹9 crore (US$1.4 million) for multiple violations of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA). In December 2002, Santosh Madhavan defrauded an Indian expatriate woman living in Dubai of DH 400,000 (₹50 lakh) by claiming he had supernatural powers, and disappeared. The Interpol issued an alert for his arrest on the advice of Dubai police. Later


id: superstition-in-india-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-3.md
category: reference
title: Superstition in India
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:32.643460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superstition-in-india-20260505-0
summary:
On 10 March 2012, Sanal Edamaruku investigated a so-called miracle in Vile Parle, where a Jesus statue had started weeping and concluded that the problem was caused by faulty drainage. Later that day, during a TV discussion with some church members, Edamaruku accused the Catholic Church of miracle-mongering. On 10 April, Angelo Fernandes, President of the Maharashtra Christian Youth Forum, filed a police complaint against Edamaruku under Indian Penal Code Section 295A. In July, while on a tour in Finland, Edamaruku was informed by a friend that his house was visited by the police. Since the offence is not bailable, Edamaruku decided to stay in Finland. == Historical predictions and challenges == === Historical predictions === In September 1951, responding to a newspaper article about an astrologer predicting an imminent war with Pakistan, the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru expressed his desire to pass a law against astrology and sooth-saying. In January 1962, Indian astrologers predicted a global catastrophe on Sunday, 4 February 1962. People took refuge in hills to escape the event. The Maharajah of Sikkim, Palden Thondup Namgyal postponed his marriage to Hope Cooke to 1963 on the advice of some astrologers. Business and travel also


id: superstition-in-india-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India-4.md
category: reference
title: Superstition in India
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_India
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:32.643460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superstition-in-india-20260505-0
summary:
=== Article 51 A (h), Constitution of India === The Article 51 A (h) of the Constitution of India, lists "to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform" as a fundamental duty for every Indian citizen. Rationalist Narendra Nayak has argued the Article 51 A (h) is contrary to IPC 295A and the constitution should be held over to IPC 295A. There have been calls to implement this article more widely (e.g., 2011 Janhit Manch vs Union of India, Bombay High Court). === Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act, 1954 === This act prohibits advertisements of magical remedies, like amulets or spells, for certain diseases. The law lists 56 of these diseases. The law also curbs sales and promotion of so-called miracle drugs and cures. But, the law is rarely enforced and several such products are freely available to the public. The law is considered severely outdated as 14 of the diseases in the list are now curable, and newer diseases like AIDS are not on the list. Some advertisements of these categories are also known to appear on cable television channels without much repercussions. Proposed amendments to this law has also raised questions


id: touchless-knockout-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchless_knockout-0.md
category: reference
title: Touchless knockout
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchless_knockout
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:33.868092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: touchless-knockout-20260505-0
summary:
Touchless knockout or no-touch knockout is a fraudulent practice by con artists who claim knowledge of techniques by which an enemy combatant can be rendered unconscious solely by application of qi, kiai or similar methods, without making physical contact. This differs from pressure point techniques which involve light or slight contact to specific areas of the body causing unconsciousness. Skeptics believe apparent demonstrations of touchless knockout techniques to be hypnotism of, or acting (collusion) on the part of, the apparent victims of the technique. One notable practitioner of the fictitious touchless knockout is George Dillman; he attempted to demonstrate the technique for a National Geographic Channel program about him and was unable to knock out volunteers previously unknown to him. Another martial artist who claimed but was unable to prove an ability to knock out without contact is Harry Thomas "Tom" Cameron, who was featured in episode eight of season one of Stan Lee's Superhumans and, unusually for that program, judged not to have any superhuman ability whatsoever. Cameron was also debunked in a Fox news investigation. Other people who have claimed, but been unable to prove under controlled conditions, an ability to perform a touchless knockout include Yanagi Ryuken


id: universal-darwinism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism-0.md
category: reference
title: Universal Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:35.039530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: universal-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
Universal Darwinism is a variety of approaches that extend the theory of Darwinism beyond its original domain of biological evolution on Earth. Universal Darwinism aims to formulate a generalized version of the mechanisms of variation, selection and heredity proposed by Charles Darwin, so that they can apply to explain evolution in a wide variety of other domains, including psychology, linguistics, economics, culture, medicine, computer science, and physics. Examples of patterns that have been postulated to undergo variation and selection, and thus adaptation, are genes, ideas (memes), theories, technologies, neurons and their connections, words, computer programs, firms, antibodies, institutions, law and judicial systems, quantum states and even whole universes. == History and development == Conceptually, "evolutionary theorizing about cultural, social, and economic phenomena" preceded Darwin, but was still lacking the concept of natural selection. Starting in the 1950s, Donald T. Campbell was one of the first and most influential authors to revive the tradition, and to formulate a generalized Darwinian algorithm directly applicable to phenomena outside of biology. In this, he was inspired by William Ross Ashby's view of self-organization and intelligence as fundamental processes of selection. His aim was to explain the development of science and other forms of knowledge


id: universal-darwinism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism-1.md
category: reference
title: Universal Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:35.039530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: universal-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other Darwinian extensions === Quantum Darwinism sees the emergence of classical states in physics as a natural selection of the most stable quantum properties Cosmological natural selection hypothesizes that universes reproduce and are selected for having fundamental constants that maximize "fitness" Complex adaptive systems models the dynamics of complex systems in part on the basis of the variation and selection of its components Evolutionary archaeology is a Darwinian approach to the cultural evolution of tools Evolutionary computation is a Darwinian approach to the generation of adapted computer programs Genetic algorithms, a subset of evolutionary computation, models variation by "genetic" operators (mutation and recombination) Evolutionary robotics applies Darwinian algorithms to the design of autonomous robots Artificial life uses Darwinian algorithms to let organism-like computer agents evolve in a software simulation Evolutionary art uses variation and selection to produce works of art Evolutionary music does the same for works of music Clonal selection theory sees the creation of adapted antibodies in the immune system as a process of variation and selection Neural Darwinism proposes that neurons and their synapses are selectively pruned during brain development Evolutionary epistemology of theories assumes that scientific theories develop through variation and selection Memetics is a


id: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-0.md
category: reference
title: Vertebral subluxation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:36.253369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-0
summary:
In chiropractic, a vertebral subluxation means pressure on nerves, abnormal functions creating a lesion in some portion of the body, either in its action or makeup (defined by D.D. Palmer and B.J. Palmer, founders of chiropractic). Chiropractors claim subluxations are not necessarily visible on X-rays. Straight chiropractors continue to follow Palmer's tradition, claiming that vertebral subluxation has considerable health effects and also adding a visceral component to the definition. Most medical experts and some mixer chiropractors consider these ideas to be pseudoscientific and dispute these claims, as there is no scientific evidence for the existence of chiropractic subluxations or proof they or their treatment have any effects on health. The use of the word vertebral subluxation should not be confused with the term's precise usage in medicine, which considers only the anatomical relationships. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a chiropractic subluxation is a "dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity, and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact". The WHO notes that this is "different from the current medical definition" of a subluxation, which is a "structural displacement" significant enough to be "visible on static imaging studies" such as


id: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-1.md
category: reference
title: Vertebral subluxation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:36.253369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-0
summary:
The ACC paradigm has been criticized by chiropractic authors:All in all, the ambiguities that permeate the ACC's statements on subluxation render it inadequate as a guide to clinical research... Whether the ACC's subluxation claims have succeeded as a political statement is beyond our concern here. These assertions were published as a priori truths (what many chiropractors have traditionally referred to as "principle"), and are exemplary of scientifically unjustified assertions made in many corners of the profession. It matters not whether unsubstantiated assertions are offered for clinical, political, scientific, educational, marketing or other purposes; when offered without acknowledgment of their tentative character, they amount to dogmatism. We contend that attempts to foster unity (among the schools or in the wider profession) at the expense of scientific integrity is ultimately self-defeating. To be sure, the profession's lack of cultural authority is based in part upon our characteristic disunity. However, attempts to generate unity by adoption of a common dogma can only bring scorn and continued alienation from the wider health care community and the public we all serve.In May 2010 the General Chiropractic Council, the statutory regulatory body for chiropractors in the United Kingdom, issued guidance for chiropractors stating that the chiropractic


id: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-2.md
category: reference
title: Vertebral subluxation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:36.253369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-0
summary:
It has been proposed that a vertebral subluxation can negatively affect general health by altering the neurological communication between the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. Although individuals may not always be symptomatic, straight chiropractors believe that the presence of vertebral subluxation is in itself justification for correction via spinal adjustment. V. Strang, D.C., describes several hypotheses on how a misaligned vertebra may cause interference to the nervous system in his book, Essential Principles of Chiropractic: Nerve compression hypothesis: suggests that when the vertebrae are out of alignment, the nerve roots and/or spinal cord can become pinched or irritated. While the most commonly referenced hypothesis, and easiest for a patient to understand, it may be the least likely to occur. Proprioceptive insult hypothesis: focuses on articular alterations causing hyperactivity of the sensory nerve fibers. Somatosympathetic reflex hypothesis: all the visceral organ functions can be reflexly affected by cutaneous or muscular stimulation. Somatosomatic reflex hypothesis: afferent impulses from one part of the body can result in reflex activity in other parts of the body. Viscerosomatic reflex hypothesis: visceral afferent fibers cause reflex somatic problems. Somatopsychic hypothesis: the effects of a subluxation on the ascending paths of the reticular activating system.


id: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-3.md
category: reference
title: Vertebral subluxation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:36.253369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-0
summary:
Believers within the chiropractic tradition assert that spinal health and function are directly related to general health and well-being, including visceral disorders, but the efficacy and validity of spinal manipulation to address visceral disorders systems remains a source of controversy within the chiropractic profession. The usefulness of spinal manipulation for organic disorders is not supported by evidence. Chiropractic professors and researchers, Nansel and Szlazak, found that:the proper differential diagnosis of somatic (musculoskeletal) vs. visceral (organ) dysfunction represents a challenge for both the medical and chiropractic physician. The afferent convergence mechanisms, which can create signs and symptoms that are virtually indistinguishable with respect to their somatic vs. visceral etiologies, suggest it is not unreasonable that this somatic visceral-disease mimicry could very well account for the "cures" of presumed organ disease that have been observed over the years in response to various somatic therapies (e.g., spinal manipulation, acupuncture, Rolfing, Qi Gong, etc.) and may represent a common phenomenon that has led to "holistic" health care claims on the part of such clinical disciplines. Considering this phenomenon, Seaman suggests that the chiropractic concept of joint complex (somatic) dysfunction should be incorporated into the differential diagnosis of pain and visceral symptoms because these dysfunctions


id: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation-4.md
category: reference
title: Vertebral subluxation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:36.253369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vertebral-subluxation-20260505-0
summary:
However, no real evidence has ever been presented showing that a given chiropractic treatment alters the position of any vertebrae. In addition, there is no real evidence that impairment of nerve outflow is a major contributor to common illnesses, or that spinal manipulation changes nerve outflow in such a way as to affect organ function. In 2009, four scholarly chiropractors concluded that epidemiologic evidence does not support chiropractic's most fundamental theory. Since its inception, the vast majority of chiropractors have postulated that "subluxations" (misalignments) are the cause or underlying cause of ill health and can be corrected with spinal "adjustments". After searching the scientific literature, the chiropractic authors concluded: No supportive evidence is found for the chiropractic subluxation being associated with any disease process or of creating suboptimal health conditions requiring intervention. Regardless of popular appeal, this leaves the subluxation construct in the realm of unsupported speculation. This lack of supportive evidence suggests the subluxation construct has no valid clinical applicability. In 2005, four leading chiropractic researchers leveled strong critiques of chiropractic dogma: Lastly, the ACC claims that chiropractors use the 'best available rational and empirical evidence' to detect and correct subluxations. This strikes us as pseudoscience, since the ACC


id: vixra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViXra-0.md
category: reference
title: ViXra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViXra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:37.441682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vixra-20260505-0
summary:
viXra is an electronic e-print archive known for unorthodox and fringe science. It was set up by independent physicist Philip Gibbs as an alternative to the dominant arXiv service operated by Cornell University. Its name comes from arXiv spelled backwards. == Description == Although dominated by physics and mathematics submissions, viXra aims to cover topics across the whole scientific community. It accepts submissions without requiring authors to have an academic affiliation and without any threshold for quality. The e-prints on viXra are grouped into seven broad categories: physics, mathematics, computational science, biology, chemistry, humanities, and other areas. Anyone may post anything on viXra, though house rules do prohibit "vulgar, libellous, plagiaristic or dangerously misleading" content. As a result, the site has a reputation among physicists for hosting "material of no interest". Physicist Gerard 't Hooft writes, "When a paper is published in viXra, it is usually a sign that it is not likely to contain acceptable results. It may, but the odds against that are considerable". Gibbs originally started the archive to cater to researchers who believed that their preprints had been unfairly rejected or reclassified by the arXiv moderators. As of 2013, it had over 4000 preprints, and by


id: yinzibing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yinzibing-0.md
category: reference
title: Yinzibing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yinzibing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:38.620742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yinzibing-20260505-0
summary:
Yinzibing (阴滋病) is an unverified disease. AIDS-like symptoms were reported by people who claimed that they had caught an infectious disease, but they tested negative for HIV. == Etymology == The term was coined from "yīnxìng (negative)", "àizī (AIDS)", and "bìng (disease)". It was also referred to as "Yinxing Aizibing" (阴性艾滋病, HIV-negative AIDS). == History == In 2011, rumors of an AIDS-like disease were spreading in Mainland China, which captured the attention of the media of China and Hong Kong and spread across the internet. The Disease Prevention and Control Bureau of China stated that no new virus was found and that yinzibing was a mental health problem. In 2013 an epidemiological study conducted by the Army Medical University in China found the following symptoms in patients claiming to have yinzibing: crepitus (crunching noise from the joints when moved), thick white tongue coating, muscle twitches (fasciculation), dry skin, burping, chronic sore throat and several others. The study found that 33% of yinzibing patients have low CD4 cells (less than 500 CD4 cells per mm3). The study concluded that this disease could not be completely explained by a mental disorder. A 2019 study suggested the symptoms were explainable as chronic fatigue


id: history-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The history of science covers the development of science from ancient times to the present. It encompasses all three major branches of science: natural, social, and formal. Protoscience, early sciences, and natural philosophies such as alchemy and astrology that existed during the Bronze Age, Iron Age, classical antiquity and the Middle Ages, declined after the emergence of modern sciences during the Scientific Revolution. The earliest roots of scientific thinking and practice can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. These civilizations' contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine influenced later Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Latin-speaking Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but continued to thrive in the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire. Aided by translations of Greek texts, the Hellenistic worldview was preserved and absorbed into the Arabic-speaking Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th


id: history-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
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In prehistoric times, knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. For instance, the domestication of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico, before the development of writing systems. Similarly, archaeological evidence indicates the development of astronomical knowledge in preliterate societies. The oral tradition of preliterate societies had several features, the first of which was its fluidity. New information was constantly absorbed and adjusted to new circumstances or community needs. There were no archives or reports. This fluidity was closely related to the practical need to explain and justify a present state of affairs. Another feature was the tendency to describe the universe as just sky and earth, with a potential underworld. They were also prone to identify causes with beginnings, thereby providing a historical origin with an explanation. There was also a reliance on a "medicine man" or "wise woman" for healing, knowledge of divine or demonic causes of diseases, and in more extreme cases, for rituals such as exorcism, divination, songs, and incantations. Finally, there was an inclination to unquestioningly accept explanations that might be deemed implausible in more modern times while at the same time


id: history-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
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The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the chemical properties of clay, sand, metal ore, bitumen, stone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing. Metallurgy required knowledge about the properties of metals. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the universe. Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines. Animal physiology was studied extensively for the purpose of divination; the anatomy of the liver, which was seen as an important organ in haruspicy, was studied in particularly intensive detail. Animal behavior was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived. ==== Mesopotamian medicine ==== The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction between "rational science" and magic. When a person became ill, doctors prescribed magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal


id: history-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
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parent: history-of-science-20260505-0
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The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 3300 – c. 1300 BCE). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, which is favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose length of approximately 1.32 in (34 mm) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. The Bakhshali manuscript contains problems involving arithmetic, algebra and geometry, including mensuration. The topics covered include fractions, square roots, arithmetic and geometric progressions, solutions of simple equations, simultaneous linear equations, quadratic equations and indeterminate equations of the second degree. In the 3rd century BCE, Pingala presents the Pingala-sutras, the earliest known treatise on Sanskrit prosody. He also presents a numerical system by adding one to the sum of place values. Pingala's work also includes material related to the Fibonacci numbers, called mātrāmeru. Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced the sine function in trigonometry and the number 0. In 628,


id: history-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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parent: history-of-science-20260505-0
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==== Logic ==== The development of Indian logic dates back to the Chandahsutra of Pingala and anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE); the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini (c. 5th century BCE); the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism (c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century BCE); the analysis of inference by Gotama (c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century CE), founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy; and the tetralemma of Nagarjuna (c. 2nd century CE). Indian logic stands as one of the three original traditions of logic, alongside the Greek and the Chinese logic. The Indian tradition continued to develop through early to modern times, in the form of the Navya-Nyāya school of logic. In the 2nd century, the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna refined the Catuskoti form of logic. The Catuskoti is also often glossed Tetralemma (Greek) which is the name for a largely comparable, but not equatable, 'four corner argument' within the tradition of Classical logic. Navya-Nyāya developed a sophisticated language and conceptual scheme that allowed it to raise, analyse, and solve problems in logic and epistemology. It systematised all the Nyāya concepts into four main categories: sense or perception (pratyakşa), inference (anumāna), comparison or similarity


id: history-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
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To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 to 500 km (250 to 310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. There are many notable contributors to early Chinese disciplines, inventions, and practices throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks


id: history-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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=== Pre-socratics === The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640–546 BCE) of Miletus, identified by later authors such as Aristotle as the first of the Ionian philosophers, postulated non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Leucippus (5th century BCE) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil Democritus and later Epicurus. === Plato and Aristotle === Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the Platonic Academy in 387 BCE,


id: history-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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=== Hellenistic medicine === There was not a defined societal structure for healthcare during the age of Hippocrates. At that time, society was not organized and knowledgeable as people still relied on pure religious reasoning to explain illnesses. Hippocrates introduced the first healthcare system based on science and clinical protocols. Hippocrates' theories about physics and medicine helped pave the way in creating an organized medical structure for society. In medicine, Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, still relevant and in use today. Hippocrates' ideas are expressed in The Hippocratic Corpus. The collection notes descriptions of medical philosophies and how disease and lifestyle choices reflect on the physical body. Hippocrates influenced a Westernized, professional relationship among physician and patient. Hippocrates is also known as "the Father of Medicine". Herophilos (335–280 BCE) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system. Galen (129 – c. 200 CE) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgeries— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. === Greek mathematics === In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid


id: history-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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parent: history-of-science-20260505-0
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=== Greek scholarship under Roman rule === During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero, and others provided examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments. The Roman conquest of Greece did not diminish learning and culture in the Greek provinces. On the contrary, the appreciation of Greek achievements in literature, philosophy, politics, and the arts by Rome's upper class coincided with the increased prosperity of the Roman Empire. Greek settlements had existed in Italy for centuries and the ability to read and speak Greek was not uncommon in Italian cities such as Rome. Moreover, the settlement of Greek scholars in Rome, whether voluntarily or as slaves, gave Romans access to teachers of Greek literature and philosophy. Conversely, young Roman scholars also studied abroad in Greece and upon their return to Rome, were able to convey Greek achievements to their Latin leadership. And despite the translation of a


id: history-of-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-9.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
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==== Preservation of Greek heritage ==== The fall of the Western Roman Empire led to a deterioration of the classical tradition in the western part (or Latin West) of Europe during the 5th century. In contrast, the Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks and preserved and improved the learning. While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine and timekeeping. In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, Isidore of Miletus compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the Archimedes Palimpsest, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied. John Philoponus, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus. The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics. The works of John Philoponus inspired Galileo Galilei ten centuries


id: history-of-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-10.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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==== Advancements in mathematics ==== Most of the achievements by Islamic scholars during this period were in mathematics. Arabic mathematics was a direct descendant of Greek and Indian mathematics. For instance, what is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several key refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Mathematicians such as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850) gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. Islamic trigonometry continued from the works of Ptolemy's Almagest and Indian Siddhanta, from which they added trigonometric functions, drew up tables, and applied trigonometry to spheres and planes. Many of their engineers, instruments makers, and surveyors contributed books in applied mathematics. It was in astronomy where Islamic mathematicians made their greatest contributions. Al-Battani (c. 858–929) improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. Corrections were made to Ptolemy's geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and


id: history-of-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-11.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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==== Medieval universities ==== An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. These urban institutions grew from the informal scholarly activities of learned friars who visited monasteries, consulted libraries, and conversed with other fellow scholars. A friar who became well-known would attract a following of disciples, giving rise to a brotherhood of scholars (or collegium in Latin). A collegium might travel to a town or request a monastery to host them. However, if the number of scholars within a collegium grew too large, they would opt to settle in a town instead. As the number of collegia within a town grew, the collegia might request that their king grant them a charter that would convert them into a universitas. Many universities were chartered during this period, with the first in Bologna in 1088, followed by Paris in 1150, Oxford in 1167, and Cambridge in 1231. The granting of a charter meant that the medieval universities were partially sovereign and independent from local authorities. Their independence allowed them to conduct themselves and judge their own members based on their own rules. Furthermore, as initially religious institutions, their faculties and students were protected


id: history-of-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-12.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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==== Medieval science ==== The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham emphasized the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion. In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development. == Renaissance == === Printing and discovery === The introduction and rapid spread of the movable type printing press during the 2nd half of the 15th century ended the manuscript culture of the Middle Ages, where facts were few and far between, and replaced it with a


id: history-of-science-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-13.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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=== Scientific societies and journals === A critical innovation was the creation of permanent scientific societies and their scholarly journals, which dramatically sped the diffusion of new ideas. Typical was the founding of the Royal Society in London in 1660 and its journal in 1665 the Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society, the first scientific journal in English. 1665 also saw the first journal in French, the Journal des sçavans. Science drawing on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, science was on a path to modern mathematics, physics and technology by the time of the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783). Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie, published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire). === Developments in geology === Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution but instead existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it


id: history-of-science-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-14.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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=== Developments in mathematics === In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about such as electric power, electrical telegraphy, the telephone, and radio. === Developments in chemistry === In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing


id: history-of-science-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-15.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
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=== Founding of psychology === Psychology as a scientific enterprise that was independent from philosophy began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology. === Modern sociology === Modern sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, used more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology. In


id: history-of-science-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-16.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
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parent: history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by Mendel. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules, kickstarting decades of research into the chemical origins of life. By 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms, building on the work of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix. In their famous paper "Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids" In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical


id: history-of-science-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-17.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
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=== Applications === In terms of applications, a massive number of new technologies were developed in the 20th century. Technologies such as electricity, the incandescent light bulb, the automobile and the phonograph, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally deployed. The first car was introduced by Karl Benz in 1885. The first airplane flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century airliners flew thousands of miles in a matter of hours. The development of the radio, television and computers caused massive changes in the dissemination of information. Advances in biology also led to large increases in food production, as well as the elimination of diseases such as polio by Dr. Jonas Salk. Gene mapping and gene sequencing, invented by Drs. Mark Skolnik and Walter Gilbert, respectively, are the two technologies that made the Human Genome Project feasible. Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by


