# kb

id: dinosaur-in-a-haystack-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack-0.md
category: reference
title: Dinosaur in a Haystack
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:41.944833+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dinosaur-in-a-haystack-20260505-0
summary:
Dinosaur in a Haystack (1995) is the seventh volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. It collects essays culled from Gould's monthly column "The View of Life" published in Natural History magazine, which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution, science biography, probabilities, and strange oddities found in nature. His essay "Poe's Greatest Hit" analyzes the controversial conchology textbook The Conchologist's First Book (1839), edited by Edgar Allan Poe. Poe's volume on natural history sold out within two months, and was his only book republished during his lifetime. Essay "Dinomania" is a review of Michael Crichton's novel Jurassic Park and Steven Spielberg's blockbuster film of the same name. == Reception == The book received favorable reviews in Publishers Weekly and The New York Times. == References == == External links == Up Against the Wall - by Steve Jones Essay Summaries - by Lawrence N. Goeller Dinosaur in a Haystack Review - by Danny Yee Book review by Kathryn Denning Two Cultures - by Howard A. Doughty, Innovation Journal Dinosaur in a Haystack Hooking Leviathan by Its Past Dinomania Cordelia's Dilemma Of Tongue Worms, Velvet Worms, and Water


id: distillation-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation_Design-0.md
category: reference
title: Distillation Design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation_Design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:43.141059+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distillation-design-20260505-0
summary:
Distillation Design is a book which provides complete coverage of the design of industrial distillation columns for the petroleum refining, chemical and petrochemical plants, natural gas processing, pharmaceutical, food and alcohol distilling industries. It has been a classical chemical engineering textbook since it was first published in February 1992. The subjects covered in the book include: Vapor–liquid equilibrium(VLE): Vapor–liquid K values, relative volatilities, ideal and non-ideal systems, phase diagrams, calculating bubble points and dew points Key fractional distillation concepts: theoretical stages, x-y diagrams, multicomponent distillation, column composition and temperature profiles Process design and optimization: minimum reflux and minimum stages, optimum reflux, short-cut methods, feed entry location Rigorous calculation methods: Bubble point method, sum rates method, numerical methods (Newton–Raphson technique), inside out method, relaxation method, other methods Batch distillation: Simple distillation, constant reflux, varying reflux, time and boilup requirements Tray design and tray efficiency: tray types, tray capacities, tray hydraulic parameters, tray sizing and determination of column diameter, point and tray efficiencies, tray efficiency prediction and scaleup Packing design and packing efficiency: packing types, packing hydraulics and capacities, determination of packing efficiency by transfer unit method and by HETP method, packed column sizing == See also == Chemical engineer – Professional


id: does-god-play-dice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Does_God_Play_Dice-0.md
category: reference
title: Does God Play Dice?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Does_God_Play_Dice?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:44.324320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: does-god-play-dice-20260505-0
summary:
Does God Play Dice: The New Mathematics of Chaos is a non-fiction book about chaos theory written by British mathematician Ian Stewart. The book was initially published by Blackwell Publishing in 1989. == Summary == In this book, Stewart explains chaos theory to an audience presumably unfamiliar with it. As the book progresses the writing changes from simple explanations of chaos theory to in-depth, rigorous mathematical study. Stewart covers mathematical concepts such as differential equations, resonance, nonlinear dynamics, and probability. The book is illustrated with diagrams and graphs of mathematical concepts and equations when applicable. The back of the book, and a summary of its content, reads, "The science of chaos is forcing scientists to rethink Einstein's fundamental assumptions regarding the way the universe behaves. Chaos theory has already shown that simple systems, obeying precise laws, can nevertheless act in a random manner. Perhaps God plays dice within a cosmic game of complete law and order. Does God Play Dice? reveals a strange universe in which nothing may be as it seems. Familiar geometric shapes such as circles and ellipses give way to infinitely complex structures known as fractals, the fluttering of a butterfly's wings can change the weather, and


id: don-t-be-such-a-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don't_Be_Such_a_Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Don't Be Such a Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don't_Be_Such_a_Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:45.452783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: don-t-be-such-a-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Don't Be Such A Scientist: Talking Substance in an Age of Style is a book published by Island Press written by scientist-turned-filmmaker Randy Olson which arises from a talk of the same title Olson gave to science audiences at universities and museums for five years preceding its publication. The focus of the book is the challenge scientists face in communicating to the general public in an age of information-overload. Olson draws on his two careers, first as a marine biologist who achieved a tenured professorship, then his second career which began when he then resigned to attend film school and acting classes, eventually becoming an independent feature filmmaker. Among other topics, the book addresses the role of spontaneity, storytelling, and likeability in the mass communication of science. == Reviews == Science News Discover Magazine NPR == References ==


id: the-dragons-of-eden-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragons_of_Eden-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dragons of Eden
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragons_of_Eden
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:46.628846+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dragons-of-eden-20260505-0
summary:
The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence is a 1977 book by Carl Sagan, in which the author combines the fields of anthropology, evolutionary biology, psychology, and computer science to give a perspective on how human intelligence may have evolved. Sagan discusses the search for a quantitative means of measuring intelligence. He argues that the brain to body mass ratio is an extremely good correlative indicator for intelligence, with humans having the highest ratio and dolphins the second highest, though he views the trend as breaking down at smaller scales, with some small animals (ants in particular) placing disproportionately high on the list. Other topics mentioned include the evolution of the brain (with emphasis on the function of the neocortex in humans), the evolutionary purpose of sleep and dreams, demonstration of sign language abilities by chimps and the purpose of mankind's innate fears and myths. The title "The Dragons of Eden" is borrowed from the notion that man's early struggle for survival in the face of predators, and in particular a fear of reptiles, may have led to cultural beliefs and myths about dragons. The Dragons of Eden won a Pulitzer Prize. In 2002, John Skoyles


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-0.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:47.882363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
The Dream Pool Essays (or Dream Torrent Essays) was an extensive book written by the Chinese polymath and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095), published in 1088 during the Song dynasty (960–1279). Shen compiled this encyclopedic work while living in forced retirement from government office, naming the book after his private estate near modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu province. The Dream Pool Essays was heavily reorganized in reprint editions by later Chinese authors from the late 11th to 17th centuries. In modern times it has been translated from Chinese into several languages. These include English, German, French, and Japanese translations. The Dream Pool Essays covers a range of topics including discoveries and advancements in traditional Chinese medicine, mathematics, astronomy, science and technology, optics, architecture and civil engineering, metallurgy, and early archaeology. Observations of the natural world included those of wildlife, meteorology, hypotheses advancing early ideas in geomorphology and climate change based on findings of petrification and natural erosion, and strange recorded phenomena such as the description of an unidentified flying object. In addition to establishing the theory of true north in magnetic declination towards the North Pole, Shen was also the first to record the use of a compass for navigation, the first to


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-1.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:47.882363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
In recent years [cca. 1080] there was a landslide on the bank of a large river in Yong-ning Guan near Yanzhou. The bank collapsed, opening a space of several dozens of feet, and under the ground a forest of bamboo shoots was thus revealed. It contained several hundred bamboo with their roots and trunks all complete, and all turned to stone...Now bamboos do not grow in Yanzhou. These were several dozens of feet below the present surface of the ground, and we do not know in what dynasty they could possibly have grown. Perhaps in very ancient times the climate was different so that the place was low, damp, gloomy, and suitable for bamboos. On the Jin-hua Shan in Wuzhou there are stone pine-cones, and stones formed from peach kernels, stone bulrush roots, stone fishes, crabs, and so on, but as these are all (modern) native products of that place, people are not very surprised at them. But these petrified bamboos appeared under the ground so deep, though they are not produced in that place today. This is a very strange thing. === Astronomy === When the Director of the Astronomical Observatory asked Shen Kuo if the shapes of the


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-2.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:47.882363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
=== Personal beliefs and philosophy === Of Taoism and the inability of empirical science to explain everything in the world, Shen Kuo wrote: Those in the world who speak of the regularities underlying the phenomena, it seems, manage to apprehend their crude traces. But these regularities have their very subtle aspect, which those who rely on mathematical astronomy cannot know of. Still even these are nothing more than traces. As for the spiritual processes described in the [Book of Changes] that "when they are stimulated, penetrate every situation in the realm," mere traces have nothing to do with them. This spiritual state by which foreknowledge is attained can hardly be sought through changes, of which in any case only the cruder sort are attainable. What I have called the subtlest aspect of these traces, those who discuss the celestial bodies attempt to know by depending on mathematical astronomy; but astronomy is nothing more than the outcome of conjecture. === Dissertation on the Timberwork Manual === Below are two passages from Shen's book outlining the basics contained in Yu Hao's Timberwork Manual. Yu Hao was a Chinese architect of the earlier 10th, and Kuo was one to praise his work. In


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-3.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:47.882363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
A house belonging to Li Shunju was struck by lightning. Brilliant sparkling light was seen under the eaves. Everyone thought that the hall would be burnt, and those who were inside rushed out. After the thunder had abated, the house was found to be alright, though its walls and the paper on the windows were blackened. On certain wooden shelves, certain lacquered vessels with silver mouths had been struck by the lightning, so that the silver had melted and dropped to the ground, but the lacquer was not even scorched. Also, a valuable sword made of strong steel had been melted to liquid, without the parts of the house nearby being affected. One would have thought that the thatch and wood would have been burnt up first, yet here were metals melted and no injury to thatch and wood. This is beyond the understanding of ordinary people. There are Buddhist books which speak of 'dragon fire' which burns more fiercely when it meets with water instead of being extinguished by water like 'human' fire. Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary life, but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous. How insecure


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-4.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:47.882363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bibliography === Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press. Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine. Singapore: Singapore University Press ISBN 9971-69-259-7 Mohn, Peter (2003). Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction. New York: Springer-Verlag Inc. ISBN 3-540-43183-7. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 1: Botany. Taipei, Caves Books Ltd. Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. Ropp, Paul S. (1990). Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese History. Berkeley: University of California Press.


id: eight-little-piggies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Little_Piggies-0.md
category: reference
title: Eight Little Piggies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Little_Piggies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:52.573457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eight-little-piggies-20260505-0
summary:
Eight Little Piggies (1993) is the sixth volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were selected from his monthly column "The View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book covers topics that are common to Gould's writing in a discursive manner, including evolution and its teaching, science biography, probabilities, and common sense. The title essay, "Eight Little Piggies", is a thought piece on the prevalence of five digits on hands and feet throughout the animal kingdom. It also explores concepts such as archetypes and polydactyly via the anatomy of early tetrapods. Other essays discuss themes such as the scale of extinction, vertebrate anatomy, grand patterns of evolution, and human nature. == References == == External links == The Snail Wars - by Derek Bickerton, The New York Times Book review - by Howard A. Doughty, College Quarterly Book review - John Farrell, National Review Book review - Edward Kay, Eye Weekly W. W. Norton promotional page Google Books - contains book excerpts and jacket description


id: einstein-s-unfinished-symphony-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein's_Unfinished_Symphony-0.md
category: reference
title: Einstein's Unfinished Symphony
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein's_Unfinished_Symphony
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:53.759901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-s-unfinished-symphony-20260505-0
summary:
Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time is a 2000 non-fiction book by Marcia Bartusiak about the preliminary work preceding operational efforts to detect the gravitational waves predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity. She tells the story of LIGO's two gravitational-wave observatories in Louisiana and Washington State, with some mention of other such observatories in Italy, Germany, Japan, and Australia, and the scientists and scientific considerations involved. Initial LIGO operations between 2002 and 2010 did not detect any gravitational waves. After technical enhancements, gravitational waves were first detected in 2016. After the detection, Bartusiak wrote an updated version entitled Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: The Story of a Gamble, Two Black Holes, and a New Age of Astronomy published in 2017 by Yale University Press. == Reception == For her 2000 book, Bartusiak won the 2001 American Institute of Physics Science Writing Award to a Journalist. The route to LIGO was long and checkered; it is beautifully recounted by Marcia Bartusiak in her latest book, Einstein’s Unfinished Symphony. ... She has clearly made a great effort to interview all major players in the field, scan the literature, and capture the relevant science. What results is an easy-to-read and clear


id: the-emperor-s-new-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor's_New_Mind-0.md
category: reference
title: The Emperor's New Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor's_New_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:54.917216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-emperor-s-new-mind-20260505-0
summary:
The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics is a 1989 book by the mathematical physicist Roger Penrose that posits a quantum mind theory. Penrose argues that human consciousness is non-algorithmic, and thus is not capable of being modeled by a conventional Turing machine, which includes a digital computer. Penrose hypothesizes that quantum mechanics plays an essential role in the understanding of human consciousness. The collapse of the quantum wavefunction is seen as playing an important role in brain function. Most of the book is spent reviewing, for the scientifically-minded lay-reader, a plethora of interrelated subjects such as Newtonian physics, special and general relativity, the philosophy and limitations of mathematics, quantum physics, cosmology, and the nature of time. Penrose intermittently describes how each of these bears on his developing theme: that consciousness is not "algorithmic". Only the later portions of the book address the thesis directly. == Overview == Penrose states that his ideas on the nature of consciousness are speculative, and his thesis is considered erroneous by some experts in the fields of philosophy, computer science, and robotics. The Emperor's New Mind attacks the claims of artificial intelligence using the physics of computing: Penrose notes


id: energy-and-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_and_Power-0.md
category: reference
title: Energy and Power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_and_Power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:56.123426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: energy-and-power-20260505-0
summary:
Energy and Power is a 1962 science book for children by L. Sprague de Camp, illustrated by Weimer Pursell and Fred Eng, published by Golden Press as part of The Golden Library of Knowledge Series. It has been translated into Portuguese and Spanish. The title blurb summarizes the content as "How man uses animals, wind, water, heat, electricity, chemistry, and atoms to perform work." == Notes ==


id: engineering-and-the-mind-s-eye-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_and_the_Mind's_Eye-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineering and the Mind's Eye
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_and_the_Mind's_Eye
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:31:57.419541+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-and-the-mind-s-eye-20260505-0
summary:
Engineering and the Mind's Eye (1992) is a book by Eugene S. Ferguson, an engineer and historian of science and technology. It was published by MIT Press. In it, Ferguson discusses the importance of the mind's eye for the practicing engineer, including spatial visualization and visual thinking. == Preface == A major argument of the book is summarized as follows in the preface: Since World War II, the dominant trend in engineering has been away from knowledge that cannot be expressed as mathematical relationships. The art of engineering has been pushed aside in favor of the "engineering sciences," which are higher in status and easier to teach. The underlying argument of this book is that an engineering education that ignores its rich heritage of nonverbal learning will produce graduates who are dangerously ignorant of the myriad subtle ways in which the real world differs from the mathematical world their professors teach them. == Chapters == The book comprises 7 chapters and two additional sections on notes about the text and its figures. The chapters are: The Nature of Engineering Design The Mind's Eye Origins of Modern Engineering The Tools of Visualization The Development and Dissemination of Engineering Knowledge The Making


id: engines-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engines_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Engines (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engines_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:00.347416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engines-book-20260505-0
summary:
Engines: Man's Use of Power, from the Water Wheel to the Atomic Pile is a science book for children by L. Sprague de Camp, illustrated by Jack Coggins, published by Golden Press as part of its Golden Library of Knowledge Series in 1959. A revised edition was issued in 1961, and a paperback edition in 1969. The book has been translated into Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, Portuguese, and German. == Summary == As stated on the cover, the work is a survey of "Man's use of power, from the water wheel to the atomic pile." The topic is covered in short segments, titled "The Age of Engines," "Putting Energy to Work," "The First Engines," "Water and Wind Engines," "Early Steam Engines," "How a Steam Engine Works", "Steam Turbines," "Internal-combustion engines," "Otto Cycle Engines," "Two-stroke Cycle Engines," "Diesel Engines," "Gas Turbines," "Rockets," "Electric Motors," "How an Electric Motor Works," "Electric Generators and Power Systems," "Atomic Engines," and "How a Reactor Works." There is a brief one-page topical index. == Reception == The Science News-Letter, in its July 18, 1959 issue, listed the book among its "Books of the Week," describing the work as a "[f]actual book for young readers." == Notes ==


id: das-entdeckte-geheimnis-der-natur-im-bau-und-in-der-befruchtung-der-blumen-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:01.582785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: das-entdeckte-geheimnis-der-natur-im-bau-und-in-der-befruchtung-der-blumen-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_entdeckte_Geheimnis_der_Natur_im_Bau_und_in_der_Befruchtung_der_Blumen-0.md

summary:
Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen (The Secret of Nature in the Form and Fertilisation of Flowers Discovered) by Christian Konrad Sprengel was published in 1793, but received little acclaim during the author's lifetime. Sprengel's ideas were rejected by other naturalists when it was published, but the importance of this work was duly appreciated by Charles Darwin some sixty years later. Darwin's use of Sprengel's ideas and reference to this book in the seminal work on the Fertilisation of Orchids established Sprengel's book as one of the most important works in the fields of floral biology and pollination ecology and its author as a founding father of these fields. The fact that flowers have a sexual role had been recognised earlier by Linnaeus who did not investigate any functional significance of the visits of insects, but by Sprengel's time it was known that they were sometimes involved in fertilisation. These were thought to be chance visits and nectar was not thought to be intended for insects. Sprengel's book introduced a functional view, which would today be called ecology, and provided evidence that pollination was an organised process in which insects acted as "living

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_entdeckte_Geheimnis_der_Natur_im_Bau_und_in_der_Befruchtung_der_Blumen


id: escaping-the-rabbit-hole-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaping_the_Rabbit_Hole-0.md
category: reference
title: Escaping the Rabbit Hole
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaping_the_Rabbit_Hole
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:02.819615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escaping-the-rabbit-hole-20260505-0
summary:
Escaping the Rabbit Hole: How to Debunk Conspiracy Theories Using Facts, Logic, and Respect is a non-fiction book by Mick West that describes a method for helping people disengage from conspiratorial beliefs through patient dialogue, clear evidence, and an emphasis on trust building. Skyhorse Publishing released the first edition in 2018. A revised and updated edition appeared in 2023 with new case material on the COVID-19 pandemic, election fraud narratives, QAnon, and contemporary UFO claims. The work combines practical communication tactics with case studies drawn from West's investigations on the Metabunk forum. == Background == West is a science writer and investigator who founded Metabunk, an online forum focused on analyzing extraordinary claims. The book emerged from a decade of moderating and documenting conversations with believers and former believers, which shaped the focus on respectful engagement, calibration of claims to evidence, and attention to the social dynamics around conspiracist communities. An excerpt from the book appeared in Salon before publication, outlining steps for approaching a friend who believes a conspiracy theory, including establishing common ground, isolating specific points of disagreement, and agreeing on shared standards of evidence. == Contents == The first edition sets out a communication framework that prioritizes


id: evil-genes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_Genes-0.md
category: reference
title: Evil Genes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_Genes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:03.999963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evil-genes-20260505-0
summary:
Evil Genes is a book by Barbara Oakley, a systems engineer, about the neurological and social factors contributing to chronic antisocial behavior. The text was published on October 31, 2008, by Prometheus Books. The book has earned both praise and criticism for its treatment of what Oakley considers gaps in psychological research surrounding "successfully sinister" individuals—those who show subclinical symptoms of personality disorders, and who are often found in positions of authority in politics, religion, business, and academia. == See also == Psychopathy The Mask of Sanity Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work The Psychopath Test == References == == Further reading == Erich Fromm: The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness == External links == Official website


id: evolution-what-the-fossils-say-and-why-it-matters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution:_What_the_Fossils_Say_and_Why_It_Matters-0.md
category: reference
title: Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution:_What_the_Fossils_Say_and_Why_It_Matters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:05.230905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolution-what-the-fossils-say-and-why-it-matters-20260505-0
summary:
Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters is a 2007 book by American paleontologist Donald Prothero where he documents the evolutionary history of fossil vertebrates. == Summary == Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters was written as a response to Duane Gish's 1995 book Evolution: The Fossils Still Say No! It is dedicated to Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould to recognize their contributions to the fields of paleontology and evolutionary biology. The foreword, written by Michael Shermer, is titled Why People Do Not Accept Evolution. The book is divided into two sections. In section one Prothero provides a detailed description of evolution and its relationship to the study of biology. The second section provides a distinct discussion of the fossil record. In a review of the book Peter Dodson says "Prothero points out that the evolution of horses, elucidated since the 1870s, remains one of the finest demonstrations of evolutionary change over time." Prothero is well prepared to cover the topic due to his knowledge of the fossil record, geology, biogeography, embryology, contemporary abiogenetic theory and Biblical origins. One example of the compelling presentations in the book is Prothero's illustrated discussion of tiktaalik, otherwise


id: experiments-and-observations-on-different-kinds-of-air-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:09.817781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiments-and-observations-on-different-kinds-of-air-20260505-0
summary:
Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1774–86) is a six-volume work published by 18th-century British polymath Joseph Priestley which reports a series of his experiments on "airs" or gases, most notably his discovery of the oxygen gas (which he called "dephlogisticated air"). == Airs == While working as a companion for Lord Shelburne, Priestley had a great deal of free time to engage in scientific investigations. The Earl even set up a laboratory for him. Priestley's experiments during his years in Calne were almost entirely confined to "airs" and from this work emerged his most important scientific texts: the six volumes of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. These experiments helped repudiate the last vestiges of the theory of four elements; as one early biographer writes: "taken collectively, [Priestley] did more than those of any one of his contemporaries to uproot and destroy the only generalisation by which his immediate predecessors had sought to group and connect the phenomena of chemistry", however "he was wholly unable to perceive this fact." Priestley's work on "airs" is not easily classified. As historian of science Simon Schaffer points out, it "has been seen as a branch of physics, or


id: experiments-and-observations-on-different-kinds-of-air-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air-1.md
category: reference
title: Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:09.817781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiments-and-observations-on-different-kinds-of-air-20260505-0
summary:
Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of Experiments and Observations on Air and published it in 1776. He does not emphasise his discovery of "dephlogisticated air" (leaving it to Part III of the volume) but instead argues in the preface how important such discoveries are to rational religion. His paper narrates the discovery chronologically, relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements. Thus, it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley "discovered" oxygen. Such dating is significant as Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele both have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well, Scheele having been first to isolate the gas (although he published after Priestley) and Lavoisier having been first to describe it as purified "air itself entire without alteration" (not "dephlogisticated air"). == Scientific work on Airs == In this section, a list of all Priestley's scientific books on Airs has been compiled. The list doesn't include any of the several scientific papers, that he also wrote to various journals on the subject (see: List of works by Joseph Priestley). Books from 1772 to 1790: Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air. London, 1772. Experiments and Observations


id: experiments-and-observations-on-electricity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiments and Observations on Electricity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:11.008947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiments-and-observations-on-electricity-20260505-0
summary:
Experiments and Observations on Electricity is a treatise by Benjamin Franklin based on letters that he wrote to Peter Collinson, who communicated Franklin's ideas to the Royal Society. The letters were published as a book in England in 1751, and over the following years the book was reissued in four more editions containing additional material, the last in 1774. Science historian I. Bernard Cohen crafted an edition with historical commentary that was published in 1941. == References == == Further reading == "Experiments and Observations, [April 1751]". Founders Online. National Archives. Original source: Labaree, Leonard W., ed. (1961). The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 4, July 1, 1750, through June 30, 1753. Yale University Press. pp. 125–130. Watson, William (1751). "An Account of Mr. Benjamin Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published, Intituled, Experiments and Observations on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in America; By Wm. Watson, F. R. S.". Philosophical Transactions. 47: 202–211. JSTOR 105044. == External links == Experiments and observations on electricity, made at Philadelphia in America (1751), scanned from a copy in Franklin's personal library with his own handwritten notes, at the Internet Archive


id: fads-and-fallacies-in-the-name-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:12.123271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fads-and-fallacies-in-the-name-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science (1957)—originally published in 1952 as In the Name of Science: An Entertaining Survey of the High Priests and Cultists of Science, Past and Present—was Martin Gardner's second book. A survey of what it described as pseudosciences and cult beliefs, it became a founding document in the nascent scientific skepticism movement. Michael Shermer said of it: "Modern skepticism has developed into a science-based movement, beginning with Martin Gardner's 1952 classic". The book debunks what it characterises as pseudoscience and the pseudo-scientists who propagate it. == Contents == === Synopsis === Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science starts with a brief survey of the spread of the ideas of "cranks" and "pseudo-scientists", attacking the credulity of the popular press and the irresponsibility of publishing houses in helping to propagate these ideas. Cranks often cite historical cases where ideas were rejected which are now accepted as right. Gardner acknowledges that such cases occurred, and describes some of them, but says that times have changed: "If anything, scientific journals err on the side of permitting questionable theses to be published". Gardner acknowledges that "among older scientists ... one may occasionally meet with irrational prejudice


id: fads-and-fallacies-in-the-name-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:12.123271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fads-and-fallacies-in-the-name-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the Name of Science the introductory chapter Flat and Hollow the Flat Earth theory of Wilbur Glenn Voliva the Hollow Earth theories of John Cleves Symmes, Jr. and Cyrus Reed Teed Monsters of Doom Immanuel Velikovsky’s Worlds in Collision William Whiston’s A New Theory of the Earth Ignatius Donnelly’s Ragnarok; Hanns Hörbiger’s Welteislehre and Hörbiger’s disciple Hans Schindler Bellamy. The Forteans Charles Fort, Tiffany Thayer and the Fortean Society The Hutchins-Adler Great Books Movement: "most of them regard scientists, on the whole, as a stupid lot." Flying Saucers Kenneth Arnold, the Mantell UFO Incident Raymond Palmer, Richard Shaver, Donald Keyhoe, Frank Scully, Gerald Heard and the Unidentified flying object movement. Zig-Zag-and-Swirl Alfred Lawson and his "Lawsonomy" Down with Einstein! Joseph Battell, Thomas H. Graydon, George Francis Gillette, Jeremiah J. Callahan and others. Sir Isaac Babson Roger Babson and the Gravity Research Foundation. Dowsing Rods and Doodlebugs Solco Walle Tromp and radiesthesia Kenneth Roberts, Henry Goss and their dowsing. Under the Microscope Andrew Crosse, Henry Charlton Bastian, Charles Wentworth Littlefield and others who claimed to observe spontaneous generation of living forms. Geology versus Genesis Philip Henry Gosse and his Omphalos George McCready Price and The New Geology Mortimer Adler’s writings


id: fads-and-fallacies-in-the-name-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science-2.md
category: reference
title: Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:12.123271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fads-and-fallacies-in-the-name-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Just as an experienced doctor is able to diagnose certain ailments the instant a new patient walks into his office, or a police officer learns to recognize criminal types from subtle behavior clues which escape the untrained eye, so we, perhaps, may learn to recognize the future scientific crank when we first encounter him. == Reception == A contemporary review in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette particularly welcomed Gardner's critical remarks about Hoxsey Therapy and about Krebiozen, both of which were being advanced as anti-cancer measures at that time. The review concluded that the book "should help to counteract some amusing and some positively harmful cults, the existence of which is all too often promoted by irresponsible journalism." The work has often been mentioned in subsequent books and articles. Louis Lasagna, in his book The Doctors' Dilemmas, considered it to be a "superb account of scientific cults, fads, and frauds" and wrote that "This talented writer combines solid fact with a pleasing style." Sociologist of religion Anson D. Shupe took in general a positive attitude, and praises Gardner for his humor. But he says If there is a single criticism to be made of Gardner ... it is that he accepts too


id: fauna-entomologica-scandinavica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_Entomologica_Scandinavica-0.md
category: reference
title: Fauna Entomologica Scandinavica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_Entomologica_Scandinavica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:13.340544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fauna-entomologica-scandinavica-20260505-0
summary:
Fauna Entomologica Scandinavica is a scientific book series of entomological identification manuals for insects (and other terrestrial arthropods) in North-West Europe, mainly Fennoscandia and Denmark. The series is used by a number of groups, such as ecologists, biologists, and insect collectors. The books are in English, and published by the Dutch academic publishing house Brill. == Titles == == References ==


id: finding-darwin-s-god-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God-0.md
category: reference
title: Finding Darwin's God
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:14.566361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: finding-darwin-s-god-20260505-0
summary:
Finding Darwin's God: A Scientist's Search for Common Ground Between God and Evolution is a 2000 book by the American cell biologist and Roman Catholic Kenneth R. Miller wherein he argues that evolution does not contradict religious faith. Miller argues that evolution occurred, that Earth is not young, that science must work based on methodological naturalism, and that evolution cannot be construed as an effective argument for atheism. He examines various views of God and evolution, before describing his own. == Content == Darwin’s Apple discusses Miller’s first encounter with Darwin’s' On the Origin of Species. He summarizes the main points: “Breeders did draw upon the range of variation in domestic animals and plants to make new varieties. A similar range of variation did exist in nature. The conditions of life did place each individual in competition with others. And this competition clearly affected the range of variation that survived.” He quotes Thomas Huxley on first reading Origin: “How foolish of me not to have thought of it!” He asks: “Does evolution nullify all world views that depend upon the spiritual? Does it demand logical agnosticism as the price of scientific consistency? And does it rigorously exclude belief in God?