id: history-of-science-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science-18.md
category: reference
title: History of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:40.243544+00:00
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parent: history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== 21st century == In the early 21st century, some concepts that originated in 20th century physics were proven. On 4 July 2012, physicists working at CERN's Large Hadron Collider announced that they had discovered a new subatomic particle greatly resembling the Higgs boson, confirmed as such by the following March. Gravitational waves were first detected by astronomers at the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory on 14 September 2015. One of the first direct images of a black hole, taken by the Event Horizon Telescope in April of 2017, was released to the public on April 10, 2019. The Human Genome Project was declared complete in 2003. The CRISPR gene editing technique developed in 2012 allowed scientists to precisely and easily modify DNA in living organisms and led to the development of new medicine. Advances in synthetic biology with computer assistance led to the creation of artificial microbial life, such as JCVI-syn3.0 in 2016 and xenobots in 2020. Positive psychology is a branch of psychology founded in 1998 by Martin Seligman that is concerned with the study of happiness, mental well-being, and positive human functioning, and is a reaction to 20th century psychology's emphasis on mental illness and dysfunction. Starting around


id: history-and-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: History and philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:41.445160+00:00
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parent: history-and-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The history and philosophy of science (HPS) is an academic discipline that encompasses the philosophy of science and the history of science. Although many scholars in the field are trained primarily as either historians or as philosophers, there are degree-granting departments of HPS at several prominent universities. Though philosophy of science and history of science are their own disciplines, history and philosophy of science is a discipline in its own right. Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics/ontology and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and truth. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than philosophy of science. There is no consensus among philosophers about many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science, including whether science can reveal the truth about unobservable things and whether scientific reasoning can be justified at all. In addition to


id: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:42.664400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history that examines the development of the understanding of the natural world (science) and humans' ability to manipulate it (technology) at different points in time. This academic discipline also examines the cultural, economic, and political context and impacts of scientific practices; it likewise may study the consequences of new technologies on existing scientific fields. == Academic study of history of science == History of science is an academic discipline with an international community of specialists. Main professional organizations for this field include the History of Science Society, the British Society for the History of Science, and the European Society for the History of Science. Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. === History of the academic study of history of science === Histories of science were originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (1837), as a way to communicate the virtues of science to the public. Auguste Comte proposed that there should be a specific discipline


id: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:42.664400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== India === History of science and technology is a well-developed field in India. At least three generations of scholars can be identified. The first generation includes D.D.Kosambi, Dharmpal, Debiprasad Chattopadhyay and Rahman. The second generation mainly consists of Ashis Nandy, Deepak Kumar, Dhruv Raina, S. Irfan Habib, Shiv Visvanathan, Gyan Prakash, Stan Lourdswamy, V.V. Krishna, Itty Abraham, Richard Grove, Kavita Philip, Mira Nanda and Rob Anderson. There is an emergent third generation that includes scholars like Abha Sur and Jahnavi Phalkey. Departments and Programmes The National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies had a research group active in the 1990s which consolidated social history of science as a field of research in India. Currently there are several institutes and university departments offering HST programmes. Jawaharlal Nehru University has an Mphil-PhD program that offers specialisation in Social History of Science. It is at the History of Science and Education group of the Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies (ZHCES) in the School of Social Sciences. Renowned Indian science historians Deepak Kumar and Dhruv Raina teach here. Also, *Centre for Studies in Science Policy has an Mphil-PhD program that offers specialization in Science, Technology, and Society along with various allied


id: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:42.664400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === Academic study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton at Harvard with his book Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The History of Science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of Science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945. Arizona State University's Center for Biology and Society offers several paths for MS or PhD students who are interested in issues surrounding the history and philosophy of the science. California Institute of Technology offers courses in the History and Philosophy of Science to fulfill its core humanities requirements. Case Western Reserve University has an undergraduate interdisciplinary program in the History and Philosophy


id: academic-family-tree-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Family_Tree-0.md
category: reference
title: Academic Family Tree
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Family_Tree
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:43.864333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-family-tree-20260505-0
summary:
The Academic Family Tree, which began as Neurotree, is an online database for academic genealogy, containing numerous "family trees" of academic disciplines. Neurotree was established in 2005 as a family tree of neuroscientists. Later that year Academic Family Tree incorporated Neurotree and family trees of other scholarly disciplines. Unlike a conventional genealogy or family tree, in which connections among individuals are from kinship (e.g., parents to children), connections in Academic Family Tree are from mentoring relationships, usually among people working in academic settings (e.g., doctoral supervisors to students). Academic Family Tree has been used as sources of information for the history and prospects of academic fields such as psychology, meteorology, organizational communication, and neuroscience. It has been used to address infometrics, to research issues of scientific methodology, and to examine mentor characteristics that predict mentee academic success. == Functioning and scope == The founders of the initial trees, including Neurotree, populated them from published sources, such as ProQuest. Later, they set up discipline-specific family trees of Academic Family Tree to be volunteer-run; accuracy is maintained by a group of volunteer editors. Hierarchical connections between mentors ("parents") and mentees ("children") are defined as any meaningful mentoring relationship (research assistant, graduate student,


id: academic-genealogy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_genealogy-0.md
category: reference
title: Academic genealogy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_genealogy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:45.005260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-genealogy-20260505-0
summary:
An academic genealogy (or scientific genealogy) organizes a family tree of scientists and scholars according to mentoring relationships, often in the form of dissertation supervision relationships, and not according to genetic relationships as in conventional genealogy. Since the term academic genealogy has now developed this specific meaning, its additional use to describe a more academic approach to conventional genealogy would be ambiguous, so the description scholarly genealogy is now generally used in the latter context. == Overview == The academic lineage or academic ancestry of someone is a chain of professors who have served as academic mentors or thesis advisors of each other, ending with the person in question. Many genealogical terms are often recast in terms of academic lineages, so one may speak of academic descendants, children, siblings, etc. One method of developing an academic genealogy is to organize individuals by prioritizing their degree of relationship to a mentor/advisor as follows: (1). doctoral students, (2). post-doctoral researchers, (3). master's students and (4). current students, including undergraduate researchers. Through the 19th century, particularly for graduates in sciences such as chemistry, it was common to have completed a degree in medicine or pharmacy before continuing with post-graduate or post-doctoral studies. Until


id: aether-classical-element-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)-0.md
category: reference
title: Aether (classical element)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:46.211301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aether-classical-element-20260505-0
summary:
According to ancient and medieval science, aether (, alternative spellings include æther, aither, and ether), also known as the fifth element or quintessence, is the material that fills the region of the universe beyond the terrestrial sphere. The concept of aether was used in several theories to explain several natural phenomena, such as the propagation of light and gravity. In the late 19th century, physicists postulated that aether permeated space, providing a medium through which light could travel in a vacuum, but evidence for the presence of such a medium was not found in the Michelson–Morley experiment, and this result has been interpreted to mean that no luminiferous aether exists. == Mythological origins == The word αἰθήρ (aithḗr) in Homeric Greek means "pure, fresh air" or "clear sky". In Greek mythology, it was thought to be the pure essence that the gods breathed, filling the space where they lived, analogous to the air breathed by mortals. It is also personified as a deity, Aether, the son of Erebus and Nyx in traditional Greek mythology. Aether is related to αἴθω "to incinerate", and intransitive "to burn, to shine" (related is the name Aithiopes (Ethiopians; see Aethiopia), meaning "people with a burnt


id: aether-classical-element-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)-1.md
category: reference
title: Aether (classical element)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:46.211301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aether-classical-element-20260505-0
summary:
The motion of light was a long-standing investigation in physics for hundreds of years before the 20th century. The use of aether to describe this motion was popular during the 17th and 18th centuries, including a theory proposed by Johann II Bernoulli, who was recognized in 1736 with the prize of the French Academy. In his theory, all space is permeated by aether containing "excessively small whirlpools". These whirlpools allow for aether to have a certain elasticity, transmitting vibrations from the corpuscular packets of light as they travel through. This theory of luminiferous aether would influence the wave theory of light proposed by Christiaan Huygens, in which light traveled in the form of longitudinal waves via an "omnipresent, perfectly elastic medium having zero density, called aether". At the time, it was thought that in order for light to travel through a vacuum, there must have been a medium filling the void through which it could propagate, as sound through air or ripples in a pool. Later, when it was proved that the nature of light wave is transverse instead of longitudinal, Huygens' theory was replaced by subsequent theories proposed by Maxwell, Einstein and de Broglie, which rejected the existence and


id: alchemy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-0.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy (from the Arabic word al-kīmīā, الكیمیاء) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practised in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudepigraphical texts written in Greco-Roman Egypt during the first few centuries AD. Greek-speaking alchemists often referred to their craft as "the Art" (τέχνη) or "Knowledge" (ἐπιστήμη), and it was often characterised as mystic (μυστική), sacred (ἱɛρά), or divine (θɛíα). Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble metals" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease. The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical magnum opus ("Great Work"). The concept of creating the philosopher's stone was variously connected with all of these projects. Islamic and European alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques, theories, and terms, some of which are still in use today. They did not abandon the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements, and they tended to


id: alchemy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-1.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300), can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as Mary the Jewess, Pseudo-Democritus, and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, the Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in the first century AD. Recent scholarship tends to emphasize the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a


id: alchemy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-2.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. Augustine of Hippo later affirmed this in the 4th and 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses of Alexandria, Isis, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Pseudo-Democritus, and Ostanes. Other authors such as Komarios and Chymes are known only through surviving fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century, alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek


id: alchemy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-3.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the Greek language. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by Byzantine scientists from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugière and others, could make clear only few points of detail .... The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the


id: alchemy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-4.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the elixir of life sought by Chinese alchemists. In the Hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. As early as 317 AD, Ge Hong documented the use of metals, minerals, and elixirs in early Chinese medicine. Hong identified three ancient Chinese documents—titled the Scripture of Great Clarity, the Scripture of the Nine Elixirs, and the Scripture of the Golden Liquor—as texts containing fundamental alchemical information. He also described alchemy, along with meditation, as the sole spiritual practices that could allow one to gain immortality or to transcend to a higher state of being. In his work Inner Chapters of the Book of the Master Who Embraces Spontaneous Nature (317 AD), Hong argued that alchemical solutions such as elixirs were preferable to traditional medicinal treatment due to the spiritual protection they could provide. In the centuries following Ge Hong's death, the emphasis placed


id: alchemy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-5.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Liber de compositione alchemiae (Book on the Composition of Alchemy) from an Arabic work attributed to Khalid ibn Yazid. Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (here still referring to the elixir rather than to the art itself) was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath. Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples. Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century theologian Anselm of Canterbury put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th


id: alchemy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-6.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin-speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict Spondent quas non-exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. Roman Catholic Inquisitor General Nicholas Eymerich's Directorium Inquisitorum, written in 1376, associated alchemy with the performance of demonic rituals, which Eymerich differentiated from magic performed in accordance with Christian scripture. This did not, however, lead to any change in the Inquisition's monitoring or prosecution of alchemists. In 1404, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals by the passing of the Gold and Silver Act 1403 (5 Hen. 4. c. 4) (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the


id: alchemy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-7.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrüger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój, 1566–1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's


id: alchemy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-8.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Women === Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names four women who were able to make the philosophers' stone: Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia. Zosimos's sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and Isis the Prophetess also played roles in early alchemical texts. The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.). Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the bain-marie, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that required gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently


id: alchemy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-9.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone. === Magnum opus === The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colours. nigredo, a blackening or melanosis albedo, a whitening or leucosis citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis == Modernity == Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century diffusion of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy in the 19th and 20th centuries was influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the Decknamen ('code words') of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed


id: alchemy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-10.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, evident in both alchemical texts and mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from William Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling, and also the popular Japanese manga Fullmetal Alchemist. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works, such as those of the late Sir Terry Pratchett. Another literary work inspired by the alchemical tradition is the 1988 novel The Alchemist by Brazilian writer Paulo Coelho. Visual artists have had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some used it as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics, and video games. === Science === One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by means of traditional chemistry, but possible by other


id: alchemy-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy-11.md
category: reference
title: Alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:47.474882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Studies ==== Dylan M. Burns, " μίξεώς τινι τέχνῃ κρείττονι : Alchemical Metaphor in the Paraphrase of Shem (NHC VII,1) ", Aries 15 (2015), p. 79–106. Alberto Camplani, " Procedimenti magico-alchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico " in Giuliana Lanata (ed.), Il Tardoantico alle soglie del Duemila, ETS, 2000, p. 73–98. Alberto Camplani and Marco Zambon, " Il sacrificio come problema in alcune correnti filosofice di età imperiale ", Annali di storia dell'esegesi 19 (2002), p. 59–99. Régine Charron and Louis Painchaud, " 'God is a Dyer,' The Background and Significance of a Puzzling Motif in the Coptic Gospel According to Philip (CG II, 3), Le Muséon 114 (2001), p. 41-50. Régine Charron, " The Apocryphon of John (NHC II,1) and the Greco-Egyptian Alchemical Literature ", Vigiliae Christinae 59 (2005), p. 438-456. Philippe Derchain, "L'Atelier des Orfèvres à Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie," Chronique d'Égypte, vol. 65, no 130, 1990, p. 219–242. Korshi Dosoo, " A History of the Theban Magical Library ", Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 53 (2016), p. 251–274. Olivier Dufault, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity, California Classical Studies, 2019, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity. Sergio


id: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry-0.md
category: reference
title: History of anthropometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:48.670944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-0
summary:
The history of anthropometry includes its use as an early tool of anthropology, use for identification, use for the purposes of understanding human physical variation in paleoanthropology and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits. At various points in history, certain anthropometrics have been cited by advocates of discrimination and eugenics often as a part of some social movement or through pseudoscientific claims. == Craniometry and paleoanthropology == In 1716 Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, who wrote many essays on comparative anatomy for the Académie française, published his Memoir on the Different Positions of the Occipital Foramen in Man and Animals (Mémoire sur les différences de la situation du grand trou occipital dans l'homme et dans les animaux). Six years later Pieter Camper (1722–1789), distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures that laid the foundation of much work. Camper invented the "facial angle," a measure meant to determine intelligence among various species. According to this technique, a "facial angle" was formed by drawing two lines: one horizontally from the nostril to the ear; and the other perpendicularly from the advancing part of the upper jawbone to the most prominent part of the forehead. Camper's


id: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry-1.md
category: reference
title: History of anthropometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:48.670944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-0
summary:
In 1883, Frenchman Alphonse Bertillon introduced a system of identification that was named after him. The "Bertillonage" system was based on the finding that several measures of physical features, such as the dimensions of bony structures in the body, remain fairly constant throughout adult life. Bertillon concluded that when these measurements were made and recorded systematically, every individual would be distinguishable. Bertillon's goal was a way of identifying recidivists ("repeat offenders"). Previously police could only record general descriptions. Photography of criminals had become commonplace, but there was no easy way to sort the many thousands of photographs except by name. Bertillon's hope was that, through the use of measurements, a set of identifying numbers could be entered into a filing system installed in a single cabinet. The system involved 10 measurements; height, stretch (distance from left shoulder to middle finger of raised right arm), bust (torso from head to seat when seated), head length (crown to forehead) and head width temple to temple) width of cheeks, and "lengths" of the right ear, the left foot, middle finger, and cubit (elbow to tip of middle finger). It was possible, by exhaustion, to sort the cards on which these details were recorded


id: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry-2.md
category: reference
title: History of anthropometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:48.670944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-0
summary:
Phylogeography is the science of identifying and tracking major human migrations, especially in prehistoric times. Linguistics can follow the movement of languages and archaeology can follow the movement of artefact styles but neither can tell whether a culture's spread was due to a source population's physically migrating or to a destination population's simply copying the technology and learning the language. Anthropometry was used extensively by anthropologists studying human and racial origins: some attempted racial differentiation and classification, often seeking ways in which certain races were inferior to others. Nott translated Arthur de Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853–1855), a founding work of racial segregationism that made three main divisions between races, based not on colour but on climatic conditions and geographic location, and privileged the "Aryan" race. Science has tested many theories aligning race and personality, which have been current since Boulainvilliers (1658–1722) contrasted the Français (French people), alleged descendants of the Nordic Franks, and members of the aristocracy, to the Third Estate, considered to be indigenous Gallo-Roman people subordinated by right of conquest. François Bernier, Carl Linnaeus and Blumenbach had examined multiple observable human characteristics in search of a typology. Bernier based his racial


id: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry-3.md
category: reference
title: History of anthropometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:48.670944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-0
summary:
In Crania Americana Morton claimed that Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Indians were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches. In 1873 Paul Broca (1824–1880) found the same pattern described by Samuel Morton's Crania Americana by weighing brains at autopsy. Other historical studies alleging a Black–White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934). But in Germany Rudolf Virchow's study led him to denounce "Nordic mysticism" in the 1885 Anthropology Congress in Karlsruhe. Josef Kollmann, a collaborator of Virchow, stated in the same congress that the people of Europe, be them German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races," furthermore declaring that the "results of craniology" led to "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race". Virchow later rejected measure of skulls as legitimate means of taxonomy. Paul Kretschmer quoted an 1892 discussion with him concerning these criticisms, also citing Aurel von Törok's 1895 work, who basically proclaimed the failure of craniometry. Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002) claimed Samuel Morton had fudged data and "overpacked" the


id: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry-4.md
category: reference
title: History of anthropometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:48.670944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-anthropometry-20260505-0
summary:
Caucasoid characterized by a tall dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas, large brow ridge and projecting-narrow nasal apertures. Negroid characterized by a short dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas and wide nasal apertures. Mongoloid characterized by a medium brachycephalic skull, projecting zygomas, small brow ridge and small nasal apertures. Ripley's The Races of Europe was rewritten in 1939 by Harvard physical anthropologist Carleton S. Coon. Coon, a 20th-century craniofacial anthropometrist, used the technique for his The Origin of Races (New York: Knopf, 1962). Because of the inconsistencies in the old three-part system (Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid), Coon adopted a five-part scheme. He defined "Caucasoid" as a pattern of skull measurements and other phenotypical characteristics typical of populations in Europe, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Northeast Africa (Ethiopia, and Somalia). He discarded the term "Negroid" as misleading since it implies skin tone, which is found at low latitudes around the globe and is a product of adaptation, and defined skulls typical of sub-Saharan Africa as "Congoid" and those of Southern Africa as "Capoid". Finally, he split "Australoid" from "Mongoloid" along a line roughly similar to the modern distinction between sinodonts in the north and sundadonts in the south. He argued that these


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-0.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
The Antikythera mechanism ( AN-tik-ih-THEER-ə, US also AN-ty-kih-) is an ancient Greek hand-powered orrery (model of the Solar System). It is the oldest known example of an analogue computer. It could be used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses decades in advance. It could also be used to track the four-year cycle of athletic games similar to an olympiad, the cycle of the ancient Olympic Games. The artefact was among wreckage retrieved from a shipwreck off the coast of the Greek island Antikythera in 1901. In 1902, during a visit to the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, it was noticed by Greek politician Spyridon Stais as containing a gear, prompting the first study of the fragment by his cousin, Valerios Stais, the museum director. The device, housed in the remains of a wooden-framed case of (uncertain) overall size 34 cm × 18 cm × 9 cm (13.4 in × 7.1 in × 3.5 in), was found as one lump, later separated into three main fragments which are now divided into 82 separate fragments after conservation efforts. Four of these fragments contain gears, while inscriptions are found on many others. The largest gear is about 13 cm (5 in) in diameter


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-1.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Origin === The Antikythera mechanism is generally referred to as the first known analogue computer. The quality and complexity of the mechanism's manufacture suggests it must have had undiscovered predecessors during the Hellenistic period. Its construction relied on theories of astronomy and mathematics developed by Greek astronomers during the second century BC, and it is estimated to have been built in the late second century BC or the early first century BC. In 2008, research by the Antikythera Mechanism Research Project suggested the concept for the mechanism may have originated in the colonies of Corinth, since they identified the calendar on the Metonic Spiral as coming from Corinth, or one of its colonies in northwest Greece or Sicily. Syracuse was a colony of Corinth and the home of Archimedes, and the Antikythera Mechanism Research Project argued in 2008 that it might imply a connection with the school of Archimedes. It was demonstrated in 2017 that the calendar on the Metonic Spiral is of the Corinthian type, but cannot be that of Syracuse. Another theory suggests that coins found by Jacques Cousteau at the wreck site in the 1970s date to the time of the device's construction, and posits that


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-2.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Operation === On the front face of the mechanism, there is a fixed ring dial representing the ecliptic, the twelve zodiacal signs marked off with equal 30-degree sectors. This matched with the Babylonian custom of assigning one twelfth of the ecliptic to each zodiac sign equally, even though the constellation boundaries were variable. Outside that dial is another ring which is rotatable, marked off with the months and days of the Sothic Egyptian calendar, twelve months of 30 days plus five intercalary days. The months are marked with the Egyptian names for the months transcribed into the Greek alphabet. The first task is to rotate the Egyptian calendar ring to match the current zodiac points. The Egyptian calendar ignored leap days, so it advanced through a full zodiac sign in about 120 years. The mechanism was operated by turning a small hand crank (now lost) which was linked via a crown gear to the largest gear, the four-spoked gear visible on the front of fragment A, gear b1. This moved the date pointer on the front dial, which would be set to the correct Egyptian calendar day. The year is not selectable, so it is necessary to know the


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-3.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
ΠΑΧΩΝ (Pashons) ΠΑΥΝΙ (Payni) ΕΠΙΦΙ (Epiphi) The other months have been reconstructed; some reconstructions of the mechanism omit the five days of the Egyptian intercalary month. The Zodiac dial contains Greek inscriptions of the members of the zodiac, which is believed to be adapted to the tropical month version rather than the sidereal: ΚΡΙΟΣ (Krios [Ram], Aries) ΤΑΥΡΟΣ (Tauros [Bull], Taurus) ΔΙΔΥΜΟΙ (Didymoi [Twins], Gemini) ΚΑΡΚΙΝΟΣ (Karkinos [Crab], Cancer) ΛΕΩΝ (Leon [Lion], Leo) ΠΑΡΘΕΝΟΣ (Parthenos [Maiden], Virgo) ΧΗΛΑΙ (Chelai [Scorpio's Claw or Zygos], Libra) ΣΚΟΡΠΙΟΣ (Skorpios [Scorpion], Scorpio) ΤΟΞΟΤΗΣ (Toxotes [Archer], Sagittarius) ΑΙΓΟΚΕΡΩΣ (Aigokeros [Goat-horned], Capricorn) ΥΔΡΟΧΟΟΣ (Hydrokhoos [Water carrier], Aquarius) ΙΧΘΥΕΣ (Ichthyes [Fish], Pisces) Also on the zodiac dial are single characters at specific points (see reconstruction at ref). They are keyed to a parapegma, a precursor of the modern day almanac inscribed on the front face above and beneath the dials. They mark the locations of longitudes on the ecliptic for specific stars. The parapegma above the dials reads (square brackets indicate inferred text): The parapegma beneath the dials reads: At least two pointers indicated positions of bodies upon the ecliptic. A lunar pointer indicated the position of the Moon, and a mean Sun pointer was shown, perhaps


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-4.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
The Saros dial is the main lower spiral dial on the rear of the mechanism. The Saros cycle is 18 years and 11+1⁄3 days long (6585.333... days), which is very close to 223 synodic months (6585.3211 days). It is defined as the cycle of repetition of the positions required to cause solar and lunar eclipses, and therefore, it could be used to predict them—not only the month, but the day and time of day. The cycle is approximately 8 hours longer than an integer number of days. Translated into global spin, that means an eclipse occurs not only eight hours later, but one-third of a rotation farther to the west. Glyphs in 51 of the 223 synodic month cells of the dial specify the occurrence of 38 lunar and 27 solar eclipses. Some of the abbreviations in the glyphs read: Σ = ΣΕΛΗΝΗ ("Selene", Moon) Η = ΗΛΙΟΣ ("Helios", Sun) H\M = ΗΜΕΡΑΣ ("Hemeras", of the day) ω\ρ = ωρα ("hora", hour) N\Y = ΝΥΚΤΟΣ ("Nuktos", of the night) The glyphs show whether the designated eclipse is solar or lunar, and give the day of the month and hour. Solar eclipses may not be visible at any given point, and