id: finding-darwin-s-god-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God-1.md
category: reference
title: Finding Darwin's God
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Darwin's_God
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:14.566361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: finding-darwin-s-god-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Kirkus Reviews called it a “well-reasoned, intelligent text describing why followers of mainstream religions can also embrace the theory of evolution.” Per Publishers Weekly, Miller “displays an impressive fairness, which he communicates in friendly, conversational prose. This is a book that will stir readers of both science and theology, perhaps satisfying neither, but challenging both to open their minds.” Liz Marlantes writes “Miller's scientific arguments are compelling, presented in terms that any layman could understand. He's never condescending or dull.” == References == == Reviews == Review of Finding Darwin's God by Henry E. Neufeld (theistic evolutionist) Review of Kenneth Miller's "Finding Darwin's God" by Michael Ruse for Metanexus Institute (agnostic) Yin and Yang of Kenneth Miller: How Professor Miller finds Darwin's God by Amiel Rossow (skeptic) Review of Kenneth Miller's Finding Darwin's God Archived 2016-04-30 at the Wayback Machine by Edward B. Davis (Christian historian of science), based on a version published by Reports of the National Center for Science Education 22.1-2 (Jan-Apr 2002): 47–8. == External links == Official website


id: five-billion-years-of-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Billion_Years_of_Change-0.md
category: reference
title: Five Billion Years of Change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Billion_Years_of_Change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:15.715514+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: five-billion-years-of-change-20260505-0
summary:
Five Billion Years of Change: A History of the Land (2003, ISBN 157230958X) is a book by Denis Wood that attempts a holistic view of reality that ranges from the Big Bang to the World Wide Web. Specifically, this books deals with the formation of various structures: the universe the Earth and its atmosphere, oceans, and continents the origin of life the evolution of humans the development of agriculture the rise and fall of civilizations contemporary globalization A key theme is repeated through this book: humans have a tendency to divide our understandings into "history" and "prehistory". People are shocked when some event from prehistory intrudes upon their current lives; Wood likens the shock of this intrusion to an expulsion from the Garden of Eden. This division is a metaphor for various artificial divisions; for example: the formation of the Earth, the pre-biotic chemistry, and the origin of life before the Industrial Revolution and our subsequent modern era Instead of thinking in terms of artificial divisions of "now" and "back then", readers should develop an intuitive mindset of graduated changes in which the "fossils" of the ancient past are intermingled with contemporary objects; for instance, the "oxygen holocaust" of the


id: fooled-by-randomness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fooled_by_Randomness-0.md
category: reference
title: Fooled by Randomness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fooled_by_Randomness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:16.832402+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fooled-by-randomness-20260505-0
summary:
Fooled by Randomness: The Hidden Role of Chance in Life and in the Markets is a book by Nassim Nicholas Taleb that deals with the fallibility of human knowledge. It was first published in 2001. Updated editions were released a few years later. The book is the first part of Taleb's multi-volume philosophical essay on uncertainty, titled the Incerto, which also includes The Black Swan (2007–2010), The Bed of Procrustes (2010–2016), Antifragile (2012), and Skin in the Game (2018). == Thesis == Taleb sets forth the idea that modern humans are often unaware of the existence of randomness. They tend to explain random outcomes as non-random. Human beings: overestimate causality, e.g., they see elephants in the clouds instead of understanding that they are in fact randomly shaped clouds that appear to our eyes as elephants (or something else); tend to view the world as more explainable than it really is. So they look for explanations even when there are none. Other misperceptions of randomness that are discussed include: Survivorship bias. We see the winners and try to learn from them, while forgetting the huge number of losers. Skewed distributions. Many real life phenomena are not 50:50 bets like tossing a


id: the-fringe-of-the-unknown-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fringe_of_the_Unknown-0.md
category: reference
title: The Fringe of the Unknown
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fringe_of_the_Unknown
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:18.019820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-fringe-of-the-unknown-20260505-0
summary:
The Fringe of the Unknown is a science book by L. Sprague de Camp, first published in hardcover and paperback by Prometheus Books in 1983. == Summary == The book is a collection of articles that constitute a "study ... of controversial and often little-known happenings in science and technology, with an emphasis on the wayward activities of those who dabble in fringe science." The material is organized in three sections, "Our Ingenious Forebears," "Beasts of Now and Then," and "Scientists, Mad and Otherwise." The first debunks extravagant occult and pseudoscientific claims regarding ancient civilizations while highlighting these cultures' actual accomplishments. The second performs much the same function in regard to biology, focusing on elephants, claims regarding the survival of dinosaurs into the present day, and past extinction events. The third explores the distinction between science and pseudoscience as illustrated in the lives of a number of scientists holding extreme views. == Contents == Part I. Our Ingenious Forebears 1. "The Wisdom of the Ancients" (from Science Fiction Quarterly, Nov. 1951) 2. "Apollonios Enlists" (from Astounding Science Fiction, Jun. 1961) 3. "Appius Claudius Crassus" (original title: "Appius Claudius Crassus: Roman Builder") (from Science Digest, Jun. 1962) 4. "The First Missile


id: from-eros-to-gaia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Eros_to_Gaia-0.md
category: reference
title: From Eros to Gaia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Eros_to_Gaia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:19.255596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: from-eros-to-gaia-20260505-0
summary:
From Eros to Gaia is a non-fiction scientific book of 35 non-technical writings by Freeman Dyson, Professor Emeritus of Physics at Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study. This book is a collection of essays written from 1933 (when Dyson was nine years old) to 1990. It was originally published by Pantheon Books in 1992. The book begins with Dyson's juvenile 1933 science fiction story concerning the asteroid Eros. The pieces in the collection range over anecdotal history, expository popular-science articles, lectures on public policity related to science, political issues concerning problems created by science and technology, book reviews, and people (known personally by Dyson) such as Richard Feynman, Paul Dirac, and Helen Dukas. The book ends with Dyson's contribution Gaia to Clifton Fadiman's 1990 collection Living Philosophies. The concluding essay deals with the value and potential of the emerging Gaia philosophy. Along with articles on quantum field theory and the mystery of unaccounted-for carbon in the biosphere, there are tributes to Richard Feynman and Paul Dirac, a travel sketch on Armenia and Dyson's proposed 60-year program for space science, including manned missions to Mars. The book has been translated into Spanish (1994), French (1995), and Japanese (2005). == References ==


id: germs-biological-weapons-and-america-s-secret-war-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germs:_Biological_Weapons_and_America's_Secret_War-0.md
category: reference
title: Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germs:_Biological_Weapons_and_America's_Secret_War
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:20.443768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: germs-biological-weapons-and-america-s-secret-war-20260505-0
summary:
Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War is a 2001 book written by New York Times journalists Judith Miller, Stephen Engelberg, and William Broad. It describes how humanity has dealt with biological weapons, and the dangers of bioterrorism. It was the 2001 New York Times #1 Non-Fiction Bestseller the weeks of October 28 and November 4. == Overview == Germs, is a work of investigative journalism employing biographical and historical narrative to provide context. The three authors interviewed hundreds of scientists and senior U.S. officials, and reviewed recently declassified documents, and reports from the former Soviet Union's bioweapons laboratories. == Summary == The book opens with an account of the 1984 salmonella poisonings in The Dalles, Oregon, caused by followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh who sprayed salmonella onto salad bars. Other research shows how Moscow scientists created an untraceable germ that would induce the body to self-destruct, and reveals that the U.S. military planned for germ warfare on Cuba during the 1960s. Three classified U.S. biodefense projects are detailed: Project Bacchus, Project Clear Vision, and Project Jefferson. Germs concludes with an assessment of the United States' ability to deter future bio-attack. == Reviews == The New York Times Book Review


id: golden-guide-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Guide-0.md
category: reference
title: Golden Guide
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Guide
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:25.365123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: golden-guide-20260505-0
summary:
The Golden Guides, originally Golden Nature Guides, were a series of 160-page, pocket-sized books created by Western Publishing and published under their "Golden Press" line (primarily a children's book imprint) from 1949. Edited by Herbert S. Zim and Vera Webster, the books were written by experts in their field and featuring realistic color illustrations. Intended for primary and secondary school level readers, the first books were field guides illustrated by James Gordon Irving, with such titles as Birds (1949), Insects (1951), and Mammals (1955). The series later expanded beyond identification guides to cover a wider range of subjects, such as Geology (1972), Scuba Diving (1968), and Indian Arts (1970). In 1966, Zim launched a related series, the Golden Field Guides, aimed at high school or college-age readers. An updated series was relaunched in 2001 as "Golden Guides by St. Martin's Press", illustrated largely with photographs but retaining some of the original 1950s illustrations. == List of Golden Guides == == References == == External links == Golden Guide from St. Martin's Press - Current list of Golden Guides List of the original Golden Guide titles with links to cover images


id: good-faith-collaboration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Faith_Collaboration-0.md
category: reference
title: Good Faith Collaboration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Faith_Collaboration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:26.574314+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: good-faith-collaboration-20260505-0
summary:
Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia is a 2010 book by Joseph M. Reagle Jr. that deals with the topic of Wikipedia and the Wikipedia community. The book was first published on August 27, 2010, through the MIT Press and has a foreword by Lawrence Lessig. The book is an ethnographic study of the history of Wikipedia, its real life and theoretical precursors, and its culture including its consensus and collaborative practices. The book has been described as a pioneering ethnographic study of the culture of Wikipedia. Reagle's main thesis has been summarized as the argument that "the success of Wikipedia may be less technological than a consequence of the community of Wikipedians and their cultural norms". == History of publication == Good Faith Collaboration is based on Reagle's PhD dissertation. Reagle, the book's author, is a scholar specializing in sociology of the Internet, as well as a Wikipedia volunteer. In writing the book, Reagle relied on documents produced by the Wikipedia community, such as "content pages, discussion pages, mailing lists, newsletters, and meet-ups". The book was published in 2010 by MIT Press. In September 2011, the Web edition of the book was released under a Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


id: good-faith-collaboration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Faith_Collaboration-1.md
category: reference
title: Good Faith Collaboration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Faith_Collaboration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:26.574314+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: good-faith-collaboration-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == William S. Kowinski, in a review of the book for the North Coast Journal published in 2010, wrote that "What this book does well is describe how Wikipedia works and what issues have arisen... this may remain the best opportunity for learning about this remarkable project." Cory Doctorow, in a 2010 review on the Boing Boing portal, said that Reagle "offers a compelling case that Wikipedia's most fascinating and unprecedented aspect isn't the encyclopedia itself – rather, it's the collaborative culture that underpins it: brawling, self-reflexive, funny, serious, and full-tilt committed to the project". The book was also reviewed by R. Stuart Geiger for The Wikipedia Signpost that year. He commended the author on his involvement in the Wikipedia project, which has allowed him to create a work that "goes well beyond most accounts written about Wikipedia, insisting on studying Wikipedians both on and in their own terms." Geiger concluded that the book "is well-written, well-sourced, and neutral; something I'd recommend for my mother." He also noted that the book had been praised by the then-director of the Wikimedia Foundation, Sue Gardner, on her blog. Humphreys Lee, reviewing the book for the Journal of Communication in 2011,


id: great-mambo-chicken-and-the-transhuman-condition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mambo_Chicken_and_the_Transhuman_Condition-0.md
category: reference
title: Great Mambo Chicken and the Transhuman Condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mambo_Chicken_and_the_Transhuman_Condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:27.804438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: great-mambo-chicken-and-the-transhuman-condition-20260505-0
summary:
Great Mambo Chicken and the Transhuman Condition is a non-fiction book copyright 1990 by Ed Regis, an American author and educator, that presents a lighthearted look at scientific visionaries planning for a future with "post-biological" people, space colonization, nanotechnology, and cryonics. The book emphasizes the personality and projects of Robert Truax, Eric Drexler, Gerard K. O'Neill, Chris Langton, Freeman Dyson, Hans Moravec, Ralph Merkle, Robert Forward, Keith Henson, Carolyn Meinel, Gary Hudson, Saul Kent, and a number of others. == External links == Book PDF. == References ==


id: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar-0.md
category: reference
title: A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:29.017883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
summary:
A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar, also known as The Guide to Science or Brewer's Guide to Science, is a book by Ebenezer Cobham Brewer presenting explanations for common phenomena. First published in the United Kingdom around 1840, the book is laid out in the style of a catechism and proved very popular. 47 editions were printed by 1905 in English alone and translations made into various other languages. A revised version was produced for the US market which was digitised and republished in 2005 as part of Making of America IV: the American voice, 1850–1877. Although it presented itself as an accurate science text, the book actually promotes religious ideas, including divine design. The popularity of The Guide to Science enabled Brewer to gather material for his Dictionary of Phrase and Fable which remains a classic reference work. == Content == The object of The Guide to Science was to present answers to over 2000 questions about common phenomena. There are questions dealing with man-made objects such as candles, stoves and chimneys, as well as answers seeking to explain natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning (including a mention of ball lightning), clouds, dew, and rainbows. Brewer


id: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar-1.md
category: reference
title: A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:29.017883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception and legacy == A review of the second edition of The Guide to Science was published by Punch magazine in 1850. The book was seen to be a "very useful little work", but in the typical Punch satirical style, the reviewer disagreed with one answer that we "feel a desire for activity in cold weather" due to "fanning combustion in the blood" by instead insisting that we feel a desire "to sit cosily over a fire in cold weather". The success of The Guide to Science convinced Brewer that his readers still accepted religious explanations rather than evolutionary theory. Following the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, Brewer wrote Theology in Science; or The Testimony of Science to the Wisdom and Goodness of God (published in 1860) in order to demonstrate that evolution had not destroyed theological tradition and to continue The Guide to Science's promotion of natural theology. The book's popularity also resulted in Brewer being sent "a large number of questions on all imaginary matters". These questions and their answers became the nucleus of Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, first published in 1870. This latter book has long outlived all of Brewer's


id: the-history-and-present-state-of-electricity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_and_Present_State_of_Electricity-0.md
category: reference
title: The History and Present State of Electricity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_and_Present_State_of_Electricity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:30.343446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-history-and-present-state-of-electricity-20260505-0
summary:
The History and Present State of Electricity (1767), by eighteenth-century British polymath Joseph Priestley, is a survey of the study of electricity up until 1766, as well as a description of experiments by Priestley himself. == Background == Priestley became interested in electricity while he was teaching at Warrington Academy. Friends introduced him to the major British experimenters in the field: John Canton, William Watson, and Benjamin Franklin. These men encouraged Priestley to perform the experiments he was writing about in his history; they believed that he could better describe the experiments if he had performed them himself. In the process of replicating others' experiments, however, Priestley became intrigued by the still unanswered questions regarding electricity and was prompted to design and undertake his own experiments. Priestley possessed an electrical machine designed by Edward Nairne. With his brother Timothy he designed and constructed his own machines (see Timothy Priestley#Scientific apparatus). == Contents == The first half of the 700-page book is a history of the study of electricity. It is parted into ten periods, starting with early experiments "prior to those of Mr. Hawkesbee", finishing with variable experiments and discoveries made after Franklin's own experiments. The book takes Franklin's work


id: the-hot-zone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hot_Zone-0.md
category: reference
title: The Hot Zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hot_Zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:31.616366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-hot-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The Hot Zone: A Terrifying True Story is a best-selling 1994 nonfiction thriller by Richard Preston about the origins and incidents involving viral hemorrhagic fevers, particularly ebolaviruses and marburgviruses. The basis of the book was Preston's 1992 New Yorker article "Crisis in the Hot Zone". The filoviruses—including Ebola virus, Sudan virus, Marburg virus, and Ravn virus—are Biosafety Level 4 agents, extremely dangerous to humans because they are very infectious, have a high fatality rate, and most have no known prophylactic measures, treatments, or cures. Along with describing the history of the devastation caused by two of these Central African diseases, Ebola virus disease and Marburg virus disease, Preston described a 1989 incident in which a relative of Ebola virus, Reston virus, was discovered at a primate quarantine facility in Reston, Virginia, less than 15 miles (24 km) away from Washington, D.C. == Synopsis == The book is in four sections: "The Shadow of Mount Elgon" delves into the history of filoviruses, as well as speculation about the origins of AIDS. Preston recounts the story of "Charles Monet" (a pseudonym), who might have caught Marburg virus from visiting Kitum Cave on Mount Elgon in Kenya. The author describes the progression of


id: the-hot-zone-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hot_Zone-1.md
category: reference
title: The Hot Zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hot_Zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:31.616366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-hot-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The discovery of the Reston virus was made in November 1989 by Thomas W. Geisbert, an intern at United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases. Peter B. Jahrling isolated the filovirus further. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention conducted blood tests of the 178 animal handlers. While six tested positive, they did not exhibit any symptoms. The Reston virus was found to have low pathogenicity in humans. This was further supported later when a handler infected himself during a necropsy of an infected monkey, as the handler did not show symptoms of the virus after the incubation period. == Reception == The Hot Zone was listed as one of around 100 books that shaped a century of science by American Scientist. Many reviews of The Hot Zone exemplify the impact the book had on the public's view of emerging viruses. A review in the British Medical Journal captures the paranoia and public panic described in this book. The reviewer was left "wondering when and where this enigmatic agent will appear next and what other disasters may await human primates". This can also be seen in a review in the Public Health Reports which highlights the "seriousness of


id: how-the-self-controls-its-brain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_the_Self_Controls_Its_Brain-0.md
category: reference
title: How the Self Controls Its Brain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_the_Self_Controls_Its_Brain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:32.739473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: how-the-self-controls-its-brain-20260505-0
summary:
How the Self Controls Its Brain is a book by Sir John Eccles, proposing a theory of philosophical dualism, and offering a justification of how there can be mind-brain action without violating the principle of the conservation of energy. The model was developed jointly with the nuclear physicist Friedrich Beck in the period 1991–1992. Eccles called the fundamental neural units of the cerebral cortex "dendrons", which are cylindrical bundles of neurons arranged vertically in the six outer layers or laminae of the cortex, each cylinder being about 60 micrometres in diameter. Eccles proposed that each of the 40 million dendrons is linked with a mental unit, or "psychon", representing a unitary conscious experience. In willed actions and thought, psychons act on dendrons and, for a moment, increase the probability of the firing of selected neurons through quantum tunneling effect in synaptic exocytosis, while in perception the reverse process takes place. Previous mention of the "psychon" The earliest prior use of the word "psychon" with a similar meaning of an "element of consciousness" is in the book "Concerning Fluctuating and Inaudible Sounds" by K. Dunlap in 1908. The most popular prior use is in Robert Heinlein's short story Gulf, wherein a


id: how-to-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_To_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: How To (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_To_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:33.952376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: how-to-book-20260505-0
summary:
How To: Absurd Scientific Advice for Common Real-World Problems is a book by Randall Munroe in which the author provides absurd suggestions based in scientific fact on ways to solve some common and some absurd problems. The book contains a range of possible real-world and absurd problems, each the focus of a single chapter. The book was released on September 3, 2019. == Production == Munroe had the idea for How To while working on his 2014 book, What If?, which answered questions submitted by readers of Munroe's blog. While working on the book, Munroe started to think about problems that he would like to solve and the consequences of solving them in different ways. While researching his answers for How To, Munroe investigated how to dry out a phone that has fallen in water. However, he could not find a reliable practical answer, and did not want to give readers bad information. Ultimately, Munroe decided to omit the question from his book. As part of researching the chapter on "How to Catch a Drone", Munroe reached out to professional tennis player Serena Williams to knock a drone out of the sky by hitting it with a tennis ball. Williams'


id: how-to-build-a-dinosaur-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Build_a_Dinosaur-0.md
category: reference
title: How to Build a Dinosaur
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Build_a_Dinosaur
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:35.123856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: how-to-build-a-dinosaur-20260505-0
summary:
How to Build a Dinosaur: Extinction Doesn't Have to Be Forever is a 2009 book by paleontologist Jack Horner and James Gorman. The book outlines Horner's theory for being able to resurrect a maniraptoran dinosaur by altering the genes of a chicken embryo. In 2010, a paperback version was published under the title How to Build a Dinosaur: The New Science of Reverse Evolution. == Summary == Paleontologist Jack Horner describes evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) and outlines his theory for being able to resurrect a maniraptoran dinosaur from a chicken embryo, by activating and deactivating certain genes to restore dormant dinosaur characteristics such as a tail, claws, teeth, and a snout. Horner also discusses paleontology in the book. == Background and publication == Horner's idea for the "Chickenosaurus" project came from "a pretty good script" that was written for Jurassic Park IV early in its development. The film's story, at that time, was expected to involve genetic engineering of dinosaurs. Horner was planning the book with co-author James Gorman in spring 2005. Gorman was deputy science editor for The New York Times, and had previously co-written Horner's 1990 book, Digging Dinosaurs. Horner and his publisher planned for the book to


id: the-human-zoo-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Human_Zoo_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Human Zoo (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Human_Zoo_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:36.305494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-human-zoo-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Human Zoo is a book written by the British zoologist Desmond Morris, published in 1969. It is a follow-up to his earlier book The Naked Ape; both books examine how the biological nature of the human species has shaped the character of the cultures of the contemporary world. The Human Zoo examines the nature of civilised society, especially in the cities. Morris compares the human inhabitants of a city to the animal inhabitants of a zoo, which have their survival needs provided for, but at the cost of living in an unnatural environment. Humans in their cities, and animals in their zoos, both have food and shelter provided for them, and have considerable free time on their hands. But they have to live in an unnatural environment, and are both likely to have problems in developing healthy social relationships, both are liable to suffer from isolation and boredom, and both live in a limited amount of physical space. The book explains how the inhabitants of cities and zoos have invented ways to deal with these problems, and the consequences that follow when they fail at dealing with them. From this point of view, Morris examines why civilised society is


id: the-hunting-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunting_Hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: The Hunting Hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunting_Hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:40.892308+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-hunting-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Hunting Hypothesis: A Personal Conclusion Concerning the Evolutionary Nature of Man (commonly known as The Hunting Hypothesis) is a 1976 work of paleoanthropology by Robert Ardrey. It is the final book in his widely read Nature of Man Series, which also includes African Genesis (1961) and The Territorial Imperative (1966). The work deals with the ramifications of evolutionarily inherited traits in man, particularly those that developed through hunting. It was also one of the earliest books to warn about the possible dangers of climate change. == Theories and controversy == Ardrey's main focus in The Hunting Hypothesis was to examine the ways in which human evolution developed with and because of hunting behavior, and the effects on modern man of inherited traits related to this evolution. At the time of the publication of The Hunting Hypothesis there was still significant controversy surrounding the thesis that early man hunted for food. Ardrey's work was often attacked for its focus on human aggression. In particular, Ashley Montagu, representing a camp known as the "Blank State" theorists, who believed that man's behavior was entirely socially determined, marshaled fourteen scientists to refute Ardrey and his predecessors (chiefly Konrad Lorenz) in two volumes. Though


id: i-am-a-strange-loop-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_a_Strange_Loop-0.md
category: reference
title: I Am a Strange Loop
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_a_Strange_Loop
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:42.067943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: i-am-a-strange-loop-20260505-0
summary:
I Am a Strange Loop is a 2007 book by Douglas Hofstadter, examining in depth the concept of a strange loop to explain the sense of "I". The concept of a strange loop was originally developed in his 1979 book Gödel, Escher, Bach. In the end, we are self-perceiving, self-inventing, locked-in mirages that are little miracles of self-reference. == Content == Hofstadter had previously expressed disappointment with how Gödel, Escher, Bach, which won the 1980 Pulitzer Prize for general nonfiction, was received. In the preface to its 20th anniversary edition, he laments that the book was perceived as a hodgepodge of neat things with no central theme. He writes: "GEB is a very personal attempt to say how it is that animate beings can come out of inanimate matter. What is a self, and how can a self come out of stuff that is as selfless as a stone or a puddle?" Hofstadter seeks to remedy this problem in I Am a Strange Loop by focusing on and expounding the central message of Gödel, Escher, Bach. He demonstrates how the properties of self-referential systems, demonstrated most famously in Gödel's incompleteness theorems, can be used to describe the unique properties of


id: the-icepick-surgeon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Icepick_Surgeon-0.md
category: reference
title: The Icepick Surgeon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Icepick_Surgeon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:43.281946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-icepick-surgeon-20260505-0
summary:
The Icepick Surgeon: Murder, Fraud, Sabotage, Piracy, and Other Dastardly Deeds Perpetrated in the Name of Science is a 2021 American nonfiction book written by Sam Kean and published by Little, Brown and Company. It features a series of stories throughout the past several centuries involving abuses and crimes committed by scientists in the pursuit of knowledge at all costs. Extensive documents and other historical sources, among additional facts portrayed through footnotes, are used to discuss the impact of various individuals from their actions, along with an appendix contemplating on the potential future crimes that may be committed by new scientific advancements. == Content == The book is split into chapters generally in chronological order. It begins and ends with the same quote from Albert Einstein, which reads "Most people say that it is the intellect which makes a great scientist. They are wrong: it is character." A prologue to the book has its own apocryphal story about Egyptian Queen Cleopatra originally written by the philosopher Plutarch. It claims that the Queen did experiments on both criminals and her own servants involving the effects of poisons and whether one could determine the sex of a child before it was born.