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-5.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gearing === The mechanism is remarkable for the level of miniaturisation and the complexity of its parts, which is comparable to that of 14th-century astronomical clocks. It has at least 30 gears, although mechanism expert Michael Wright has suggested the Greeks of this period were capable of implementing a system with many more gears. There is debate as to whether the mechanism had indicators for all five of the planets known to the ancient Greeks. No gearing for such a planetary display survives and all gears are accounted for—with the exception of one 63-toothed gear (r1) otherwise unaccounted for in fragment D. Fragment D is a small quasi-circular constriction that, according to Xenophon Moussas, has a gear inside a somewhat larger hollow gear. The inner gear moves inside the outer gear reproducing an epicyclical motion that, with a pointer, gives the position of planet Jupiter. The inner gear is numbered 45, "ME" in Greek, and the same number is written on two surfaces of this small cylindrical box. The purpose of the front face was to position astronomical bodies with respect to the celestial sphere along the ecliptic, in reference to the observer's position on the Earth. That is


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-6.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
It is very probable there were planetary dials, as the complicated motions and periodicities of all planets are mentioned in the manual of the mechanism. The exact position and mechanisms for the gears of the planets is unknown. There is no coaxial system except for the Moon. Fragment D that is an epicycloidal system, is considered as a planetary gear for Jupiter (Moussas, 2011, 2012, 2014) or a gear for the motion of the Sun (University of Thessaloniki group). The Sun gear is operated from the hand-operated crank (connected to gear a1, driving the large four-spoked mean Sun gear, b1) and in turn drives the rest of the gear sets. The Sun gear is b1/b2 and b2 has 64 teeth. It directly drives the date/mean sun pointer (there may have been a second, "true sun" pointer that displayed the Sun's elliptical anomaly; it is discussed below in the Freeth reconstruction). In this discussion, reference is to modelled rotational period of various pointers and indicators; they all assume the input rotation of the b1 gear of 360 degrees, corresponding with one tropical year, and are computed solely on the basis of the gear ratios of the gears named. The Moon train


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-7.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Proposed gear schemes === Because of the large space between the mean Sun gear and the front of the case and the size of and mechanical features on the mean Sun gear, it is very likely that the mechanism contained further gearing that either has been lost in or subsequent to the shipwreck, or was removed before being loaded onto the ship. This lack of evidence and nature of the front part of the mechanism has led to attempts to emulate what the Ancient Greeks would have done and because of the lack of evidence, many solutions have been put forward over the years. But as progress has been made on analyzing the internal structures and deciphering the inscriptions, earlier models have been ruled out and better models developed. Derek J. de Solla Price built a simple model in the 1970s. In 2002 Michael Wright designed and built the first workable model with the known mechanism and his emulation of a potential planetarium system. He suggested that along with the lunar anomaly, adjustments would have been made for the deeper, more basic solar anomaly (known as the "first anomaly"). He included pointers for this "true sun", Mercury, Venus, Mars,


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-8.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
The system to synthesise the solar anomaly is very similar to that used in Wright's proposal: three gears, one fixed in the centre of the b1 gear and attached to the Sun spindle, the second fixed on one of the spokes (in their proposal the one on the bottom left) acting as an idle gear, and the final positioned next to that one; the final gear is fitted with an offset pin and, over said pin, an arm with a slot that in turn, is attached to the sun spindle, inducing anomaly as the mean Sun wheel turns. The inferior planet mechanism includes the Sun (treated as a planet in this context), Mercury, and Venus. For each of the three systems, there is an epicyclic gear whose axis is mounted on b1, thus the basic frequency is the Earth year (as it is, in truth, for epicyclic motion in the Sun and all the planets—excepting only the Moon). Each meshes with a gear grounded to the mechanism frame. Each has a pin mounted, potentially on an extension of one side of the gear that enlarges the gear, but doesn't interfere with the teeth; in some cases, the needed distance between


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-9.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
In short, the Antikythera Mechanism was a machine designed to predict celestial phenomena according to the sophisticated astronomical theories current in its day, the sole witness to a lost history of brilliant engineering, a conception of pure genius, one of the great wonders of the ancient world—but it didn't really work very well! In addition to theoretical accuracy, there is the issue of mechanical accuracy. Freeth and Jones note that the inevitable "looseness" in the mechanism due to the hand-built gears, with their triangular teeth and the frictions between gears, and in bearing surfaces, probably would have swamped the finer solar and lunar correction mechanisms built into it: Though the engineering was remarkable for its era, recent research indicates that its design conception exceeded the engineering precision of its manufacture by a wide margin—with considerable cumulative inaccuracies in the gear trains, which would have cancelled out many of the subtle anomalies built into its design. While the device may have struggled with inaccuracies, due to the triangular teeth being hand-made, the calculations used and technology implemented to create the elliptical paths of the planets and retrograde motion of the Moon and Mars, by using a clockwork-type gear train with the


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-10.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
Pappus of Alexandria (290 – c. 350 AD) stated that Archimedes had written a now lost manuscript on the construction of these devices titled On Sphere-Making. The surviving texts from ancient times describe many of his creations, some even containing simple drawings. One such device is his odometer, the exact model later used by the Romans to place their mile markers (described by Vitruvius, Heron of Alexandria and in the time of Emperor Commodus). The drawings in the text appeared functional, but attempts to build them as pictured had failed. When the gears pictured, which had square teeth, were replaced with gears of the type in the Antikythera mechanism, which were angled, the device was perfectly functional. If Cicero's account is correct, then this technology existed as early as the third century BC. Archimedes' device is also mentioned by later Roman era writers such as Lactantius (Divinarum Institutionum Libri VII), Claudian (In sphaeram Archimedes), and Proclus (Commentary on the first book of Euclid's Elements of Geometry) in the fourth and fifth centuries. Cicero also said that another such device was built "recently" by his friend Posidonius, "... each one of the revolutions of which brings about the same movement in


id: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism-11.md
category: reference
title: Antikythera mechanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:49.894379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antikythera-mechanism-20260505-0
summary:
Several exhibitions have been staged worldwide, leading to the main "Antikythera shipwreck" exhibition at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. As of 2012, the Antikythera mechanism was displayed as part of a temporary exhibition about the Antikythera shipwreck, accompanied by reconstructions made by Ioannis Theofanidis, Derek de Solla Price, Michael Wright, the Thessaloniki University and Dionysios Kriaris. Other reconstructions are on display at the American Computer Museum in Bozeman, Montana, at the Children's Museum of Manhattan in New York, at Astronomisch-Physikalisches Kabinett in Kassel, Germany, at the Archimedes Museum in Olympia, Greece, at the Kotsanas Museum of Ancient Greek Technology in Athens, at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris and at the Western Australian Museum. The National Geographic documentary series Naked Science dedicated an episode to the Antikythera Mechanism entitled "Star Clock BC" that aired on 20 January 2011. A documentary, The World's First Computer, was produced in 2012 by the Antikythera mechanism researcher and film-maker Tony Freeth. In 2012, BBC Four aired The Two-Thousand-Year-Old Computer; it was also aired on 3 April 2013 in the United States on NOVA, the PBS science series, under the name Ancient Computer. It documents the discovery and 2005 investigation of the


id: antiquarian-science-books-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books-0.md
category: reference
title: Antiquarian science books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:51.108220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiquarian-science-books-20260505-0
summary:
Antiquarian science books are original historical works (e.g., books or technical papers) concerning science, mathematics and sometimes engineering. These books are important primary references for the study of the history of science and technology, they can provide valuable insights into the historical development of the various fields of scientific inquiry (History of science, History of mathematics, etc.) The landmark are significant first (or early) editions typically worth hundreds or thousands of dollars (prices may vary widely based on condition, etc.). Reprints of these books are often available, for example from Great Books of the Western World, Dover Publications or Google Books. Incunabula are extremely rare and valuable, but as the Scientific Revolution is only taken to have started around the 1540s, such works of Renaissance literature (including alchemy, Renaissance magic, etc.) are not usually included under the notion of "scientific" literature. Printed originals of the beginning Scientific Revolution thus date to the 1540s or later, notably beginning with the original publication of Copernican heliocentrism. Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium of 1543 sold for more than US$2 million at auctions. == List of notable books == === 16th century === Tartaglia, Niccolò. Nova Scientia (A New Science). Venice, 1537. Ballistics.


id: antiquarian-science-books-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books-1.md
category: reference
title: Antiquarian science books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:51.108220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiquarian-science-books-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === Gauss, Carl Friedrich (Germany). Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Leipzig, 1801. Number theory Young, Thomas (England). Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics, 1803. Light Argand, Jean-Robert (Switzerland). Essai sur une maniere de representer les quantities imaginaries dans les constructions geometriques, 1806. Imaginary numbers. Dalton, John (England). A New System of Chemical Philosophy. London, 1808. Atomic theory Berzelius, Jöns Jacob (Sweden). Läroboken i kemien, 1808. Chemistry Cayley, George (England). On Aerial Navigation. Brompton, 3 Vol, 1809. Aeronautics. Ørsted, Hans Christian (Denmark). Experimenta circa effectum conflictus electrici in acum magneticam. Copenhagen, 1820. Electromagnetism. Fourier, Joseph (France). Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur. Paris, 1822. Fourier series. Fresnel, Augustin-Jean (France). Mémoire Sur Un Nouveau Système D'Éclairage Des Phares Lu À L'Académie Des Sciences. Paris, 1822. Wave optics Babbage, Charles (England). Mr. Babbage's invention: Application of machinery to the purpose of calculating and printing mathematical tables. London, 1823. Computing Lobachevsky, Nikolai (Russia). Geometriya. 1823. Non-Euclidean geometry Cauchy, Augustin-Louis (France). Le calcul infinitesimal. Paris, 1823. Mathematical analysis Carnot, Sadi (France). Réflexions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu et sur les machines propres à déveloper cette puissance. Paris, 1824. Thermodynamics Ampère, André-Marie (France). Mémoire sur la théorie mathématique des phénomènes électrodynamiques, 1827. Electromagnetism Laplace, Pierre-Simon


id: antiquarian-science-books-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books-2.md
category: reference
title: Antiquarian science books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:51.108220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiquarian-science-books-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20th century (pre-Cold War) === Planck, Max (Germany). Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum. Leipzig, 1900. Quantum mechanics Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich (Russia). The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices. Kaluga, 1903. Rockets Rutherford, Ernest (New Zealand). Radio-activity. Cambridge, 1904. Nuclear physics Lorentz, Hendrik (Netherlands). Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light. Amsterdam, 1904. Special relativity Einstein, Albert (Germany). Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") Leipzig, 1905. Special relativity Einstein, Albert (Germany). Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? Leipzig, 1905. Physics Richardson, Lewis (England). The Approximate Arithmetical Solution by Finite Differences of Physical Problems Involving Differential Equations, with an Application to the Stresses in a Masonry Dam. London, 1910. Computational mechanics Boas, Franz (Germany/America). The Mind of Primitive Man. New York, 1911. Anthropology Bohr, Niels (Denmark). On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules. London, 1913. Quantum mechanics Einstein, Albert (Germany). Die Grundlage Der Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Foundations of the General Theory of Relativity). Leipzig, 1916. Physics. Goddard, Robert Hutchings (America). A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. Washington, D.C, 1919. Rockets de Broglie, Louis (France). Recherches sur la théorie des quanta


id: astrology-and-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Astrology and astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:52.305206+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-and-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
Astrology and astronomy were archaically treated together (Latin: astrologia), but gradually distinguished through the Late Middle Ages into the Age of Reason. Developments in 17th century philosophy resulted in astrology and astronomy operating as independent pursuits by the 18th century. Whereas the academic discipline of astronomy studies observable phenomena beyond the Earth's atmosphere, astrology uses the apparent positions of celestial objects as the basis for divination. == Overview == In pre-modern times, most cultures did not make a clear distinction between the two disciplines, putting them both together as one. In ancient Babylonia, famed for its astrology, there were not separate roles for the astronomer as predictor of celestial phenomena, and the astrologer as their interpreter; both functions were performed by the same person. In ancient Greece, pre-Socratic thinkers such as Anaximander, Xenophanes, Anaximenes, and Heraclides speculated about the nature and substance of the stars and planets. Astronomers such as Eudoxus (contemporary with Plato) observed planetary motions and cycles, and created a geocentric cosmological model that would be accepted by Aristotle. This model generally lasted until Ptolemy, who added epicycles to explain the retrograde motion of Mars. (Around 250 BC, Aristarchus of Samos postulated a proto-heliocentric theory, which would not


id: astrology-and-astronomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Astrology and astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:52.305206+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrology-and-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
For a long time the funding from astrology supported some astronomical research, which was in turn used to make more accurate ephemerides for use in astrology. In Medieval Europe the word Astronomia was often used to encompass both disciplines as this included the study of astronomy and astrology jointly and without a real distinction; this was one of the original Seven Liberal Arts. Kings and other rulers generally employed court astrologers to aid them in the decision making in their kingdoms, thereby funding astronomical research. University medical students were taught astrology as it was generally used in medical practice. Astronomy and astrology diverged over the course of the 17th through 19th centuries. It is unclear if Copernicus practiced astrology,), but the most important astronomers before Isaac Newton were astrologers by profession—Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei. Also relevant here was the development of better timekeeping instruments, initially for aid in navigation; improved timekeeping made it possible to make more exact astrological predictions—predictions which could be tested, and which consistently proved to be false. By the end of the 18th century, astronomy was one of the major sciences of the Enlightenment model, using the recently codified scientific method, and was


id: barlow-s-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlow's_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Barlow's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barlow's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:53.446052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: barlow-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
Barlow's law is an incorrect physical law proposed by Peter Barlow in 1825 to describe the ability of wires to conduct electricity. It says that the strength of the effect of electricity passing through a wire varies inversely with the square root of its length and directly with the square root of its cross-sectional area, or, in modern terminology: I ∝ A L , {\displaystyle I\propto {\sqrt {\frac {A}{L}}},} where I is electric current, A is the cross-sectional area of the wire, and L is the length of the wire. Barlow formulated his law in terms of the diameter d of a cylindrical wire. Since A is proportional to the square of d the law becomes I ∝ d / L {\displaystyle I\propto d/{\sqrt {L}}} for cylindrical wires. Barlow undertook his experiments with the aim of determining whether long-distance telegraphy was feasible and believed that he proved that it was not. The publication of Barlow's law delayed research into telegraphy for several years, until 1831 when Joseph Henry and Philip Ten Eyck constructed a circuit 1,060 feet long, which used a large battery to activate an electromagnet. Barlow did not investigate the dependence of the current strength on electric tension


id: bharat-ki-chhap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharat_Ki_Chhap-0.md
category: reference
title: Bharat Ki Chhap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharat_Ki_Chhap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:54.633326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bharat-ki-chhap-20260505-0
summary:
Bharat Ki Chhap (Identity of India) is a 13-episode Indian TV science documentary series chronicling the history of science and technology in India from pre-historic times until the present. It was directed by filmmaker Chandita Mukherjee and funded by the Department of Science and Technology's National Council for Science and Technology Communication (NCSTC) in 1987. It was telecasted on Doordarshan every Sunday Morning. It was introduced by Professor Yash Pal. It projected in a pragmatic way alternative viewpoints on the subject of science as pioneered in India, in contrast with western scientific endeavours. It drew support from People's Science Movement. A companion book was later published by Comet Project titled Bhārat Ki Chhāp: A Companion Book to the Film Series by Chayanika Shah, Suhas Paranjape, Swatija Manorama. == Episodes == A total of 13 episodes were released. == References ==


id: big-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Big science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:55.811612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-science-20260505-0
summary:
Big science is a term used by scientists and historians of science to describe a series of changes in science which occurred in industrial nations during and after World War II, as scientific progress increasingly came to rely on large-scale projects usually funded by national governments or groups of governments. Individual or small group efforts, or small science, are still relevant today as theoretical results by individual authors may have a significant impact, but very often the empirical verification requires experiments using constructions, such as the Large Hadron Collider, costing between $5 and $10 billion. == Development == While science and technology have always been important to and driven by warfare, the increase in military funding of science following the second World War was on a scale wholly unprecedented. James Conant, in a 1941 letter to Chemical Engineering News, said that World War II "is a physicist's war rather than a chemist's," a phrase that was cemented in the vernacular in post-war discussion of the role that those scientists played in the development of new weapons and tools, notably the proximity fuse, radar, and the atomic bomb. The bulk of these last two activities took place in a new form


id: big-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Big science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:55.811612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-science-20260505-0
summary:
When history looks at the 20th century, she will see science and technology as its theme; she will find in the monuments of Big Science—the huge rockets, the high-energy accelerators, the high-flux research reactors—symbols of our time just as surely as she finds in Notre Dame a symbol of the Middle Ages. ... We build our monuments in the name of scientific truth, they built theirs in the name of religious truth; we use our Big Science to add to our country's prestige, they used their churches for their cities' prestige; we build to placate what ex-President Eisenhower suggested could become a dominant scientific caste, they built to please the priests of Isis and Osiris. Weinberg's article addressed criticisms of the way in which the era of Big Science could negatively affect science — such as astronomer Fred Hoyle's contention that excessive money for science would only make science fat and lazy — and encouraged, in the end, limiting Big Science only to the national laboratory system and preventing its incursion into the university system. Since Weinberg's article there have been many historical and sociological studies on the effects of Big Science both in and out of the laboratory. Soon


id: book-of-nature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature-0.md
category: reference
title: Book of Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:56.999241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-nature-20260505-0
summary:
The Book of Nature (Lat. liber naturae/liber mundi, Ar. kitāb takwīnī) is a religious and philosophical cosmological metaphor known from Antiquity in various cultures, and prominent in the Latin and Romance literature of the European Middle Ages. The idea of a cosmos formed by letters is already found in the fragments of Heraclitus, where it relates to the Greek concept of logos, in Plato’s Timaeus, and in Lucretius’ De rerum natura. The metaphor of the Book of Nature straddles the divide between religion and science, viewing nature as a readable text open to knowledge and understanding. Early theologians, such as St. Paul, believed the Book of Nature was a source of God's revelation to humankind. He believed that when read alongside sacred scripture, the "book" and the study of God's creations would lead to a knowledge of God himself. This type of revelation is often referred to as a general revelation. The concept corresponds to the early Greek philosophical concept of logos, which implies that humans, as part of a coherent universe, are capable of understanding the design of the natural world through reason. The phrase liber naturae was famously used by Galileo when writing about how "the book of


id: book-of-nature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature-1.md
category: reference
title: Book of Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:56.999241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-nature-20260505-0
summary:
== Christianity and Greek culture == The Greeks constructed a view of the natural world in which all references to mythological origins and causes were removed. Greek philosophers inadvertently left the upper world vacant by abandoning ancient ties to free-acting, conspiring gods of nature. The new philosophy of nature made unseen mythological forces irrelevant. While some philosophers drifted toward atheism, others worked within the new philosophy to reconstitute the concept of a divine being. Consequently, the new outlook toward the natural world inspired the belief in one supreme force compatible with the new philosophy—in other words, monotheistic. However, the path from nature to rediscovering a divine being was uncertain. The belief in causality in nature implied an endless, interconnected chain of causation acting upon the natural world. It is presumed, however, that Greek thought denied the existence of a natural world where causality was infinite, which gave rise to the notion of "first cause", upon which the order of other causes must rely. The first contact between Christianity and Greek culture occurred in Athens in the first century CE. The Christian Scriptures note that within a few years of Christ’s crucifixion, Paul and Silas were debating with Epicureans and Stoics


id: book-of-nature-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature-2.md
category: reference
title: Book of Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:56.999241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-nature-20260505-0
summary:
From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany around 1440, the movable type printing-press had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe and had already produced more than 20 million volumes by the end of the 15th century. At the same time, the number of universities had grown to more than 60. By revealing a "New World" unknown to the ancients, the European encounter with the Americas specifically undermined the authority of Claudius Ptolemy, the 2nd-century scholar whose geographic and astronomical models had long been considered infallible. Tycho Brahe's unprecedentedly accurate astronomical observations in the late 16th century and Galileo Galilei’s early 17th-century telescopic observations combined to turn astronomy into the first modern science. Galileo's observations ended a millenium of pre-modern astronomical orthodoxy. Johannes Kepler used Brahe's data to discover that planets have elliptical, not circular, orbits and develop the laws of planetary motion. Because of Kepler, astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws, a kind of clockwork. Ancient texts and doctrines were disputed, knowledge of the natural world was incomplete, interpretation of Christian Scripture was challenged, and Greek philosophy—which helped draft the Book of Nature—and Christian Scripture


id: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises-0.md
category: reference
title: Bridgewater Treatises
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:58.169352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-0
summary:
The Bridgewater Treatises (1833–36) are a series of eight works that were written by leading scientific figures appointed by the President of the Royal Society in fulfilment of a bequest of £8000, made by Francis Henry Egerton, 8th Earl of Bridgewater, for work on "the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation." Despite being voluminous and costly, the series was very widely read and discussed, becoming one of the most important contributions to Victorian literature on the relationship between religion and science. They made such an impact that Charles Darwin began On the Origin of Species with a quotation from the Bridgewater Treatise of William Whewell. == The Bridgewater Bequest == Before unexpectedly becoming the 8th Earl of Bridgewater in 1823, Francis Henry Egerton spent most of his life as an absentee parson. He published works of classical scholarship and issued others praising the historical achievements of his family, including those of his father's cousin, Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, the "father of British inland navigation." In 1781, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; after 1802 he lived mostly in Paris, where he amassed a collection of manuscripts later donated to the


id: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises-1.md
category: reference
title: Bridgewater Treatises
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:58.169352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medical practitioners: Kidd and Bell, Roget and Prout === The two medical professors John Kidd and Charles Bell wrote shorter and theologically lightweight contributions. Kidd's work, on the "physical constitution of man," was claimed to be "but a moderate thousand pounds worth," Like Bell, whose limited subject was "the hand," Kidd set out to show that modern developments in anatomy did not support either materialism or the transmutation of species, instead confirming belief in the reality of divine design. The two other medical authors, Peter Mark Roget and William Prout, wrote lengthier contributions considering how the emergence of physiological laws enhanced the belief in divine design, rather than diminishing it. In his treatise on "animal and vegetable physiology," Roget argued that the laws of "philosophical anatomy" provided a grander vision of divine action. Prout's rag-bag treatise on "chemistry, meteorology, and the function of digestion" was more ambivalent, arguing that God's action was strikingly evident in the laws of chemical action, but also that many phenomena seemed to subvert the general laws. === The Bible and science: Kirby and Buckland === The final two treatises, those of William Kirby and William Buckland, both addressed the relationship of the Bible to


id: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises-2.md
category: reference
title: Bridgewater Treatises
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:58.169352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bridgewater-treatises-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Addinall, Peter (1991). Philosophy and Biblical Interpretation: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Alexander, Denis R.; Numbers, Ronald L. (2010). Biology and Ideology from Descartes to Dawkins. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-60842-6. "Authors of the Bridgewater Treatises (act. c. 1833–1836)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/96360. Retrieved 2022-09-12. Brock, W. H. (1966). "The Selection of the Authors of the Bridgewater Treatises". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 21 (2): 162–179. ISSN 0035-9149. Clark, John F. M. (2009). Bugs and the Victorians. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15091-9. Desmond, Adrian. The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in Radical London. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-14453-5. Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1996). Genesis and Geology: A Study in the Relations of Scientific Thought, Natural Theology, and Social Opinion in Great Britain, 1790-1850. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-34481-5. Hilton, Boyd (1988). The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1795-1865. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820107-6. Rehbock, Philip F. (1983). The Philosophical Naturalists: Themes in Early Nineteenth-century British Biology. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-09430-0. Robson, John M. "The Fiat and Finger of God: The Bridgewater Treatises". In Helmstadter, Richard


id: charles-babbage-s-saturday-night-soir-es-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage's_Saturday_night_soirées-0.md
category: reference
title: Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage's_Saturday_night_soirées
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:22:59.357311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: charles-babbage-s-saturday-night-soir-es-20260505-0
summary:
Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées were gatherings held by the mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage at his home in Dorset Street, Marylebone, London from 1828 and into the 1840s. The soirées were attended by the cultural elite of the time. == Scientific soirées == Babbage left England when his wife and father died in 1827. On his return in 1828, now in possession of a considerable inheritance, he began to host Saturday evening parties. The science historian James A. Secord describes the parties as "scientific soirées". Secord writes that Babbage imported the idea from France, and once established, such soirées "became one of the chief ways in which scientific discussion could take place on a more sustained basis within polite society." In her autobiography, the English writer and sociologist Harriet Martineau wrote: "All were eager to go to his glorious soirées and I always thought he appeared to great advantage as a host. His patience in explaining his machine in those days was really exemplary." According to biographers Bruce Collier and James H. MacLachlan, "Babbage was a bon vivant with a love of dining out and socialising. He sparkled as a host and raconteur. His Saturday soirées were glittering events


id: list-of-chemical-elements-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical elements named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:00.523515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-elements-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This list of chemical elements named after people includes elements named for people both directly and indirectly. Of the 118 elements, 19 are connected with the names of 20 people. 15 elements were named to honor 16 scientists (as curium honours both Marie and Pierre Curie). Four others have indirect connection to the names of non-scientists. Only gadolinium and samarium occur in nature; the rest are man-made. == List == These 19 elements are connected to the names of people. Seaborg and Oganessian were the only living persons honored by having elements named after them; Oganessian is the only one still alive. Names were proposed to honor Einstein and Fermi while they were still alive, but they had both died by the time those names became official. The four elements associated with non-scientists were not named in their honor but named for something else bearing their name: samarium for the mineral samarskite from which it was isolated; and americium, berkelium and livermorium after places named for them. The cities of Berkeley, California and Livermore, California are the locations of the University of California Radiation Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, respectively. Six elements have only an indirect namesake: samarium, gadolinium,


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include the discovery of fire, extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. The protoscience of chemistry, alchemy, was unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations. However, by performing experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry. The history of chemistry is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs. == Ancient history == === Early humans === ==== Fire ==== Arguably the first chemical reaction used in a controlled manner was fire. However, for millennia fire was seen simply as a mystical force that could transform one substance into another (burning wood, or boiling water) while producing heat and light. Fire affected many aspects of early societies. These ranged from the simplest facets of everyday life, such as cooking and habitat heating and lighting, to more advanced uses, such as making


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ferrous metallurgy ==== The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than copper or tin. While iron is not better suited for tools than bronze (until steel was discovered), iron ore is much more abundant and common than either copper or tin, and therefore more often available locally, with no need to trade for it. Iron working appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. Cast iron smithing as well as the innovation of the Blast Furnace and Cupola furnace was invented in ancient China, during the Warring States period when armies sought to develop better weaponry and armor in state-armories. Many other applications, practices, and devices associated with or involved in metallurgy were also established in ancient China, with the innovations of hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double-acting piston bellows. The Iron Age is named after the advent of iron working (ferrous metallurgy). Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. These include the ancient and medieval kingdoms


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy is defined by the Hermetic quest for the philosopher's stone, the study of which is steeped in symbolic mysticism, and differs greatly from modern science. Alchemists toiled to make transformations on an esoteric (spiritual) and/or exoteric (practical) level. It was the protoscientific, exoteric aspects of alchemy that contributed heavily to the evolution of chemistry in Greco-Roman Egypt, in the Islamic Golden Age, and then in Europe. Alchemy and chemistry share an interest in the composition and properties of matter, and until the 18th century they were not separate disciplines. The term chymistry has been used to describe the blend of alchemy and chemistry that existed before that time. During the Renaissance, exoteric alchemy remained popular in the form of Paracelsian iatrochemistry, while spiritual alchemy flourished, realigned to its Platonic, Hermetic, and Gnostic roots. Consequently, the symbolic quest for the philosopher's stone was not superseded by scientific advances, and was still the domain of respected scientists and doctors until the early 18th century. Early modern alchemists who are renowned for their scientific contributions include Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton. === Alchemy in the Islamic world === In the Islamic World, the Muslims were translating the works


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-3.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Practical attempts to improve the refining of ores and their extraction to smelt metals was an important source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them Georg Agricola (1494–1555), who published his great work De re metallica in 1556. His work describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. His approach removed the mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could build. The work describes the many kinds of furnace used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in minerals and their composition. It is no coincidence that he gives numerous references to the earlier author, Pliny the Elder and his Naturalis Historia. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy" and the founder of geology as a scientific discipline. In 1605, Sir Francis Bacon published The Proficience and Advancement of Learning, which contains a description of what would later be known as the scientific method. In 1605, Michal Sedziwój publishes the alchemical treatise A New Light of Alchemy which proposed the existence of the "food of life" within air, much later recognized as oxygen. In 1615 Jean Beguin published the Tyrocinium


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-4.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
In 1702, German chemist Georg Stahl coined the name "phlogiston" for the substance believed to be released in the process of burning. Around 1735, Swedish chemist Georg Brandt analyzed a dark blue pigment found in copper ore. Brandt demonstrated that the pigment contained a new element, later named cobalt. In 1751, a Swedish chemist and pupil of Stahl's named Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, identified an impurity in copper ore as a separate metallic element, which he named nickel. Cronstedt is one of the founders of modern mineralogy. Cronstedt also discovered the mineral scheelite in 1751, which he named tungsten, meaning "heavy stone" in Swedish. In 1754, Scottish chemist Joseph Black isolated carbon dioxide, which he called "fixed air". In 1757, Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt, while investigating arsenic compounds, creates Cadet's fuming liquid, later discovered to be cacodyl oxide, considered to be the first synthetic organometallic compound. In 1758, Joseph Black formulated the concept of latent heat to explain the thermochemistry of phase changes. In 1766, English chemist Henry Cavendish isolated hydrogen, which he called "inflammable air". Cavendish discovered hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air, and published a paper on the


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-5.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
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parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Repeating the experiments of Priestley, he demonstrated that air is composed of two parts, one of which combines with metals to form calxes. In Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides (1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. The next year, he named this portion oxygen (Greek for acid-former), and the other azote (Greek for no life). Because of his more thorough characterization of it as an element, Lavoisier thus has a claim to the discovery of oxygen along with Priestley and Scheele. He also discovered that the "inflammable air" discovered by Cavendish – which he termed hydrogen (Greek for water-former) – combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as Priestley had reported, which appeared to be water. In Reflexions sur le Phlogistique (1783), Lavoisier showed the phlogiston theory of combustion to be inconsistent. Mikhail Lomonosov independently established a tradition of chemistry in Russia in the 18th century; he also rejected the phlogiston theory, and anticipated the kinetic theory of gases. Lomonosov regarded heat as a form of motion, and stated the idea of conservation of matter. Lavoisier worked with Claude Louis Berthollet and others to devise a system of chemical nomenclature,


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-6.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== 19th century == Throughout the 19th century, chemistry was divided between those who followed the atomic theory of John Dalton and the energeticists, such as Wilhelm Ostwald and Ernst Mach. Although such proponents of the atomic theory as Amedeo Avogadro and Ludwig Boltzmann made great advances in explaining the behavior of gases, this dispute was not finally settled until Jean Perrin's experimental investigation of Einstein's atomic explanation of Brownian motion in the first decade of the 20th century. Well before the dispute had been settled, many had already applied the concept of atomism to chemistry. A major example was the ion theory of Svante Arrhenius which anticipated ideas about atomic substructure that did not fully develop until the 20th century. Michael Faraday was another early worker, whose major contribution to chemistry was electrochemistry, in which (among other things) a certain quantity of electricity during electrolysis or electrodeposition of metals was shown to be associated with certain quantities of chemical elements, and fixed quantities of the elements therefore with each other, in specific ratios. These findings, like those of Dalton's combining ratios, were early clues to the atomic nature of matter. === John Dalton === In 1803, English meteorologist and


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-7.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
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parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== New elements and gas laws === English chemist Humphry Davy was a pioneer in the field of electrolysis, using Alessandro Volta's voltaic pile to split up common compounds and thus isolate a series of new elements. He went on to electrolyse molten salts and discovered several new metals, especially sodium and potassium, highly reactive elements known as the alkali metals. Potassium, the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis, was discovered in 1807 by Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH). Before the 19th century, no distinction was made between potassium and sodium. Sodium was first isolated by Davy in the same year by passing an electric current through molten sodium hydroxide (NaOH). When Davy heard that Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, he tried it himself. Davy was successful, and discovered calcium in 1808 by electrolyzing a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide. He worked with electrolysis throughout his life and, in 1808, he isolated magnesium, strontium and barium. Davy also experimented with gases by inhaling them. This experimental procedure nearly proved fatal on several occasions, but led to the discovery of the unusual effects of nitrous oxide, which came to be


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-8.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
After Dalton published his atomic theory in 1808, certain of his central ideas were soon adopted by most chemists. However, uncertainty persisted for half a century about how atomic theory was to be configured and applied to concrete situations; chemists in different countries developed several different incompatible atomistic systems. A paper that suggested a way out of this difficult situation was published as early as 1811 by the Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), who hypothesized that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules, from which it followed that relative molecular weights of any two gases are the same as the ratio of the densities of the two gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. Avogadro also reasoned that simple gases were not formed of solitary atoms but were instead compound molecules of two or more atoms. Thus Avogadro was able to overcome the difficulty that Dalton and others had encountered when Gay-Lussac reported that above 100 °C the volume of water vapor was twice the volume of the oxygen used to form it. According to Avogadro, the molecule of oxygen had split into two atoms in the course of forming


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-9.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mid-1800s === In 1840, Germain Hess proposed Hess's law, an early statement of the law of conservation of energy, which establishes that energy changes in a chemical process depend only on the states of the starting and product materials and not on the specific pathway taken between the two states. In 1847, Hermann Kolbe obtained acetic acid from completely inorganic sources, further disproving vitalism. In 1848, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (commonly known as Lord Kelvin) established the concept of absolute zero, the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases. In 1849, Louis Pasteur discovered that the racemic form of tartaric acid is a mixture of the levorotatory and dextrotatory forms, thus clarifying the nature of optical rotation and advancing the field of stereochemistry. In 1852, August Beer proposed Beer's law, which explains the relationship between the composition of a mixture and the amount of light it will absorb. Based partly on earlier work by Pierre Bouguer and Johann Heinrich Lambert, it established the analytical technique known as spectrophotometry. In 1855, Benjamin Silliman, Jr. pioneered methods of petroleum cracking, which made the entire modern petrochemical industry possible. Avogadro's hypothesis began to gain broad appeal among chemists only after his


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-10.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
British chemist and physicist William Crookes is noted for his cathode ray studies, fundamental in the development of atomic physics. His researches on electrical discharges through a rarefied gas led him to observe the dark space around the cathode, now called the Crookes dark space. He demonstrated that cathode rays travel in straight lines and produce phosphorescence and heat when they strike certain materials. A pioneer of vacuum tubes, Crookes invented the Crookes tube – an early experimental discharge tube, with partial vacuum with which he studied the behavior of cathode rays. With the introduction of spectrum analysis by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff (1859–1860), Crookes applied the new technique to the study of selenium compounds. Bunsen and Kirchhoff had previously used spectroscopy as a means of chemical analysis to discover caesium and rubidium. In 1861, Crookes used this process to discover thallium in some seleniferous deposits. He continued work on that new element, isolated it, studied its properties, and in 1873 determined its atomic weight. During his studies of thallium, Crookes discovered the principle of the Crookes radiometer, a device that converts light radiation into rotary motion. The principle of this radiometer has found numerous applications in the development


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-11.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
An important breakthrough in making sense of the list of known chemical elements (as well as in understanding the internal structure of atoms) was Dmitri Mendeleev's development of the first modern periodic table, or the periodic classification of the elements. Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, felt that there was some type of order to the elements and he spent more than thirteen years of his life collecting data and assembling the concept, initially with the idea of resolving some of the disorder in the field for his students. Mendeleev found that, when all the known chemical elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic weight, the resulting table displayed a recurring pattern, or periodicity, of properties within groups of elements. Mendeleev's law allowed him to build up a systematic periodic table of all the 66 elements then known based on atomic mass, which he published in Principles of Chemistry in 1869. His first Periodic Table was compiled on the basis of arranging the elements in ascending order of atomic weight and grouping them by similarity of properties. Mendeleev had such faith in the validity of the periodic law that he proposed changes to the generally accepted values for the atomic weight


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-12.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
American mathematical physicist J. Willard Gibbs's work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science. During the years from 1876 to 1878, Gibbs worked on the principles of thermodynamics, applying them to the complex processes involved in chemical reactions. He discovered the concept of chemical potential, or the "fuel" that makes chemical reactions work. In 1876 he published his most famous contribution, "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances", a compilation of his work on thermodynamics and physical chemistry which laid out the concept of free energy to explain the physical basis of chemical equilibria. In these essays were the beginnings of Gibbs' theories of phases of matter: he considered each state of matter a phase, and each substance a component. Gibbs took all of the variables involved in a chemical reaction – temperature, pressure, energy, volume, and entropy – and included them in one simple equation known as Gibbs' phase rule. Within this paper was perhaps his most outstanding contribution, the introduction of the concept of free energy, now universally called Gibbs free energy in his honor. The Gibbs free energy relates the tendency of a physical or chemical system to simultaneously


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-13.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
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parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
German engineer Carl von Linde's invention of a continuous process of liquefying gases in large quantities formed a basis for the modern technology of refrigeration and provided both impetus and means for conducting scientific research at low temperatures and very high vacuums. He developed a dimethyl ether refrigerator (1874) and an ammonia refrigerator (1876). Though other refrigeration units had been developed earlier, Linde's were the first to be designed with the aim of precise calculations of efficiency. In 1895 he set up a large-scale plant for the production of liquid air. Six years later he developed a method for separating pure liquid oxygen from liquid air that resulted in widespread industrial conversion to processes utilizing oxygen (e.g., in steel manufacture). He founded the Linde plc, the world's largest industrial gas company by market share and revenue. In 1883, Svante Arrhenius developed an ion theory to explain conductivity in electrolytes. In 1884, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff published Études de Dynamique chimique (Studies in Dynamic Chemistry), a seminal study on chemical kinetics. In this work, van 't Hoff entered for the first time the field of physical chemistry. Of great importance was his development of the general thermodynamic relationship between the


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-14.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
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parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Marie Skłodowska-Curie was a Polish-born French physicist and chemist who is famous for her pioneering research on radioactivity. She and her husband are considered to have laid the cornerstone of the nuclear age with their research on radioactivity. Marie was fascinated with the work of Henri Becquerel, a French physicist who discovered in 1896 that uranium casts off rays similar to the X-rays discovered by Wilhelm Röntgen. Marie Curie began studying uranium in late 1897 and theorized, according to a 1904 article she wrote for Century magazine, "that the emission of rays by the compounds of uranium is a property of the metal itself—that it is an atomic property of the element uranium independent of its chemical or physical state." Curie took Becquerel's work a few steps further, conducting her own experiments on uranium rays. She discovered that the rays remained constant, no matter the condition or form of the uranium. The rays, she theorized, came from the element's atomic structure. This revolutionary idea created the field of atomic physics and the Curies coined the word radioactivity to describe the phenomenon. Pierre and Marie further explored radioactivity by working to separate the substances in uranium ores and then using the


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-15.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
He also observed that the intensity of radioactivity of a radioactive element decreases over a unique and regular amount of time until a point of stability, and he named the halving time the "half-life". In 1901 and 1902 he worked with Frederick Soddy to prove that atoms of one radioactive element would spontaneously turn into another, by expelling a piece of the atom at high velocity. In 1906 at the University of Manchester, Rutherford oversaw an experiment conducted by his students Hans Geiger (known for the Geiger counter) and Ernest Marsden. In the Geiger–Marsden experiment, a beam of alpha particles, generated by the radioactive decay of radon, was directed normally onto a sheet of very thin gold foil in an evacuated chamber. Under the prevailing plum pudding model, the alpha particles should all have passed through the foil and hit the detector screen, or have been deflected by, at most, a few degrees. However, the actual results surprised Rutherford. Although many of the alpha particles did pass through as expected, many others were deflected at small angles while others were reflected back to the alpha source. They observed that a very small percentage of particles were deflected through angles much


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-16.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
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parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
In 1913, Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist, introduced the concepts of quantum mechanics to atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the Bohr model of the atom, where electrons exist only in strictly defined circular orbits around the nucleus similar to rungs on a ladder. The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively charged electrons orbit a small, positively charged nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not planar) – the gravitational force of the solar system is mathematically akin to the attractive Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons. In the Bohr model, however, electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and energy – the energy levels are said to be quantized, which means that only certain orbits with certain radii are allowed; orbits in between simply do not exist. The energy of the orbit is related to its size – that is, the lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit. Bohr also postulated that electromagnetic radiation is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from one orbit to another. Because only certain electron orbits are permitted,


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-17.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
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parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
In 1924, French quantum physicist Louis de Broglie published his thesis, in which he introduced a revolutionary theory of electron waves based on wave–particle duality. In his time, the wave and particle interpretations of light and matter were seen as being at odds with one another, but de Broglie suggested that these seemingly different characteristics were instead the same behavior observed from different perspectives—that particles can behave like waves, and waves (radiation) can behave like particles. Broglie's proposal offered an explanation of the restricted motion of electrons within the atom. The first publications of Broglie's idea of "matter waves" had drawn little attention from other physicists, but a copy of his doctoral thesis chanced to reach Einstein, whose response was enthusiastic. Einstein stressed the importance of Broglie's work both explicitly and by building further on it. In 1925, Austrian-born physicist Wolfgang Pauli developed the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons around a single nucleus in an atom can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously, as described by four quantum numbers. Pauli made major contributions to quantum mechanics and quantum field theory – he was awarded the 1945 Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery of the Pauli


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-18.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Hence the quantum mechanical methods developed in the 1930s and 1940s are often referred to as theoretical molecular or atomic physics to underline the fact that they were more the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry and spectroscopy than answers to chemically relevant questions. In 1951, a milestone article in quantum chemistry is the seminal paper of Clemens C. J. Roothaan on Roothaan equations. It opened the avenue to the solution of the self-consistent field equations for small molecules like hydrogen or nitrogen. Those computations were performed with the help of tables of integrals which were computed on the most advanced computers of the time. In the 1940s many physicists turned from molecular or atomic physics to nuclear physics (like J. Robert Oppenheimer or Edward Teller). Glenn T. Seaborg was an American nuclear chemist best known for his work on isolating and identifying transuranium elements (those heavier than uranium). He shared the 1951 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with Edwin Mattison McMillan for their independent discoveries of transuranium elements. Seaborgium was named in his honour, making him the only person, along with Albert Einstein and Yuri Oganessian, for whom a chemical element was named during his lifetime. === Molecular biology and


id: history-of-chemistry-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry-19.md
category: reference
title: History of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:01.786837+00:00
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parent: history-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The later part of the nineteenth century saw a huge increase in the exploitation of petroleum extracted from the earth for the production of a host of chemicals and largely replaced the use of whale oil, coal tar and naval stores used previously. Large-scale production and refinement of petroleum provided feedstocks for liquid fuels such as gasoline and diesel, solvents, lubricants, asphalt, waxes, and for the production of many of the common materials of the modern world, such as synthetic fibers, plastics, paints, detergents, pharmaceuticals, adhesives and ammonia as fertilizer and for other uses. Many of these required new catalysts and the utilization of chemical engineering for their cost-effective production. In the mid-twentieth century, control of the electronic structure of semiconductor materials was made precise by the creation of large ingots of extremely pure single crystals of silicon and germanium. Accurate control of their chemical composition by doping with other elements made the production of the solid state transistor in 1951 and made possible the production of tiny integrated circuits for use in electronic devices, especially computers. == See also == === Histories and timelines === === Notable chemists === listed chronologically: == Notes == == References == Selected classic


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
Most scientific and technical innovations prior to the Scientific Revolution were achieved by societies organized by religious traditions. Ancient Christian scholars pioneered individual elements of the scientific method. Historically, Christianity has been and still is a patron of sciences. It has been prolific in the foundation of schools, universities and hospitals, and many Christian clergy have been active in the sciences and have made significant contributions to the development of science. Historians of science such as Pierre Duhem credit medieval Catholic mathematicians and philosophers such as John Buridan, Nicole Oresme and Roger Bacon as the founders of modern science. Duhem concluded that "the mechanics and physics of which modern times are justifiably proud to proceed, by an uninterrupted series of scarcely perceptible improvements, from doctrines professed in the heart of the medieval schools". Many of the most distinguished classical scholars in the Byzantine Empire held high office in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Protestantism has had an important influence on science, according to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other. Christian scholars and scientists have made noted contributions to science


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
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parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
Christian philosophers Augustine of Hippo (354–430) and Thomas Aquinas held that scriptures can have multiple interpretations on certain areas where the matters were far beyond their reach, therefore one should leave room for future findings to shed light on the meanings. Augustine argued:Usually, even a non-Christian knows something about the earth, the heavens, and the other elements of this world, about the motion and orbit of the stars ... Now, it is a disgraceful and dangerous thing for an infidel to hear a Christian, presumably giving the meaning of Holy Scripture, talking non-sense on these topics; and we should take all means to prevent such an embarrassing situation, in which people show up vast ignorance in a Christian and laugh it to scorn. The shame is not so much that an ignorant individual is derided, but that people outside the household of the faith think our sacred writers held such opinions, and, to the great loss of those for whose salvation we toil, the writers of our Scripture are criticized and rejected as unlearned men.The "Handmaiden" tradition, which saw secular studies of the universe as a very important and helpful part of arriving at a better understanding of scripture, was


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
Physics teacher David Hutchings and intellectual historian James C. Ungureanu credit the central tenets of traditional Christianity for having been the greatest benefit to scientific thinking, while at the same time noting the irony of the conflict thesis:And yet, as impossible as it might seem, both Conflict and Warfare are plagued by an even greater irony than that. It turns out that when they went after Christian doctrine for being the ultimate enemy of science, they were engaging in friendly fire. For, in actual fact, no other body of thought has ever been of greater benefit to scientific thinking than the central tenets of traditional Christianity have—in the whole of human history.David C. Lindberg states that the widespread popular belief that the Middle Ages was a time of ignorance and superstition due to the Christian church is a "caricature". According to Lindberg, while there are some portions of the classical tradition which suggest this view, these were exceptional cases. It was common to tolerate and encourage critical thinking about the nature of the world. The relation between Christianity and science is complex and cannot be simplified to either harmony or conflict, according to Lindberg. Lindberg reports that "the late medieval