id: the-idiot-brain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Idiot_Brain-0.md
category: reference
title: The Idiot Brain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Idiot_Brain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:44.459470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-idiot-brain-20260505-0
summary:
The Idiot Brain is a 2016 science book by comedian and neuroscientist Dean Burnett. The book was published in the United Kingdom by Faber and Faber. It was shortlisted for the 2016 Goodreads Best Science & Technology Book Award. == Reception == Critical reception for The Idiot Brain has been positive, with The Independent describing it as "a wonderful introduction to neuroscience." and The Wall Street Journal as "Entertaining…[A] grand tour around modern cognitive science and psychology." == References ==


id: in-the-name-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Name_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: In the Name of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Name_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:46.786460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: in-the-name-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the Name of Science is a book written by Harold L. Nieburg in 1966 concerning the political uses of science. It focuses on American defense spending on science and the U.S. military-industrial complex, and was one of the first books to discuss this issue at length. A summary appears in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 22 (March 1966), pp. 20–24, as R and D in the Contract State: Throwing Away the Yardstick in a review by Bernard L. Spinrad. == References ==


id: incomplete-nature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_Nature-0.md
category: reference
title: Incomplete Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:47.944742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incomplete-nature-20260505-0
summary:
Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter is a 2011 book by biological anthropologist Terrence Deacon. The book covers topics in biosemiotics, philosophy of mind, and the origins of life. Broadly, the book seeks to naturalistically explain "aboutness", that is, concepts like intentionality, meaning, normativity, purpose, and function; which Deacon groups together and labels as ententional phenomena. == Core ideas == Deacon's first book, The Symbolic Species focused on the evolution of human language. In that book, Deacon notes that much of the mystery surrounding language origins comes from a profound confusion about the nature of semiotic processes themselves. Accordingly, the focus of Incomplete Nature shifts from human origins to the origin of life and semiosis. Incomplete Nature can be viewed as a sizable contribution to the growing body of work positing that the problem of consciousness and the problem of the origin of life are inexorably linked. Deacon tackles these two linked problems by going back to basics. The book expands upon the classical conceptions of work and information in order to give an account of ententionality that is consistent with materialism and yet does not seek to explain away or pass off as epiphenominal the non-physical properties of


id: incomplete-nature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_Nature-1.md
category: reference
title: Incomplete Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:47.944742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incomplete-nature-20260505-0
summary:
Maximum entropy production: The organized structure of a morphodynamic system forms to facilitate maximal entropy production. In the case of a Rayleigh–Bénard cell, heat at the base of the liquid produces an uneven distribution of high energy molecules which will tend to diffuse towards the surface. As the temperature of the heat source increases, density effects come into play. Simple diffusion can no longer dissipate energy as fast as it is added and so the bottom of the liquid becomes hot and more buoyant than the cooler, denser liquid at the top. The bottom of the liquid begins to rise, and the top begins to sink - producing convection currents. Two systems: The significant heat differential on the liquid produces two homeodynamic systems. The first is a diffusion system, where high energy molecules on the bottom collide with lower energy molecules on the top until the added kinetic energy from the heat source is evenly distributed. The second is a convection system, where the low density fluid on the bottom mixes with the high density fluid on the top until the density becomes evenly distributed. The second system arises when there is too much energy to be effectively dissipated by


id: incomplete-nature-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_Nature-2.md
category: reference
title: Incomplete Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:47.944742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incomplete-nature-20260505-0
summary:
=== Thermodynamic work === A thermodynamic system's capacity to do work depends less upon the total energy of the system and more upon the geometric distribution of its components. A glass of water at 20 degrees Celsius will have the same amount of energy as a glass divided in half with the top fluid at 30 degrees and the bottom at 10, but only in the second glass will the top half have the capacity to do work upon the bottom. This is because work occurs at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. Microscopically, there is constant work being performed on one molecule by another when they collide. But the potential for this microscopic work to additively sum to macroscopic work depends on there being an asymmetric distribution of particle speeds, so that the average collision pushes in a focused direction. Microscopic work is necessary but not sufficient for macroscopic work. A global property of asymmetric distribution is also required. === Morphodynamic work === By recognizing that asymmetry is a general property of work - that work is done as asymmetric systems spontaneously tend towards symmetry, Deacon abstracts the concept of work and applies it to systems whose symmetries are vastly


id: incomplete-nature-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_Nature-3.md
category: reference
title: Incomplete Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:47.944742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incomplete-nature-20260505-0
summary:
== Information == One of the central purposes of Incomplete Nature is to articulate a theory of biological information. The first formal theory of information was articulated by Claude Shannon in 1948 in his work A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Shannon's work is widely credited with ushering in the Information Age, but somewhat paradoxically, it was completely silent on questions of meaning and reference, i.e., what the information is about. As an engineer, Shannon was concerned with the challenge of reliably transmitting a message from one location to another. The meaning and content of the message was largely irrelevant. So, while Shannon information theory has been essential for the development of devices like computers, it has left open many philosophical questions regarding the nature of information. Incomplete Nature seeks to answer some of these questions. === Shannon information === Shannon's key insight was to recognize a link between entropy and information. Entropy is often defined as a measurement of disorder, or randomness, but this can be misleading. For Shannon's purposes, the entropy of a system is the number of possible states that the system has the capacity to be in. Any one of these potential states can constitute a message.


id: inside-the-atom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_the_Atom-0.md
category: reference
title: Inside the Atom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_the_Atom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:49.260917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inside-the-atom-20260505-0
summary:
Inside the Atom is a popular science book by American author Isaac Asimov. The first edition of the book was published in 1956 by Abelard-Schuman. Revised editions were brought out in subsequent years. == Overview == The book describes the internal structure of the atom. The sequence of concepts described in the book follows the sequence that those facts were discovered in. It describes the various sub-atomic structures within the atom, and the functions they fill in the whole structure. Later chapters describe chemical elements and isotopes, the stability and instability of atomic nuclei, and finally atomic energy, the uses it has, and the threat that it poses. A review in the educational journal The Clearing House said that the book was "lucid", and that its "analytical style exemplifies the art of good teaching." The book is aimed at educated lay-readers, and high-school science students. Inside the Atom ends on a cautionary note, stating "If only we can learn to use the knowledge we already have..." In 1956, the book was used in a pilot program to advance science education sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Approximately two hundred titles were circulated amongst high schools that


id: the-internet-galaxy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Galaxy-0.md
category: reference
title: The Internet Galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:50.580826+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-internet-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and Society is a book by Manuel Castells, Professor of Sociology and Professor of City and Regional Planning at the University of California. It was published by Oxford University Press in 2001. The title is a reference to The Gutenberg Galaxy, a 1962 book by Marshall McLuhan. It is regarded as a good introduction to Social informatics. == Overview == The book contains 9 chapters. Castells starts with the history of Internet, focuses on the process of Internet evolution influence our society. He emphasizes the development of Internet from 1962 to 1995, the extension from ARPANET to WWW. Castells believes that "The openness of the Internet's architecture was the source of its main strength". Then he states that the 'Internet Culture' is structured by four kinds of culture including: 'the techno-meritocratic culture', 'the hacker culture', 'the virtual communication culture', and 'the entrepreneurial culture'. Next, Castells analyses the vital status of Internet in the business and economy fields, and he refers to the impact of virtual communication which is based on the Internet communication to the reality in the following chapter. In terms of the Politics of the Internet, Castells points that 'social


id: the-internet-galaxy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Galaxy-1.md
category: reference
title: The Internet Galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:50.580826+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-internet-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
"Human culture only exists in and by human minds, usually connected to human bodies. Therefore, if our minds have the material capability to access the whole realm of cultural expressions—select them, recombine them—we do have a hypertext: the hypertext is inside us." == The Geography of the Internet: Networked Places == "Cities are faced with a challenge... It follows that public space and monumentality (museums, cultural centers, public art, architectural icons) will play a key role in marking space, and facilitating meaningful interaction." There are different ways in which to picture the geography of the Internet. The picture of the graph on the cover of the book resembles that of Matt Britt shown on the right. == The Digital Divide in a Global Perspective == "Education, information, science, and technology become the critical sources of value creation in the Internet-based economy. Educational, informational, and technological resources are characterized by extremely uneven distribution throughout the world (UNESCO, 1999)." == Conclusion: The Challenges of the Network Society == "I imagine one could say: ″Why don't you leave me alone?! I want no part of your Internet, of your technological civilization, of your network society! I just want to live my life!″..." ==


id: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia-0.md
category: reference
title: Interpretation of Schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:51.800940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
Interpretation of Schizophrenia (first edition, 1955) is a book by Italy-born American psychiatrist Silvano Arieti in which the author sets forth demonstrative evidence of a psychological etiology for schizophrenia. Arieti expanded the book vastly in 1974 (ISBN 0-465-03429-2) and that edition won the U.S. National Book Award in the Science category. Interpretation of schizophrenia is a 756-page book divided in 45 chapters. Arieti begins his book stating that it is difficult to define schizophrenia. He asks if schizophrenia is an illness and answers in the negative, since the disorder is not understood in classic Virchowian criterion of cellular pathology. Though those searching for a biological basis of schizophrenia far outnumber those undertaking psychological approaches, Arieti supports the minority view. He believes schizophrenia is an unrealistic way to represent both the self and the world and praises psychiatrist Adolf Meyer for stressing the importance of psychological factors in the etiology of schizophrenia. == The basis of schizophrenia == Arieti examines the family history of people with schizophrenia, and references twin studies to support the notion that the potentiality for schizophrenia has a genetic basis, but maintains that this genetic potentiality is not enough to predispose someone to schizophrenia unless early life


id: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia-1.md
category: reference
title: Interpretation of Schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:51.800940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
A characteristic of Homo sapiens is a prolonged childhood with a consequently extended dependency on adults. This, according to Arieti, "is the basis of the psychodynamics of schizophrenia", a claim that also appears in later writers on child abuse such as Alice Miller and Colin Ross. Arieti reviews the paper by Frieda Fromm-Reichmann about the "schizophrenogenic" mother and reaches the tentative conclusion that only 25 percent of the mothers of people with schizophrenia in his clinical experience fit that image. However, he adds that only in a minority of schizophrenia cases "the child is able to retain the good maternal image". He clarifies that the internal maternal image is not based solely on the real mother, but is rather influenced by all relations the patient has throughout his life. The reason for this is that from infancy onward, the relationship with the mother lays the basis for all future relationships, and remains as an internal model for every relationship the patient has, and is shaped and altered by any future relations that influence the patient's view of the world, and of society at large. Arieti also mentions the work of Theodore Lidz, another trauma model author of schizophrenia. Like Lidz,


id: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia-2.md
category: reference
title: Interpretation of Schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:51.800940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
== Pre-psychotic panic == In Part three of Interpretation of schizophrenia Arieti describes how in spite of its efforts to stay in reality, the patient's defenses finally succumb when attacks on the self-image both from outside and within cause the anxiety to become too unbearable. When the patient "cannot change the unbearable situation of himself any longer, he has to change reality". Arieti examines the inner world of the person with schizophrenia, and the genesis of the schizophrenic regression. Arieti maintains that even with the schizophrenic potentiality laid down in early childhood and by genetic predisposition, not all of these cases will develop psychosis, as new defense mechanisms are acquired throughout the life of the individual. For schizophrenics however, all such attempts eventually fail at staving off a complete break. The negative self-image that is dissociated from the conscious mind of the individual may be reactivated by any number of life events, such as entering a into a new relationship, the birth of a child, or a tragic accident, the death of a relative, especially the death of parents, moving out of home, stress at work, the loss of a job, or a promotion at work which destabilizes the individual's


id: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia-3.md
category: reference
title: Interpretation of Schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:51.800940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
== Schizophrenic thinking == Arieti describes a distinct type of logic, separate from the aristotelian logic used by modern man in advanced societies, called "paleological thinking", or primary process thinking. In paleological thought, nature's events are attributed to the will of outside forces. "If the greeks were afflicted by an epidemic, it was because Phoebus wanted to punish Agamemnon." In the world of paleological thinking, every happening that is relevant to the schizophrenic's complexes is interpreted as being willed by the projected persecutors of the individual. Primary process thinking, which is only encountered in dreams and in early childhood by modern man, is adapted by the schizophrenic to reduce destructive anxiety. Aristotelian logic is abandoned almost entirely, and primary process thinking gains more and more footing as the disease progresses from acute to chronic schizophrenia. In deterministic or paleological/teleologic causality, if Nature's happenings were not willed they simply would not occur. In paranoid projection the schizophrenic takes out from him/herself a disagreeable part of the self onto the world. In Interpretation of schizophrenia Arieti illustrates all of the above theoretical constructions with concrete cases of his clinical experience as a psychiatrist. Anxiety-provoking material is projected onto the environment, because for


id: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia-4.md
category: reference
title: Interpretation of Schizophrenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:51.800940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: interpretation-of-schizophrenia-20260505-0
summary:
== Self-image of the schizophrenic == According to Arieti, the pre-schizophrenic person in early childhood fails to build a healthy self-image, being unable to assert themselves in a healthy manner against their primary caregivers, as the dominant, narcissistic and hostile parent allows the child no chance to build up healthy limits and distinctions between themselves and the parent. The dominant parent sees the child less as an individual being, and more as an extension of themselves. The passive parent who projects their hostility from the dominant parent will also thwart such attempts. This is further complicated if other family members also take part in maintaining this atmosphere of hostility. Frequently the child who later becomes schizophrenic is either the dominant parent's favorite child, on whom the dominant parent depends for their self-esteem and self-gratification, or the family scapegoat who sits at the bottom of the family hierarchy, who is used as a lightning rod for discharging hostility within the family both by siblings and by the parents. All children have an internal need to see their parents in a positive light, as the child depends on the parents for survival, even if the parental behavior is destructive to the child's


id: the-kingdom-of-speech-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_Speech-0.md
category: reference
title: The Kingdom of Speech
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_Speech
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:52.957988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-kingdom-of-speech-20260505-0
summary:
The Kingdom of Speech is a critique of Charles Darwin and Noam Chomsky written by Tom Wolfe. The book's criticisms of Chomsky are outlined in an article in Harper's. In the book, Wolfe criticises Darwin and his colleagues for taking partial credit from Alfred Wallace for the theory of evolution and ignoring Wallace's later work on the theory. Wolfe then criticises Noam Chomsky for dismissing Daniel Everett, who disputes Chomsky's claim that all languages are based ultimately on a hard-wired mechanism known as the language acquisition device (LAD). Wolfe argues that speech, not evolution, sets humans apart from animals and is responsible for all of humanity's complex achievements. == Critical response == In The Guardian, Steven Poole criticises Wolfe's whole approach to Darwin and dismisses his suggestion that Darwin had no evidence for his theory of evolution by natural selection, saying that Darwin "adduced a lot of evidence at the time, including the geographical distribution of species, comparative anatomy, fossils and the existence of vestigial organs. Today, of course, evolution is observed in real time in the laboratory, among microbes or insects." In The Washington Post, Jerry Coyne agrees that Wolfe "grossly distorts the theory of evolution". He also notes


id: laboratory-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:57.624544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-life-20260505-0
summary:
Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts is a 1979 book by sociologists of science Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar. This influential book in the field of science studies presents an anthropological study of Roger Guillemin's scientific laboratory at the Salk Institute. It advances a number of observations regarding how scientific work is conducted, including descriptions of the complex relationship between the routine lab practices performed by scientists, the publication of papers, scientific prestige, research finances and other elements of laboratory life. The book is considered to be one of the most influential works in the laboratory studies tradition within science and technology studies (STS). It is inspired by but not entirely dependent on the ethnomethodological approach. In turn, it served as the inspiration for actor–network theory (or ANT); many of ANT's core concepts (like transcription, inscription, translation, and the deployment of networks) are present in Laboratory Life. == Introduction and Methodology == Latour and Woolgar state that their work "concerns the way in which the daily activities of working scientists lead to the construction of scientific facts" (pp. 32). Laboratory Life therefore stands in opposition to the study of scandalous moments in which the so-called "normal" operation of


id: laboratory-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Life-1.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:57.624544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-life-20260505-0
summary:
== The Construction of a Fact: The Case of TRF(H) == The next chapter aims at giving a precise account of the way in which this process operates with respect to a single scientific fact: the peptide TRF(H). This historical account, which Latour and Woolgar admit is, like all histories, a "necessarily literary fiction" (107), has the ostensible purpose of qualifying the initial account given by the observer. To this end, the chapter focuses on the specific way in which TRF(H) was constructed as a fact, describing how one scientist, Guillemin, "redefine[d] the TRF subspecialty solely in terms of determining the structure of the substance" (119). As sequencing TRF(H) required far more sophisticated equipment and techniques than merely determining its physiological effects, Guillemin raised the cost of entry to this field and cut his potential competitors by three-fourths. The authors next claim that the fact regarding TRF(H)'s structure progressed by decreases in the number of "'logically' possible alternatives" (146). However, Latour and Woolgar critique the explanation that "logic" or "deduction" is a satisfactory and complete explanation for the specific way in which a scientific fact is constructed. Instead, as their historical account of TRF(H) shows, the "list of possible alternatives


id: laboratory-life-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Life-2.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:57.624544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-life-20260505-0
summary:
Slovik proposed an assay but his assay did not work everywhere; people could not repeat it; some could, some could not. Then one day Slovik got the idea that it could be related to the selenium content in the water: they checked to see where the assay worked; and indeed, Slovik's idea was right, it worked wherever the selenium content of water was high. (169) This story is contrasted with another story based on interviews with the participants: The University of California required that graduate students get credits in a field totally unrelated to their own. Sara, one of Slovik's students, fulfilled this requirement by taking selenium studies, since it had a vague relation to her major. Graduate students had a tradition of informal seminars where they discussed these unrelated classes. At one meeting, Sara presented a paper on the effects of Selenium on cancer and noted that someone on campus proposed that the geographical distribution of selenium content in water might correlate with the geographical distribution of cancer rates. Slovik was at the meeting and thought that this might explain the geographical difference in his assay working. He phoned a colleague to tell him the idea and ask him


id: lands-beyond-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lands_Beyond-0.md
category: reference
title: Lands Beyond
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lands_Beyond
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:32:58.759908+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lands-beyond-20260505-0
summary:
Lands Beyond is a study of geographical myths by L. Sprague de Camp and Willy Ley, first published in hardcover by Rinehart in 1952, and reissued by Barnes & Noble in 1993. It has been translated into French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. It was the winner of the 1953 International Fantasy Award for nonfiction. == Contents == Introduction Chapter I. The Land of Longing Chapter II. The Long Homecoming Chapter III. The Fabulous Feast Chapter IV. The Sea of Sindbad Chapter V. The Land of Prester John Chapter VI. The Mislaid Tribes Chapter VII. The Great Dream Chapter VIII. The Western Ocean Chapter IX. Golden Men and Amazons Chapter X. The Shape of the Earth Epilogue Bibliography Index == Reception == New York Times columnist Charles Poore placed Lands Beyond on his annual list of books recommended for Christmas giving. Kirkus Reviews recommended it as "a zestful geographical round-up which combines fact, legend and literature in equally interested parts". Boucher and McComas praised the book, saying it was "written with scholarly authority, literary grace, and an amusedly tolerant exposition of error, to make one of the season's most enjoyable items." New Worlds reviewer Leslie Flood described it as “fascinating”. Weird


id: lexicon-technicum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon_Technicum-0.md
category: reference
title: Lexicon Technicum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon_Technicum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:00.048311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lexicon-technicum-20260505-0
summary:
Lexicon Technicum: or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves was in many respects the first alphabetical encyclopedia written in English, compiled by John Harris, with the first volume published in 1704 and the second in 1710. Although the emphasis of the Lexicon Technicum was on mathematical subjects, its contents go beyond what would be called science or technology today, in conformity with the broad eighteenth century understanding of the terms "arts" and "science," and it includes entries on the humanities and fine arts, notably on law, commerce, music, and heraldry. However, the Lexicon Technicum neglects theology, antiquity, biography, and poetry. == Overview == The Lexicon Technicum was the work of a London clergyman, John Harris (1666-1719). Its professed advantage over French dictionaries of the arts and sciences was that it contained explanation not only of the terms used in the arts and sciences, but also of the arts and sciences themselves. Harris issued a three-page proposal for this work in 1702, and the first edition of the first volume was published in London in 1704. The first volume contains 1220 pages, 4 plates, and many additional diagrams


id: life-and-energy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_and_Energy-0.md
category: reference
title: Life and Energy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_and_Energy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:01.360024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: life-and-energy-20260505-0
summary:
Life and Energy is a 1962 book by Isaac Asimov. It is about the biological and physical world, and their contrasts and comparisons. Thus the book is divided into two sections, which is separated by further sub-sections (i.e. chapters): 1) energy; 2) body. In order to accomplish its goal, the book starts with "layman" discussions about energy and how these can be used to single out human from other living systems, or even living systems from non-living matter, what differentiates a rock from an oyster, and finishes with advanced concepts, how living systems are able to "produce" energy. == First Chapters: Energy == The first chapters covers the common questions of the distinctions between living and inanimate objects. == Following Chapters == Asimov then explains in a step by step manner about the physical world first through slow, but interesting chapters. He writes about the effect and major role of the evolution and advance of man by fire and heat, he tells about thermodynamics (and its laws), he recollects the thoughts of previous scientists, and their painstaking works, and finally, the quantum theory and radiation, which has revolutionised physics and technology. An explanation of electricity and basic chemistry laws and


id: life-science-library-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Science_Library-0.md
category: reference
title: Life Science Library
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Science_Library
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:02.459212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: life-science-library-20260505-0
summary:
The Life Science Library is a series of hardbound books published by Time Life between 1963 and 1967. Each of the 26 volumes explores a major topic of the natural sciences at a level appropriate to an educated lay readership. In each volume, the text of each of eight chapters is followed by a "Picture Essay" illustrating the subject of the preceding chapter. They were available in a monthly subscription from Life magazine. The series explains scientific concepts in simple metaphors; for example, Albert Einstein's theory of relativity is explained in a cartoon about a spy drama involving a train traveling very close to the speed of light, probability is explained with poker hands, and the periodic table of the elements is conveyed with common household items. Although progress has overtaken much of the material in the more than 50 years since their publication, the series' explanations of basic science and the history of discovery remain valid. The consulting editors of the series are microbiologist René Dubos, physicist Henry Margenau, and physicist and novelist C. P. Snow. Each volume was written by a primary author or authors, "and the Editors of LIFE". The volumes are: Matter (1963), by Ralph E.