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Influence of biblical worldviews on early modern science === At first, according to Andrew Dickson White's 1896 book A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, a biblical worldview affected negatively the progress of science through time. Dickinson also argues that immediately following the Reformation matters were even worse. The interpretations of Scripture by Luther and Calvin became as sacred to their followers as the Scripture itself. For instance, when Georg Calixtus ventured, in interpreting the Psalms, to question the accepted belief that "the waters above the heavens" were contained in a vast receptacle upheld by a solid vault, he was bitterly denounced as heretical. Today, much of the scholarship in which the conflict thesis was originally based is considered to be inaccurate. For instance, the claim that early Christians rejected scientific findings by the Greco-Romans is false, since the "handmaiden" view of secular studies was seen to shed light on theology. This view was widely adapted throughout the early medieval period and afterwards by theologians (such as Augustine) and ultimately resulted in fostering interest in knowledge about nature through time. Also, the claim that people of the Middle Ages widely believed that the Earth was


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Catholicism === While refined and clarified over the centuries, the Catholic position on the relationship between science and religion is one of harmony and has maintained the teaching of natural law as set forth by Thomas Aquinas. For example, regarding scientific study such as that of evolution, the church's unofficial position is an example of theistic evolution, stating that faith and scientific findings regarding human evolution are not in conflict, though humans are regarded as a special creation, and that the existence of God is required to explain both monogenism and the spiritual component of human origins. Catholic schools have included all manners of scientific study in their curriculum for many centuries. Historian John Heilbron says that "The Roman Catholic Church gave more financial and social support to the study of astronomy for over six centuries, from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment, then any other, and probably all, other Institutions." The first universities in Europe were established by Catholic Church monks. The first Western European institutions generally considered to be universities were established in present-day Italy (including the Kingdom of Sicily, the Kingdom of Naples, and the Kingdom of Italy), the


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Catholic Cistercian order used its own numbering system, which could express numbers from 0 to 9999 in a single sign. According to one modern Cistercian, "enterprise and entrepreneurial spirit" have always been a part of the order's identity, and the Cistercians "were catalysts for development of a market economy" in twelfth-century Europe. Until the Industrial Revolution, most of the technological advances in Europe were made in the monasteries. According to the medievalist Jean Gimpel, their high level of industrial technology facilitated the diffusion of new techniques: "Every monastery had a model factory, often as large as the church and only several feet away, and waterpower drove the machinery of the various industries located on its floor." Waterpower was used for crushing wheat, sieving flour, fulling cloth and tanning – a "level of technological achievement [that] could have been observed in practically all" of the Cistercian monasteries. The English science historian James Burke examines the impact of Cistercian waterpower, derived from Roman watermill technology such as that of Barbegal aqueduct and mill near Arles in the fourth of his ten-part Connections TV series, called "Faith in Numbers". The Cistercians made major contributions to culture and technology in medieval Europe: Cistercian


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, encouraged some values which may have been conducive to encouraging scientific talents. A theory suggested by David Hackett Fischer in his book Albion's Seed indicated early Quakers in the US preferred "practical study" to the more traditional studies of Greek or Latin popular with the elite. Another theory suggests their avoidance of dogma or clergy gave them a greater flexibility in response to science. Despite those arguments a major factor is agreed to be that the Quakers were initially discouraged or forbidden to go to the major law or humanities schools in Britain due to the Test Act. They also at times faced similar discriminations in the United States, as many of the colonial universities had a Puritan or Anglican orientation. This led them to attend "Godless" institutions or forced them to rely on hands-on scientific experimentation rather than academia. Because of these issues it has been stated Quakers are better represented in science than most religions. There are sources, Pendlehill (Thomas 2000) and Encyclopædia Britannica, that indicate that for over two centuries they were overrepresented in the Royal Society. Mention is made of this possibility in studies referenced in religiosity


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the field of Optics, Nestorian Christian Hunayn ibn-Ishaq's textbook on ophthalmology called the Ten Treatises on the Eye, which was written in 950 A.D., remained the authoritative source on the subject in the western world until the 1800s. It was a Christian scholar and Bishop from Nisibis named Severus Sebokht who was the first to describe and incorporate Indian mathematical symbols in the mid 7th century, which were then adopted into Islamic culture and are now known as the Arabic numerals. During the fourth through the seventh centuries, scholarly work in the Syriac and Greek languages was either newly initiated, or carried on from the Hellenistic period. Centers of learning and of transmission of classical wisdom included colleges such as the School of Nisibis, and later the School of Edessa, and the renowned hospital and medical academy of Jundishapur; libraries included the Library of Alexandria and the Imperial Library of Constantinople; other centers of translation and learning functioned at Merv, Salonika, Nishapur and Ctesiphon, situated just south of what later became Baghdad. The House of Wisdom was a library, translation institute, and academy established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq. Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture,


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Perspectives on evolution == In recent history, the theory of evolution has been at the centre of controversy between Christianity and science, largely in America. Christians who accept a literal interpretation of the biblical account of creation find incompatibility between Darwinian evolution and their interpretation of the Christian faith. Creation science or scientific creationism is a branch of creationism that attempts to provide scientific support for the Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis and attempts to disprove generally accepted scientific facts, theories and scientific paradigms about the geological history of Earth, formation of the Solar System, Big Bang cosmology, the chemical origins of life and evolution. It began in the 1960s as a fundamentalist Christian effort in the United States to prove Biblical inerrancy and falsify the scientific evidence for evolution. It has since developed a sizable religious following in the United States, with creation science ministries branching worldwide. In 1925, The State of Tennessee passed the Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of the theory of evolution in all schools in the state. Later that year, a similar law was passed in Mississippi, and likewise, Arkansas in 1927. In 1968, these "anti-monkey" laws were struck down


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
According to 100 Years of Nobel Prizes a review of Nobel prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference (427 prizes). Overall, Christians are considered a total of 72.5% in Chemistry between 1901 and 2000, 65.3% in Physics, 62% in Medicine, 54% in Economics. Between 1901 and 2000 it was revealed that among 654 Laureates 31.9% have identified as Protestant in its various forms (208 prize), 20.3% were Christians (no information about their denominations; 133 prize), 11.6% have identified as Catholic and 1.6% have identified as Eastern Orthodox. Although Christians make up over 33.2% of the world's population, they have won a total of 65.4% of all Nobel prizes between 1901 and 2000. In an estimate by scholar Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, between 1901 and 2001, about 57.1% of Nobel Prize winners were either Christians or with a Christian background. Between 1901 and 2001, about 56.5% of laureates in scientific fields were Christians. According to scholar Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, Protestants were overrepresented in scientific categories and Catholics were well-represented in the Literature and Peace categories. In an estimate made by Weijia Zhang from Arizona State University and


id: christianity-and-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Christianity and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:03.062134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christianity-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Works cited === Numbers, Ronald L. (2006). The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02339-0. Shalev, Baruch A. (2003). 100 Years of Nobel Prizes. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0278-1. Thomas, Anne (24 April 2000), This I Know Experimentally, Spring 2000 Monday Night Lecture Series: Science and Religion, Pendle Hill (published 6 October 2003), archived from the original on 1 May 2006, retrieved 29 June 2009 == Further reading == Buxhoeveden, Daniel; Woloschak, Gayle, eds. (2011). Science and the Eastern Orthodox Church (1. ed.). Farnham: Ashgate. ISBN 9781409481614. Spierer, Eugen. God-of-the-Gaps Arguments in Light of Luther's Theology of the Cross. Archived 19 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Matthews, Roy T.; Platt, F. DeWitt (1991). The Western Humanities. Mayfield Publishing Co. ISBN 0874847850. == External links == Christianity And The Scientist by Ian G. Barbour Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Cambridge Christians in Science (CiS) group Archived 3 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine Christians in Science website Ian Ramsey Centre, Oxford The Society of Ordained Scientists-Mostly Church of England "Science in Christian Perspective" The (ASA) Canadian Scientific and Christian Affiliation (CSCA) The International Society for Science & Religion's founding members.(Of


id: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in classical antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:04.310093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
Science in classical antiquity encompasses inquiries into the workings of the world or universe aimed at both practical goals (e.g., establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses) as well as more abstract investigations belonging to natural philosophy. Classical antiquity is traditionally defined as the period between the 8th century BC (beginning of Archaic Greece) and the 6th century AD (after which there was medieval science). It is typically limited geographically to the Greco-Roman West, Mediterranean basin, and Ancient Near East, thus excluding traditions of science in the ancient world in regions such as China and the Indian subcontinent. Ideas regarding nature that were theorized during classical antiquity were not limited to science but included myths as well as religion. Those who are now considered as the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (e.g., physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (e.g., temple healers). Some of the more widely known figures active in this period include Hippocrates, Aristotle, Euclid, Archimedes, Hipparchus, Galen, and Ptolemy. Their contributions and commentaries spread throughout the Eastern, Islamic, and Latin worlds and contributed to the birth of modern science.


id: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in classical antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:04.310093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, were materialists who provided alternative answers to the same question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" Although the question is much the same, their answers and their attitude towards the answers is markedly different. As reported by such later writers as Aristotle, their explanations tended to center on the material source of things. Thales of Miletus (624–546 BC) considered that all things came to be from and find their sustenance in water. Anaximander (610–546 BC) then suggested that things could not come from a specific substance like water, but rather from something he called the "boundless". Exactly what he meant is uncertain but it has been suggested that it was boundless in its quantity, so that creation would not fail; in its qualities, so that it would not be overpowered by its contrary; in time, as it has no beginning or end; and in space, as it encompasses all things. Anaximenes (585–525 BC) returned to a concrete material substance, air, which could be altered by rarefaction and condensation. He adduced common observations (the wine stealer) to demonstrate that air


id: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in classical antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:04.310093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
The first institution of higher learning in Ancient Greece was founded by Plato (c. 427 – c. 347 BC), an Athenian who—perhaps under Pythagorean influence—appears to have identified the ordering principle of the universe as one based on number and geometry. A later account has it that Plato had inscribed at the entrance to the academy the words "Let no man ignorant of geometry enter." Although the story is most likely a myth, it nonetheless testifies to Plato's interest in mathematics, which is alluded to in several of his dialogues. Plato's philosophy maintained that all material things are imperfect reflections of eternal unchanging ideas, just as all mathematical diagrams are reflections of eternal unchanging mathematical truths. Since Plato believed that material things had an inferior kind of reality, he considered that demonstrative knowledge cannot be achieved by looking at the imperfect material world. Truth is to be found through rational argumentation, analogous to the demonstrations of mathematicians. For instance, Plato recommended that astronomy be studied in terms of abstract geometrical models rather than empirical observations, and proposed that leaders be trained in mathematics in preparation for philosophy. Aristotle (384–322 BC) studied at the academy and nonetheless disagreed with Plato in


id: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity-3.md
category: reference
title: Science in classical antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:04.310093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
The military campaigns of Alexander the Great spread Greek thought to Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia, up to the Indus River. The resulting migration of many Greek speaking populations across these territories provided the impetus for the foundation of several seats of learning, such as those in Alexandria, Antioch, and Pergamum. Hellenistic science differed from Greek science in at least two respects: first, it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas with those that had developed in other non-Hellenic civilizations; secondly, to some extent, it was supported by royal patrons in the kingdoms founded by Alexander's successors. The city of Alexandria, in particular, became a major center of scientific research in the 3rd century BC. Two institutions established there during the reigns of Ptolemy I Soter (367–282 BC) and Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–246 BC) were the Library and the Museum. Unlike Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum, these institutions were officially supported by the Ptolemies, although the extent of patronage could be precarious depending on the policies of the current ruler. Hellenistic scholars often employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought in their scientific investigations, such as the application of mathematics to phenomena or the deliberate collection of empirical data. The


id: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity-4.md
category: reference
title: Science in classical antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:04.310093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
Advances in mathematical astronomy also took place during the Hellenistic age. Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BC) was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who presented the first known heliocentric model that placed the Sun at the center of the known universe, with the Earth revolving around the Sun once a year and rotating about its axis once a day. Aristarchus also estimated the sizes of the Sun and Moon as compared to Earth's size, and the distances to the Sun and Moon. His heliocentric model did not find many adherents in antiquity but did influence some early modern astronomers, such as Nicolaus Copernicus, who was aware of the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus. In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus discovered precession, calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known astronomical devices such as the astrolabe. Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy. It has recently been claimed that a celestial globe based on Hipparchus's star catalog sits atop the broad shoulders of a large 2nd-century Roman statue known as the Farnese Atlas. == Roman era == Science during the Roman Empire


id: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity-5.md
category: reference
title: Science in classical antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:04.310093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-classical-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
Claudius Ptolemy (c. 100–170 AD), living in or around Alexandria, carried out a scientific program centered on the writing of about a dozen books on astronomy, astrology, cartography, harmonics, and optics. Despite their severe style and high technicality, a great deal of them have survived, in some cases the sole remnants of their kind of writing from antiquity. Two major themes that run through Ptolemy's works are mathematical modelling of physical phenomena and methods of visual representation of physical reality. Ptolemy's research program involved a combination of theoretical analysis with empirical considerations seen, for instance, in his systematized study of astronomy. Ptolemy's Mathēmatikē Syntaxis (Ancient Greek: Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις), better known as the Almagest, sought to improve on the work of his predecessors by building astronomy not only upon a secure mathematical basis but also by demonstrating the relationship between astronomical observations and the resulting astronomical theory. In his Planetary Hypotheses, Ptolemy describes in detail physical representations of his mathematical models found in the Almagest, presumably for didactic purposes. Likewise, the Geography was concerned with the drawing of accurate maps using astronomical information, at least in principle. Apart from astronomy, both the Harmonics and the Optics contain (in addition to mathematical


id: conversazione-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md
category: reference
title: Conversazione
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:05.447568+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversazione-20260505-0
summary:
A conversazione is a "social gathering [predominantly] held by [a] learned or art society" for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature, medicine, and science. It would not be easy to devise a happier way [than the conversazione] of bringing novelties at once under practical criticism—of making the outliers of science acquainted with the centre, of enabling investigators to compare operations and discuss facts and speculations, and of giving occasion for renewal of intercourse and removal of misunderstandings. …[The] tangible gain to science [from the conversazione is that] inventors and experimentalists … hear [directly] what contemporaries say of their schemes and experiments, and much can be said and done with advantage amid the free talk of a general gathering which could not be permitted in the formal meeting of a scientific society. (Nature, 5 May 1870.) == Origin == The writer Horace Walpole is credited with the first recorded English use of conversazione in a letter written (from Italy) on 11 November 1739 to Richard West (1716–1742) in which he writes, "After the play we were introduced to the assembly, which they [viz., the Italians] call the conversazione". == Historical usage in Britain == In Italy, the term generally


id: darwin-s-ghosts-the-secret-history-of-evolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin's_Ghosts:_The_Secret_History_of_Evolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Darwin's Ghosts: The Secret History of Evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin's_Ghosts:_The_Secret_History_of_Evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:06.593665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-s-ghosts-the-secret-history-of-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Darwin's Ghosts: The Secret History of Evolution is a nonfiction history of science book by British author Rebecca Stott. It was published in the United States in 2012 by Spiegel & Grau, the international version is subtitled differently: Darwin's Ghosts: In Search of the First Evolutionists. It is written in 12 distinct chapters that highlight persons that contributed to the pre-history of evolution by natural selection, published by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species in 1859. The book contains biographical sketches of 12 persons spanning from 344 BC to 19th century contemporaries of Darwin. The book has received reviews from notable reviewers and was included on the New York Times Book Review 100 Notable Books 2012 list. == Synopsis == Tho focus of each chapter is summarized in the table below. == References ==


id: department-of-history-and-philosophy-of-science-university-of-cambridge-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Department of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:07.788420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: department-of-history-and-philosophy-of-science-university-of-cambridge-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_History_and_Philosophy_of_Science,_University_of_Cambridge-0.md

summary:
The Department of History and Philosophy of Science (HPS), of the University of Cambridge is the largest department of history and philosophy of science in the United Kingdom. A majority of its submissions received maximum ratings of 4* and 3* in the 2014 REF (Research Excellence Framework). Located in the historic buildings of the Old Physical Chemistry Laboratories on Free School Lane, Cambridge, the department teaches undergraduate courses towards the Cambridge Tripos and graduate courses including a taught Masters and PhD supervision in the field of HPS. The department shares its premises with the Whipple Museum and Whipple Library which provide important resources for its teaching and research. == Academic staff == The Department of HPS at Cambridge employs fifteen full-time teaching staff, approximately thirty research staff, numerous supervisors and research associates from departments and colleges across the University of Cambridge, in addition to external supervisors and examiners. A long-standing head of department was the noted Professor Peter Lipton, who served until his unexpected death in 2007. He was followed as head of department by the late Professor John Forrester, an international authority in the History of Mind, and a leading figure on Sigmund Freud and the history of psychoanalysis.

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_History_and_Philosophy_of_Science,_University_of_Cambridge


id: dibner-institute-for-the-history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dibner_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dibner_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:08.974846+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dibner-institute-for-the-history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology (1992–2006) was a research institute established at MIT, and housed in a renovated building (E56) on campus at 38 Memorial Drive, overlooking the Charles River. == Description == At the heart of the Institute was the Burndy Library on the ground floor, initially containing 37,000 volumes on the history of science and technology collected by the Dibner Fund. The Library also possessed a large collection of antique scientific instruments, such as astrolabes, telescopes, microscopes, early spectrometers, and a Wimshurst machine, which were on public display in a dedicated gallery outside the library. Also on display was a large collection of antique incandescent light bulbs, gas discharge tubes, electronic vacuum tubes, and other early examples of electrical and electronic technology. The Library would mount occasional special exhibits, such as The Afterlife of Immortality: Obelisks Outside Egypt. The building was a modest Art Deco structure, fronting on Memorial Drive and the Charles River. Above the Library and display space, on the second and third floor were offices and lecture and seminar rooms. The Institute held regular lectures, seminars, study programs, and an annual symposium in the history of science and technology. Over


id: list-of-discoveries-influenced-by-chance-circumstances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances-0.md
category: reference
title: List of discoveries influenced by chance circumstances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:10.127829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-discoveries-influenced-by-chance-circumstances-20260505-0
summary:
Below are discoveries in science that involve chance circumstances in a particularly salient way. This page should not list all chance involved in all discoveries (i.e. it should focus on discoveries reported for their notable circumstances). == Overview == Royston Roberts says that various discoveries required a degree of genius, but also some lucky element for that genius to act on. Richard Gaughan writes that accidental discoveries result from the convergence of preparation, opportunity, and desire. Major everyday discoveries that were helped by luck in some way include products like vulcanized rubber, teflon, nylon, penicillin, cyanoacrylate (Super Glue), the implantable pacemaker, the microwave oven, Scotchgard, Saran wrap, Silly Putty, Slinky, safety glass, propeller, snowmaking, stainless steel, Perkin's mauve, and popsicles. Most artificial sweeteners have been discovered when accidentally tasted, including aspartame and saccharin. Ideas include the theory of the Big Bang, tissue culture, radio astronomy, and the discovery of DNA. Such archeological discoveries as the Rosetta Stone, the Dead Sea Scrolls and the ruins of Pompeii also emerged partly out of serendipity. Many relevant and well known scientific theories were developed by chance at some degree along history. According to a legend, Archimedes realized his principle on hydrostatics when he


id: discovery-of-human-antiquity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity-0.md
category: reference
title: Discovery of human antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:21.244091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discovery-of-human-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
The discovery of human antiquity was a major achievement of science in the middle of the 19th century, and the foundation of scientific paleoanthropology. The antiquity of man, human antiquity, or in simpler language the age of the human race, are names given to the series of scientific debates it involved, which with modifications continue in the 21st century. These debates have clarified and given scientific evidence, from a number of disciplines, towards solving the basic question of dating the first human being. Controversy was very active in this area in parts of the 19th century, with some dormant periods also. A key date was the 1859 re-evaluation of archaeological evidence that had been published 12 years earlier by Boucher de Perthes. It was then widely accepted, as validating the suggestion that man was much older than had previously been believed, for example than the 6,000 years implied by some traditional chronologies. In 1863 T. H. Huxley argued that man was an evolved species; and in 1864 Alfred Russel Wallace combined natural selection with the issue of antiquity. The arguments from science for what was then called the "great antiquity of man" became convincing to most scientists, over the following


id: discovery-of-human-antiquity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity-1.md
category: reference
title: Discovery of human antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:21.244091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discovery-of-human-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Human origins and the "universal deluge" debated ==== The Flood could explain extinctions of species at that date, on the hypothesis that the Ark had not contained all species of animal. A Flood that was not universal, on the other hand, had implications for the biblical theory of races and Noah's sons. The theory of catastrophism, which was as much secular as theological in attitude, could be used in analogous ways. There was interest in matters arising from modification of the biblical narrative, therefore, and it was fuelled by the new knowledge of the world in early modern Europe, and then by the growth of the sciences. One hypothesis was of people not descended from Adam. This hypothesis of polygenism (no unique origin of humans) implied nothing on the antiquity of man, but the issue was implicated in counter-arguments, for monogenism. ==== La Peyrère and the completeness of the Biblical account ==== Isaac La Peyrère appealed in formulating his Preadamite theory of polygenism to Jewish tradition; it was intended to be compatible with the biblical creation of man. It was rejected by many contemporary theologians. This idea of humans before Adam had been current in earlier Christian scholars and


id: discovery-of-human-antiquity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity-2.md
category: reference
title: Discovery of human antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:21.244091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discovery-of-human-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
The three-age system was in place from about 1820, in the form given to it by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen in his work on the collections that became the National Museum of Denmark. He published his ideas in 1836. Postulating cultural change, in itself and without explaining a rate of change, did not generate reasons to revise traditional chronology. But the concept of Stone Age artifacts became current. Thomsen's book in Danish, Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed, was translated into German (Leitfaden zur Nordischen Alterthumskunde, 1837), and English (Guide to Northern Archæology, 1848). John Frere's 1797 discovery of the Hoxne handaxe helped to initiate the 19th century debate, but it started in earnest around 1810. There were then a number of false starts relating to different European sites. William Buckland misjudged what he had found in 1823 with the misnamed Red Lady of Paviland, and explained away the mammoth remains with the find. He also was dismissive of the Kent's Cavern findings of John MacEnery in the later 1820s. In 1829 Philippe-Charles Schmerling discovered a Neanderthal fossil skull (at Engis). At that point, however, its significance was not recognised, and Rudolf Virchow consistently opposed the theory that it was very old. The


id: discovery-of-human-antiquity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity-3.md
category: reference
title: Discovery of human antiquity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:21.244091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discovery-of-human-antiquity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Acceptance of human association with extinct animal species === Boucher de Perthes had written up discoveries in the Somme valley in 1847. Joseph Prestwich and John Evans in April 1859, and Charles Lyell with others also in 1859, made field trips to the sites, and returned convinced that humans had coexisted with extinct mammals. In general and qualitative terms, Lyell felt the evidence established the "antiquity of man": that humans were much older than the traditional assumptions had made them. His conclusions were shared by the Royal Society and other British learned institutions, as well as in France. It was this recognition of the early date of Acheulean handaxes that first established the scientific credibility of the deep antiquity of humans. This debate was concurrent with that over the book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, and was evidently related; but was not one in which Charles Darwin initially made his own views public. Consolidation of the "antiquity of man" required more work, with stricter methods; and this proved possible over the next two decades. The discoveries of Boucher de Perthes therefore motivated further researches to try to repeat and confirm the findings at other sites. Significant