id: little-science-big-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Science,_Big_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Little Science, Big Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Science,_Big_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:03.600077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: little-science-big-science-20260505-0
summary:
Little Science, Big Science is a book of collected lectures given by Derek J. De Solla Price, first published in 1963. The book presents the 1962 Brookhaven National Laboratory Pegram Lectures, a series of lectures dedicated to discussing science and its place in society. Price's goal in the lectures is to outline what it may look like for science to be analysed scientifically, by applying methods of measuring, hypothesizing, and deriving to science itself. With this goal in mind, he sets out to define quasi-mathematically how the shape and size of science has shifted from "small science" to "big science" in a historical and sociological way. Price presents a quantification of science as a measurable entity via an analogy to thermodynamics, conceptualizing science like a gas with individual molecules possessing individual velocities and interactions, a total volume, and general properties or laws. == Prologue to a Science of Science == Price begins the lectures by setting forth a demarcation in science centered around the modern period. He describes the phenomenon that, at the time of the lectures, 80 to 90 percent of important scientific work had occurred in one normal human life span. With this facet in mind, he sets


id: little-science-big-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Science,_Big_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Little Science, Big Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Science,_Big_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:03.600077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: little-science-big-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Galton Revisited == In this chapter, Price suggests various ideas and methods about conducting a science of science, or scientometrics, by first narrating some peculiar contributions to statistics made by Francis Galton. His overall goal is to further the possibility of applying scientific methods to science itself by suggesting various metrics and measures of the size, growth rate, and distribution of science. He focuses on Galton's work concerning the distribution of high achieving scientists and statesmen in the upper echelons of British society, specifically Hereditary Genius and English Men of Science. These works are reviewed with the goal of understanding a basic metric for the number of people or papers in science that reach different levels of quality, an idea basic in Price's formulation of scientometrics. Further, he suggests that understanding such a metric would allow predictions to be made of science and scientists when changes associated with Big Science arrive. Galton's original approach was to estimate the distribution of high achieving practitioners of science among the eminent parts of British society, and Price takes this as a starting step in grasping a scientific metric of the productivity of science. In analyzing Galton's work and the work of another


id: little-science-big-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Science,_Big_Science-2.md
category: reference
title: Little Science, Big Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Science,_Big_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:03.600077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: little-science-big-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Political Strategy for Big Scientists == The final section of the lectures focuses on a larger-picture analysis of science and the monetary trends within it. As a general first statement, Price proposes that the cost of science has been increasing proportional to the square of the number of scientists. He points out that the cost of research in terms of the GDP did not increase in the years preceding World War II, yet afterward began increasing at the rate previously mentioned. As research amounts increase, the current and necessary number of researchers increases, promoting the inducement of scientists with higher salaries and better facilities in turn increasing the overall costs of science. Price suggests that it is this feedback loop that is a potential decelerator for the growth of science, and the main difference between Little Science and Big Science. What follows is his analysis of the "explosion of science" within non-developed countries, specifically Japan. He shows through this analysis that the United States' lack of experience of this explosion of science within the 20th century up to this point is due to the saturation of society with the activities of science, nearing costs not maintainable by the country.


id: loimologia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loimologia-0.md
category: reference
title: Loimologia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loimologia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:04.760994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: loimologia-20260505-0
summary:
Loimologia, or, an historical Account of the Plague in London in 1665, With precautionary Directions against the like Contagion is a treatise by Dr. Nathaniel Hodges (1629–1688), originally published in London in Latin (Loimologia, sive, Pestis nuperæ apud populum Londinensem grassantis narratio historica) in 1672; an English translation was later published in London in 1720. The treatise provides a first-hand account of the Great Plague of London; it has been described as the best medical record of the epidemic. == Hodges' records of treatments == While most physicians fled the city, including the renowned Thomas Sydenham, and Sir Edward Alston, president of the Royal College of Physicians, Hodges was one of the few physicians who remained in the city during 1665, to record observations and test the effectiveness of treatments against the plague. The book also contains statistics on the victims in each parish. == Additions in the 1720 edition == The English translation (1720) was released while a plague was spreading throughout Marseilles, and people in England were fearful of another disease outbreak. To this 1720 edition was added An essay on the different causes of pestilential diseases, and how they become contagious; with remarks on the infection now


id: longitude-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Longitude (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:05.967266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: longitude-book-20260505-0
summary:
Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time is a 1995 best-selling book by Dava Sobel about John Harrison, an 18th-century clockmaker who created the first clock (chronometer) sufficiently accurate to be used to determine longitude at sea—an important development in navigation. The book was made into a television series entitled Longitude. In 1998, The Illustrated Longitude was published, supplementing the earlier text with 180 images of characters, events, instruments, maps and publications. == Problem of longitude == Determining longitude on land was fairly easy compared to the task at sea. A stable surface to work from, known coordinates to refer to, a sheltered environment for the unstable chronometers of the day, and the ability to repeat determinations over time made for great accuracy. For calculating longitude at sea however, early ocean navigators had to rely on dead reckoning, or if in sight of land, coastal navigation, which involves triangulating several bearings of the same land feature from different positions. Once out of sight of land, longitude became impossible to calculate, which sometimes led to tragedies in stormy or foggy conditions. In order to deal with not being able to calculate


id: longitude-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude_(book)-1.md
category: reference
title: Longitude (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:05.967266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: longitude-book-20260505-0
summary:
As Dava Sobel explains, "To know one's longitude at sea, one needs to know what time it is aboard ship and also the time at the home port or another place of known longitude—at that very same moment. The two clock times enable the navigator to convert the hour difference into geographical separation. Since the earth takes 24 hours to revolve 360 degrees, one hour marks 1/24 of a revolution or 15 degrees. And so each hour's time difference between the ship and starting point marks a progress of fifteen degrees of longitude to the east or west. "Every day at sea, when the navigator resets his ship's clock to local noon when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky, and then consults the home port clock, every hour's discrepancy between them translates into another fifteen degrees of longitude. One degree of longitude equals four minutes of time the world over, although in terms of distance, one degree shrinks from 60.15 nautical miles or 111 km [Earth's circumference being 21,653.521 nautical miles, or 24,901.55 statute miles at the Equator], to virtually nothing at the poles. "Precise knowledge of the hour in two different places at once—a longitude prerequisite


id: magia-naturalis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magia_Naturalis-0.md
category: reference
title: Magia Naturalis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magia_Naturalis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:07.148327+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magia-naturalis-20260505-0
summary:
Magia Naturalis (in English, Natural Magic) is a work of popular science by Giambattista della Porta first published in Naples in 1558. Its popularity ensured it was republished in five Latin editions within ten years, with translations into Italian (1560), French, (1565) Dutch (1566) and English (1658) printed. Natural Magic was revised and considerably expanded throughout the author's lifetime; its twenty books (Naples 1589) include observations upon geology, optics, medicines, poisons, cooking, metallurgy, magnetism, cosmetics, perfumes, gunpowder and invisible writing. Natural Magic is an example of pre-Baconian science. Its sources include the ancient learning of Pliny the Elder and Theophrastus as well as numerous scientific observations made by Della Porta. == Author == Giambattista della Porta (also known as John Baptist Porta) was born in Vico Equense, Italy, between October 3rd and November 15th, 1535 and was the second of three sons. The Porta family belonged to the ancient nobility of Solerno, granting them a modest fortune until Giambattista's father, Nardo Antonio della Porta entered the service of Emperor Charles V in 1541. This allowed the family to alternate residences between Vico Equense and Naples. The nature of Giambattista's formal education is unknown. Only two of Giambattista's teachers have been


id: man-and-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_and_Power-0.md
category: reference
title: Man and Power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_and_Power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:08.334255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: man-and-power-20260505-0
summary:
Man and Power: the Story of Power from the Pyramids to the Atomic Age is a science book for children by L. Sprague de Camp, illustrated with documents, photographs by Russ Kinne, Roman Vishniac, and others, and paintings by Alton S. Tobey, first published in hardcover by Golden Press in 1961. == Summary == As stated on the cover, the work is a survey of "the story of power from the pyramids to the atomic age." It traces the "progression of man's discovery and utilization of power ... in chapters dealing consecutively with the different sources of power--animal, wind, water, steam, internal combustion, chemical, electrical, and nuclear power, and possible future sources." == Partial Contents == Manpower Animal Power Wind Power Water Power Steam Power Internal-combustion Power Chemical Power Electric Power Nuclear Power == Reception == Thomas Goonan, writing for Library Journal, rated the book "[r]ecommended," praising its "[e]xcellent illustrations" that "elucidate the text" and "[g]ood index. Comparing it to Edward Stoddard's The Story of Power, he judged de Camp's work "[m]ore comprehensive and detailed." The Science News-Letter, in its September 23, 1961 issue, listed the book among its "Books of the Week," describing the work as a "[c]olorful panorama


id: the-meme-machine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meme_Machine-0.md
category: reference
title: The Meme Machine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meme_Machine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:12.999751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-meme-machine-20260505-0
summary:
The Meme Machine is a popular science book by Susan Blackmore on the subject of memes. Blackmore attempts to constitute memetics as a science by discussing its empirical and analytic potential, as well as some important problems with memetics. The first half of the book tries to create greater clarity about the definition of the meme as she sees it. The last half of the book consists of a number of possible memetic explanations for such different problems as the origin of language, the origin of the human brain, sexual phenomena, the Internet and the notion of the self. These explanations, in her view, give simpler and clearer explanations than trying to create genetic explanations in these fields. The idea of memes, and the word itself, were originally speculated by Richard Dawkins in his book The Selfish Gene although similar, or analogous, concepts had been in currency for a while before its publishing. Richard Dawkins wrote a foreword to The Meme Machine. In the book, Blackmore examines the difficulties associated with the meme including its definition and how to spot one as well as the difficulties which arise from seeing it as being like the gene. She sees the meme


id: the-millennial-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Millennial_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: The Millennial Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Millennial_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:14.126075+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-millennial-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Millennial Project: Colonizing the Galaxy in Eight Easy Steps by Marshall T. Savage is a book (published in 1992 and reprinted in 1994 with an introduction by Arthur C. Clarke) in the field of exploratory engineering that gives a series of concrete stages the author believes will lead to interstellar colonization. Many specific scientific and engineering details are presented, as are numerous issues involved in space colonization. == The book's thesis == Savage takes a Malthusian view of the exponential growth of human population and life in general, and also recommends the exponential growth of blue-green algae for sustenance. He states that it is humanity's destiny to colonize every star in the galaxy. He draws heavily on the Fermi paradox (briefly stated as, "If there is intelligent life in space, why haven't we found it yet?") to support his position that it is humanity's burden alone to ignite the universe with the "spark of Life." In The Millennial Project, he calls for the creation of an international foundation to realize these goals. Originally known as the First Millennial Foundation (founded by Savage in 1987), the organization changed its name to the Living Universe Foundation. == The steps of the


id: the-mind-of-god-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_of_God-0.md
category: reference
title: The Mind of God
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_of_God
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:15.294891+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mind-of-god-20260505-0
summary:
The Mind of God is a 1992 non-fiction book by Paul Davies. Subtitled The Scientific Basis for a Rational World, it is a whirlwind tour and explanation of theories, both physical and metaphysical, regarding ultimate causes. Its title comes from a quotation from Stephen Hawking: "If we do discover a theory of everything...it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason—for then we would truly know the mind of God." In the preface, Davies explains that he has been interested in ultimate causes since childhood, having annoyed his parents with unending "why's" about everything, with each answer demanding another "why," and usually ending with the reply, "Because God made it that way, and that's that!" In the book proper, Davies briefly explores: the nature of reason, belief, and metaphysics; theories of the origin of the universe; the laws of nature; the relationship of mathematics to physics; a few arguments for the existence of God; the possibility that the universe shows evidence of a deity; and his opinion of the implications of Gödel's incompleteness theorem, that "the search for a closed logical scheme that provides a complete and self-consistent explanation is doomed to failure." He concludes with a statement of his


id: mind-the-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_the_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Mind the Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_the_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:16.541663+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mind-the-science-20260505-0
summary:
Mind the Science: Saving Your Mental Health from the Wellness Industry is a 2024 book by psychologist and adjunct assistant professor at the University of Calgary, Jonathan N. Stea. This book examines the Wellness industry, the harm medical pseudoscience can have on individuals in the hope that people will be able to make more informed decisions about their health care. The book is written for the lay audience and also includes many appendices that define terms that act as a reference guide. This book was published by Oxford University Press. == Synopsis == The journal Psychiatric Times notes that the book is divided into three main sections: how to see red flags in wellness information, identifying propaganda and misinformation, and solutions "grounded in mainstream science and medicine". Stea uses many examples to explain to the layperson how seductive alternative medicine can be when science-based medicine does not offer immediate results. Using the personal story of his mother, Stea explains various pseudoscience practices such as acupuncture, reflexology, chiropractic, Reiki and more. Multiple examples used show how difficult it is to navigate through mental illness, addiction and obsessive compulsive disorder often wasting time, money and causing "great harm". == Reception == Psychologist


id: the-naked-ape-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naked_Ape-0.md
category: reference
title: The Naked Ape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naked_Ape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:18.840664+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-naked-ape-20260505-0
summary:
The Naked Ape: A Zoologist's Study of the Human Animal is a 1967 book by English zoologist and ethologist Desmond Morris that looks at humans as a species and compares them to other animals. The Human Zoo, a follow-up book by Morris that examined the behaviour of people in cities, was published in 1969. == Summary == The Naked Ape, which was serialised in the Daily Mirror newspaper and has been translated into 23 languages, depicts human behaviour as largely evolved to meet the challenges of prehistoric life as a hunter (see Nature versus nurture). The book was so named because out of 193 species of monkeys and apes, only humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) are not covered in hair. Desmond Morris, the author, who had been the curator of mammals at London Zoo, said his book was intended to popularise and demystify science. Morris said that Homo sapiens not only have the largest brains of all higher primates, but that sexual selection in human evolution has caused humans to have the highest ratio of penis size to body mass. Morris conjectured that human ear-lobes developed as an additional erogenous zone to facilitate the extended sexuality necessary in the evolution of


id: natural-obsessions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Obsessions-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural Obsessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Obsessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:20.013065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-obsessions-20260505-0
summary:
Natural Obsessions is a book written by American science author Natalie Angier published in 1988. It chronicles a year in the laboratories of two prominent cancer biologists during a period where there was a race to discover and characterize some of the first cancer-causing and cancer-suppressing genes. == Overview == It chronicles the time, about a year, that she spent in the labs of two very prominent cancer biologists, Robert Weinberg and Michael Wigler, during a period where there was a race to discover and characterize some of the first cancer causing and cancer-suppressing genes (oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, respectively). This book gives insight into the day-to-day working of a top scientific laboratory with no embellishment - both the excitement and thrill of discovery as well as the drudgery and politics can be found in Natural Obsessions. Pressure to find these genes mounts and everyone is scrambling to be the first to announce this major discovery which could have gone to several laboratories. == Commercial and critical reception == Natural Obsessions was reviewed favorably in the New York Times and Smithsonian magazine in the months after its initial publication. The book was named a New York Times Notable Book


id: nature-of-man-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_of_Man_Series-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature of Man Series
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_of_Man_Series
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:21.219995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-of-man-series-20260505-0
summary:
The Nature of Man Series is a four-volume series of works in paleoanthropology by the prolific playwright, screenwriter, and science writer Robert Ardrey. The books in the series were published between 1961 and 1976. The series majorly undermined standing assumptions in social sciences, leading to an abandonment of the "blank slate" hypothesis; incited a renaissance in the science of ethology; and led to widespread popular interest in human evolution and human origins. The first work, African Genesis (1961), particularly helped revive interest in ethology, and was a direct precursor to the Konrad Lorenz's On Aggression (1966), Desmond Morris's The Naked Ape (1967), Lionel Tiger's Men in Groups (1969), and Tiger and Robin Fox's The Imperial Animal (1971). The director of the Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program Rick Potts, cited Ardrey's work as inspiring him to go anthropology. The works were wildly popular and influenced the public imagination. Stanley Kubrick cited them as major influences in developing his films 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and A Clockwork Orange (1971). == Robert Ardrey == Robert Ardrey was a prolific playwright, screenwriter, and science writer. By the time he returned to the sciences in the 1950s, he had already had a decorated Hollywood


id: the-new-inquisition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Inquisition-0.md
category: reference
title: The New Inquisition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Inquisition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:22.418500+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-new-inquisition-20260505-0
summary:
The New Inquisition is a book written by Robert Anton Wilson and first published in 1986. The New Inquisition is a book about ontology, science, paranormal events, and epistemology. Wilson identifies what he calls "Fundamentalist Materialism" belief and compares it to religious fundamentalism. == Description == In The New Inquisition Wilson criticizes the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal by claiming that scientists do not give a fair hearing to anyone they do not already agree with. Something else he criticizes is that the dependence on the military-industrial complex is the norm. He proclaims that instead of this dictatory attitude scientists should apply skepticism, or a kind of agnostic principle, when faced with new ideas. According to Wilson, science these days glorifies the "Idol of Materialism". He calls their belief "Fundamental Materialism" and likens it to religious fundamentalists. Wilson suggests a principle that "refuses total belief or total denial and regards models as tools to be used only and always where appropriate and replaced (by other models) only and always where not appropriate". It is intended to be deliberately shocking, as Wilson states that he "does not want its ideas to seem any less startling than


id: the-new-inquisition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Inquisition-1.md
category: reference
title: The New Inquisition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Inquisition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:22.418500+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-new-inquisition-20260505-0
summary:
== Critical reception == Jim Lippard described the quality of research in the book as "very shoddy". The book had a large number of typographical errors. He also said that Wilson's message about avoiding dogmatism was worthwhile, that the book was entertaining but that readers should be careful about taking Wilsons' explanations seriously. Lippard listed inaccuracies about the Esperanza Stone, fish falling from the sky and the alleged Mars effect. Kristin Buxton compared Wilson to Martin Gardner, noting that Gardner has written on many of the topics that Wilson writes about in the book, taking very different points of view. She pointed out that Gardner does not think it is easy to exactly define pseudoscience, nor does Gardner think his ideas are infallible. She mentioned that other reviewers had pointed out problems with the research and that the book needs to be read with care. She concluded with suggesting a merging of the views of Robert Anton Wilson and Martin Gardner as a possible new approach to science. Scientist Carl Sagan criticized Wilson's characterizing people skeptical of the phenomena he relates as an "inquisition" in his book The Demon-Haunted World, writing: "Wilson... describes skeptics as a 'new inquisition.' But to


id: a-new-kind-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: A New Kind of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:23.585706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-new-kind-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
A New Kind of Science is a book by Stephen Wolfram, published by his company Wolfram Research under the imprint Wolfram Media in 2002. Wolfram explores how rules that control the interactions between cellular automata can generate surprisingly non-chaotic results. == Contents == === Computation and its implications === The thesis of A New Kind of Science (NKS) is twofold: that the nature of computation must be explored experimentally, and that the results of these experiments have great relevance to understanding the physical world. === Simple programs === The basic subject of Wolfram's "new kind of science" is the study of simple abstract rules—essentially, elementary computer programs. In almost any class of a computational system, one very quickly finds instances of great complexity among its simplest cases (after a time series of multiple iterative loops, applying the same simple set of rules on itself, similar to a self-reinforcing cycle using a set of rules). This seems to be true regardless of the components of the system and the details of its setup. Systems explored in the book include, among others, cellular automata in one, two, and three dimensions; mobile automata; Turing machines in 1 and 2 dimensions; several varieties of


id: a-new-kind-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: A New Kind of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:23.585706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-new-kind-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Systematic abstract science === While Wolfram advocates simple programs as a scientific discipline, he also argues that its methodology will revolutionize other fields of science. The basis of his argument is that the study of simple programs is the minimal possible form of science, grounded equally in both abstraction and empirical experimentation. Every aspect of the methodology NKS advocates is optimized to make experimentation as direct, easy, and meaningful as possible while maximizing the chances that the experiment will do something unexpected. Just as this methodology allows computational mechanisms to be studied in their simplest forms, Wolfram argues that the process of doing so engages with the mathematical basis of the physical world, and therefore has much to offer the sciences. Wolfram argues that the computational realities of the universe make science hard for fundamental reasons. But he also argues that by understanding the importance of these realities, we can learn to use them in our favor. For instance, instead of reverse engineering our theories from observation, we can enumerate systems and then try to match them to the behaviors we observe. A major theme of NKS is investigating the structure of the possibility space. Wolfram argues that science


id: a-new-kind-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science-2.md
category: reference
title: A New Kind of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:23.585706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-new-kind-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Periodicals gave A New Kind of Science coverage, including articles in The New York Times, Newsweek, Wired, and The Economist. Some scientists, including Cosma Shalizi and Scott Aaronson, criticized the book and perceived a fatal flaw—that simple systems such as cellular automata are not complex enough to describe the degree of complexity in evolved systems, and observed that Wolfram ignored the research categorizing the complexity of systems. Although critics accept Wolfram's result showing universal computation, they view it as minor and dispute Wolfram's claim of a paradigm shift. Others found that the work contained valuable insights and refreshing ideas. Wolfram addressed his critics in a series of blog posts. === Scientific philosophy === A tenet of NKS is that the simpler the system, the more likely a version of it will recur in a wide variety of more complicated contexts. Therefore, NKS argues that systematically exploring the space of simple programs will lead to a base of reusable knowledge. But many scientists believe that of all possible parameters, only some actually occur in the universe. For instance, of all possible permutations of the symbols making up an equation, most will be essentially meaningless. NKS has also been criticized for asserting


id: a-new-kind-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science-3.md
category: reference
title: A New Kind of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_New_Kind_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:23.585706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-new-kind-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Originality === NKS has been heavily criticized as not original or important enough to justify its title and claims. The authoritative manner in which NKS presents a vast number of examples and arguments has been criticized as leading the reader to believe that each of these is original to Wolfram; in particular, one of the most substantial new technical results presented in the book, that the rule 110 cellular automaton is Turing complete, was not proven by Wolfram. Wolfram credits the proof to his research assistant Matthew Cook. But the book's notes section acknowledges many of the discoveries made by these other scientists, citing their names together with historical facts, although not in the form of a traditional bibliography section. Additionally, the idea that very simple rules often generate great complexity is already an established idea in science, particularly in chaos theory and complex systems. == See also == Digital physics Scientific reductionism Calculating Space Marcus Hutter's "Universal Artificial Intelligence" algorithm == References == == External links == A New Kind of Science free E-Book What We've Learned from NKS YouTube playlist — extensive discussion of each NKS chapter; (As of 2022, Stephen Wolfram discusses the NKS chapters in


id: nicolaus-copernicus-gesamtausgabe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus_Gesamtausgabe-0.md
category: reference
title: Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus_Gesamtausgabe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:24.755956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nicolaus-copernicus-gesamtausgabe-20260505-0
summary:
The Nicolaus-Copernicus-Gesamtausgabe (Nicolaus Copernicus Complete Edition) is a comprehensive, commented collection of works by, about, and related to Nicolaus Copernicus. The Gesamtausgabe includes Copernicus's surviving manuscripts and notes, his published writings, other authors' commentary about Copernicus and his works, a bibliography, and a biography. Compilation of the series began in 1973 to commemorate the 500th anniversary of Copernicus's birth. The first volume is the astronomer's landmark work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), which expounded Copernicus's heliocentric theory of the universe. The set is published by Akademie Verlag in Berlin, Germany. == Volumes == I: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, 1974, ISBN 978-3-05-003897-1 II: III/1: Kommentar zu "De revolutionibus", 1998, ISBN 978-3-05-003123-1 III/3: De Revolutionibus. Die erste deutsche Übersetzung in der Grazer Handschrift, 2007, ISBN 978-3-05-004355-5 IV: V: Opera Minora 1999, ISBN 978-3-05-003498-0 VI/1: Documenta Copernicana, 1994, ISBN 978-3-05-002594-0 VI/2: Documenta Copernicana, 1996, ISBN 978-3-05-003009-8 VII: VIII/1: Receptio Copernicana, ISBN 978-3-05-003433-1 IX: Biographia Copernicana == External links == Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe at Akademie Verlag


id: orr-s-circle-of-the-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orr's_Circle_of_the_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Orr's Circle of the Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orr's_Circle_of_the_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:29.234434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orr-s-circle-of-the-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Orr's Circle of the Sciences was a scientific encyclopedia of the 1850s, published in London by William Somerville Orr. == William S. Orr & Co. == William S. Orr & Co. was a publisher in Paternoster Row, London. It put out the British Cyclopædia in ten volumes of the 1830s. It also was in business selling engravings (for example the Kenny Meadows illustrations to Shakespeare), and maps, such as a mid-century Cab Fare and Guide Map of London (c. 1853). The firm was a general commercial publisher, with a specialist area of natural history, and also published periodicals. It was innovative in its use of wood engraving, in its 1838 edition of Paul et Virginie. In children's literature, it published Christoph von Schmid's Basket of Flowers in an English translation of 1848, in partnership with J. B. Müller of Stuttgart. == William Somerville Orr == Orr himself was a publishers' agent from the 1830s, and was a close associate of Robert and William Chambers. He printed a London edition of Chambers's Edinburgh Journal by mid-1832. The arrangement used stereotype plates, and brought the circulation up to 50,000. By 1845 the circulation was declining from its peak, and Orr wrote to


id: overshoot-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Overshoot (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:30.380117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overshoot-book-20260505-0
summary:
Overshoot: The Ecological Basis of Revolutionary Change is a book by American sociologist William R. Catton Jr. The book is a critical work that many consider one of the most essential yet overlooked books of the 20th century. The book discusses how humanity's overexploitation of Earth's resources has led to a situation where our consumption exceeds the planet's capacity for regeneration. It is divided into several parts, each addressing different aspects of ecological overshoot. It covers the historical development of human society, our dependence on unsustainable practices, and the need for a new environmental perspective. Catton emphasizes that humanity must recognize and adapt to the limits imposed by nature to avoid catastrophic consequences. Catton urges humanity to adopt a more realistic and sustainable way of life on Earth. He warns that ignoring these ecological limits will have severe repercussions, and only by understanding and respecting them can we hope to create a viable future for ourselves and future generations. == Background == William Catton came of age in sociology when the major debates were about social-only theoretical orientations (structural functionalism or consensus theory versus Marxism or conflict theory) and methodology (quantitative versus qualitative). His primary contribution was articulating an environmental


id: overshoot-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-1.md
category: reference
title: Overshoot (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:30.380117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overshoot-book-20260505-0
summary:
The book emphasizes the need for a new perspective on the unsustainable exploitation of resources, which threatens future generations’ well-being. It stresses the importance of questioning old ways of thinking and putting more emphasis on being aware of the environment. The book highlights what the author calls “the tragic story of human success,” a period of rapid population growth and technological innovation, which led to an overshoot of the planet’s carrying capacity. The myth of limitlessness, distorted by technological advancements and exploitation of new lands, has exacerbated the environmental crisis. The book also discusses the culture of abundance, which led to a belief in human exemption from natural constraints. The book calls for a shift in perspective, acknowledging the ecological reality of finite resources and adapting to them. Abundance and liberty, once supported by ecological prerequisites, are under threat as living standards decline. The decline from what the author calls “the Age of Exuberance” has led to environmental changes and an overshoot crisis, causing declining living standards and political instability. Humans must acknowledge their role in altering their habitats and the interconnectedness of all life forms. The rapid growth and mechanization of agriculture have amplified this impact, suggesting a shift


id: overshoot-book-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-2.md
category: reference
title: Overshoot (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:30.380117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overshoot-book-20260505-0
summary:
In 1995, Derrick Jensen similarly chose to highlight Catton's generosity of soul—despite the dark certainty of humanity's future. In his book Listening to the Land, Jensen chose to introduce his interview with Catton by way of this pull quote from Catton's book Overshoot: In a future that is as unavoidable as it will be unwelcome, survival and sanity may depend upon our ability to cherish rather than to disparage the concept of human dignity. In 2008, the introductory paper (by Richard York) for the "Symposium on Catton and Dunlap’s Foundational Work Establishing an Ecological Paradigm" concluded: The effect of Catton and Dunlap’s work has been profound, since it opened up a large swath of new terrain to sociological inquiry. It made possible the growing body of research in sociology that examines both human effects on the environment and the effects of the environment on society.York listed as "foundational" to the field not only the 1978 "New Paradigm" collaboration by Catton and Dunlap but also their coauthored papers published in the Annual Review of Sociology in 1979 and American Behavioral Scientist in 1980. Together, these provided "an explicit intellectual grounding for environmental sociology—defined as the study of societal-environmental interactions." In an


id: overshoot-book-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-3.md
category: reference
title: Overshoot (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:30.380117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overshoot-book-20260505-0
summary:
In his 2015 obituary for Catton, John Michael Greer put this ecological term into its activist context: The core of Overshoot, which is also the core of the entire world of appropriate technology and green alternatives that got shot through the head and shoved into an unmarked grave in the Reagan years, is the recognition that the principles of ecology apply to industrial society just as much as they do to other communities of living things. The manuscript itself attracted an icon of the environmental movement, former U.S. Interior Secretary Stewart Udall. To write the book's foreword was a sign of the popular (and activist) reach the book would garner. That reach included wilderness advocate Dave Foreman, a cofounder of Earth First! and of Wild Earth magazine. In a reflection upon Catton's death, Foreman wrote:William Catton's Overshoot is one of the most important books I've ever read, and Bill was one of my greatest teachers." Catton attributed his own wilderness experiences in national parks of the USA as the source of his drive to understand ecological systems and ecological limits — including the fundamental ecological principle of carrying capacity.In a 2021 guest post titled "Overshoot: Where We Now Stand," Michael


id: the-oxford-book-of-modern-science-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oxford_Book_of_Modern_Science_Writing-0.md
category: reference
title: The Oxford Book of Modern Science Writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oxford_Book_of_Modern_Science_Writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:31.605618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-oxford-book-of-modern-science-writing-20260505-0
summary:
The Oxford Book of Modern Science Writing is an anthology of scientific writings, arranged and introduced by Richard Dawkins of the University of Oxford. Published first in March 2008, it contains 83 writings on many topics from a diverse variety of authors, which range in length from one to eight pages. All inclusions are dated post-1900, and include poetry, anecdotes, and general philosophical musings. == Contents == The book is divided into four segments. The following is a list of pieces included in each segment. === What Scientists Study === from: The Mysterious Universe by James Jeans Just Six Numbers by Martin Rees Creation Revisited by Peter Atkins The Ant and the Peacock by Helena Cronin The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection by R. A. Fisher Mankind Evolving by Theodosius Dobzhansky Adaptation and Natural Selection by G. C. Williams Life Itself: Its Origin and Nature by Francis Crick Genome by Matt Ridley "Theoretical Biology in the Third Millennium" by Sydney Brenner The Language of the Genes by Steve Jones "On Being the Right Size", an essay by J. B. S. Haldane The Explanation of Organic Diversity by Mark Ridley "The Importance of the Nervous System in the Evolution of Animal


id: the-panda-s-thumb-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Panda's_Thumb_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Panda's Thumb (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Panda's_Thumb_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:32.782429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-panda-s-thumb-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History (1980) is a collection of 31 essays by the Harvard University paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. It is the second volume culled from his 27-year monthly column "This View of Life" in Natural History magazine. Recurring themes of the essays are evolution and its teaching, science biography, probabilities and common sense. The title essay (of 1978, originally titled "The panda's peculiar thumb") presents the paradox that poor design is a better argument for evolution than good design, as illustrated by the anatomy of the panda's "thumb"—which is not an actual thumb at all, but an extension of the radial sesamoid bone. Topics addressed in other essays include the female brain, the Piltdown Man hoax, Down syndrome, and the relationship between dinosaurs and birds. The Panda's Thumb won the 1981 U.S. National Book Award in Science. == Reviews == Books of the Times - by Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, The New York Times == Notes == == References ==


id: pathological-altruism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_Altruism-0.md
category: reference
title: Pathological Altruism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_Altruism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:33.917944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pathological-altruism-20260505-0
summary:
Pathological Altruism is a book edited by Barbara Oakley, Ariel Knafo, Guruprasad Madhavan, and David Sloan Wilson. It was published on 5 January 2012 by Oxford University Press, and contains 31 academic papers. Oakley defines pathological altruism as "altruism in which attempts to promote the welfare of others instead result in unanticipated harm". == Overview == The book comprises a collection of essays which discuss negative aspects of altruism and empathy towards others, such as when altruism hurts the altruist, is taken to an unhealthy extreme, or causes more harm than good. Examples given include depression and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid. It is considered the first book to explore negative aspects of altruism and empathy. According to Oakley, anorexia, supporting addictions of other people (codependency), animal hoarding, depression, guilt and self-righteousness can be pathological altruism. Oakley has also stated that suicide bombings and genocides can be caused by pathological altruism, when perpetrators of these acts believe they are behaving altruistically towards those who share their ideology. Oakley further


id: el-per-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Perú_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: El Perú (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Perú_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:35.165046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: el-per-book-20260505-0
summary:
El Perú: Itinerarios de Viajes is an expansive written work covering a variety of topics in the natural history of Peru, written by the prominent Italian-born Peruvian geographer and scientist Antonio Raimondi in the latter half of the 19th century. The work was compiled from extensive and detailed notes Raimondi took while criss-crossing the country, studying the nation's geography, geology, meteorology, botany, zoology, ethnography, and archaeology; El Perú focuses to some extent on each of these topics and others. The first volume was published in 1874; several more volumes were published both before Raimondi's death and posthumously from his notes, the last being released in 1913, making a five volume set. The volumes are a classic example of exploration scholarship, and form one of the earliest and broadest scientific reviews of Peru's natural and cultural heritage. == References == Raimondi, Antonio. El Perú : itinerarios de viajes (literal transcription from published 1929 copy). Published online by the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes from a 1929 edition. Spanish language. Wiard, Brenda. "2neat books: For Sale: Peruvian Publications". Retrieved September 23, 2005. == External links == El Perú : itinerarios de viajes (versión literal de libretas originales) Original text, tables, and drawings


id: phantom-of-the-poles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_of_the_Poles-0.md
category: reference
title: Phantom of the Poles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_of_the_Poles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:36.339692+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phantom-of-the-poles-20260505-0
summary:
The Phantom of the Poles is a book written by William Reed and published in 1906. It attempts to explain certain mysterious phenomena reported by polar explorers by postulating that the Earth is in fact hollow, with holes at its poles. == Phenomena to be explained == In the General Summary chapter of The Phantom of the Poles, Reed posed several questions that he claimed were explained by the Hollow Earth theory: Why is the earth flattened at the poles? Why have the poles never been reached? Why does the sun not appear for so long in winter near the supposed poles? Assuming that the earth is hollow, the interior should be warmer. We must now resort to the compass. Does it refuse to work when drawing near the supposed poles? Meteors are constantly falling near the supposed poles. Why? The next query is concerning the great quantities of dust constantly found in the Arctic Ocean. What causes this dust? What produces the Aurora Borealis? Icebergs are next in order. Where are they formed? And how?? What causes tidal waves? What causes colored snow in the Arctic region? Why are the nights so long in the polar regions? What causes


id: physics-and-beyond-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_and_Beyond-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics and Beyond
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_and_Beyond
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:37.539208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-and-beyond-20260505-0
summary:
Physics and Beyond: Encounters and Conversations (German: Der Teil und das Ganze: Gespräche im Umkreis der Atomphysik, lit. 'The Part and the Whole: Conversations in the Field of Atomic Physics') is a book by Werner Heisenberg, the German physicist who discovered the uncertainty principle. It tells, from his point of view, the history of exploring atomic science and quantum mechanics in the first half of the 20th century. The subtitle is "Encounters and Conversations", and the core of the book takes the form of reconstructed discussions between himself and other scientists. Heisenberg said: "I wanted to show that science is done by people, and the most wonderful ideas come from dialog". Among the chapters are "The first encounter with the science about atoms", "Quantum mechanics and conversations with Einstein", "Conversation about the relation between biology, physics and chemistry", "Conversations about language" and "The behavior of an individual during a political disaster", dated 1937–1941. With other scientists, including Erwin Schrödinger, Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein and Max Planck, Heisenberg discussed physics and other questions related to biology, humans, philosophy, and politics. He often includes detailed descriptions of the historical atmosphere and natural scenery, as many of the conversations took place while backpacking


id: pihkal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PiHKAL-0.md
category: reference
title: PiHKAL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PiHKAL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:38.702679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pihkal-20260505-0
summary:
PiHKAL: A Chemical Love Story, also known as Phenethylamines I Have Known and Loved, is a book by Alexander Shulgin and Ann Shulgin published in 1991. The subject of the work is psychoactive phenethylamine chemical derivatives, notably those that act as psychedelics and/or entactogens. The book has two halves, with the second part containing detailed entries on 179 phenethylamines. PiHKAL was followed by TiHKAL: The Continuation (Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved) (1997). == Content == The book is arranged into two parts, the first part being a fictionalized autobiography of the couple and the second part describing 179 different psychedelic compounds (most of which Shulgin discovered himself), including detailed synthesis instructions, bioassays, doses, durations, and other commentary. The second part was made freely available by Shulgin on Erowid while the first part is available only in the printed text. While the reactions described are beyond the ability of people with a basic chemistry education, some tend to emphasize techniques that do not require difficult-to-obtain chemicals. Notable among these are the use of mercury-aluminium amalgam (an unusual but easy to obtain reagent) as a reducing agent and detailed suggestions on legal plant sources of important drug precursors such as safrole.


id: pioneers-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneers_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Pioneers of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneers_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:39.875864+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pioneers-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Pioneers of Science (Turkish: Bilimin öncüleri) (ISBN 9786055888039) is a book by Cemal Yıldırım which has run to 22 editions. The book explains the scientific method with anecdotes from significant figures in scientific history such as Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and Marie Curie. == References ==


id: the-pleasure-of-finding-things-out-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pleasure_of_Finding_Things_Out-0.md
category: reference
title: The Pleasure of Finding Things Out
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pleasure_of_Finding_Things_Out
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:44.398643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-pleasure-of-finding-things-out-20260505-0
summary:
The Pleasure of Finding Things Out is a collection of short works from American physicist Richard Feynman, including interviews, speeches, lectures, and printed articles. Among these is his famous 1959 lecture "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom", his report on the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, and his speech on scientific integrity in which he coined the term "cargo cult science". The original foreword was written by Freeman Dyson. == References == == External links == Norman, Eric B. (2000). "Reviewed Work: The Pleasure of Finding Things Out by Richard P. Feynman". The American Biology Teacher. 62 (9): 678. doi:10.2307/4451014. JSTOR 4451014. Root-Bernstein, Robert (1999). "The Dubious Pleasure of Yet More Feynman". American Scientist. 87 (5): 462–464. JSTOR 27857907.


id: the-poisoner-s-handbook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Poisoner's_Handbook-0.md
category: reference
title: The Poisoner's Handbook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Poisoner's_Handbook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:45.547938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-poisoner-s-handbook-20260505-0
summary:
The Poisoner's Handbook: Murder and the Birth of Forensic Medicine in Jazz Age New York is a New York Times best-selling non-fiction book by Pulitzer Prize-winning science writer Deborah Blum that was released by Penguin Press in 2010. == Synopsis == In 1918, New York City appointed Charles Norris, Bellevue Hospital's chief pathologist, as its first scientifically trained medical examiner. The book, about Norris and Alexander Gettler, the city's first toxicologist, describes the Jazz Age's poisoning cases. Before the two began working in the medical examiner's office, Blum pointed out in her book, poisoners could get away with murder. The book covers the years from 1915 to 1936, which Blum described as a "coming-of-age" for forensic toxicology. "Under (Norris's) direction, the New York City medical examiner's office would become a department that set forensic standards for the rest of the country," Blum wrote. While a guest on National Public Radio’s "Talk of the Nation/Science Friday" to discuss the book, Blum told host Ira Flatow that she wrote the book because "I've always been interested in poison. I wanted to write about the mystery of how (poisons) kill us.” == Reception == Reader's Digest named The Poisoner's Handbook one of its


id: programming-the-universe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_the_Universe-0.md
category: reference
title: Programming the Universe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_the_Universe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:46.725738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: programming-the-universe-20260505-0
summary:
Programming the Universe: A Quantum Computer Scientist Takes On the Cosmos is a 2006 popular science book by Seth Lloyd, professor of mechanical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The book proposes that the Universe is a quantum computer (supercomputer), and advances in the understanding of physics may come from viewing entropy as a phenomenon of information, rather than simply thermodynamics. Lloyd also postulates that the Universe can be fully simulated using a quantum computer; however, in the absence of a theory of quantum gravity, such a simulation is not yet possible. "Particles not only collide, they compute." == Reaction == Reviewer Corey S. Powell of The New York Times writes: In the space of 221 dense, frequently thrilling and occasionally exasperating pages, ... tackles computer logic, thermodynamics, chaos theory, complexity, quantum mechanics, cosmology, consciousness, sex and the origin of life—throwing in, for good measure, a heartbreaking afterword that repaints the significance of all that has come before. The source of all this intellectual mayhem is the kind of Big Idea so prevalent in popular science books these days. Lloyd, a professor of mechanical engineering at M.I.T., takes as his topic the fundamental workings of the universe..., which he


id: questions-of-truth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questions_of_Truth-0.md
category: reference
title: Questions of Truth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questions_of_Truth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:47.853826+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: questions-of-truth-20260505-0
summary:
Questions of Truth is a book by John Polkinghorne and Nicholas Beale which offers their responses to 51 questions about science and religion. The foreword is contributed by Antony Hewish. The book was launched at a workshop at the 2009 American Association for the Advancement of Science Annual Meeting in Chicago, and then in the UK at a discussion at the Royal Society chaired by Onora O'Neill, in a week when it was also featured on the Today Programme. == Key themes and ideas == The book grew out of questions generated at a website organized to communicate Polkinghorne's ideas. It groups selected questions under seven topics: Leading questions gives an overview of Polkinghorne's views on nine questions, including science and religion, the existence of god, and atheism. The concept and existence of god begins with "Can God's existence be proved?" and addresses The God Delusion, omniscience, predestination and the Trinity. The Universe considers the Big Bang, the anthropic principle and a theory of everything. Evolution starts with "Is evolution a fact or a theory?", discusses intelligent design, which is deemed an unfortunate use of language and a theological mistake, and explores whether the mind can be explained by evolution.


id: the-ragged-edge-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ragged Edge of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:48.979085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ragged-edge-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Ragged Edge of Science is a science book by L. Sprague de Camp, illustrated by Don Simpson. It was first published by Owlswick Press in 1980. The book is a collection of twenty-two articles (two of them book reviews) on various curiosities and wonders exploring the boundaries between science and pseudo-science. "The[ir] common thread is [their] skeptical takes on subjects that are often muddled by paranormal and pseudoscientific claims." De Camp viewed such phenomena from a skeptically rational viewpoint, pointing out the fallacies in supernatural and otherwise fantastic explanations. His debunking efforts were an important and characteristic feature of his nonfiction, and the present collection is a notable instance of it. The book's constituent articles were originally published in a variety of science magazines, science fiction magazines, and other publications from 1950 to 1976. == Contents == "Preface" Long Ago and Far Away "The Mayan Elephants" (from Astounding Science Fiction, v. 45, no. 4, Jun. 1950) "Faery Lands Forlorn" (from Science Fiction Stories, v. 6, no. 3, Nov. 1955 and v. 6, no. 5, Mar. 1956) "The Pyramids of Kush" (from Science Digest, v. 63, no. 4, Apr. 1968) "The Falls of Troy" (from The Magazine of Fantasy &


id: reaction-chemistry-in-the-movies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReAction!_Chemistry_in_the_Movies-0.md
category: reference
title: ReAction! Chemistry in the Movies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReAction!_Chemistry_in_the_Movies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:50.157949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reaction-chemistry-in-the-movies-20260505-0
summary:
ReAction! Chemistry in the Movies (2009, ISBN 978-0-19-532692-5) is a nonfiction book about movies, chemistry, and chemistry in the movies by Chemistry Professor Mark Griep and Artist Marjorie Mikasen published by Oxford University Press USA. The authors were awarded an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation grant in the area of Public Understanding of Science to research and write the book. This book is about the chemistry when it is part of the narrative. Most of the examples are contemporary popular feature films while some are documentaries, shorts, silents, and international films. The book uses the dualities personified by the benevolent Dr. Jekyll on one hand and the evil Mr. Hyde on the other to describe how chemists and chemistry are portrayed in the movies. There are 10 chapters, the first five of which have dark chemical themes and the second five of which have bright chemical themes. The chapter titles are: 1. Dr. Jekyll's Mysterious Transformative Formula 2. Invisibility Steals the Seen: Chemistry Creates Criminal Opportunities 3. Isomorphs of Paranoia: Chemical Arsenals 4. Bad Company: The Business of Toxicity 5. A Master/Slave Narrative: Drug Addiction and Psychoactives 6. Inventors and their Often Wacky Chemical Inventions 7. Hard Science = Hard Evidence:


id: the-republican-brain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Republican_Brain-0.md
category: reference
title: The Republican Brain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Republican_Brain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:51.300354+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-republican-brain-20260505-0
summary:
The Republican Brain: The Science of Why They Deny Science — and Reality is a 2012 book about the psychological basis for many Republicans' rejection of mainstream scientific theories, as well as theories of economics and history, by the American journalist Chris Mooney. == Reception == The Financial Times gave the book a favorable review, describing it as an "intelligent, nuanced and persuasive account" of psychological differences in political behavior. Alissa Quart, in a New York Times opinion piece, cited conservative writers Alex Berezow and Hank Campbell who equated Mooney's argument with eugenics. It was criticized by American conservative Jonah Goldberg, who tried to associate it with "conservative phrenology". Mooney responded, stating that Goldberg had mispresented his book in several respects. Mooney also stated that Goldberg exhibited "precisely the traits he seeks to deny: ideological defensiveness, a lack of nuance, and a deeply unwarranted and overconfident sense of certainty". Mooney later rebutted a similar criticism by Andrew Ferguson and stated that Ferguson dismissed science himself while attacking the book. Paul Krugman wrote in The New York Times that Mooney makes a good point: the personality traits associated with modern conservatism, particularly a lack of openness, make the modern Republican Party


id: the-republican-war-on-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Republican_War_on_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The Republican War on Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Republican_War_on_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:52.494320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-republican-war-on-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Republican War on Science is a 2005 book by Chris Mooney, an American journalist who focuses on the politics of science policy. In the book, Mooney discusses the Republican Party leadership's stance on science, and in particular that of the George W. Bush administration, with regard to issues such as climate change denialism, intelligent design, bioethics, alternative medicine, pollution, separation of church and state, and the government funding of education, research, and environmental protection. The book argues that the administration regularly distorted and/or suppressed scientific research to further its own political aims. The book was reviewed in Science and Nature Medicine as well as the popular press. It was featured on the cover of The New York Times Book Review and selected as an "Editors' Choice" by The New York Times, which described it as "[a] frankly polemical survey of scientific findings and procedures in collision with political operations." Filmmaker Morgan Spurlock (of Super Size Me fame) optioned the rights for the book to create a documentary film, but in 2008 announced that he had released the option. == Reviews == === In scientific journals === A review in Science by Naomi Oreskes states the author recounts the 20-year


id: science-and-religion-some-historical-perspectives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Religion:_Some_Historical_Perspectives-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Religion:_Some_Historical_Perspectives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:53.720718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-religion-some-historical-perspectives-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives is a book on the relationship between science and religion by John Hedley Brooke. The book identifies three traditional views of the relationship between science and religion found in historical analyses: conflict, complementarity, and commonality. The book portrays all three as oversimplifications. It offers up the alternative notion of complexity, which bases the relationship between science and religion on changing circumstances where it is defined upon each particular historical situation and the actual beliefs and ideas of the scientific and religious figures involved. == Reception == The American Historical Review states that the book's bibliographic essay "identifies and … incorporates the results of virtually every significant and relevant article published in the past fifty years." == References == == Further reading == Brooke, John H. (1998). "Essays on Science And Society: Science and Religion: Lessons from History?". Science. 282 (5396): 1985–1986. Bibcode:1998Sci...282.1985B. doi:10.1126/science.282.5396.1985. S2CID 159909162. == List of reviews == Cantor, Geoffrey (1992). "Science and Religion (Book Reviews)". The Times Literary Supplement (4639): 27. Howell, Kenneth J. (December 1994). "Book Review: Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. John Hedley Brooke, George Basalla". The Journal of Modern History. 66 (4): 779–782. doi:10.1086/244944. Olson, Richard; Brooke,


id: science-at-the-crossroads-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_at_the_Crossroads-0.md
category: reference
title: Science at the Crossroads
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_at_the_Crossroads
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:54.888510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-at-the-crossroads-20260505-0
summary:
Science at the Crossroads was an anthology of the contributions of the delegation from the Soviet Union which attended the Second International Congress of the History of Science. Joseph Needham provided a foreword. It was republished with a new foreword and introduction in 1971. Alfred Rupert Hall wrote a scathing review, claiming that it had little impact in the Soviet Union and that most of the contributors' careers led, rather, to the prison camp and the execution squad. == Contents == The 1971 edition included: == References ==


id: science-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_book-0.md
category: reference
title: Science book
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_book
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:33:59.529866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-book-20260505-0
summary:
A science book is a work of nonfiction, usually written by a scientist, researcher, or professor like Stephen Hawking (A Brief History of Time), or sometimes by a non-scientist such as Bill Bryson (A Short History of Nearly Everything). Usually these books are written for a wide audience presumed to have a general education rather than a specifically scientific training, as opposed to the very narrow audience that a scientific paper would have, and are therefore referred to as popular science. As such, they require considerable talent on the part of the author to sufficiently explain difficult topics to people who are totally new to the subject, and a good blend of storytelling and technical writing. In the UK, the Royal Society Prizes for Science Books are considered to be the most prestigious awards for science writing. In the US, the National Book Awards briefly had a category for science writing in the 1960s, but now they just have the broad categories of fiction and nonfiction. There are many disciplines that are well explained to lay people through science books. A few examples include Carl Sagan on astronomy, Jared Diamond on geography, Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Dawkins on evolutionary


id: science-fictions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fictions-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Fictions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fictions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:00.765640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fictions-20260505-0
summary:
Science Fictions: How Fraud, Bias, Negligence, and Hype Undermine the Search for Truth is a 2020 non-fiction book on issues undermining scientific research by Scottish psychologist Stuart J. Ritchie. It was published by Metropolitan Books on July 14, 2020 and is Ritchie's second book. Science Fictions was nominated for the £25,000 Royal Society Prize for Science Books but lost out to Merlin Sheldrake's Entangled Life. == Summary == In Science Fictions, Ritchie argues that modern scientific research suffers from a number of issues – including outright fraud; publication bias and human bias; negligence and error; and sensationalism through media hype – that undermine its ability to be objective and accurate. He describes methodological issues involved in the replication crisis, such as p-hacking, as well as broader systemic issues, such as perverse incentives in the peer review process and the problem of null results being difficult or impossible to publish, leading to under-reporting of many important findings. He also details the ways in which technology such as Photoshop has made it easier for researchers to commit subtle but serious fraud. Throughout the book, Ritchie offers examples of egregious fraud in scientific research, such as the misleading studies on trachea replacement published


id: science-in-action-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in Action (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:01.971856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-action-book-20260505-0
summary:
Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society (ISBN 0-674-79291-2) is a seminal book by French philosopher, anthropologist and sociologist Bruno Latour first published in 1987. It is written in a textbook style, proposes an approach to the empirical study of science and technology, and is considered a canonical application of actor-network theory. It also entertains ontological conceptions and theoretical discussions making it a research monograph and not a methodological handbook per se. In the introduction, Latour develops the methodological dictum that science and technology must be studied "in action", or "in the making". Because scientific discoveries turn esoteric and difficult to understand, it has to be studied where discoveries are made in practice. For example, Latour turns back time in the case of the discovery of the "double helix". Going back in time, deconstructing statements, machines and articles, it is possible to arrive at a point where scientific discovery could have chosen to take many other directions (contingency). Also the concept of "black box" is introduced. A black box is a metaphor borrowed from cybernetics denoting a piece of machinery that "runs by itself". That is, when a series of instructions are too complicated to be