id: doctrine-of-signatures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures-0.md
category: reference
title: Doctrine of signatures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:22.401071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doctrine-of-signatures-20260505-0
summary:
The doctrine of signatures, also known as the doctrine of correspondences, is a biomedicinal theory of pseudoscience. It states that herbs or animals have physical or behavioral traits that mirror the ailment it can successfully treat. Theological justifications, such as that of botanist William Cole, were that God would want to show men what plants would be useful for. The doctrine of signatures has a debated origin. Many historians believe it begins with primitive thinking methods, while other historians believe it originated with Dioscorides and was popularized in the 16th and 17th centuries after Jakob Böhme coined the doctrine of signatures in his book The Signature of All Things. This theory is a possible explanation for the ancient discovery of medicinal properties; however, there is no definitive proof as to whether the medicinal property or the connection in physical/behavioral traits was realized first. The theory later became a scientific basis for trying new remedies solely based upon their qualities in an attempt to find new medicines. While there are some homeopathic remedies that are still used today which have been connected to this theory, there are also remedies from this theory which have been found harmful. For instance, birthwort (so-called


id: doctrine-of-signatures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures-1.md
category: reference
title: Doctrine of signatures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:22.401071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doctrine-of-signatures-20260505-0
summary:
It is worth noting that it is possible that these are post hoc attributions—the appearance and treatment linked after the medicinal property was discovered. Depending on the article, remedies connected to the doctrine vary in number and consistency. == Scientific, spiritual, and social context == Signatures are often described as post hoc attributions and mnemonics used to remember the properties of a plant rather than the reason it was originally used. There is no scientific or historical evidence that plant shapes and colors have aided in the discovery of their medical uses. In Europe, the idea of doctrine of signatures was linked with Christian beliefs. However, similar theories were created within black magic with sympathetic magic. Similar theories have been observed all over the world in ancient Egypt, China, pre-Columbian America, and the Middle East. This can also explain how varied, and at times contradictory, applications of the doctrine can be because traditional botany is subject to optimal foraging theory. Remedies would, in many cases, be based on the environmental availability of that resource rather than its objective effectiveness. Some sociologists frame the doctrine of signatures as a type of "enchantment", the idea that it is not just what one


id: dyson-sphere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyson_sphere-0.md
category: reference
title: Dyson sphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyson_sphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:23.565520+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dyson-sphere-20260505-0
summary:
A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure that encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its power output. The concept is a thought experiment that attempts to imagine how a spacefaring civilization would meet its energy requirements once those requirements exceed what can be generated from the home planet's resources alone. Because only a tiny fraction of a star's energy emissions reaches the surface of any orbiting planet, building structures encircling a star would enable a civilization to harvest far more energy. The earliest modern imagining of such a structure was by Olaf Stapledon in his science fiction novel Star Maker (1937). The same concept was later used by physicist Freeman Dyson in his 1960 paper "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation". Dyson speculated that such structures would be the logical consequence of the escalating energy needs of a technological civilization and would be a necessity for its long-term survival. A signature of such spheres detected in astronomical searches would be an indicator of extraterrestrial intelligence. Since Dyson's paper, many variant designs involving an artificial structure or series of structures to encompass a star have been proposed in exploratory engineering or described in science fiction, often


id: dyson-sphere-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyson_sphere-1.md
category: reference
title: Dyson sphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyson_sphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:23.565520+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dyson-sphere-20260505-0
summary:
== Feasibility and science-based speculation == Although Dyson spheres in the form of a swarm are theoretically possible, building a stable megastructure around the Sun is currently far beyond humanity's engineering capacity. The number of craft required to obtain, transmit, and maintain a complete Dyson sphere exceeds present-day industrial capabilities. Dyson spheres have prompted speculation into the feasibility of a class of proposed stellar engines, hypothetical megastructures whose purpose is to extract useful energy from a star, sometimes for specific purposes. For example, Matrioshka brains have been proposed to use energy extracted by Dyson spheres for computation, while Shkadov thrusters would extract energy for propulsion. Some proposed stellar engine designs are based on the Dyson sphere. Futurist George Dvorsky has advocated the use of self-replicating robots to overcome the limitation of humanity's engineering capacity in the relatively near term. Some have suggested that Dyson sphere habitats could be built around white dwarfs or pulsars. In 2022 it was suggested that a Dyson swarm around the Sun could be launched from either Mercury or Mars. In order to transmit the energy back, far-field radiative wireless power transfer was proposed, a technology that is not yet fully developed. == Fictional examples ==


id: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism-0.md
category: reference
title: The eclipse of Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:24.781683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
Julian Huxley used the phrase "the eclipse of Darwinism" to describe the state of affairs prior to what he called the "modern synthesis". During the "eclipse", evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles but relatively few biologists believed that natural selection was its primary mechanism. Historians of science such as Peter J. Bowler have used the same phrase as a label for the period within the history of evolutionary thought from the 1880s to around 1920, when alternatives to natural selection were developed and explored—as many biologists considered natural selection to have been a wrong guess on Charles Darwin's part, or at least to be of relatively minor importance. Four major alternatives to natural selection were in play in the 19th century: Theistic evolution, the belief that God directly guided evolution Neo-Lamarckism, the idea that evolution was driven by the inheritance of characteristics acquired during the life of the organism Orthogenesis, the belief that organisms were affected by internal forces or laws of development that drove evolution in particular directions Mutationism, the idea that evolution was largely the product of mutations that created new forms or species in a single step. Theistic evolution had largely disappeared from the scientific literature


id: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism-1.md
category: reference
title: The eclipse of Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:24.781683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
British science developed in the early 19th century on a basis of natural theology which saw the adaptation of fixed species as evidence that they had been specially created to a purposeful divine design. The philosophical concepts of German idealism inspired concepts of an ordered plan of harmonious creation, which Richard Owen reconciled with natural theology as a pattern of homology showing evidence of design. Similarly, Louis Agassiz saw Ernest Haeckel's recapitulation theory, which held that the embryological development of an organism repeats its evolutionary history, as symbolising a pattern of the sequence of creations in which humanity was the goal of a divine plan. In 1844 Vestiges adapted Agassiz's concept into theistic evolutionism. Its anonymous author Robert Chambers proposed a "law" of divinely ordered progressive development, with transmutation of species as an extension of recapitulation theory. This popularised the idea, but it was strongly condemned by the scientific establishment. Agassiz remained forcefully opposed to evolution, and after he moved to America in 1846 his idealist argument from design of orderly development became very influential. In 1858 Owen cautiously proposed that this development could be a real expression of a continuing creative law, but distanced himself from transmutationists. Two years


id: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism-2.md
category: reference
title: The eclipse of Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:24.781683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
In the late 19th century the term neo-Lamarckism came to be associated with the position of naturalists who viewed the inheritance of acquired characteristics as the most important evolutionary mechanism. Advocates of this position included the British writer and Darwin critic Samuel Butler, the German biologist Ernst Haeckel, the American paleontologists Edward Drinker Cope and Alpheus Hyatt, and the American entomologist Alpheus Packard. They considered Lamarckism to be more progressive and thus philosophically superior to Darwin's idea of natural selection acting on random variation. Butler and Cope both believed that this allowed organisms to effectively drive their own evolution, since organisms that developed new behaviors would change the patterns of use of their organs and thus kick-start the evolutionary process. In addition, Cope and Haeckel both believed that evolution was a progressive process. The idea of linear progress was an important part of Haeckel's recapitulation theory. Cope and Hyatt looked for, and thought they found, patterns of linear progression in the fossil record. Packard argued that the loss of vision in the blind cave insects he studied was best explained through a Lamarckian process of atrophy through disuse combined with inheritance of acquired characteristics. Many American proponents of neo-Lamarckism were


id: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism-3.md
category: reference
title: The eclipse of Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:24.781683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
Mutationism was the idea that new forms and species arose in a single step as a result of large mutations. It was seen as a much faster alternative to the Darwinian concept of a gradual process of small random variations being acted on by natural selection. It was popular with early geneticists such as Hugo de Vries, who along with Carl Correns helped rediscover Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance in 1900, William Bateson a British zoologist who switched to genetics, and early in his career, Thomas Hunt Morgan. The 1901 mutation theory of evolution held that species went through periods of rapid mutation, possibly as a result of environmental stress, that could produce multiple mutations, and in some cases completely new species, in a single generation. Its originator was the Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries. De Vries looked for evidence of mutation extensive enough to produce a new species in a single generation and thought he found it with his work breeding the evening primrose of the genus Oenothera, which he started in 1886. The plants that de Vries worked with seemed to be constantly producing new varieties with striking variations in form and color, some of which appeared to


id: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism-4.md
category: reference
title: The eclipse of Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:24.781683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-eclipse-of-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
== Historiography == The concept of eclipse suggests that Darwinian research paused, implying in turn that there had been a preceding period of vigorously Darwinian activity among biologists. However, historians of science such as Mark Largent have argued that while biologists broadly accepted the extensive evidence for evolution presented in The Origin of Species, there was less enthusiasm for natural selection as a mechanism. Biologists instead looked for alternative explanations more in keeping with their worldviews, which included the beliefs that evolution must be directed and that it constituted a form of progress. Further, the idea of a dark eclipse period was convenient to scientists such as Julian Huxley, who wished to paint the modern synthesis as a bright new achievement, and accordingly to depict the preceding period as dark and confused. Huxley's 1942 book Evolution: The Modern Synthesis therefore, argued Largent, suggested that the so-called modern synthesis began after a long period of eclipse lasting until the 1930s, in which Mendelians, neo-Lamarckians, mutationists, and Weismannians, not to mention experimental embryologists and Haeckelian recapitulationists fought running battles with each other. The idea of an eclipse also allowed Huxley to step aside from what was to him the inconvenient association of


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:25.991217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The Eddington experiment was an observational test of general relativity, organised by the British astronomers Frank Watson Dyson and Arthur Stanley Eddington in 1919. Observations of the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 were carried out by two expeditions, one to the West African island of Príncipe, and the other to the Brazilian town of Sobral. The aim of the expeditions was to measure the gravitational deflection of starlight passing near the Sun. The amount of deflection was predicted by Albert Einstein in a 1911 paper; however, his initial prediction proved inaccurate because it was based on an incomplete theory of general relativity. Einstein improved his prediction after finalizing his theory in 1915 and obtaining the solution to his equations by Karl Schwarzschild. Following the return of the expeditions, the results were presented by Eddington to a joint meeting of the Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society in London and, after some deliberation, were accepted. Widespread newspaper coverage of the results led to worldwide fame for Einstein and his theories. == Background == One of the first considerations of gravitational deflection of light was published in 1801, when Johann Georg von Soldner pointed out that Newtonian gravity predicts that


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:25.991217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
== Theory == The theory behind the experiment concerns the predicted deflection of light by the Sun. The first observation of light deflection was performed by noting the change in position of stars as they passed near the Sun on the celestial sphere. The approximate angular deflection δφ for a massless particle coming in from infinity and going back out to infinity is given by the following formula: δ φ ≈ 2 r s b = 4 G M c 2 b . {\displaystyle \delta \varphi \approx {\frac {2r_{s}}{b}}={\frac {4GM}{c^{2}b}}.} Here, b can be interpreted as the distance of closest approach. Although this formula is approximate, it is accurate for most measurements of gravitational lensing, due to the smallness of the ratio rs/b. For light grazing the surface of the Sun, the approximate angular deflection is roughly 1.75 arcseconds. This is twice the value predicted by calculations using the Newtonian theory of gravity. It was this difference in the deflection between the two theories that Eddington's expedition and other later eclipse observers would attempt to observe. == Expeditions and observations == The aim of the expeditions was to take advantage of the shielding effect of the Moon during a total


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-2.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:25.991217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Príncipe === The equipment used for the expedition to Príncipe, an island in the Gulf of Guinea off the coast of West Africa, was an astrographic lens borrowed from the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford. Eddington sailed from England in March 1919. By mid-May he had his equipment set up on Príncipe near what was then Spanish Guinea. The eclipse was due to take place in the early afternoon of 29 May, at 2 pm, but that morning there was a storm with heavy rain. Eddington wrote: The rain stopped about noon and about 1.30 ... we began to get a glimpse of the sun. We had to carry out our photographs in faith. I did not see the eclipse, being too busy changing plates, except for one glance to make sure that it had begun and another half-way through to see how much cloud there was. We took sixteen photographs. They are all good of the sun, showing a very remarkable prominence; but the cloud has interfered with the star images. The last few photographs show a few images which I hope will give us what we need ... Eddington developed the photographs on Príncipe, and attempted to measure


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-3.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:25.991217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The presentation of the results at the joint 6 November 1919 session of Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society led to intensive press coverage first in Great Britain and a few days later in the US press, notably in The New York Times, and some days later still in the German press. While Einstein had been a moderately famous public figure in Germany for a few years by that time, the articles in question marked the beginning of his international celebrity status. A notable exception was Belgium, where the Eddington results were given the cold shoulder – partly because Einstein was seen as representing Germany, with the suffering of Belgium in World War I still very present in the country. The sudden popularity of Einstein's theories led to an "Einstein boom" of popular science books. While there is a later anecdote describing Einstein as unimpressed about the experimental results, and sure of his theory even in the absence of evidence (stating, when asked what he would have said if the results had been otherwise, "Then I would feel sorry for the dear Lord. The theory is correct anyway.") the evidence of Einstein's letters to other scientists indicates, on the contrary,


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-4.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:25.991217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources and further reading == Collins, Harry; Pinch, Trevor (1993). The Golem: What everyone should know about science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521477360. Cowen, Ron (May 2019). Gravity's Century: From Einstein's Eclipse to Images of Black Holes (Illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-97496-8. Crelinsten, Jeffrey (May 2006). Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12310-3. Gates, Sylvester J. Jr; Pelletier, Cathie (2019). Proving Einstein right: The daring expeditions that changed how we look at the universe (First ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1541762251. Kennefick, Daniel (2019). No Shadow of a Doubt: The 1919 Eclipse That Confirmed Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691183862. Popper, Karl (2002) [1935]. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-99462-0. Stanley, Matthew (2019). Einstein's War: How Relativity Triumphed Amid the Vicious Nationalism of World War I. Dutton. ISBN 978-1-5247-4541-7. == External links == Eclipse 1919, website about the eclipse, the expeditions and centenary events "Eddington's Eclipse and Einstein's Celebrity" Discovery (audio) episode (from BBC World Service) "The man who made Einstein world-famous" (BBC News, 24 May 2019) "Matthew Stanley and Einstein's War". Archived 2020-07-30 at the Wayback Machine (Clarke Center for Human Imagination, UCSD podcast) "100


id: empiricism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism-0.md
category: reference
title: Empiricism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:27.325495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empiricism-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy, empiricism is an epistemological view which holds that true knowledge or justification comes either only or primarily from sensory experience and empirical evidence. It is one of several competing views within epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empiricists argue that empiricism is a more reliable method of finding the truth than relying purely on logical reasoning, because humans have cognitive biases and limitations which lead to errors of judgement. Empiricism emphasizes the central role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions. Empiricists may argue that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sensory experiences. Historically, empiricism was associated with the "blank slate" concept (tabula rasa), according to which the human mind is "blank" at birth and develops its thoughts only through later experience. Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. Empiricism, often used by natural scientists, holds that "knowledge is based on experience" and that "knowledge is tentative and


id: empiricism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism-1.md
category: reference
title: Empiricism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:27.325495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empiricism-20260505-0
summary:
During the Middle Ages (from the 5th to the 15th century CE) Aristotle's theory of tabula rasa was developed by Islamic philosophers starting with Al Farabi (c. 872 – c. 951 CE), developing into an elaborate theory by Avicenna (c. 980 – 1037 CE) and demonstrated as a thought experiment by Ibn Tufail. For Avicenna (Ibn Sina), for example, the tabula rasa is a pure potentiality that is actualized through education, and knowledge is attained through "empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" developed through a "syllogistic method of reasoning in which observations lead to propositional statements which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts". The intellect itself develops from a material intellect (al-'aql al-hayulani), which is a potentiality "that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (al-'aql al-fa'il), the state of the human intellect in conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge". So the immaterial "active intellect", separate from any individual person, is still essential for understanding to occur. In the 12th century CE, the Andalusian Muslim philosopher and novelist Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebu Tophail" in the West) included the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment


id: empiricism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism-2.md
category: reference
title: Empiricism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:27.325495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empiricism-20260505-0
summary:
British empiricism, a retrospective characterization, emerged during the 17th century as an approach to early modern philosophy and modern science. Although both integral to this overarching transition, Francis Bacon, in England, first advocated for empiricism in 1620, whereas René Descartes, in France, laid the main groundwork upholding rationalism around 1640. (Bacon's natural philosophy was influenced by Italian philosopher Bernardino Telesio and by Swiss physician Paracelsus.) Contributing later in the 17th century, Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza are retrospectively identified likewise as an empiricist and a rationalist, respectively. In the Enlightenment of the late 17th century, John Locke in England, and in the 18th century, both George Berkeley in Ireland and David Hume in Scotland, all became leading exponents of empiricism, hence the dominance of empiricism in British philosophy. The distinction between rationalism and empiricism was not formally made until Immanuel Kant, in Germany, around 1780, who sought to merge the two views. In response to the early-to-mid-17th-century "continental rationalism", John Locke (1632–1704) proposed in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) a very influential view wherein the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori, i.e., based upon experience. Locke is famously attributed with holding the proposition that the human mind


id: empiricism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism-3.md
category: reference
title: Empiricism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:27.325495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empiricism-20260505-0
summary:
Hume maintained that no knowledge, even the most basic beliefs about the natural world, can be conclusively established by reason. Rather, he maintained, our beliefs are more a result of accumulated habits, developed in response to accumulated sense experiences. Among his many arguments Hume also added another important slant to the debate about scientific method—that of the problem of induction. Hume argued that it requires inductive reasoning to arrive at the premises for the principle of inductive reasoning, and therefore the justification for inductive reasoning is a circular argument. Among Hume's conclusions regarding the problem of induction is that there is no certainty that the future will resemble the past. Thus, as a simple instance posed by Hume, we cannot know with certainty by inductive reasoning that the sun will continue to rise in the East, but instead come to expect it to do so because it has repeatedly done so in the past. Hume concluded that such things as belief in an external world and belief in the existence of the self were not rationally justifiable. According to Hume these beliefs were to be accepted nonetheless because of their profound basis in instinct and custom. Hume's lasting legacy, however,


id: empiricism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism-4.md
category: reference
title: Empiricism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:27.325495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empiricism-20260505-0
summary:
[Mill] claimed that mathematical truths were merely very highly confirmed generalizations from experience; mathematical inference, generally conceived as deductive [and a priori] in nature, Mill set down as founded on induction. Thus, in Mill's philosophy there was no real place for knowledge based on relations of ideas. In his view logical and mathematical necessity is psychological; we are merely unable to conceive any other possibilities than those that logical and mathematical propositions assert. This is perhaps the most extreme version of empiricism known, but it has not found many defenders. Mill's empiricism thus held that knowledge of any kind is not from direct experience but an inductive inference from direct experience. The problems other philosophers have had with Mill's position center around the following issues: Firstly, Mill's formulation encounters difficulty when it describes what direct experience is by differentiating only between actual and possible sensations. This misses some key discussion concerning conditions under which such "groups of permanent possibilities of sensation" might exist in the first place. Berkeley put God in that gap; the phenomenalists, including Mill, essentially left the question unanswered. In the end, lacking an acknowledgement of an aspect of "reality" that goes beyond mere "possibilities of sensation",


id: empiricism-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism-5.md
category: reference
title: Empiricism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:27.325495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empiricism-20260505-0
summary:
Logical empiricism (also logical positivism or neopositivism) was an early 20th-century attempt to synthesize the essential ideas of British empiricism (e.g. a strong emphasis on sensory experience as the basis for knowledge) with certain insights from mathematical logic that had been developed by Gottlob Frege and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Some of the key figures in this movement were Otto Neurath, Moritz Schlick and the rest of the Vienna Circle, along with A. J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach. The neopositivists subscribed to a notion of philosophy as the conceptual clarification of the methods, insights and discoveries of the sciences. They saw in the logical symbolism elaborated by Frege (1848–1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) a powerful instrument that could rationally reconstruct all scientific discourse into an ideal, logically perfect, language that would be free of the ambiguities and deformations of natural language. This gave rise to what they saw as metaphysical pseudoproblems and other conceptual confusions. By combining Frege's thesis that all mathematical truths are logical with the early Wittgenstein's idea that all logical truths are mere linguistic tautologies, they arrived at a twofold classification of all propositions: the "analytic" (a priori) and the "synthetic" (a posteriori). On this basis, they


id: empiricism-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism-6.md
category: reference
title: Empiricism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:27.325495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empiricism-20260505-0
summary:
In his Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism" (1903), Peirce enumerated what he called the "three cotary propositions of pragmatism" (L: cos, cotis whetstone), saying that they "put the edge on the maxim of pragmatism". First among these, he listed the peripatetic-thomist observation mentioned above, but he further observed that this link between sensory perception and intellectual conception is a two-way street. That is, it can be taken to say that whatever we find in the intellect is also incipiently in the senses. Hence, if theories are theory-laden then so are the senses, and perception itself can be seen as a species of abductive inference, its difference being that it is beyond control and hence beyond critique—in a word, incorrigible. This in no way conflicts with the fallibility and revisability of scientific concepts, since it is only the immediate percept in its unique individuality or "thisness"—what the Scholastics called its haecceity—that stands beyond control and correction. Scientific concepts, on the other hand, are general in nature, and transient sensations do in another sense find correction within them. This notion of perception as abduction has received periodic revivals in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research, most recently for instance with the work of


id: history-of-energy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_energy-0.md
category: reference
title: History of energy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_energy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:28.557764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-energy-20260505-0
summary:
In the history of physics, the history of energy examines the gradual development of energy as a central scientific concept. Classical mechanics was initially understood through the study of motion and force by thinkers like Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton, the importance of the concept of energy was made clear in the 19th century with the principles of thermodynamics, particularly the conservation of energy which established that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. In the 20th century Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence expanded this understanding by linking mass and energy, and quantum mechanics introduced quantized energy levels. Today, energy is recognized as a fundamental conserved quantity across all domains of physics, underlying both classical and quantum phenomena. == Antiquity == The word energy derives from Greek word "energeia" (Greek: ἐνέργεια) meaning actuality, which appears for the first time in the 4th century BCE in various works of Aristotle when discussing potentiality and actuality including Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics and On the Soul. == Kinetic energy == The modern concept of kinetic energy emerged from the idea of vis viva (living force), which Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz defined over the period 1676–1689 as the product of the mass of an object


id: epistemic-cultures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_cultures-0.md
category: reference
title: Epistemic cultures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_cultures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:29.743340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epistemic-cultures-20260505-0
summary:
Epistemic cultures (often used in plural form) is a concept developed in the nineties by anthropologist Karin Knorr Cetina in her book Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge. Opposed to a monist vision of scientific activity (according to which, would exist a unique scientific method), Knorr Cetina defines the concept of epistemic cultures as a diversity of scientific activities according to different scientific fields, not only in methods and tools, but also in types of reasonings, ways to establish evidence, and relationships between theory and empiry. Knorr Cetina's work is seminal in questioning the so-called unity of science. == Knorr Cetina's anthropology == In practice, Knorr Cetina compares two contemporary important scientific fields: High energy physics and molecular biology. She worked as an anthropologist within two laboratories, along the line of the laboratory anthropology work by Latour and Woolgar. Her anthropological work is comparative and the two chosen scientific fields are highly mediaticized and easily distinguishable. Epistemic cultures as a philosophical concept has been perused by numerous philosophical, anthropological or historical studies of science. == Two distinct publication regimes == High energy physics and molecular biology are very different as scientific fields belonging to two different epistemic cultures. They


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The era of European and American voyages of scientific exploration followed the Age of Discovery and were inspired by a new confidence in science and reason that arose in the Age of Enlightenment. Maritime expeditions in the Age of Discovery were a means of expanding colonial empires, establishing new trade routes and extending diplomatic and trade relations to new territories, but with the Enlightenment scientific curiosity became a new motive for exploration to add to the commercial and political ambitions of the past. See also List of Arctic expeditions and List of Antarctic expeditions. == Maritime exploration in the Age of Discovery == From the early 15th century to the early 17th century the Age of Discovery had, through Portuguese seafarers, and later, Spanish, Dutch, French and English, opened up southern Africa, the Americas (New World), Asia and Oceania to European eyes: Bartholomew Dias had sailed around the Cape of southern Africa in search of a trade route to India; Christopher Columbus, on four journeys across the Atlantic, had prepared the way for European colonisation of the New World; Ferdinand Magellan had commanded the first expedition to sail across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans to reach the Maluku Islands and


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-1.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
== Maritime exploration in the Age of Enlightenment == By the 18th century maritime exploration had become safer and more efficient with technical innovations that vastly improved navigation and cartography: improvements were made to the theodolite, octant, precision clocks, as well as the compass, telescope, and general shipbuilding techniques. From the mid-18th century through the 19th century scientific missions mapped the newly discovered regions, brought back to Europe the newly discovered fauna and flora, made hydrological, astronomical and meteorological observations and improved the methods of navigation. This stimulated great advances in the scientific disciplines of natural history, botany, zoology, ichthyology, conchology, taxonomy, medicine, geography, geology, mineralogy, hydrology, oceanography, physics, meteorology etc. – all contributing to the sense of "improvement" and "progress" that characterized the Enlightenment. Often these missions brought together diverse researchers of different ethnic and regional background, thus creating a "transnational culture of expertise". Artists were used to record landscapes and indigenous peoples, while natural history illustrators captured the appearance of organisms before they deteriorated after collection. Some of the world's finest natural history illustrations were produced at this time and the illustrators changed from informed amateurs to fully trained professionals acutely aware of the need for scientific accuracy.