id: science-in-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_In_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Science In Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_In_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:03.403724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-society-20260505-0
summary:
Science In Society: An Introduction to Social Studies of Science (ISBN 0415321999) is a 2004 book by Massimiano Bucchi. The book explains how science works, what sociologists find to be of interest, and how scientific knowledge is produced. There are chapters on the relevance of science to contemporary life, Kuhn's work and its modern relevance, as well as the role of scientific communication. == See also == List of books about the politics of science == References ==


id: science-order-and-creativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_Order,_and_Creativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Science, Order, and Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_Order,_and_Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:04.489116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-order-and-creativity-20260505-0
summary:
Science, Order, and Creativity is a book by theoretical physicist David Bohm and physicist and writer F. David Peat. It was originally published 1987 by Bantam Books, US, then 1989 in Great Britain by Routledge. The second edition, published in 2000 after Bohm's death, comprises a new foreword by Peat as well as an additional introductory chapter, in which a fictitious dialogue between Bohm and Peat serves to introduce the reader to the context and topics of the book. In Science, Order and Creativity, the authors emphasize the role of creativity and communication for science and, also beyond science, for humanity as a whole. == Contents by chapter == 1 Revolutions, Theories, and Creativity in Science The authors consider the form of creativity that is constituted by a metaphor and by equating two different kinds of things, based on an act of perception of a similarity. They emphasize the role of communication and art as part of creativity, citing the example of Helen Keller who, through communication with her mentor Anne Sullivan was led to understanding a similarity among the sensations of water and the symbolic gesture pressed into her palm which represented it. 2 Science as Creative Perception–Communication The


id: scientific-memoirs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Memoirs-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific Memoirs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Memoirs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:05.826170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-memoirs-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific Memoirs, Selected from the Transactions of Foreign Academies of science and Learned Societies and from Foreign Journals was a series of books edited and published by Richard Taylor (1781–1858) in London between 1837 and 1852. After 1852 the publication continued in two series: Natural Philosophy, edited by J. Tyndall and William Francis; and, Natural history, edited by Arthur Henfrey and Thomas Henry Huxley. Volume 3 (1843) is noteworthy because it contained Ada Lovelace's notes appended to her translation of Luigi Federico Menabrea's article. Both are available on Wikisource. The Menebrea article The notes by Ada Lovelace. Some volumes have been reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corp. New York in 1966. == Further reading == Richard Taylor, 1781–1858 at the Darwin Correspondence Online Database Niels Bohr Library Book Catalog Scientific memoirs, selected from the transactions of foreign academies of science, and from foreign journals. Natural history at WorldCat Volumes 1-4 on Wikisource == References ==


id: scientologie-wissenschaft-von-der-beschaffenheit-und-der-tauglichkeit-des-wissens-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Scientologie, Wissenschaft von der Beschaffenheit und der Tauglichkeit des Wissens
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:07.147667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientologie-wissenschaft-von-der-beschaffenheit-und-der-tauglichkeit-des-wissens-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientologie,_Wissenschaft_von_der_Beschaffenheit_und_der_Tauglichkeit_des_Wissens-0.md

summary:
Scientologie, Wissenschaft von der Beschaffenheit und der Tauglichkeit des Wissens (Scientology: Science of the Constitution and Usefulness of Knowledge) is a 1934 book published by Anastasius Nordenholz, in which he defines the term "Scientologie" or "Eidologie" as a science of knowing or knowledge and discusses the philosophical implications of the concept. The book has been cited by some as a possible source of inspiration for L. Ron Hubbard and his better-known conception of Scientology, though this interpretation is disputed. == Summary of the book == Nordenholz highlights the problem of isolating knowledge as "a particular appearance of the world." He asks: "What is Knowing? What IS Knowledge? What can we know, what must we know about Knowledge/Knowing, to do justice to and to justify the world? The question is thus nothing less than self-knowing, determination of the nature of self, and also of self-realization and self-understanding of Knowledge/Knowing. Is this possible? If possible, how can the systemization of Knowledge/Knowing itself be accomplished? How can a Science of Knowledge/Knowing be produced?" After establishing a number of definitions, he concludes that "the world is nothing but knowledge, merely an extraction from knowing....Only out of the equally valued mutual operation of Knowledge/Knowing as

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientologie,_Wissenschaft_von_der_Beschaffenheit_und_der_Tauglichkeit_des_Wissens


id: the-sea-around-us-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sea_Around_Us-0.md
category: reference
title: The Sea Around Us
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sea_Around_Us
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:08.321211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-sea-around-us-20260505-0
summary:
The Sea Around Us is a prize-winning and best-selling book by the American marine biologist Rachel Carson, first published as a whole by Oxford University Press in 1951. It reveals the science and poetry of the sea while ranging from its primeval beginnings to the latest scientific probings. Often described as "poetic," it was Carson's second published book and the one that launched her into the public eye and a second career as a writer and conservationist; in retrospect it is counted the second book of her so-called sea trilogy, including Under the Sea-Wind and The Edge of the Sea. The Sea Around Us won both the 1952 National Book Award for Nonfiction and a Burroughs Medal in nature writing. It remained on the New York Times Best Seller List for 86 weeks and it has been translated into 28 languages. == History == Simon & Schuster had published her first book Under the Sea Wind in 1941; it was reviewed favorably but it sold poorly. Carson initially planned to call the sequel Return to the Sea, and began writing in 1948, just after hiring Marie Rodell as her literary agent. Carson began by writing a single chapter (what would


id: sekka-zusetsu-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekka_Zusetsu-0.md
category: reference
title: Sekka Zusetsu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekka_Zusetsu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:09.564420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sekka-zusetsu-20260505-0
summary:
Sekka Zusetsu (雪華図説) is a figure collection written by Doi Toshitsura, the fourth daimyō of Koga Domain in 1832. == Overview == Koga Domain was located at the center of the Kantō Plain. Due to heavy snowfall, the Koga Domain was a good place to observe snowflakes. Doi Toshitsura, the fourth daimyō of Koga Domain started observing snowflakes as his hobby with his own microscope which was imported from the Netherlands, and he drew pictures and studies about snowflakes in the book. This figure collection of his is highly valued today in Japan as the first Japanese figure collection of snowflakes. It's said that Toshitsura had many difficulties observing snowflake properly because snowflakes need −10 to −15 Celsius degrees temperature to hold their correct shapes. So Toshitsura had to observe them under very cold temperatures. This book was written for him and his family (the Doi clan, 土井氏), but it had great influence on Japanese textile-patterns also. As soon as he wrote the book, snowflake patterns (雪華模様) became popular among ordinary people in Edo. == Observation method == Putting a black cloth outside at night when it seems cold enough to snow Receiving snowflakes with the cloth If snowflakes received,


id: the-shulgin-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shulgin_Index-0.md
category: reference
title: The Shulgin Index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shulgin_Index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:10.747602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-shulgin-index-20260505-0
summary:
The Shulgin Index, Volume One: Psychedelic Phenethylamines and Related Compounds is a 2011 book written by Alexander Shulgin, Tania Manning, and Paul F. Daley and published by Transform Press. It is about psychedelic substituted phenethylamines and related compounds and their chemistry and pharmacology. The book discusses 126 main compounds from this family as well as 1,300 compounds discussed in total. It followed the earlier books PiHKAL: A Chemical Love Story (1991) and TiHKAL: The Continuation (1997) by Shulgin and his wife Ann Shulgin. A second volume on substituted tryptamines was being prepared but was never completed due to Shulgin's death in 2014. According to the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) in 2014, the second volume would be finished in the "near future", but there have been no updates since. == Compounds listed == == See also == Bibliography of Alexander Shulgin List of psychedelic literature PiHKAL (Phenethylamines I Have Known and Loved) (1991) TiHKAL (Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved) (1997) The Simple Plant Isoquinolines (2002) Substituted phenethylamine (PEA) Substituted amphetamine (AMPH) Substituted methylenedioxyphenethylamine (MDxx) Substituted methoxyphenethylamine 2C, DOx, 4C, scaline, 3C, Ψ-PEA, 25-NB, FLY == References == == External links == The Shulgin Index, Volume One: Psychedelic Phenethylamines


id: the-simple-plant-isoquinolines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simple_Plant_Isoquinolines-0.md
category: reference
title: The Simple Plant Isoquinolines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simple_Plant_Isoquinolines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:15.507004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-simple-plant-isoquinolines-20260505-0
summary:
The Simple Plant Isoquinolines is a 2002 book written by Alexander Shulgin and Wendy Perry about isoquinoline and tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids, for instance the various cyclized phenethylamine mescaline analogues found in many cactus species. It was published by Transform Press. == See also == Bibliography of Alexander Shulgin The Shulgin Index, Volume One: Psychedelic Phenethylamines and Related Compounds (2011) PiHKAL (1991) and TiHKAL (1997) Substituted tetrahydroisoquinoline Peyote § Constituents Pachycereus pringlei § Constituents and biological effects Keeper Trout == References ==


id: six-legged-soldiers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-legged_Soldiers-0.md
category: reference
title: Six-legged Soldiers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-legged_Soldiers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:16.640782+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: six-legged-soldiers-20260505-0
summary:
Six-Legged Soldiers: Using Insects as Weapons of War is a nonfiction scientific warfare book written by author and University of Wyoming professor, Jeffrey A. Lockwood. Published in 2008 by Oxford University Press, the book explores the history of bioterrorism, entomological warfare, biological warfare, and the prevention of agro-terrorism from the earliest times to modern threats. Lockwood, an entomologist, preceded this book with Ethical issues in biological control (1997) and Locust: The devastating rise and mysterious disappearance of the insect that shaped the American frontier (2004), among others. == Summary == Six-Legged Soldiers gives detailed examples of entomological warfare: using buckets of scorpions during a fortress siege, catapulting beehives ("bee bombs") across a castle wall, civilians as human guinea pigs in an effort to weaponize the plague, bombarding civilians from the air with infection-bearing insects, and assassin bugs placed on prisoners to eat away their flesh. Lockwood also describes a domestic ecoterrorism example with the 1989 threat to release the medfly (Ceratitis capitata) within California's crop belt. The last chapter highlights western nations' vulnerability to terrorist attacks. Interviewed about the book by BBC Radio 4's Today programme, the author describes how a terrorist with a suitcase could bring diseases into a


id: the-sixth-extinction-an-unnatural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:17.919142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-sixth-extinction-an-unnatural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History is a 2014 nonfiction book written by Elizabeth Kolbert and published by Henry Holt and Company. The book argues that the Earth is in the midst of a modern, man-made, sixth extinction. In the book, Kolbert chronicles previous mass extinction events, and compares them to the accelerated, widespread extinctions during our present time. She also describes specific species extinguished by humans, as well as the ecologies surrounding prehistoric and near-present extinction events. The author received the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction for the book in 2015. The target audience is the general reader, and scientific descriptions are rendered in understandable prose. The writing blends explanations of her treks to remote areas with interviews of scientists, researchers, and guides, without advocating a position, in pursuit of objectivity. Hence, the sixth mass extinction theme is applied to flora and fauna existing in diverse habitats, such as the Panamanian rainforest, the Great Barrier Reef, the Andes, Bikini Atoll, city zoos, and the author's own backyard. The book also applies this theme to a number of other habitats and organisms throughout the world. After researching the current mainstream view of the relevant peer-reviewed science, Kolbert estimates flora and


id: the-sixth-extinction-an-unnatural-history-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History-1.md
category: reference
title: The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:17.919142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-sixth-extinction-an-unnatural-history-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 3: The Original Penguin === The great auk was a large flightless bird that lived in the Northern Hemisphere. It had a large, intricately grooved beak. When the first settlers arrived in Iceland, the auk population was probably in the millions. However, the settlers found the auks to be “very good and nourishing meat.” They also used their oily bodies for fuel and fish bait, and their feathers for stuffing mattresses. Despite attempts at protecting the species, by 1844, the last auks were killed. Kolbert uses the great auk as a symbol of how human overexploitation of resources is another important mechanism of extinction. === Chapter 4: The Luck of the Ammonites === Kolbert explains that the main cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was not the impact of the asteroid itself. It was the dust created by the impact. The debris from the impact incinerated anything in its path. She states that it is impossible to estimate the full extent of the various species that died out due to this catastrophe. However, one class of animals we know did die out because of the effects of the asteroid's impact, are the ammonites. Kolbert explains that, even though


id: the-sixth-extinction-an-unnatural-history-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History-2.md
category: reference
title: The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:17.919142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-sixth-extinction-an-unnatural-history-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 10: The New Pangea === Kolbert points out that there is an evolutionary arms race, in which each species must be equipped to defend against their potential predators and need to be more fit than their competition. A species has no defense if it encounters a new fungus, virus, or bacterium. This can be extremely deadly, as it was in the case of the American bats killed by the psychrophilic fungus Geomyces destructans. Another example of this occurred in the 1800s. The American chestnut was the dominant deciduous tree in eastern American forests. Then, a fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica) started to cause chestnut blight. It was nearly 100 percent lethal. This fungus was unintentionally imported to the US by humans. Kolbert then explains that global trade and travel are creating a virtual "Pangaea", in which species of all kinds are being redistributed beyond historical geographic barriers. This furthers the first chapter's idea that invasive species are a mechanism of extinction. === Chapter 11: The Rhino Gets an Ultrasound === The Sumatran Rhino was once so abundant in numbers it was considered an agricultural pest. However, as Southeast Asia's forests were cut down, the rhino's habitat became fragmented. In the


id: the-skeptics-guide-to-the-universe-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptics'_Guide_to_the_Universe_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptics'_Guide_to_the_Universe_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:19.101702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-skeptics-guide-to-the-universe-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake is a 2018 book meant to be an all-encompassing guide to skeptical thinking written by Steven Novella and co-authored by other hosts of The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast – Bob Novella, Cara Santa Maria, Jay Novella, and Evan Bernstein. It also contains material from former co-host Perry DeAngelis. == About == In 2017, Skeptical Inquirer reported that The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe was under development with an expected release in 2018. It became available for pre-order in early 2018, and was released by Grand Central Publishing on October 2, 2018. The book was written by Steven Novella and co-authored by Bob Novella, Cara Santa Maria, Jay Novella, Perry DeAngelis, and Evan Bernstein – other individuals that have served as hosts of The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast. In an interview with The European Skeptics Podcast, Jay Novella described their approach to writing the book from the "point of view of an alien species observing the earth from a skeptical perspective using critical thinking," reminiscent of the book's namesake The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams.


id: sleepers-wake-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleepers,_Wake!-0.md
category: reference
title: Sleepers, Wake!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleepers,_Wake!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:20.305974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sleepers-wake-20260505-0
summary:
Sleepers, Wake! Technology and the Future of Work is a book written by Barry Jones, originally published in 1982 and reprinted many times. A revised and updated edition was published in 1995. Based on the premise that technologically advanced nations are currently passing through a post-industrial or information revolution, Jones analyzes the unique threats and opportunities of the sudden rise in information to the field such as manufacturing, service employment, and basic income. Jones argues that science and technology have changed the quality, length, and direction of life in the past century far more than politics, education, ideology, or religion. Therefore, inventors such as Thomas Edison and Henry Ford have shaped human experience more broadly and enduringly than Lenin and Hitler. Some of the book's key points, such as the claim that technological innovation is a major component of economic growth, are more widely accepted now than in 1982. But, to quote Barry Jones himself, "The central thesis was that people were going to be living longer, far longer, but it was possible that they would be working a good deal less." Due to the rising issues for the labour force, Jones proposed the need to assist workers in income


id: sneeze-the-history-and-science-of-the-common-cold-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneeze:_The_History_and_Science_of_the_Common_Cold-0.md
category: reference
title: Sneeze: The History and Science of the Common Cold
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneeze:_The_History_and_Science_of_the_Common_Cold
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:21.494808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sneeze-the-history-and-science-of-the-common-cold-20260505-0
summary:
Sneeze: The History and Science of the Common Cold is a 2026 book by British infectious disease immunologist David Miles. This book examines the history of the cold virus, myths about it, and how best to combat the spread. The book is written for the lay audience and does not include an index. This book was published by August Books, and it was released March 16, 2026, everywhere but Canada and the US, where it was released April 28, 2026. == Synopsis == The book is organized in three parts: virus natural history and evolution, evolution of technology for virus discovery, treatment and avoidance, and finally, the stories of the people involved. Miles includes his definition of the common cold as, "an illness caused by a virus that infects the upper respiratory tract and, in most cases, clears up within a matter of days or possibly weeks without requiring medical intervention." He includes SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19) in this definition. The book also includes the history of research into colds, trials (where people were paid to catch a cold), as well as a history of the Common Cold Unit, which the British Medical Research Council "operated out of


id: the-social-contract-ardrey-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Social_Contract_(Ardrey_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Social Contract (Ardrey book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Social_Contract_(Ardrey_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:22.588611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-social-contract-ardrey-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Social Contract: A Personal Inquiry into the Evolutionary Sources of Order and Disorder is a 1970 book by Robert Ardrey. It is the third in his four-book Nature of Man Series. The book extended Ardrey's refutation of the prevailing conviction within social sciences that all social behavior is purely learned and not governed by innate patterns. Through interwoven analyses of animals and human social structures Ardrey argued that inherited evolutionary traits are an important determining factor in social behavior. Ardrey dedicated The Social Contract to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, after whose 1762 work the book was titled. == Overview == The Social Contract was published in 1970. It was the third book in Ardrey's Nature of Man series, following African Genesis (1961) and The Territorial Imperative (1966) and preceding The Hunting Hypothesis (1976). The Social Contract continues Ardrey's work on understanding how evolutionarily inherited traits are manifest by contemporary man. In particular The Social Contract examines society and hierarchy in terms of genetic diversity. The edition cites many of the scientists who were important influences on Ardrey, including Raymond Dart and Konrad Lorenz. It was illustrated, like the first two books, by Ardrey's wife, the South African actress and illustrator Berdine


id: the-story-of-science-in-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_Science_in_America-0.md
category: reference
title: The Story of Science in America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_Science_in_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:23.749426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-story-of-science-in-america-20260505-0
summary:
The Story of Science in America is a 1967 science book by L. Sprague de Camp and Catherine Crook de Camp, illustrated by Leonard Everett Fisher, published by Charles Scribner's Sons. It has been translated into Spanish, Portuguese, Burmese and French. == Summary == The book traces the work of inventors and naturalists in the United States from the Colonial era through the mid-19th century, and relates scientific developments in the century following. == Contents == Part One - Science Comes to America I - Science in the Colonies II - Benjamin Franklin's Century III - American Explorers and Expeditions IV - The World of Nature V - Early Inventors and Inventions VI - The Great Industrial Revolution Part Two - The Physical Sciences VII - The Exact Sciences VIII - The Sky Above IX - The Earth and its Waters X - The Revolution in Physics Part Three - The Biological Sciences XI - The Sciences of Life XII - The Most Marvelous Machine XIII - The Sciences of Man Part Four - The Applied Sciences XIV - The Electrical Revolution XV - The Internal-Combustion Revolution XVI - The Dangerous Depths of Space XVII - Scientists of Today and


id: stuff-matters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuff_Matters-0.md
category: reference
title: Stuff Matters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuff_Matters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:24.900465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stuff-matters-20260505-0
summary:
Stuff Matters: Exploring the Marvelous Materials That Shape Our Man-Made World is a 2014 non-fiction book by the British materials scientist Mark Miodownik. The book explores many of the common materials people encounter during their daily lives and seeks to explain the science behind them in an accessible manner. Miodownik devotes a chapter each to ten such materials, discussing their scientific qualities alongside quirky facts and anecdotes about their impacts on human history. Called "a hugely enjoyable marriage of science and art", Stuff Matters was critically and commercially successful, becoming a New York Times best seller and a winner of the Royal Society Prize for Science Books. == Background == Miodownik was working at University College London as a professor of materials and society at the time the book was published. He first gained interest in his field of study during his teenage years following an attempted robbery while on the subway. He was stabbed with a razor through multiple layers of clothing, leading him to be curious about the qualities of steel that provided for such a sharp and strong edge. The author would go on to earn a doctorate in jet engine alloys before entering into academic work.


id: the-sun-the-genome-and-the-internet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sun,_the_Genome,_and_the_Internet-0.md
category: reference
title: The Sun, the Genome, and the Internet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sun,_the_Genome,_and_the_Internet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:26.076407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-sun-the-genome-and-the-internet-20260505-0
summary:
The Sun, the Genome, and the Internet: Tools of Scientific Revolutions is a non-fiction scientific book by physicist Freeman Dyson, Professor Emeritus of Physics at the Institute for Advanced Study in the U.S. It was first published in 1999 by Oxford University Press, and is based on lectures he gave in 1997 at New York Public Library. == Synopsis == Professor Dyson suggests that three rapidly advancing technologies, Solar Energy, Genetic Engineering and World-Wide Communication together have the potential to create a more equal distribution of the world's wealth. Amongst other things he proposes that solar power in the Third World could connect even the most remote areas to all of the information on the Internet, potentially ending the cultural isolation of the poorest countries. Likewise, breakthroughs in genetics could lead to more efficient crops, thereby engendering the renewed vitality of traditional village life, currently devalued by the global market. == Reception == In the journal Science and Public Policy, Axel Gelfert called the book "original, engaging and positively unpretentious [...] which, while not always providing complete answers, asks many important questions." Langdon Winner, in Issues in Science and Technology, gave a negative review, writing that the "slapdash quality of


id: superior-the-return-of-race-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior:_The_Return_of_Race_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Superior: The Return of Race Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior:_The_Return_of_Race_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:30.705588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superior-the-return-of-race-science-20260505-0
summary:
Superior: The Return of Race Science is a non-fiction book by Angela Saini published in 2019. Built around interviews with experts, the scientific consensus, and the author's analysis, it argues that some fields of biology are still influenced by the discredited scientific racism theories of the 19th century. == Summary == With Superior, Saini draws upon her own childhood in a white neighbourhood of London. The racial discrimination she faced at the time pushed her towards a style of journalism that seeks to highlight injustice. Her renewed interest in the genetics of race was stirred by the exploitation by the white supremacy movement of research that seems to point to genetically distinct racial groupings. Saini first recounts the history of scientific racism, from its origins of systematic classification of humans according to physical appearance and alleged racially-based personality traits, an approach adopted by a list of scientists that includes Linnaeus, Darwin and Huxley. She goes on to the acceptance of these theories by 20th-century anthropology and biology, and to their integration into political doctrines under the Nazi regime. She traces the way racial categories have changed over a fairly short period of time, revealing them as social constructs. Saini argues


id: sylva-or-a-discourse-of-forest-trees-and-the-propagation-of-timber-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylva,_or_A_Discourse_of_Forest-Trees_and_the_Propagation_of_Timber-0.md
category: reference
title: Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylva,_or_A_Discourse_of_Forest-Trees_and_the_Propagation_of_Timber
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:32.000895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sylva-or-a-discourse-of-forest-trees-and-the-propagation-of-timber-20260505-0
summary:
Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions by the English writer John Evelyn was first presented in 1662 as a paper to the Royal Society. It was published as a book two years later in 1664, and is recognised as one of the most influential texts on forestry ever published. A second edition with new engravings was published in 1670, and a third edition in 1679 included a geological essay by Evelyn. An expanded fourth edition was published in 1706, with the new segments specifically covering fruit trees and the production of cider. == Editions == 1662 Sylva paper was presented to the Royal Society on 16 February 1662. 1664 Sylva First Edition book printed by publisher John Martyn for the Royal Society, and the first book published after the granting of their Royal Charter as publishers in 1662. 1670 Sylva Second Edition. Various engravings added. 1679 Sylva Third Edition. Included an essay from Evelyn about soils: Terra, a Philosophical Essay of Earth, being a Lecture in Course. 1706 Silva Fourth Edition, now spelt Silva, contained new sections Dendrologia, Pomona; Or, An Appendix concerning Fruit-Trees in relation to CIDER and Kalendarium Hortense.


id: the-symbolic-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Symbolic_Species-0.md
category: reference
title: The Symbolic Species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Symbolic_Species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:33.097774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-symbolic-species-20260505-0
summary:
The Symbolic Species is a 1997 book by biological anthropologist Terrence Deacon on the evolution of language. Combining perspectives from neurobiology, evolutionary theory, linguistics, and semiotics, Deacon proposes that language, along with the unique human capacity for symbolic thought, co-evolved with the brain. The Symbolic Species is a multi-disclipinary book that at the time of publishing was seen as groundbreaking. It is considered to have bound together a wide array of ideas in a way that advanced the understanding of professionals in several fields. == Symbolic thought and language == The reasons for the unique cognitive capacity of humans are explored, along with those for the large number of human activities impossible for animals. The human use of language is said to be responsible for both. == Co-evolution == A chicken-and-egg problem is shown to exist between the emergence of symbolic thought and language: language is said to be the medium of symbolic thought, but it is reasoned that mastery of language would first require the ability to think symbolically. The solution of this chicken-and-egg problem, according to Deacon, is the subtle evolutionary process of co-evolution. == References ==


id: the-territorial-imperative-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Territorial_Imperative-0.md
category: reference
title: The Territorial Imperative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Territorial_Imperative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:34.289690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-territorial-imperative-20260505-0
summary:
The Territorial Imperative: A Personal Inquiry Into the Animal Origins of Property and Nations is a 1966 nonfiction book by American writer Robert Ardrey. It characterizes an instinct among humans toward territoriality and the implications of this to property ownership and nation building. The Territorial Imperative was influential at the time, and encouraged public interest in human origins. The Territorial Imperative is the second book in Ardrey's Nature of Man Series; it is preceded by African Genesis (1961) and followed by The Social Contract (1970) and The Hunting Hypothesis (1976). It was illustrated by Ardrey's wife, the South African actress and illustrator Berdine Ardrey (née Grunewald). Ardrey dedicated The Territorial Imperative to Henry Eliot Howard, who was noted for being one of the first to describe in detail the territorial behaviors of birds. == Synopsis == The Territorial Imperative develops the theses originally introduced in African Genesis: A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man, which was published five years earlier. In African Genesis, Ardrey posited that man originated in Africa instead of Asia, that he is driven by inherited instincts to acquire land and defend territory, and that the development of weapons was a fundamental turning


id: the-territorial-imperative-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Territorial_Imperative-1.md
category: reference
title: The Territorial Imperative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Territorial_Imperative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:34.289690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-territorial-imperative-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == The Territorial Imperative was widely read and exerted a cultural influence. It quickly became an international bestseller and was translated into dozens of languages. Ardrey's work in general, and The Territorial Imperative in particular, is often credited with arousing popular interest in ethology, anthropology, and human origins. Geoffrey Gorer, for example, in his Encounter review of The Territorial Imperative, writes: "Almost without question, Robert Ardrey is today the most influential writer in English dealing with the innate or instinctive attributes of human nature, and the most skilled populariser of the findings of paleo-anthropologists, ethologists, and biological experimenters." Ralph Graves claims "[Ardrey] today can claim major credit for having introduced the public to the new field of ethology, the study of animal behavior and its relationship to man." Commenting upon Ardrey's legacy on the occasion of his death, the South African anthropologist Dr. Phillip Tobias stated, "He has made an incalculable contribution to the science of human evolution. Thousands of people around the world, especially in the United States, were made aware of the fascination and the importance of studies on man's place in nature [through his writing]." The work influenced several notable figures. Stanley Kubrick cited Ardrey


id: thing-explainer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thing_Explainer-0.md
category: reference
title: Thing Explainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thing_Explainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:35.471232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thing-explainer-20260505-0
summary:
Thing Explainer: Complicated Stuff in Simple Words is a 2015 illustrated non-fiction book created by Randall Munroe, in which the author attempts to explain various complex subjects using only the 1,000 most common English words. The word "thousand" is not one of those most-used words, thus things are described using "the ten hundred words people use the most often." Munroe conceptualized the book in 2012, when drawing a schematic of the Saturn V rocket for his webcomic xkcd. == Synopsis == In Thing Explainer, Randall Munroe explains the function and mechanics of 54 subjects using only the 1,000 most commonly used words in the English language. The book covers a wide range of topics, including pencils ("writing sticks"), cameras ("picture takers"), microwave ovens ("food-heating radio boxes"), airplane engines ("sky boat pushers"), and atom bombs ("machines for burning cities"). Besides technology, Munroe also explains human organs and conceptual subjects such as the periodic table. The book challenges its readers to figure out what the technical name is of the subjects it describes, and was described by Jack Schofield of ZDNet as a "puzzle game." The book is illustrated using stick figures and includes a large number of nerdy jokes. Peter Gleick


id: the-third-culture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Third_Culture-0.md
category: reference
title: The Third Culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Third_Culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:36.649944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-third-culture-20260505-0
summary:
The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution is a 1995 book by John Brockman which discusses the work of several well-known scientists who are directly communicating their new, sometimes provocative, ideas to the general public. John Brockman has continued the themes of 'The Third Culture' in the website of the Edge Foundation, where leading scientists and thinkers contribute their thoughts in plain English. The title of the book refers to C. P. Snow's 1959 work The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution, which described the conflict between the cultures of the humanities and science. == Contents == Contributions by twenty-three authors were included in the 1995 book: physicist Paul Davies biologist Richard Dawkins philosopher Daniel Dennett paleontologist Niles Eldredge chaos theorist J. Doyne Farmer theoretical physicist Murray Gell-Mann biologist Brian Goodwin geologist/biologist Stephen Jay Gould physicist Alan Guth inventor W. Daniel Hillis theoretical psychologist Nicholas Humphrey geneticist Steve Jones biologist Stuart Kauffman complex systems specialist Christopher Langton biologist Lynn Margulis mathematician and computer scientist Marvin Minsky mathematical physicist Roger Penrose cognitive scientist Steven Pinker theoretical astrophysicist Martin Rees cognitive scientist Roger Schank theoretical physicist Lee Smolin biologist Francisco Varela evolutionary biologist George C. Williams The book influenced the reception of


id: throwim-way-leg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throwim_Way_Leg-0.md
category: reference
title: Throwim Way Leg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throwim_Way_Leg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:37.930489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: throwim-way-leg-20260505-0
summary:
Throwim Way Leg is a 1998 book written by Australian scientist Tim Flannery. It documents Flannery's experiences conducting scientific research in the highlands of Papua New Guinea and Indonesian Western New Guinea. The book describes the flora and fauna of the island and the cultures of its various peoples. The title is an anglicised spelling of the New Guinean Pidgin "Tromoi Lek," to go on a journey. Flannery recounts his 15 trips to New Guinea beginning in 1981, when he was aged 26. He identifies at least 17 previously undescribed species during this period. == References == == External links == Throwim' Way Leg: Tree-Kangaroos, Possums, and Penis Gourds excerpt and text search There Goes the Neighborhood NY Times review of Throwim Way Leg


id: tihkal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TiHKAL-0.md
category: reference
title: TiHKAL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TiHKAL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:39.104345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tihkal-20260505-0
summary:
TiHKAL: The Continuation, also known as Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved, is a 1997 book written by Alexander Shulgin and Ann Shulgin. It is about a family of psychoactive drugs known as tryptamines, which includes psychedelics, other hallucinogens, and entactogens. The book has two halves, and the second part of the book contains detailed entries on 55 tryptamines. TiHKAL is a sequel to PiHKAL: A Chemical Love Story (Phenethylamines I Have Known and Loved) (1991). == Content == TiHKAL, much like its predecessor PiHKAL, is divided into two parts. The first part, for which all rights are reserved, begins with a fictionalized autobiography, picking up where the similar section of PiHKAL left off; it then continues with a collection of essays on topics ranging from psychotherapy and the Jungian mind to the prevalence of DMT in nature, ayahuasca and the war on drugs. The second part of TiHKAL, which may be conditionally distributed for non-commercial reproduction (see § External links, below), is a detailed synthesis manual for 55 tryptamines (many discovered by Alexander Shulgin himself), including their chemical structures, doses, durations, and commentary. It includes entries on compounds including simple tryptamines like dimethyltryptamine (DMT), psilocin, and 5-MeO-DMT, α-alkyltryptamines like


id: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle-0.md
category: reference
title: Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:40.309869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time is a 1987 history of geology by the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould, in which the author offers a historical account of the conceptualization of Deep Time and uniformitarianism using the works of the English theologian Thomas Burnet, and the Scottish geologists James Hutton and Charles Lyell. == Deep Time == Gould ranks the development of the concept "deep time," which involved deliberately rejecting the biblical description of earth's past for nearly incomprehensible eons, with the revolutions associated with Copernicus and Charles Darwin. To illustrate this, Gould picked three major figures in the history of geology, one traditional villain (Thomas Burnet) and two traditional heroes (James Hutton and Charles Lyell). == Flimsy 'cardboard' == Standard textbook accounts of the achievements of these three figures have long provided what Gould describes as a "self-serving mythology." These flimsy "cardboard" accounts vaunt the superiority of empiricism and inductivism over the scientific nemesis of religious bigotry. This legend, as perpetuated by geology textbooks over the last century, claims that geology remained in the service of the Mosaic story of creation so long as armchair geological theorists refused to place fieldwork ahead of


id: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle-1.md
category: reference
title: Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:40.309869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
== Hutton’s endless cycles of deep time == Before James Hutton, most geological theorists had dealt only with processes of decay. The earth was created and its geologic structures just wore down through catastrophic events like weathering and especially the biblical Flood. Hutton introduced the concept of repair into geology and, with it, the notion of deep time. The textbook myths see this as a triumph of science and empiricism over religion, but it was nothing of the kind. Hutton's theory of the earth as a geological clockwork of eroding continents balanced against uplifting ocean basins was not based on field observations but on a priori conceptions inspired jointly by religious considerations and "the most rigid and uncompromising version of time's cycle ever developed by a geologist." Hutton's theory grew out of what may be called "the paradox of the soil." Good soil, the product of the "denudation," or eroding, of rock strata, eventually loses its richness to the plant life it sustains. Were there no geological source for continual new soil then the world would bear the intolerable stamp of an imperfectly designed abode for man's existence. Hutton's homocentric and teleological concept of the world therefore demanded that the


id: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle-2.md
category: reference
title: Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:40.309869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
=== From steady state to progressionism === Nor was Lyell's eventual conversion to evolution a strictly empirical affair. When he finally took this step publicly, in 1868, it was not because he had been persuaded by Darwin's theory of natural selection. In fact, Lyell rejected that theory, accepting only a general evolutionary process without its celebrated Darwinian mechanism. Admitting nonmiraculous progression (that is, evolution) in turn allowed him to preserve three of his four uniformities (uniformity of law, process, and rate) while giving up only uniformity of state. This was as Gould notes, "the most conservative intellectual option available to him." Charles Lyell may have lost the battle over progressionism to Darwinism, but through rhetoric he won a battle against catastrophism, which enabled his hypothesis of the uniformity of rate to become a textbook shibboleth. The catastrophists of Lyell's day, Gould nevertheless maintains, were right all along. The literal fossil evidence of major rapid changes in previous faunas does not need to be interpreted away, as Lyell tried to do by appealing to the imperfection of the geological record. Gould sees supreme irony in the recent hypothesis of the Berkeley scientists Luis and Walter Alvarez that mass extinctions were caused


id: transcendence-vince-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_(Vince_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Transcendence (Vince book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_(Vince_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:41.412424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transcendence-vince-book-20260505-0
summary:
Transcendence: How Humans Evolved Through Fire, Language, Beauty, and Time is a non-fiction book by Gaia Vince published in 2019. It describes how human evolution was shaped by genetic, environmental and cultural factors. It has been reviewed by several science publications, including Nature. == Summary == Vince offers a synthesis of the contemporary research in genetics, anthropology, palaeontology, archaeology and neurology to describe the peculiar evolution of the human race. To Vince, genetics, the environment and culture all contributed to human evolution, each factor influencing the other two. For example, she shows how language is influenced not only by the evolution of the voice box, but also by climate. She describes how language, in turn, influences the way we think and may even have some effects on gene selection. She identifies an increased energy consumption as one of the ways by which we have evolved into the planet-dominating species we are now. Humans have learned to multiply the amount of energy at their disposal, from cooking to reduce time spent consuming food, all the way to the use of machines and electronics. Vince elaborates on the social, cooperative nature of the human animal. Contrary to chimpanzees, humans chose to form


id: transform-press-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transform_Press-0.md
category: reference
title: Transform Press
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transform_Press
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:46.013102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transform-press-20260505-0
summary:
Transform Press is a small publishing company in the area of psychedelics and other psychoactive drugs that is based in Berkeley, California. It is the publisher of the books of Alexander Shulgin and Ann Shulgin and is led by Wendy Tucker, Ann Shulgin's daughter. The company's published books by the Shulgins include PiHKAL (Phenethylamines I Have Known and Loved) (1991), TiHKAL (Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved) (1997), The Shulgin Index (2011), The Simple Plant Isoquinolines (2002), and The Nature of Drugs (2021). They have also published Ergot Alkaloids: History, Chemistry, and Therapeutic Uses (2023), an English translation by Jitka Nykodemová of Albert Hofmann's 1964 book Die Mutterkornalkaloide: Vom Mutterkorn zum LSD (The Ergot Alkaloids: From Ergot to LSD). According to Nick Cozzi of the Alexander Shulgin Research Institute (ASRI) in mid-2023, the group is in the process of translating Daniel Trachsel's book Phenethylamine: von der Struktur zur Funktion (Phenethylamines: From Structure to Function) into English, with tentative publication by Transform Press. == See also == Bibliography of Alexander Shulgin List of psychedelic literature Alexander Shulgin Research Institute (ASRI) == References == == External links == Official website Transform Press on LinkedIn


id: the-transparent-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Transparent_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: The Transparent Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Transparent_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:47.154338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-transparent-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Transparent Society (1998) is a non-fiction book by the science-fiction author David Brin in which he forecasts social transparency and some degree of erosion of privacy, as it is overtaken by low-cost surveillance, communication and database technology, and proposes new institutions and practices that he believes would provide benefits that would more than compensate for lost privacy. The work first appeared as a magazine article by Brin in Wired in late 1996. In 2008, security expert Bruce Schneier called the transparent society concept a "myth" (a characterization Brin later rejected), claiming it ignores wide differences in the relative power of those who access information. == Synopsis == Brin argues that a core level of privacy—protecting our most intimate interactions—may be preserved, despite the rapid proliferation of cameras that become ever-smaller, cheaper and more numerous faster than Moore's law. He feels that this core privacy can be saved simply because that is what humans deeply need and want. Hence, Brin explains that "...the key question is whether citizens will be potent, sovereign and knowing enough to enforce this deeply human want." This means they must not only have rights, but also the power to use them and the ability to


id: transport-phenomena-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Phenomena_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Transport Phenomena (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Phenomena_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:48.294384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transport-phenomena-book-20260505-0
summary:
Transport Phenomena is the first textbook about transport phenomena. It is specifically designed for chemical engineering students. The first edition was published in 1960, two years after having been preliminarily published under the title Notes on Transport Phenomena based on mimeographed notes prepared for a chemical engineering course taught at the University of Wisconsin–Madison during the academic year 1957-1958. The second edition was published in August 2001. A revised second edition was published in 2007. This text is often known simply as BSL after its authors' initials. == History == As the chemical engineering profession developed in the first half of the 20th century, the concept of "unit operations" arose as being needed in the education of undergraduate chemical engineers. The theories of mass, momentum and energy transfer were being taught at that time only to the extent necessary for a narrow range of applications. As chemical engineers began moving into a number of new areas, problem definitions and solutions required a deeper knowledge of the fundamentals of transport phenomena than those provided in the textbooks then available on unit operations. In the 1950s, R. Byron Bird, Warren E. Stewart and Edwin N. Lightfoot stepped forward to develop an undergraduate


id: the-two-cultures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Cultures-0.md
category: reference
title: The Two Cultures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Cultures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:49.568446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-two-cultures-20260505-0
summary:
"The Two Cultures" is the first part of an influential 1959 Rede Lecture by British scientist and novelist C. P. Snow. The lecture was published that same year in book form as The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Snow's thesis was that science and the humanities, which represented "the intellectual life of the whole of western society", had become divided into "two cultures", and that the growing division between them was a major handicap in solving the world's problems. == The lecture == The talk was delivered 7 May 1959 in the Senate House, Cambridge, and subsequently published as The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The lecture and book expanded upon an article by Snow published in the New Statesman of 6 October 1956, also titled "The Two Cultures". The book form of Snow's lecture was widely read and discussed on both sides of the Atlantic, leading him to write a 1963 follow-up, The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of the Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Snow's position can be summed up by an oft-repeated passage from his lecture: A good many times I have been present at gatherings of people who, by


id: the-two-cultures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Cultures-1.md
category: reference
title: The Two Cultures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Cultures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:49.568446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-two-cultures-20260505-0
summary:
== Antecedents == Contrasting scientific and humanistic knowledge is a repetition of the Methodenstreit of 1890 German universities. A quarrel in 1911 between Benedetto Croce and Giovanni Gentile on the one hand and Federigo Enriques on the other one is believed to have had enduring effects in the separation of the two cultures in Italy and to the predominance of the views of (objective) idealism over those of (logical) positivism. In the social sciences it is also commonly proposed as the quarrel of positivism versus interpretivism. == See also == Culture war The Third Culture Science wars Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, a 1998 book written by biologist Edward Osborne Wilson, as an attempt to bridge the gap between "the two cultures" Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns Interdisciplinarity, a movement to cross boundaries between academic disciplines, including the divide between "the two cultures" == References == == Further reading == Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds. (2008). Science Matters: Humanities as Complex Systems. World Scientific: Singapore. ISBN 978-981-283-593-2 James, Frank A. J. L. (29 November 2016). "Introduction: Some Significances of the Two Cultures Debate" (PDF). Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 41 (2–3): 107–117. Bibcode:2016ISRv...41..107J. doi:10.1080/03080188.2016.1223651. Sinclair, Andrew (1987). The Red


id: under-a-white-sky-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_a_White_Sky-0.md
category: reference
title: Under a White Sky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_a_White_Sky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:50.781551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: under-a-white-sky-20260505-0
summary:
Under a White Sky: The Nature of the Future is a 2021 environmental book by Elizabeth Kolbert. The book follows many of the themes she explored in The Sixth Extinction. == Summary == Under a White Sky is focused on the various kinds of environmental crises created by the Anthropocene and different degrees of technological solutions available to humanity to address them – while also being critical of full-blown techno-solutionism. The title refers to the most extreme climate change mitigation strategy, solar geoengineering, designed to reflect sunlight from the earth. Throughout the book she explores how a technological fix for one problem can lead to further problems while also acknowledging the important role those technologies might play. == Reception == Reception of the book was generally positive. The Washington Post praised it for "expertly mix[ing] travelogue, science reporting, and explanatory journalism, all with the authority of a writer confident enough to acknowledge ambiguity." The New York Times review focused on how the book explores the ambiguities of our current environmental crisis. A NPR review described the book as "tell[ing] by showing. Without beating the reader over the head, she makes it clear how far we already are from a world


id: under-the-sea-wind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_the_Sea_Wind-0.md
category: reference
title: Under the Sea Wind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_the_Sea_Wind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:51.902082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: under-the-sea-wind-20260505-0
summary:
Under the Sea Wind: A Naturalist's Picture of Ocean Life (1941) is the first book written by the American marine biologist Rachel Carson. It was published by Simon & Schuster in 1941 and received very good reviews, but sold poorly. After the great success of a sequel The Sea Around Us (Oxford, 1951), it was reissued by Oxford University Press; that edition was an alternate Book-of-the-Month Club selection and became another bestseller, and has never gone out of print. It is recognized as one of the "definitive works of American nature writing," and is in print as one of the Penguin Nature Classics. Under the sea-wind was reportedly Rachel Carson's personal favourite book, although first edition copies by Simon & Schuster remain scarce. == Background == Under the Sea Wind was based on the article Undersea by Carson, published in The Atlantic Monthly in 1937. This article began as an eleven-page introduction to a government fisheries brochure, and grew into Carson's first book. Prior to publishing Undersea, she wrote marine themed radio scripts which influenced her later work. The article elaborates on ecology and the unwavering will to survive that embodies marine organisms. After the article was published, Dutch-born children's


id: the-uninhabitable-earth-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Uninhabitable_Earth_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Uninhabitable Earth (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Uninhabitable_Earth_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:53.118424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-uninhabitable-earth-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Uninhabitable Earth: Life After Warming is a 2019 non-fiction book by David Wallace-Wells about the consequences of global warming. It was inspired by his New York magazine article "The Uninhabitable Earth" (2017). == Synopsis == The book fleshes out Wallace-Wells' original New York magazine piece in more detail, dovetailing into discussions surrounding various possibilities for Earth's future across a spectrum of predicted future temperature ranges. Wallace-Wells' argues that even with active intervention, the effects of climate change will have catastrophic impacts across multiple spheres: rising sea levels, extreme weather events, extinctions, disease outbreaks, fires, droughts, famines, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and increased geopolitical conflict, among other calamities. While the book is not focused on solutions, it recognizes solutions exist to prevent the worst of the damages: "a carbon tax and the political apparatus to aggressively phase out dirty energy; a new approach to agricultural practices and a shift away from beef and dairy in the global diet; and public investment in green energy and carbon capture". == Reception == The book has been both praised and criticized for its dramatic depictions of future life on Earth. As The Economist stated, "Some readers will find Mr. Wallace-Wells’s outline of possible


id: unscientific-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unscientific_America-0.md
category: reference
title: Unscientific America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unscientific_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:54.289278+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unscientific-america-20260505-0
summary:
Unscientific America: How Scientific Illiteracy Threatens Our Future is a nonfiction book by Chris Mooney and Sheril Kirshenbaum. It was a New York Times best seller. In the book, the authors tackle the problem of scientific illiteracy in America. The authors criticize scientists for talking down to the misinformed and insulting the religious while calling for more friendly and magnanimous science advocates. They also blame the New Atheist movement, the creation–evolution controversy, the entertainment industry, the media, and science skeptics. == Reception == === Science press === The journal Science Communication gave the book a favourable review, noting that the arguments presented "may make the Ph.D. crowd even more cranky than usual." Indeed, the book did spark significant debate particularly on-line. Seed magazine selected Unscientific America as one to "read now" although it was subsequently more critical of certain aspects of the book. The BMJ, while supporting the authors' assessment of the problem, was critical of the proposed solution. It said that the book sometimes "reads like an overlong and somewhat condescending whine about why science and scientists are not sufficiently appreciated." The New Scientist was similarly supportive of the description of the problem while being critical of the solution


id: unstoppable-nye-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstoppable_(Nye_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Unstoppable (Nye book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstoppable_(Nye_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:55.488230+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unstoppable-nye-book-20260505-0
summary:
Unstoppable: Harnessing Science to Change the World is a 2015 book written by Bill Nye and edited by Corey S. Powell. Published by St. Martin's Press, it is Nye's second book, after Undeniable: Evolution and the Science of Creation, also with Powell, which was also published by St. Martin's Press in 2014. The book is about how to use science to improve the environment and the challenges faced with global warming as well as raising the standard of living. == Reception == BBC science columnist Rose Eveleth wrote a joint review in The New York Times of the audiobook versions of Unstoppable and Leonard Mlodinow's 2015 book The Upright Thinkers. Eveleth found Nye's audiobook "easy to listen to", noting the familiarity of Nye's voice to those who have watched the children's television series Bill Nye the Science Guy. However, Eveleth wrote that both books "stumble" because they "recycle well-known material", describing how Nye "spends a good chunk of his book talking about the setup of his extremely energy-efficient home ... Some of these stories are relevant and interesting. Other times, they feel forced, as if both authors knew that without a personal touch, their books would read like any other


id: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow-0.md
category: reference
title: Unweaving the Rainbow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:56.704083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-0
summary:
Unweaving the Rainbow: Science, Delusion and the Appetite for Wonder is a 1998 book by the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, in which the author discusses the relationship between science and the arts from the perspective of a scientist. Dawkins addresses the misperception that science and art are at odds. Driven by the responses to his books The Selfish Gene and The Blind Watchmaker wherein readers resented his naturalistic world view, seeing it as depriving life of meaning, Dawkins felt the need to explain that, as a scientist, he saw the world as full of wonders and a source of pleasure. This pleasure was not in spite of, but rather because he does not assume as cause the inexplicable actions of a deity but rather the understandable laws of nature. His starting point is John Keats's well-known, light-hearted accusation that Isaac Newton destroyed the poetry of the rainbow by 'reducing it to the prismatic colours.' See Keats's poem Lamia and Edgar Allan Poe's To Science. Dawkins's agenda is to show the reader that science does not destroy, but rather discovers poetry in the patterns of nature. == Summary == === Preface === It is of little concern whether or not science


id: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow-1.md
category: reference
title: Unweaving the Rainbow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:56.704083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-0
summary:
=== Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance === Unlike "magisterial poetry" (where metaphors and pretty language are used to describe the familiar), "pupillary poetry" uses poetic imagery to assist a scientist's thinking about the exotic (e.g. consider "being" an electron temporarily). Although it is useful, some authors take pupillary poetry too far, and, "drunk on metaphor", they produce "bad science"; i.e. postulate faulty theories. This is powered by humanity's natural tendency to look for representations. === The selfish cooperator === Genes compete with each other, but this occurs within the context of collaboration, as is shown with examples involving mitochondria, bacteria, and termites. Two types of collaboration are co-adaptation (tailoring simultaneously the different parts of an organism, such as flower colour and flower markings), and co-evolution (two species changing together; e.g. predator and prey running speeds may increase together in a sort of arms race). === The Genetic Book of the Dead === The body of any organism provides clues about its habitat. The genes allow one to reconstruct a picture of the range of ways of life that the species has experienced; in this sense DNA would act as a palimpsestic "digital archive" if only its language of


id: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow-2.md
category: reference
title: Unweaving the Rainbow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unweaving_the_Rainbow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:34:56.704083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unweaving-the-rainbow-20260505-0
summary:
Video interview with Dawkins about the book, Charlie Rose, 11 April 2000] Dawkins's Rainbow Reduces Science to Truth, Beauty—and Fantasy – reviewed by Robert N. Proctor, American Scientist. Richard Dawkins: The man who knows the meaning of life Archived 31 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine review from The Guardian. How, Why and Wow! Archived 1 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine – reviewed by Jonathan Gathorne-Hardy, The Spectator. There is Poetry in Science – reviewed by Melvyn Bragg, The Observer. Everyone a Scientist Archived 7 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine – reviewed by John Gribbin, The Literary Review. The Poetry of Science – reviewed by Sam Hurwitt, The San Francisco Examiner. The Science of Selfishness – reviewed by Andrew Brown, Salon. Nature of Science: A Wondrous and Poetic Spectrum Archived 1 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine reviewed by Charles M. Vest, Science. Frauds! Fakes! Phonies! – reviewed by Timothy Ferris, The New York Times. Unweaving the Rainbow Archived 24 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine reviewed by Paul R. Gross, The Wall Street Journal. Finding Awe, Reverence, and Wonder in Science – reviewed by Kendrick Frazier, Skeptical Inquirer. Unweaving the Rainbow – review from The Complete Review.