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-2.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Captain: Thomas Adams (?–1770) Also aboard: Joseph Banks (1743–1820) and Constantine Phipps. ==== 1766–69: La Boudeuse and L'Étoile ==== Ordered by Louis XV, it was the first trip around the world initiated by the French. The discovery and description of Tahiti by Louis Antoine de Bougainville in his trip influenced several Enlightenment philosophers including Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78). The expedition was organised by Louis Antoine de Bougainville and received the support of such prominent figures of the time as Charles de Brosses (1709–77), Comte de Buffon (1707–88), Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698–1759) and Jérôme Lalande (1732–1807). The expedition aimed to discover new territories available for settlement, to open a new route to reach China, to found new outlets for the French East India Company and, finally, discover acclimatable spices for the Isle de France (now Mauritius). Captains: Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729–1811) Chief of expedition, Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot (Captain of La Boudeuse), François Chenard de la Giraudais (1727–1775) (Captain of L'Étoile) Naturalists: Philibert Commerçon (1727–73), Jeanne Baré (1740–1807) Astronomer: Pierre-Antoine Véron (1736–70) Cartographer: Charles Routier de Romainville (1742–92?) Publication: Louis Antoine de Bougainville, Journey Around the World by the Commander of the La Boudeuse and L'Étoile, in 1766, 1767, 1768


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-3.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Captain: Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse (1741–1788) (on the Boussole) and Paul Antoine Fleuriot de Langle (1744–1787) (on the Astrolabe) Chief Engineer: Paul Mérault Monneron (1748–1788) Geologist: Robert de Lamanon (1752–1787) Artists: the uncle and nephew Prevost, Duché De Vancy Naturalists: Jean-André Mongez (1751 – c. 1788) Interpreter of Russian: Barthélemy de Lesseps (1766–1834) landed at Petropavlovsk, and in charge of bringing to France the log, maps and drawings of the trip. ==== 1785–88: King George ==== Global circumnavigation. Captain: Nathaniel Portlock ==== 1785–94: Slava Rossii ==== A Russian expedition commanded by the British Captain Joseph Billings, astronomer on Cook's third voyage. This expedition lasted more than ten years attempting, unsuccessfully, to find the Northwest Passage that had remained undiscovered after Cook's explorations. Captain: Joseph Billings (c. 1758 – 1806) Naturalists: Carl Heinrich Merck and Carl Krebs Surgeons-naturalists: Michael Robeck and Peter Allegretti Cartographer: Gavriil Sarytchev Publications: J. Billings, An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical expedition to the Northern parts of Russia. (1802), translated into French the same year under the title of Voyage made by order of Empress Catherine II Russia, in the North of the Asian Russian the icy sea, in the sea on the coasts


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-4.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
This expedition was organised to establish a permanent colonial presence in the South Seas before the British, concentrating on the mapping of the coast of the Australia and New Guinea. Nicolas Baudin died in Mauritius in 1803, another naturalist on the island of Timor, two other naturalists chose to stay on the island and two astronomers died of dysentery. Péron, assisted by his friend Lesueur, managed to gather a vast zoological collection. Naturaliste returned to France in 1803 with a part of the collections. Captain Baudin bought a schooner, the Casuarina, at the British settlement of Port Jackson in Australia. Baudin was replaced by Pierre Bernard Milius (1773–1829). Commanders: Nicolas Baudin (1754–1803) (Le Géographe) and Jacques Hamelin (1768–1839) (Le Naturaliste). Physician, surgeon (first doctor in the Navy) and biologist: Pierre François Keraudren (1769–1858) (Le Géographe). Naturalists: Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour (1773–1826), René Maugé Cely, Stanislas Levillain (1774–1801), François Péron (1775–1810), Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (1778–1846) (left the expedition to Mauritius), Désiré Dumont, André Michaux (1746–1803) Artist: Charles-Alexandre Lesueur (1778–1846) assisted by Nicolas-Martin Petit (1777–1804) Astronomers: Pierre-François Bernier (1779–1803) and Frédéric de Bissy (1768–1803) Cartographer: Charles-Pierre Boullanger Geographer: Pierre Faure (1777–1855) Mineralogist: Louis Depuch, Joseph Charles Bailly Publications: F.


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-5.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Commander: lieutenant Louis Isidore Duperrey (1786–1865) Second: lieutenant Jules Dumont d'Urville, botanist (1790–1842) Physician-naturalist: the surgeon, pharmacist and zoologist René Primevère Lesson (1794–1849) and surgeon-major Prosper Garnot (1794–1838) Astronomer: Charles Hector Jacquinot (1796–1879) Illustrators: Jules Louis Lejeune (1804–1851), Jacques Arago (1790–1855) Hydrographer: Victor Charles Lottin (1795–1858) Publications: Lesson and Garnot, Voyage autour du monde exécuté par ordre du roi sur la corvette La Coquille (1828–32)/Journey around the world on the corvette La Coquille (Paris, six volumes, 1826–1830). ==== 1823–26: Predpriyatiye ==== An expedition of two ships of war, the main object of which was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a staff of scientists on board the Russian sailing sloop Predpriyatiye (Russian: "Enterprise"), who collected much valuable information and material on geography, ethnography and natural history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. Many positions along the coast were mapped more accurately, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expedition returned by the Marianas, Philippines, New Caledonia and the Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on 10 July 1826. Captain: Otto von Kotzebue (1787–1846) Physician-naturalist: Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz (1793–1831) and Dr. Lenz Publication: O. von Kotzebue,


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-6.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1826–29: Senyavin and Moller ==== A Russian circumnavigation on the ship Senyavin, sailing from Kronstadt and rounding Cape Horn, accompanied by Captain Mikhail Nikolaievich Staniukovich in command of the sloop Moller. During the voyage Litke and his team described the western coastline of the Bering Sea, the Bonin Islands off Japan, and the Carolines, and discovered 12 new islands. The expedition strengthened the Russian presence near Alaska. A large collection of natural history specimens was made including 1,000 new species of insects, fish, birds and other animals, and 2,500 plant specimens including algae and minerals. Captain: Fyodor Litke (1797–1882) Botanist-naturalist: Karl Heinrich Mertens (1796–1830) Naturalist: Heinrich von Kittlitz (1799–1874) Mineralogist: Alexander Philipov Postels (1801–1871) Published by: F. Litke, Trip around the world (1835–1836). ==== 1827–28: La Chevrette ==== The first French expedition to map the coast of India. Captain: Theodore Fabré (1795–1830) Surgeon-naturalist: Auguste Adolphe Marc Reynaud (1804–?) ==== 1828: Ms. Korvet Triton ==== Dutch exploration of New Guinea. The corvette Triton The brig Iris Expedition leader: Dr. H.C. Macklot Captain of Triton: J.J. Steenboom ==== 1829: La Cybèle ==== Scientific exploration was placed under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (1778–1846). Captain: Marie Antoine Chevalier de Robillard


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-7.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The second voyage of L'Astrolabe, this time accompanied by La Zélée, sailed on 7 September 1837 and at the end of November, the ships reached the Strait of Magellan. Dumont thought there was sufficient time to explore the strait for three weeks, taking into account the precise maps drawn by Phillip Parker King between 1826 and 1830, before heading south again but two weeks after seeing their first iceberg, the ships were encased in pack ice for a while. After reaching the South Orkney Islands, the expedition headed directly to the South Shetland Islands and the Bransfield Strait. Then located some land which was named Terre de Louis-Philippe (now called Graham Land), the Joinville Island group and Rosamel Island (now called Andersson Island). In poor shape the two ships headed for Talcahuano in Chile. Turning south they led for the first time some experiments to determine the approximate position of the South Magnetic Pole, discovered the Terre Adélie on 20 January 1840, and landed two days later on an islet of the Géologie Archipelago (66°36′19″S 140°4′0″E) 4 km from the mainland to take mineral and animal samples. Captains: Jules Dumont d'Urville (1790–1842) (L'Astrolabe), Charles Hector Jacquinot (1796–1879) (La Zélée) Physician-naturalist:


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-8.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Captains: Sir James Clark Ross (1800–1862) (Erebus) and Francis Crozier (1796–1848) (Terror) Physician-naturalist: Robert McCormick (1800–1890), Joseph Hooker (1817–1911), John Robertson, David Lyall (1817–1895) Publications: J.C. Ross, A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions. (1847), J.E. Gray and John Richardson, The zoology of the Voyage of HM Ships Erebus and Terror (1844–1875). J.D. Hooker, The botany of the Antarctic voyage of HM discovery ships Erebus and Terror in the years 1839–1843 under the command of Captain Sir James Clark Ross. Three volumes: I. Flora Antarctica (1844), II. Flora Novae Zelandiae (1853–1855), III. Flora Tasmaniae (1860). ==== 1841–44: La Favorite ==== A French scientific exploration in the China Sea and Indian Ocean. Captain: Théogène François Page (1807–1867) Surgeon-naturalist: Charles René Augustin Léclancher (1804–1857) ==== 1842–46: HMS Fly ==== During the early to mid-1840s, Fly charted numerous trade and other routes between many locations, primarily off Australia's north-east coast and nearby islands. Such islands included Whitsunday Island and the Capricorn Islands. After being discovered during the survey of the Gulf of Papua, New Guinea, the Fly River was named after HMS Fly. For the most of its seaworthy existence, Fly was captained by Francis Price Blackwood. Captain:


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-9.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1860: HMS Bulldog ==== An oceanographic survey in HMS Bulldog for the laying of a submarine telegraph cable in the North Atlantic. Captain: Francis Leopold McClintock (1819–1907) Naturalist: George Charles Wallich (1815–1899) Publication: The North Atlantic Sea – Bed; comprising a diary of the voyage on board H. M. S. Bulldog, in 1860, and observations on the presence of animal life, and the formation and nature of organic deposits, at great depths in the ocean. (1862). ==== 1862: Arctic expedition of Krusenstern ==== Arctic expedition of two ships, MV Iermak and MV Embrio in order to discover the Yenissei river delta, resulted in shipwreck in the Kara Sea. Captain: Paul Theodor von Krusenstern Publication: Naufrage du lieutenant Krusenstern dans les glaces de la mer de Kara (1863, in Le Tour du monde Volume 8 pp. 203–208) ==== 1865–68: Magenta ==== An Italian circumnavigation of the globe that made important scientific observations in South America. The purpose of the trip was also to establish diplomatic relations with China and Japan, but without success. De Filippi set out in 1866 on a government-sponsored scientific voyage to circumnavigate the globe. The ship, the Italian warship Magenta, sailed under the command of Vittorio


id: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration-10.md
category: reference
title: European and American voyages of scientific exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_and_American_voyages_of_scientific_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:30.952820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-and-american-voyages-of-scientific-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Albatross belonged to the Committee on Fisheries of the United States and it carried out numerous scientific expeditions under the direction of Alexander Emanuel Agassiz (1835–1910). The primary goal was an inventory of the Pacific fishery reserves but many other observations are carried out by Townsend and other scientists. Captain: Zera Tanner (1835–1906) Naturalist: Charles Haskins Townsend (1859–1944) ==== 1897–98: Lila and Mattie ==== Zoologist Walter Rothschild commissioned the Webster-Harris Expedition to the Galápagos Islands from June 1897 to February 1898. This expedition on the schooner Lila & Mattie is well-described in the 1983 book titled Dear Lord Rothschild by Miriam Rothschild. In the 1936 book Oceanic Birds of South America by Robert Cushman Murphy, Rollo Beck describes the seminal telegram from C.M Harris that started his long and important association with the Galápagos Islands. The original of this telegram is in the Rollo Beck Collection in the California Academy of Sciences Archives. There is also a photo from Beck's Sierra Nevada collecting trip in the archives of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology on the University of California, Berkeley campus. The story of buried treasure on Tower Island connected with this trip was apparently known to Captain Lindbridge during this


id: history-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: History of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:32.151920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The history of experimental research is long and varied. Indeed, the definition of an experiment itself has changed in responses to changing norms and practices within particular fields of study. This article documents the history and development of experimental research from its origins in Galileo's study of gravity into the diversely applied method in use today. == Ibn al-Haytham == The Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) used experimentation to obtain the results in his Book of Optics (1021). He combined observations, experiments and rational arguments to support his intromission theory of vision, in which rays of light are emitted from objects rather than from the eyes. He used similar arguments to show that the ancient emission theory of vision supported by Ptolemy and Euclid (in which the eyes emit the rays of light used for seeing), and the ancient intromission theory supported by Aristotle (where objects emit physical particles to the eyes), were both wrong. Experimental evidence supported most of the propositions in his Book of Optics and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics. His legacy was elaborated through the 'reforming' of his Optics by Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d.


id: history-of-experiments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments-1.md
category: reference
title: History of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:32.151920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The experiments of Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), a French chemist regarded as the founder of modern chemistry, were among the first to be truly quantitative. Lavoisier showed that although matter changes its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical reaction. In one experiment, he burned phosphorus and sulfur in air to see whether the results further supported his previous conclusion (Law of Conservation of Mass). In this experiment, however, he determined that the products weighed more than the original phosphorus and sulfur. He decided to do the experiment again. This time he measured the mass of the air surrounding the experiment as well. He discovered that the mass gained in the product was lost from the air. These experiments provided further support for his Law of Conservation of Mass. One of Lavoisier's experiments connected the worlds of respiration and combustion. Lavoisier's hypothesis was that combustion and respiration were one and the same, and combustion occurs with every instance of respiration. Working with Pierre-Simon Laplace, Lavoisier designed an ice calorimeter apparatus for measuring the amount of heat given off during combustion or respiration. This machine consisted of


id: history-of-experiments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments-2.md
category: reference
title: History of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:32.151920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-experiments-20260505-0
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The French biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), regarded as the "Father of microbiological sciences and immunology", worked during the 19th century. He postulated - and supported with experimental results - the idea that disease-causing agents do not spontaneously appear but are alive and need the right environment to prosper and multiply. Stemming from this discovery, he used experimentation to develop vaccines for chicken cholera, anthrax and rabies, and developed methods for reducing bacteria in some food products by heating them (pasteurization). Pasteur's work also led him to advocate (along with the English physician Dr. Joseph Lister) antiseptic surgical techniques. Most scientists of that day believed that microscopic life sprang into existence from spontaneous generation in non-living matter. Pasteur's observations of tiny organisms under the microscope caused him to doubt spontaneous generation. He designed an experiment to test his hypothesis that life could not arise from where there is no life. He took care to control possible confounding factors. For example, he needed to make sure there was no life, even microscopic, in the flasks of broth he used as a test medium. He decided to kill any microscopic organisms already present by boiling the broth until he was confident that any


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:33.368384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of historically important scientific experiments and observations demonstrating something of great scientific interest, typically in an elegant or clever manner. == Astronomy == Ole Rømer makes the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light in 1676 by timing the motions of Jupiter's satellite Io with a telescope Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detect the cosmic microwave background radiation, giving support to the theory of the Big Bang (1964) Kerim Kerimov launches Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 as experiments on automatic docking eventually leading to the development of space stations (1967) The Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team discover, by observing Type Ia supernovae, that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating (1998) Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to observe that the moons of Jupiter appear to circle Jupiter. This evidence supports the heliocentric model, and weakens the geocentric model of the cosmos (1609) == Biology == Robert Hooke, using a microscope, observes cells (1665). Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovers microorganisms (1674–1676). James Lind, publishes 'A Treatise of the Scurvy' which describes a controlled shipboard experiment using two identical populations but with only one variable, the consumption of citrus fruit (1753). Edward Jenner


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-1.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:33.368384+00:00
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parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
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== Chemistry == Robert Boyle uses an air pump to determine the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. This relationship came to be known as Boyle's law (1660–1662). Joseph Priestley suspends a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery and synthesizes carbonated water (1767). Antoine Lavoisier determines that oxygen combines with materials upon combustion, thus disproving phlogiston theory (1783). Antoine Lavoisier determines that chemical reactions in a closed container do not alter total mass. From these observations he establishes the law of conservation of mass (1789). Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford demonstrates that the heat developed by the friction of boring cannon is nearly inexhaustible. This result was presented in opposition to caloric theory (1798). Humphry Davy uses electrolysis to isolate elemental potassium, sodium, calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, and chlorine (1807–1810). Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac studies reactions among gases and determines that their volumes combine chemically in simple integer ratios (1809). Robert Brown studies very small particles in water under the microscope and observes Brownian motion which was later named in his honor (1827). Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes the organic compound urea using inorganic reactants, disproving the application of vitalism to chemical processes (1828). Thomas Graham


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-2.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:33.368384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
Inclined plane experiment (1602–07): Galileo Galilei uses rolling balls to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion. Atmospheric pressure vs. altitude experiment (1648): Blaise Pascal carries a barometer up a church tower and a mountain to determine that atmospheric pressure is due to a column of air. Magdeburg hemispheres (1654): Otto von Guericke demonstrates atmospheric pressure using a pair of hollow copper hemisphere. Spring of air experiment (1660): Robert Boyle shows that the volume of a given amount of gas is inversely related to the pressure upon it. Kite experiment (1700s): Benjamin Franklin beginning in 1747 describes experiments in letters to Peter Collinson demonstrating electrical principles which were published in a book called Experiments and Observations on Electricity. Voltaic pile (1796): Alessandro Volta constructs a new source of electricity, the electrical battery. Cavendish experiment (1798): Henry Cavendish's torsion bar experiment measures the force of gravity in a laboratory. Double-slit experiment (c.1805): Thomas Young shows that light is a wave in his double-slit experiment. Arago spot (1819): Observation of circular diffraction by François Arago, validated a new wave theory of light by Augustin-Jean Fresnel disproving skeptics like Siméon Denis Poisson. Ørsted experiment (1820): Hans Christian Ørsted demonstrates the connection of electricity and


id: fermentation-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Fermentation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:34.713022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fermentation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In biochemistry, fermentation theory refers to the historical study of models of natural fermentation processes, especially alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation. Notable contributors to the theory include Justus Von Liebig and Louis Pasteur, the latter of whom developed a purely microbial basis for the fermentation process based on his experiments. Pasteur's work on fermentation later led to his development of the germ theory of disease, which put the concept of spontaneous generation to rest. Although the fermentation process had been used extensively throughout history prior to the origin of Pasteur's prevailing theories, the underlying biological and chemical processes were not fully understood. In the contemporary, fermentation is used in the production of various alcoholic beverages, foodstuffs, and medications. == Overview of fermentation == Fermentation is the anaerobic metabolic process that converts sugar into acids, gases, or alcohols in oxygen starved environments. Yeast and many other microbes commonly use fermentation to carry out anaerobic respiration necessary for survival. Even the human body carries out fermentation processes from time to time, such as during long-distance running; lactic acid will build up in muscles over the course of long-term exertion. Within the human body, lactic acid is the by-product of ATP-producing fermentation, which


id: fermentation-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Fermentation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:34.713022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fermentation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Pasteur also experimented with the mechanisms of brewer's yeast in the absence of organic nitrogen. By adding pure brewer's yeast to a solution of cane sugar, ammonium salt, and yeast ash, Pasteur was able to observe the alcoholic fermentation process with all of its usual byproducts: glycerin, succinic acid, and small amounts of cellulose and fatty matters. However, if any of the ingredients were removed from the solution, no fermentation would occur. To Pasteur, this was proof that yeast required the nitrogen, minerals, and carbon from the medium for its metabolic processes, releasing carbonic acid and ethyl alcohol as byproducts. This also disproved Liebig's theory, since there was no albuminous matter present in the medium; the decomposition of the yeast was not the driving force for the observed fermentation. == Pasteur on spontaneous generation == Before the 1860s and 1870s—when Pasteur published his work on this theory—it was believed that microorganisms and even some small animals such as frogs would spontaneously generate. Spontaneous generation was historically explained in a variety of ways. Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, theorized that creatures appeared out of certain concoctions of earthly elements, such as clay or mud mixing with water and sunlight. Later on,


id: golden-age-of-cosmology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology-0.md
category: reference
title: Golden age of cosmology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:35.846319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: golden-age-of-cosmology-20260505-0
summary:
The golden age of cosmology is a term often used to describe the period from 1992 to the present in which important advances in observational cosmology have been made. Prior to the golden age of cosmology, the understanding of the universe was limited to what scientists could observe through telescopes and other instruments. Theories and models were developed based on limited data and observations, and there was much speculation and debate regarding the true nature of the universe. The golden age of cosmology has also seen the development of new observational techniques and technologies. For example, the use of telescopes in space has revolutionized our ability to observe the universe. Space-based observatories such as the Hubble Space Telescope (launched in 1990) and the James Webb Space Telescope (launched in 2021) have provided stunning images and data that have expanded our understanding of the universe. In addition, ground-based telescopes have also undergone significant improvements in recent years. For example, the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile is a revolutionary new telescope that is able to observe the universe in unprecedented detail. It has already made significant contributions to our understanding of star formation and the early universe. == Lambda-CDM model


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-0.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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summary:
Oktōēchos or Octoechos (Greek: ὁ Ὀκτώηχος pronounced in koine: okˈtóixos; from ὀκτώ 'eight' and ἦχος 'sound, mode' called echos; Slavonic: Осмогласие, Osmoglasie from о́смь 'eight' and гласъ 'voice, sound') is the name of the eight mode system used for the composition of religious chant in most Christian churches during the Middle Ages. In a modified form, the octoechos is still regarded as the foundation of the tradition of monodic Orthodox chant today (Neobyzantine Octoechos). The octoechos as a liturgical concept which established an organization of the calendar into eight-week cycles, was the invention of monastic hymnographers at Mar Saba in Palestine, at the Patriarchates of Antiochia and of Constantinople. It was officially announced as the modal system of hymnography at the Quinisext Council in 692. A similar eight-mode system was established in Western Europe during the Carolingian reform, and particularly at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 AD which decanonised the former iconoclastic council in 754 and confirmed earlier ones. Quite possibly this was an attempt to follow the example of the Eastern Church by an octoechos reform, even if it was rather a transfer of knowledge with an introduction of a new book called "tonary" which introduced into


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-1.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
summary:
==== 8 diatonic echoi of the Hagiopolitan Octoechos ==== Despite the late copies of the Greek Hagiopolites treatise, the earliest Latin description of the Greek system of eight echoi is an eleventh-century treatise compilation called Alia musica. Echos was translated as sonus by the anonymous compilator who commented with a comparison of the Byzantine octoechos: This Latin description about the octoechos used by Greek singers (psaltes) is very precise, when it says that each kyrios and plagios pair used the same octave, divided into a fifth (pentachord) and a fourth (tetrachord): D—a—d in protos, E—b—e in devteros, F—c—f in tritos, and C—G—c in tetartos. While the kyrioi had the finalis (final, and usually also base note) on the top, the plagioi had the finalis on the bottom of the pentachord. The intonation formulas, called enechema (gr. ἐνήχημα), for the authentic modes or kyrioi echoi, usually descend within the pentachord and turn back to the finalis at the end, while the plagal modes or plagioi echoi just move to the upper third. The later dialogue treatises (Gr. ἐρωταποκρίσεις, erotapokriseis) refer to the Hagiopolitan diatonic eight modes, when they use the kyrioi intonations to find those of the plagioi: Περὶ πλαγίων Ἀπο


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-2.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
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In the edition of the treatise by Otto Gombosi, the four "elements" (α', β', γ', δ') were associated with certain colours—πρῶτος with black (all colours together), δεύτερος with white (no colour at all), τρίτος with yellow (an elementary colour), and τέταρτος with purple (a combination of elementary colours). These passages could be easily compiled with Zosimos of Panopolis' treatise about the process of bleaching. The system favoured 3 four tetrachord sets (either modes by themselves or simply degree of the modes with different functions), called κέντροι, ἷσοι, and πλάγιοι. Kέντρος would be probably an early name for μέσος, if it lay between the ἶσος and πλάγιος, it could be as well used as an early name for κύριος ἦχος, because it is mentioned here first, while ἶσος could mean "equivalent", or just basis notes. The exact point of reference concerning this 24 mode system was not clarified in the treatise, but it is evident, that there was a canonised wisdom which was connected with an ethical doctrine excluding certain passions (πάθη, pathe) as corruptions. Inside this wisdom, there was a Neoplatonic concept of an ideal and divine existence, which can be found and classified according to a modal scheme based


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-3.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
summary:
According to the Latin synthesis the plagal and authentic tones of protus, deuterus, tritus, and tetrardus did not use the same ambitus as in the Hagiopolitan octoechos, but authentic and plagal tones used both the finalis of the plagios, so that the finalis of the kyrios, the fifth degree of the mode, was no longer used as finalis, but as repercussa: the recitation tone of the authentic tone used in a simple form of psalmody which was another genuine invention by the Carolingian reformers. The ambitus of the authentic tones was made up the same way as used in the Greek octoechos, while the plagal tones used a lower ambitus: not the tetrachord above the pentachord, but below it. Hence, the hypodorian octave referred the tonus secundus and was constructed A—D—a, and the dorian as "tonus primus" D—a—d, both tones of the protus used D as finalis, the hypophrygian octave species was B—E—b and was the ambitus of the tonus quartus, and the phrygian octave species E—b—e was related to the tonus tertius and its finalis E belonged to the deuterus, the hypolydian octave species C—F—c was connected with the tonus sixtus, the lydian octave F—c—f with the tonus quintus


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-4.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
summary:
The earliest chant theory connected with the Carolingian octoechos was related to the book tonary. It played a key role in memorising chant and the earliest tonaries referred to the Greek names as elements of a tetrachord: πρῶτος, δεύτερος, τρίτος, and τέταρτος. They were translated into Latin as "protus", "deuterus", "tritus", and "tetrardus", but only the tetrachord D—E—F—G was supposed to contain the finales ("final notes") for the eight tones used in the Latin octoechos. Since the 10th century the eight tones were applied to eight simplified models of psalmody, which soon adopted in their terminations the melodic beginnings of the antiphons, which were sung as refrains during psalm recitation. This practice made the transitions smoother, and in the list of the antiphons which can be found since the earliest tonaries, it was enough to refer to the melodic beginnings or incipits of the text. In the earliest tonaries no models of psalmody had been given and incipits from all chant genres were listed, probably just for a modal classification (see the section for the Autentus protus of the Saint Riquier tonary). According to Michel Huglo, there was a prototype tonary which initiated the Carolingian reform. But in a later


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-5.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
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== Question of intervals and their transposition == The exact proportions which divided a tetrachord, had never been a subject of Greek medieval treatises concerned about Byzantine chant. The separation between the mathematical science harmonikai ("harmonics") and chant theory gave space to various speculations, even to the assumption that the same division was used as described in Latin music theory, operating with two diatonic intervals like tonus (9:8) and semitonium (256:243). Nevertheless, some treatises referred the tetrachord division into three intervals called the "major tone" (ὁ μείζων τόνος) which often corresponded to the prominent position of the whole tone (9:8), the "middle tone" (ὁ ἐλάσσων τόνος) between α and β, and the "small tone" (ὁ ἐλάχιστος τόνος) between β and γ which was usually a much larger interval than the half tone, and this division was common among most divisions by different ancient Greek theorists that were mentioned by Ptolemy in his Harmonics. Before Chrysanthos' Theoretika (the Eisagoge was simply an extract, while the Theoretikon mega was published by his student Panagiotes Pelopides), exact proportions were never mentioned in Greek chant theory. His system of 68 commata which is based on a corrupt use of arithmetics, can be traced back


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-6.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pitches and their tonal system === Although Chrysanthos did not mention his name, the first who mentioned precisely these proportions starting from the open string of the third or middle chord of the oud, was the Arab theorist Al-Farabi in his Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir which was written during the first half of the 10th century. His explicit references to Persian and Ancient Greek music theory were possible, because they had been recently translated into Arabic and Persian dialects in the library of Baghdad. Thanks to them Al-Farabi had also an excellent knowledge of Ancient Greek music theory. The method of demonstrating the intervals by the frets of the oud keyboard was probably taken from Al-Kindi. Here the intervals are not referred to the Byzantine phthongoi, but to the name of the frets. And the fret corresponding to β was called "ring finger fret of Zalzal" (wuṣtā Zalzal), named after the famous Baghdadi oud player Zalzal. It seems that the proportion of the Zalzal fret was a refined one in Bagdad using a large middle tone that came very close to the interval of the small tone, while the Mawsili school used 13:12 instead of 12:11. There is no indication


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-7.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
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=== Medieval use of transposition (μεταβολὴ κατὰ τόνον) === Latin cantors knew about the theoretical concept of the practice of transposition since Boethius' translation of Ptolemy. Very few can be said, if they ever understood the practical use of it. Nevertheless, there was a rudimentary knowledge which can be found in the Carolingian treatises Musica and Scolica enchiriadis. The Musica enchiriadis was also the only Latin treatise which documented a second tone system beside the systẽma teleion, but it does not explain at all, how these both systems worked together in practice. The Hagiopolites did neither explain it nor did it mention any tone system nor the metabolē kata tonon, but this was probably because the hymn reform of Jerusalem was mainly concerned with simple models exemplified by heirmoi or troparia. Greek protopsaltai used the transposition only in very few compositions of the stichẽrarion, for instance the compositions passing through all the modes of the octoechos, or certain melismatic elaborations of troparia in the psaltic style, the soloistic style of the Constantinopolitan cathedral rite. This might explain that Charles Atkinson discussed Carolingian theory in comparison with the later Papadikai, in which all possible transpositions were represented by the Koukouzelian wheel


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-8.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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=== Latin treatises and tonaries (6th–12th century) === Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. "Einsiedeln, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. 358, pp. 144-270". «Institutionis musicae id est armonicae» with glossae maior copied at the scriptorium of Einsiedeln (10th century). Edition: Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1844–1904). "De institutione musica, liber IV". In Migne, Jacques-Paul (ed.). Patrologia cursus completus, series latina. Vol. 63. Paris: Garnier. pp. [col.1245–1286]. "Valenciennes, Bibliothèque municipale (F-VAL) Ms. 337 (olim 325, 359), fol. 42v-79v". Musica and Scolica enchiriadis in the treatise collection of the Abbey Saint-Amand (10th century). Retrieved 14 April 2012. Edition: Gerbert, Martin, ed. (1784). "Musica enchiriadis & Scholia enchiriadis de arte musica". Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra Potissimum. Vol. 1 (Hildesheim 1963 reprint ed.). St Blaise. pp. 152–212. Hucbald. "Prague, Národní knihovna (dríve Universitní knihovna), Ms. 273 olim XIX.C.26, fol. 19-28". Tonary "De harmonica institutione" with Lorrain neumes and Greek terminology in a treatise collection (ca. 1100). Retrieved 3 June 2019. Edition: Gerbert, Martin, ed. (1784). "Ubaldi seu Hucbaldi Monachi Elnonensis opuscula de musica". Scriptores Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra Potissimum. Vol. 1 (Hildesheim 1963 reprint ed.). St Blaise. pp. 103–125. Aurelian of Réôme. "Valenciennes, Bibliothèque municipale, Ms. 148, fol. 57-89". "Musica disciplina" with intonations in later added Paleofrankish neumes, Abbey


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-9.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
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== Studies == Alexandru, Maria (2000). Studie über die 'großen Zeichen' der byzantinischen musikalischen Notation unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Periode vom Ende des 12. bis Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts. University Copenhagen. Amargianakis, George (1977). "An Analysis of Stichera in the Deuteros Modes: The Stichera idiomela for the Month of September in the Modes Deuteros, Plagal Deuteros, and Nenano; transcribed from the Manuscript Sinai 1230 <A.D. 1365>" (PDF). Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge Grec et Latin. 22–23: 1–269. Atkinson, Charles M. (2001). "Tonus in the Carolingian Era: A Terminal Spannungsfeld.". In Bernhard, Michael (ed.). Quellen und Studien zur Musiktheorie des Mittelalters (PDF). Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 19–46. ISBN 978-3-76-966008-1. Atkinson, Charles M. (2008). The critical nexus: Tone-System, Mode, and Notation in Early Medieval Music. Oxford, New York [etc.]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514888-6. Busse Berger, Anna Maria (2005), Medieval Music and the Art of Memory, Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-19-514888-6. Chrysanthos of Madytos (1832), Θεωρητικὸν μεγὰ τῆς Μουσικῆς, Triest: Michele Weis, retrieved 11 April 2012. Floros, Constantin; Neil K. Moran (2009). The Origins of Russian Music - Introduction to the Kondakarian Notation. Frankfurt/Main etc.: Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-59553-4. Frøyshov, Stig Simeon R. (2007). "The


id: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos-10.md
category: reference
title: Hagiopolitan Octoechos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiopolitan_Octoechos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:37.114775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hagiopolitan-octoechos-20260505-0
summary:
== External links == Jeffery, Peter (4 December 2010). "At the Origins of the Byzantine Musical Tradition: The Eight Modes". White Plains: Axion Estin Foundation. Retrieved 29 January 2013. "Hesperinos psalm with the sticheron anastasimon «Νίκην ἔχον Χριστὲ» in echos plagios devteros". Music School «Ὁ ἅγιος Ἀχίλλιος» of Larissa. 2 October 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2024. Father Nektarios of the Skete Hagia Anna on Mount Athos. "Sticheron idiomelon «Σὲ τὸν ἐπὶ ὑδάτων» (Holy Saturday) in echos plagios devteros". YouTube. Retrieved 17 May 2024. Petros Peloponnesios (February 2018). "Katavasies (heirmologion argon) «Σταυρὸν χαράξας Μωσῆς» (odes 1, 7 and 9 of the canon) for the feast of the elevation of the cross (14 September) in echos plagios tetartos". Archon Protopsaltes Demosthenis Païkopoulos. Retrieved 17 May 2024. Meyer, Christian; et al. "Sources of Medieval Music Theory". Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften online. Retrieved 16 January 2012. "Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum". Index for the 9th-11th century. Jacobs School of Music, Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405. Retrieved 19 December 2025. Ibn al-Munadjdjim (French)


id: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht-0.md
category: reference
title: Jennifer Michael Hecht
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:38.296364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-0
summary:
Jennifer Michael Hecht (born November 23, 1965) is a teacher, author, poet, historian, and philosopher. She was an associate professor of history at Nassau Community College (1994–2007) and most recently taught at The New School in New York City. Hecht has seven published books, her scholarly articles have been published in many journals and magazines, and her poetry has appeared in The New Yorker, The New Republic, Ms. Magazine, and Poetry Magazine, among others. She has also written essays and book reviews for The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Philadelphia Inquirer, The American Scholar, The Boston Globe and other publications. She has written several columns for The New York Times online "Times Select." In 2010 Hecht was one of the five nonfiction judges for the National Book Award. Hecht is a longtime blogger for The Best American Poetry series web site and maintains a personal blog on her website. She resides in Brooklyn, New York. == Background == Born in Glen Cove, New York on Long Island, Hecht attended Adelphi University, where she earned a BA in history, for a time studying at the Université de Caen, and the Université d'Angers. She earned her PhD in the history


id: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht-1.md
category: reference
title: Jennifer Michael Hecht
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:38.296364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-0
summary:
Hecht believes that, "the basic modern assumptions about how to be happy are nonsense." In a review of her book, The Happiness Myth for The New York Times, Alison McCulloch summed it up, "What you think you should do to be happy, like getting fitter and thinner, is part of a 'cultural code' — 'an unscientific web of symbolic cultural fantasies' — and once you realize this, you will perhaps feel a little more free to be a lot more happy." Similarly, in an interview on the Point of Inquiry podcast in 2007, she said "I'm not trying really to get somebody out of depression, but I sure am trying to get people to not be so worried, so anxious over things that really don't matter." She has written against agnosticism, calling "philosophically silly" the argument that because you can't prove a negative we have to allow for the possibility of God. "Either you doubt everything to the point where you can't speak, or you make reasoned decisions." Hecht is an anti-suicide advocate, writing an entire book (Stay: A History of Suicide and the Philosophies Against It) arguing against it. She believes not only that "Suicide is delayed homicide", but


id: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht-2.md
category: reference
title: Jennifer Michael Hecht
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:38.296364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jennifer-michael-hecht-20260505-0
summary:
== Published works == Her debut poetry collection, The Next Ancient World, artfully mixes contemporary and ancient world views, histories, and myths. In 2002 it received the Tupelo Press Judge's Prize in Poetry, the Norma Farber First Book Award from the Poetry Society of America, as well as ForeWord Magazine's award for Poetry Book of the Year. Her second collection, Funny, explores the implications of the human love of humor and jokes. It won the 2005 Felix Pollak Prize from the University of Wisconsin Press. Her most recent collection, Who Said (Copper Canyon Press, 2013), playfully asks the title question of some of the most iconic English language poems. In 2003 Hecht published two books of history and philosophy with two different publishers. The first, Doubt: A History, is an epic, worldwide study of religious doubt throughout history. The other, The End of the Soul, is a profile of an unusual group of nineteenth-century French anthropologists who formed the Society of Mutual Autopsy to discover links between personality, ability and brain morphology. It received the prestigious Ralph Waldo Emerson Award for 2004 from Phi Beta Kappa society "for scholarly studies that contribute significantly to interpretations of the intellectual and cultural


id: hellenophilia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenophilia-0.md
category: reference
title: Hellenophilia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenophilia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:39.446814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hellenophilia-20260505-0
summary:
Hellenophilia is the idea that all western science began in Greek tradition. This is discussed in length by David Pingree in his address to colleagues. Hellenophilia is a way of thought that allows those who look into the history of science to be blinded to science born in other cultures. Pingree states, in explanation of the term that "a Hellenophile suffers from a form of madness that blinds him or her to historical truth" He continues by explaining the main symptoms of Hellenophilia "the first of these is that the Greeks invented science; the second is that they discovered a way to truth, the scientific method, that we are now successfully following; the third is that the only real sciences are those that began in Greece; and the fourth (and last?) is that the true definition of science is just that which scientists happen to be doing now, following a method or methods adumbrated by the Greeks, but never fully understood or utilized by them". An anthropological etiology of Greek innovation in natural science is advanced by sociologist Michael G. Horowitz in "The Scientific Dialectic of Ancient Greece and the Cultural Tradition of Indo-European Speakers". Although Hellenophilia relates directly to


id: history-of-geology-and-mining-information-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)-0.md
category: reference
title: History of Geology and Mining (Information System)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:40.633559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-geology-and-mining-information-system-20260505-0
summary:
Information System "History of Geology and Mining" (Russian: Информационная система «История геологии и горного дела») is a scientific information system (knowledge base, bibliographic database and non-commercial website) containing biographical, bibliographical data and documents about scientists, scientific organizations, and publications related to geological and mining sciences. It is a joint project of the Geological Institute and the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It represents the first attempt to systematize and provide access to a large array of data in the field of the history of geology and mining. It was created to support and facilitate scientific research in the history of science. == History == The information system is a continuation of the printed publications in the series “Materials on the History of Geology in the USSR”. Versions of the "History of Geology and Mining" information system: Test version on the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences website (2011—2015 — scirus.benran.ru/higeo. At the Geological Institute RAS: 2015–2025 at higeo.ginras.ru. New test version at https://higeo.ru == Description and structure == The system was created based on the customizable network software complex "SciRus" developed at the Library for Natural Sciences of the Russian Academy


id: history-of-geology-and-mining-information-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)-1.md
category: reference
title: History of Geology and Mining (Information System)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Geology_and_Mining_(Information_System)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:40.633559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-geology-and-mining-information-system-20260505-0
summary:
1961—1992 — Materials of the Commission for the Geological Study of the USSR. 1965—1973 — Biographies and bibliographies of scientists in the form of bibliographic dictionaries, edited for the first 7 issues by V. V. Tikhomirov. In 1991, the Department for the history of geology moved to the newly established Vernadsky State Geological Museum. Data collection began using Microsoft Access; by 2007, brief information on 1,700 scientists whose works were significant for the development of Earth sciences had been entered. The system was then planned to be integrated into the standard software complex "Scientific Institute of the RAS", in cooperation with the Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre of the RAS. In 2008, the history of geology group began work under the Program of the RAS Presidium — the Electronic Library "Scientific Heritage of Russia", which united information resources of scientific institutes, archives, and libraries of the RAS. The library hosted publications of naturalists and geologists (up to 1945), their biographical essays, and portraits. A section "Natural History Collections" was created with descriptions of museum items from historical and monographic collections related to scientists. Therefore, the modern information system is integrated (links to scientific works, information about authors, etc.) with the "Scientific Heritage


id: history-of-scholarship-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scholarship-0.md
category: reference
title: History of scholarship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scholarship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:41.806796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-scholarship-20260505-0
summary:
The history of scholarship is the historical study of fields of study which are not covered by the English term "science" (cf., history of science), but are covered by, for example, the German term "Wissenschaft" (i.e., all kinds of academic studies). Examples include the history of classical studies, philosophy, religion, biblical studies, historiography, music, art, and literature. It is a field which has recently undergone a complete renewal and is now a major branch of research. In 2015, the Society for the History of the Humanities was established, coinciding with the launch of the journal History of Humanities in 2016. Both developments reflect the field’s growing institutional presence and international scholarly collaboration. == Classical scholarship == Rudolph Pfeiffer (1968) describes the history of classical scholarship from its revival inspired by Petrarch to the achievements of the Italian humanists and the independent movement in Holland (including Erasmus) and the German scholar-reformers. Pfeiffer traces the development of classical scholarship in the countries of Western Europe through the next two centuries, with particular attention to sixteenth-century France and eighteenth-century England. Finally he provides an account of the new approach made by Winckelmann and his successors in Germany. == Philosophers, scholars, polymaths, and scientists


id: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-0.md
category: reference
title: History of beliefs about the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:44.087591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
The human body has been subject of much debate. How people are defined, and what defined them – be it their anatomy or their energy or both – depends on culture and time. Culture not only defines how sex is perceived but also how gender is defined. Today gender, sex, and identity continue to be of much debate and change based on what place and people are being examined. The early modern idea of the body was a cultural ideal, an understanding and approach to how the body works and what place that body has in the world. All cultural ideals of the body in the early modern period deal with deficiencies and disorders within a body, commonly told through a male ideal. Ideas of the body in the early modern period form the history of how bodies should be and how to correct the body when something has gone wrong. Therefore, early modern conceptions of the body were not biological as there was not a restrictive biological view of the human body as established by modern science. Conceptions of the body are primarily either eastern, based in China and involving practices such as Traditional chinese medicine, or western, which


id: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-1.md
category: reference
title: History of beliefs about the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:44.087591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
Greek philosophers separated the body and the energy of the body into separate but equal and interacting categories. Aristotle defined the energy which gives the body its movement as the soul. The soul and the body are therefore linked but can remain separate entities. This is in refutation of Dualists who view the body and mind as separate states and should be treated and examined differently and Materialists who view all parts of the body, even the soul as having a physical manifestation in the body. Aristotle finds the middle ground and accepts both of these views, that the soul has aspects that cannot be felt by normal methods, and physical manifestations that can be felt. "For even if one and being are spoken of in several ways, what is properly so spoken of is the actuality" — Aristotle in De Anima Aristotle forms the idea of Hylomorphism, that the soul and the body are not capable of being split apart without destroying both in the process. Despite this idea of the body and the soul Aristotle viewed disorder in what could be seen and felt. He was a proponent of the humoral theory that classified disorder as imbalances of


id: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body-2.md
category: reference
title: History of beliefs about the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_beliefs_about_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:44.087591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-beliefs-about-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
=== Yellow Emperors body === The Yellow Emperor's Body is a term derived from the references to the Yellow Emperor within the Ancient Chinese book, the "book of change". The Term describes the references to both the physical body that can be touched, felt, and interact with the physical world, but also the sense of person and self that the body. The dualism of the body as both the physical self and the subjective consciousness is how Chinese defined the body. The Yellow Emperor's body is a metaphor to describe a body that focuses on the individual and not the general, focusing on disorder as not just a physical malady. The yellow emperor is revered in China and was the founder of acupuncture. The yellow emperor is said to of derived his medical practices from a conversation with a community physician. The manuscript is recorded in the Yellow Emperors Inner Cannon, and it being recorded in this way represents the attention to the individuals perspective in creating therapies like acupuncture to treat body ailments. The Inner Cannon was revised by natural Philosophers of the time and the approved version of the Han Court and became a foundational text for the


id: ice-age-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age-0.md
category: reference
title: Ice age
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:23:45.291799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-20260505-0
summary:
An ice age is a period of time when the lower temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere results in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. The term is applied in several different senses to very long and comparatively short periods of cooling. Colder periods are called glacials or ice ages, and warmer periods are called interglacials. Earth's climate alternates between icehouse and greenhouse periods based on whether there are glaciers on the planet, and for most of Earth's history it has been in a greenhouse period with little or no permanent ice. Over the very long term, Earth is currently in an icehouse period called the Late Cenozoic Ice Age, which started 34 million years ago. There have been colder and warmer periods within this ice age, and the term is also applied to the Quaternary glaciation, which started 2.58 million years ago. Within this period, the Last Interglacial ended 115,000 years ago, and was followed by the Last Glacial Period (LGP), which gave way to the current warm Holocene, which started 11,700 years ago. The most severe cold period of the LGP was the Last Glacial Maximum, which reached its maximum between