id: an-urchin-in-the-storm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Urchin_in_the_Storm-0.md
category: reference
title: An Urchin in the Storm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Urchin_in_the_Storm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:01.852243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: an-urchin-in-the-storm-20260505-0
summary:
An Urchin in the Storm is a 1987 essay collection from paleontologist and science writer Stephen Jay Gould. == Overview == All but one of the essays had originally appeared in The New York Review of Books. Grouped by theme, the sections of the book deal respectively with the irreducibility of history (and the pleasures and challenges of contingency) in its two principal domains of life and the earth, nature's complexity, the theory and consequences of biological determinism, and rationalism in explanation. The book is dedicated to Peter Medawar and Isaiah Berlin. It was reviewed in The New York Times by Michiko Kakutani, who noted that although the pieces were technically book reviews, Gould "tends to use the subject at hand as a jumping-off point for more general discussions". == References ==


id: the-varieties-of-scientific-experience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Varieties_of_Scientific_Experience-0.md
category: reference
title: The Varieties of Scientific Experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Varieties_of_Scientific_Experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:03.045797+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-varieties-of-scientific-experience-20260505-0
summary:
The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God is a book collecting transcribed talks on the subject of natural theology that astronomer Carl Sagan delivered in 1985 at the University of Glasgow as part of the Gifford Lectures. The book was first published posthumously in 2006, 10 years after his death. The title is a reference to The Varieties of Religious Experience by William James. The book was edited by Ann Druyan, who also provided an introduction section. The sixth chapter, "The God Hypothesis", was later reprinted in Christopher Hitchens' anthology The Portable Atheist. == References ==


id: view-from-a-height-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_from_a_Height-0.md
category: reference
title: View from a Height
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_from_a_Height
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:04.264618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: view-from-a-height-20260505-0
summary:
View from a Height is a collection of seventeen scientific essays by American writer and scientist Isaac Asimov. It was the second of a series of books collecting essays from The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, written between 1959 and 1962. It was first published by Doubleday & Company in 1963. The book received a review in Science Magazine. and The American Biology Teacher. The collection includes the essay "By Jove!", the source of the Asimov misquote describing the Solar System (besides the Sun) as "Jupiter plus debris". The actual quote is "4 planets plus debris". == Contents == Part I: Biology "That's About the Size of It" (October 1961) "The Egg and Wee" (June 1962) "That's Life!" (March 1962) "Not as We Know It" (September 1961) Part II: Chemistry "The Element of Perfection" (November 1960) "The Weighting Game" (April 1962) "The Evens Have It" (August 1961) Part III: Physics "Now Hear This!" (December 1960) "The Ultimate Split of the Second" (August 1959) "Order! Order!" (February 1961) "The Modern Demonology" (January 1962) "The Height of Up" (October 1959) Part IV: Astronomy "Hot Stuff" (July 1962) "Recipe for a Planet" (July 1961) "The Trojan Hearse" (December 1961) "By Jove!" (May


id: we-want-them-infected-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Want_Them_Infected-0.md
category: reference
title: We Want Them Infected
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Want_Them_Infected
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:05.473389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: we-want-them-infected-20260505-0
summary:
We Want Them Infected: How the Failed Quest for Herd Immunity Led Doctors to Embrace the Anti-Vaccine Movement and Blinded Americans to the Threat of Covid is a 2023 book by Jonathan Howard, an American professor of neurology and psychiatry at New York University Grossman School of Medicine. The book examines the Great Barrington Declaration (GBD), an open letter advocating for herd immunity for COVID-19, which was published in October 2020 by Sunetra Gupta, Jay Bhattacharya and Martin Kulldorff. The book was published by Redhawk Publications and was released on April 20, 2023. Howard has previously published several clinical textbooks in neurology and hosts the podcast "We Want Them Infected", which covers disinformation about the health field. The title of the book was taken from epidemiologist Paul Alexander who served in the Health and Human Services Department during the first Trump administration. == Synopsis == The American Institute for Economic Research (AIER) located in Great Barrington, Massachusetts gathered public health academics in October 2020 to discuss a plan for the management of the COVID 19 pandemic. The AIER is a libertarian think tank which is known for spreading misinformation concerning climate change and health. AIER advocated for allowing the 60%


id: the-welfare-trait-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Welfare_Trait-0.md
category: reference
title: The Welfare Trait
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Welfare_Trait
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:06.748600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-welfare-trait-20260505-0
summary:
The Welfare Trait: How State Benefits Affect Personality is a 2015 book by Adam Perkins, Lecturer in the Neurobiology of Personality at King's College London. Perkins claims that individuals with aggressive, rule-breaking and anti-social tendencies are over-represented among long-term welfare recipients. He calls this an "employment–resistant personality profile" and finds that it is heritable. The book was controversial. It initially attracted little attention, with the journal Nature refusing to review it. In 2016, a talk by Perkins was cancelled for fear of disruption. Perkins later wrote "I was no-platformed by student 'radicals' for telling the truth about welfare". That year, Perkins secretly gave a presentation on the book at the London Conference on Intelligence. The Adam Smith Institute commended the book's "praiseworthy boldness". However the argument was criticised in The Guardian for cherry-picking the data, relying too heavily on mice studies, and resembling eugenics. A professor at University College London reviewed the book negatively, claiming Perkins failed to prove causal links for his assertions, and that "his proposals are more likely to harm, then help, children." A 2017 review in the British Journal of Psychiatry wrote "it is true that there is good-quality evidence for the transmission of dysfunctional personality


id: what-if-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-0.md
category: reference
title: What If? (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If?_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:07.917301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-if-book-20260505-0
summary:
What If?: Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions is a 2014 non-fiction book by Randall Munroe in which the author answers hypothetical science questions sent to him by readers of his webcomic, xkcd. The book contains a selection of questions and answers originally published on his blog What If?, along with several new ones. The book is divided into several dozen chapters, most of which are devoted to answering a unique question. What If? was released on September 2, 2014, and was received positively by critics. A sequel to the book, titled What If? 2, was released on September 13, 2022. In 2024, a 10th anniversary edition of the book was released. == Conception of the blog == In the introduction section of the book, Randall Munroe recounts wondering as a child whether "there were more hard things or soft things in the world", concluding that "the world contained about three billion soft things and five billion hard things". The conversation that was produced by this question impressed Munroe's mother to such a degree that she wrote it down. Though Munroe later stated that his question was rather meaningless, he used it as an example of how "thoroughly answer[ing]


id: what-if-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-1.md
category: reference
title: What If? (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If?_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:07.917301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-if-book-20260505-0
summary:
What would happen if you tried to hit a baseball pitched at 90% the speed of light? Using mathematics and physics, Munroe concluded such a situation would result in a nuclear fusion explosion, and that ultimately, the result would be a ruling of hit by pitch. What If? approaches its subject matter with a sense of wit and sometimes makes use of approximations to answer questions that seem impossible to solve. Most questions demand assumptions and cross-disciplinary science skills to answer, resulting in "back-of-the-envelope" calculations. What If? is interspersed with "charmingly-amateur" stick figure illustrations. The book also features periodic sections titled "Weird (and Worrying) Questions from the What If? Inbox", which are short collections of questions Munroe had not answered because he did not "want to think about that". In an interview, Munroe stated that he "never got past the initial mental image" of the question "How cold would your teeth have to get in order for a cup of hot coffee to make them shatter on contact?" == Reception == The book was received positively by critics. Ethan Gilsdorf of the Boston Globe stated that "it's fun to watch as Munroe tackles each question and examines every possible complication."


id: what-if-2-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-0.md
category: reference
title: What If? 2 (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If?_2_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:09.144917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-if-2-book-20260505-0
summary:
What If? 2: Additional Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions is a 2022 non-fiction book by Randall Munroe. The book seeks to provide scientific answers to hypothetical questions proposed by readers of the author's webcomic, xkcd, and blog, What If? A follow-up to Munroe's 2014 title What If?, the book was released on September 13, 2022, to generally positive reviews, with Time saying, "Science isn't easy, but in Munroe's capable hands, it surely can be fun." == Background == Munroe, whose career began as a roboticist for NASA, began writing his webcomic xkcd in 2005, and following its success took up cartooning full-time soon after. With many of his drawings revolving around the topics of science and mathematics, Munroe soon began receiving questions from readers about those subject areas. As a result, he created a spinoff blog titled What If? where he compiled these questions and his subsequent responses. The blog formed the basis for his 2014 book What If?, which reached the top of The New York Times Best Seller list, and inspired the creation of a second volume, What If? 2. == Synopsis == What If? 2 continues in the same vein as its predecessor in attempting


id: what-is-your-dangerous-idea-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Your_Dangerous_Idea-0.md
category: reference
title: What Is Your Dangerous Idea?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Your_Dangerous_Idea?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:10.421389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-is-your-dangerous-idea-20260505-0
summary:
What Is Your Dangerous Idea?: Today's Leading Thinkers on the Unthinkable is a book edited by John Brockman, which deals with "dangerous" ideas, or ideas that some people would react to in ways that suggest a disruption of morality and ethics. Scientists, philosophers, artists, and various other groups of people have written in to the online salon called the Edge, where thinkers in several areas post and discuss their ideas. This collection of responses forms the entirety of the book (possibly with some excluded because of the great number of posts). The basic concept behind the book is "to gather a hundred of the most brilliant minds in the world in a room, lock them in, and have them ask each other the questions they were asking themselves". == Ideas == Members of the Edge Foundation were asked this question in 2006: The history of science is replete with discoveries that were considered socially, morally, or emotionally dangerous in their time; the Copernican and Darwinian revolutions are the most obvious. What is your dangerous idea? An idea you think about (not necessarily one you originated) that is dangerous not because it is assumed to be false, but because it might


id: what-is-your-dangerous-idea-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Your_Dangerous_Idea-1.md
category: reference
title: What Is Your Dangerous Idea?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Your_Dangerous_Idea?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:10.421389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-is-your-dangerous-idea-20260505-0
summary:
=== Beliefs === Several different beliefs were mentioned in the essays such as the relationship between science and religion. Sam Harris, in his essay titled "Science Must Destroy Religion," discusses different types of reason and belief as well as the conflict between science and religion. The conflict between religion and science is inherent and (very nearly) zero-sum. The success of science often comes at the expense of religious dogma; the maintenance of religious dogma always comes at the expense of science. —Sam Harris == Response == According to Jill Murphy, a reviewer of the website "The Bookbag", What is Your Dangerous Idea? provides an easy-to-understand explanation of the topics covered in this book. She expands by writing that the ideas make the reader think about them. The joy in this book is that it is easy to understand. Science duffer that I am, I had no difficulty with any of the concepts or theories. The Edge contributors really had exceeded their game. These ideas don't challenge the reader to understand them; they challenge the reader to think about them. The book has also been likened to "Shakespearean science" by one reviewer, due to the similar qualities it holds with William


id: what-we-believe-but-cannot-prove-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_We_Believe_but_Cannot_Prove-0.md
category: reference
title: What We Believe but Cannot Prove
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_We_Believe_but_Cannot_Prove
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:11.569011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-we-believe-but-cannot-prove-20260505-0
summary:
What We Believe But Cannot Prove: Today's Leading Thinkers on Science in the Age of Certainty is a non-fiction book published by Harper Perennial and edited by literary agent John Brockman that includes an introduction by novelist Ian McEwan. The book consists of responses to a question posed by the Edge Foundation, with answers as short as one sentence and as long as a few pages. Among the 107 published contributors are scientists and philosophers such as Richard Dawkins, Daniel C. Dennett, Jared Diamond, Rebecca Goldstein, Steven Pinker, Sir Martin Rees, and Craig Venter; as well as convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein. Some contributions were not included in the print book, including those by Benoit Mandelbrot and computer scientist John McCarthy but are among 120 responses available online. == Overview == Each year, the Edge Foundation poses a question on its website to members of the "third culture", defined by Brockman as "those scientists and other thinkers...who, through their work and expository writing, are taking the place of the traditional intellectual in rendering visible the deeper meanings of our lives, redefining who and what we are". == Synopsis == The essays cover a broad range of topics, including evolution, the


id: wholeness-and-the-implicate-order-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholeness_and_the_Implicate_Order-0.md
category: reference
title: Wholeness and the Implicate Order
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholeness_and_the_Implicate_Order
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:12.833153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wholeness-and-the-implicate-order-20260505-0
summary:
Wholeness and the Implicate Order is a book by theoretical physicist David Bohm. It was originally published in 1980 by Routledge, United Kingdom. The book is considered a basic reference for Bohm's concepts of undivided wholeness and of implicate and explicate orders, as well as of Bohm's rheomode—an experimental language based on verbs. The book is cited, for example, by philosopher Steven M. Rosen in his book The Self-evolving Cosmos, by mathematician and theologian Kevin J. Sharpe in his book David Bohm's World, by theologian Joseph P. Farrell in Babylon's Banksters, and by theologian John C. Polkinghorne in his book One World. == Chapters == Fragmentation and wholeness The rheomode – an experiment with language and thought Reality and knowledge considered as process Hidden variables in the quantum theory Quantum theory as an indication of a new order in physics, Part A: The development of new orders as shown through the history of physics Quantum theory as an indication of a new order in physics, Part B: Implicate and explicate order in physical law The enfolding-unfolding universe and consciousness == References == David Bohm: Wholeness and the Implicate Order, 1980, Routledge, ISBN 0-203-99515-5 (Master e-book ISBN, reprint 2005) == See


id: why-people-believe-weird-things-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things-0.md
category: reference
title: Why People Believe Weird Things
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:35.546371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: why-people-believe-weird-things-20260505-0
summary:
Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time is a 1997 book by science writer Michael Shermer. The foreword was written by Stephen Jay Gould. == Summary == In the first section, Shermer discusses the ideas that he has towards racism. He also explains his conversion to Deism from New Age mysticism (to which he had converted from being a Fundamentalist Christian Baptist). In part two Shermer explains paranormal thinking and how one comes to believe in things without evidence. He uses Edgar Cayce as an example, and while he agrees with parts of Ayn Rand's Objectivism, he criticizes its moral absolutism and argues that many follow her philosophy unquestioningly, which he believes contradicts free thinking. Part three begins with Shermer describing several debates he had with Duane Gish. He lays out some creationist arguments in 25 separate claims, and attempts to debunk each one with his own evidence. He closes retelling how a constitutional ban on teaching creationism in public schools was narrowly upheld at the Supreme Court of the United States in 1987. Shermer shows that the Holocaust deniers reject proven facts for, as he states, ideological reasons. Like the creationists, he asserted,


id: wild-solutions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Solutions-0.md
category: reference
title: Wild Solutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Solutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:36.710706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wild-solutions-20260505-0
summary:
Wild Solutions: How Biodiversity is Money in the Bank is a 2001 book by biologists Andrew Beattie and Paul R. Ehrlich. The authors explain the value of "wild solutions" to technical and medical problems that may reside in the diversity of the Earth's estimated 5 to 10 million species. Beattie and Ehrlich describe the role of natural substances in medicine, pest control, and manufacturing. The book won a National Outdoor Book Award in 2001. A second edition came out in 2004. == References ==


id: the-worlds-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The Worlds of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:37.926866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-worlds-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Worlds of Science is a series of science book paperbacks by various authors published by Pyramid Books in the 1960s. The series included both reprints of works originally published independently and new works written especially for the series. Prominent contributors included Isaac Asimov and L. Sprague de Camp, among others. Books in the series include: The Human Brain, by John Pfeifer Maya, by Charles Gallenkamp Nine Planets, by Alan E. Nourse Living Earth, by Peter Farb Chemistry Creates a New World, by Bernard Jaffe The Road to Man, by Herbert Wendt Giants of Science, by Philip Cane Snakes of the World, by Raymond Ditmars The ABC of Physics, by Jerome S. Meyer Computers, by Stanley L. Englebardt Man and Dolphin, by John C. Lilly Kingdom of the Octopus, by Frank W. Lane Dinosaurs, by Nicholas Hotton III The Story of Weather, by Capt. David C. Holmes, USN Fact and Fancy, by Isaac Asimov Electronics, by Stanley L. Englebardt Conquest of the Moon, by William Hines Elephant, by L. Sprague de Camp New Worlds of Oceanography, by Captain John E. Long New Frontiers in Medicine, by Stanley Englebardt The Human Machine, by Harry Moody The Borders of Mathematics, by Willy


id: building-of-the-military-geographical-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_of_the_Military_Geographical_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Building of the Military Geographical Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_of_the_Military_Geographical_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:39.526495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: building-of-the-military-geographical-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Building of the Military Geographical Institute (Polish: Gmach Wojskowego Instytutu Geograficznego) is a modernist and neoclassical building in Warsaw, Poland, at 97 Jerusalem Avenue, within the Ochota district. Opened in 1934, it served as the headquarters of the Military Geographical Institute until 1949. The building is listed on the national heritage list. == History == The building was designed by Antoni Dygat, and constructed between 1933 and 1934, as the headquarters of the Military Geographical Institute. In 2000, on its façade was installed a commemorative plaque dedicated to the officers and employees of the institute who were killed during the Second World War. In 2007, the building was entered into the national heritage list. == Architecture == The building has reinforced concrete structure, with 4 stories, and a 6-storey-tall clock tower, and bears elements of neoclassical and modern styles. It also has two inner courtyards. Its façade is lined with sandstone plates. It also features two cartouche depicting 16 coat of arms of the voivodeships of the Second Polish Republic. The originals were destroyed in the 1960s, and their replicas were installed in 2018. Its hall features a 1937 fresco by Boleslaw Cybis and Jan Zamoyski, titled Bolesław the


id: roatan-institute-for-marine-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roatan_Institute_for_Marine_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Roatan Institute for Marine Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roatan_Institute_for_Marine_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:41.963726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roatan-institute-for-marine-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Roatan Institute for Marine Sciences (RIMS) is a scientific research center located in Roatán, department of Islas de la Bahía, in the Republic of Honduras. It is part of Anthony's Key Resort, a tourist complex belonging to the Galindo family, that offers accommodations in bungalows, kayaking, spas, excursions and various interactions with captive dolphins such as swimming. It was founded in 1989 with the purpose of investigating coral reefs and aquatic life in general in the coastal zones of Honduras and the surrounding areas. The institute also has a small marine museum and the "Dolphin Discovery Camp" for the study of dolphin behavior (two when it started) and in 2017 the population of the dolphinarium was twenty-six cetaceans. Of these, seven were captured wild, one was rescued and eighteen were born there. They are spread over two coastal enclosures, one on the small island of Bailey's Key (Dolphin Encounter) and the other on the main island of Roatán (Dolphin Presentation). The institute has scientific research programs that are visited by students from colleges, universities, and high schools from abroad. Héctor and Iván are two of the dolphins, whose behavior was studied by the psychologist Dr. Stan Kuczaj. These dolphins use


id: classification-of-the-sciences-peirce-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of the sciences (Peirce)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:44.596418+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-the-sciences-peirce-20260505-0
summary:
The philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) did considerable work over a period of years on the classification of sciences (including mathematics). His classifications are of interest both as a map for navigating his philosophy and as an accomplished polymath's survey of research in his time. Peirce himself was well grounded and produced work in many research fields, including logic, mathematics, statistics, philosophy, spectroscopy, gravimetry, geodesy, chemistry, and experimental psychology. == Classifications == Philosophers have done little work on classification of the sciences and mathematics since Peirce's time. Noting Peirce's "important" contribution, Denmark's Birger Hjørland commented: "There is not today (2005), to my knowledge, any organized research program about the classification of the sciences in any discipline or in any country". As Miksa (1998) writes, the "interest for this question largely died in the beginning of the 20th century". It is not clear whether Hjørland includes the classification of mathematics in that characterization. === Taxa === In 1902 and 1903 Peirce elaborates classifications of the sciences in: "A Detailed Classification of the Sciences" in Minute Logic (Feb.–Apr. 1902), Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP) v. 1, paragraphs 203–283 July 1902 application to the Carnegie institution (MS L75) "An Outline Classification


id: classification-of-the-sciences-peirce-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of the sciences (Peirce)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_the_sciences_(Peirce)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:44.596418+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-the-sciences-peirce-20260505-0
summary:
There in 1911 Peirce does not mention the 1906 division into logics of icons, indices and symbols. Critic and Methodeutic appear, as in 1902 and 1903, as the second and third main departments of logic. Analytic is now the first department and the word "Stechiology" goes unused. He includes in Analytic the consideration of issues which, back in his 1902 Carnegie Institute application, he had discussed in sections on logic with headings such as "Presuppositions of Logic" and "On the Logical Conception of Mind" that he had placed before the sections on logic's departments (stechiology, critic, and methodeutic). On the question of the relationship between Stechiology and the Analytic that seems to have replaced it, note that, in Draft D of Memoir 15 in his 1902 Carnegie Institute application, Peirce said that stechiology, also called grammatica speculativa, amounts to an Erkenntnisslehre, a theory of cognition, provided that that theory is stripped of matter irrelevant and inadmissible in philosophical logic, irrelevant matter such as all truths (for example, the association of ideas) established by psychologists, insofar as the special science of psychology depends on logic, not vice versa. In that same Carnegie Institute application as in many other places, Peirce treated


id: division-taxonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)-0.md
category: reference
title: Division (taxonomy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:45.903020+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: division-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
In biological taxonomy, division is a rank that is used differently in zoology and in botany. In botany and mycology, division is the traditional name for a rank now considered equivalent to phylum. The use of either term is allowed under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. The main divisions of land plants are the Marchantiophyta (liverworts), Anthocerotophyta (hornworts), Bryophyta (mosses), Filicophyta (ferns), Sphenophyta (horsetails), Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (ginkgos), Pinophyta (conifers), Gnetophyta (gnetophytes), and the Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms, flowering plants). The Magnoliophyta now dominate terrestrial ecosystems, comprising 80% of vascular plant species. In zoology, the term division is applied to an optional rank subordinate to the infraclass and superordinate to the legion and cohort. A widely used classification (e.g. Carroll 1988) recognises teleost fishes as a Division Teleostei within Class Actinopterygii (the ray-finned fishes). Less commonly (as in Milner 1988), living tetrapods are ranked as Divisions Amphibia and Amniota within the clade of vertebrates with fleshy limbs (Sarcopterygii). == Proposals for standardisation == In 1978, a group of botanists including Harold Charles Bold, Arthur Cronquist and Lynn Margulis proposed replacing the term "division" with "phylum" in botanical nomenclature, arguing that maintaining different terms for the same taxonomic rank across biological kingdoms


id: dustbin-category-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustbin_category-0.md
category: reference
title: Dustbin category
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustbin_category
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:47.181127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dustbin-category-20260505-0
summary:
The term "dustbin category" is sometimes used to describe a category that includes people or things that might be heterogeneous, only loosely related or poorly understood. It has been used in discussion of law, linguistics, medicine, sociology and other disciplines. For example: Some patients' symptoms do not fit well with any recognised category and there is a danger these may be forced into a 'dustbin' category such as 'depression, not otherwise specified.' == See also == Wastebasket taxon == References ==


id: classification-of-electromagnetic-fields-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_electromagnetic_fields-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of electromagnetic fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_electromagnetic_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:48.342388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-electromagnetic-fields-20260505-0
summary:
In differential geometry and theoretical physics, the classification of electromagnetic fields is a pointwise classification of bivectors at each point of a Lorentzian manifold. It is used in the study of solutions of Maxwell's equations and has applications in Einstein's theory of relativity. == Classification theorem == The electromagnetic field at a point p (i.e. an event) of a Lorentzian spacetime is represented by a real bivector F = Fab defined over the tangent space at p. The tangent space at p is isometric as a real inner product space to E1,3. That is, it has the same notion of vector magnitude and angle as Minkowski spacetime. To simplify the notation, we will assume the spacetime is Minkowski spacetime. This tends to blur the distinction between the tangent space at p and the underlying manifold; fortunately, nothing is lost by this specialization, for reasons we discuss as the end of the article. The classification theorem for electromagnetic fields characterizes the bivector F in relation to the Lorentzian metric η = ηab by defining and examining the so-called "principal null directions". Let us explain this. The bivector Fab yields a skew-symmetric linear operator Fab = Facηcb defined by lowering one index


id: fields-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_of_Science_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Fields of Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_of_Science_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:53.267655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fields-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Fields of Science and Technology (FOS) is a compulsory classification for statistics of branches of scholarly and technical fields, published by the OECD in 2002. It was created out of the need to interchange data of research facilities, research results etc. It was revised in 2007 under the name Revised Fields of Science and Technology. == List == Natural sciences Mathematics Computer and information sciences Physical sciences Chemical sciences Earth and related environmental sciences Biological sciences Other natural sciences Engineering and technology Civil engineering Electrical engineering, electronic engineering, information engineering Mechanical engineering Chemical engineering Materials engineering Medical engineering Environmental engineering Environmental biotechnology Industrial biotechnology Nano technology Other engineering and technologies Medical and health sciences Basic medicine Clinical medicine Health sciences Health biotechnology Other medical sciences Agricultural sciences Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries Animal and dairy science Veterinary science Agricultural biotechnology Other agricultural sciences Social science Psychology Economics and business Educational sciences Sociology Law Political science Social and economic geography Media and communications Other social sciences Humanities History and archaeology Languages and literature Philosophy, ethics and religion Arts (arts, history of arts, performing arts, music) Other humanities == See also == International Standard Classification of Education International Standard Classification of Occupations Wissenschaft


id: iec-common-data-dictionary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_Common_Data_Dictionary-0.md
category: reference
title: IEC Common Data Dictionary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_Common_Data_Dictionary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:54.467954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iec-common-data-dictionary-20260505-0
summary:
IEC Common Data Dictionary (abbreviated: IEC CDD) is a metadata registry providing product classification and formalized product descriptions that can be used in the context of smart manufacturing and Industrie 4.0. == Data Model == IEC CDD is based on the data model defined in IEC 61360-2/ISO 13584–42 with an enhancement of its modelling capability adopted from IEC 62656-1. The description of the data model for dictionary developers in particular for those in electrotechnical domains is given in IEC 61360-1. Currently the scope of the registry is extended to cover all ISO and IEC domains, thus it is no longer "IEC CDD", nevertheless it is hosted by IEC-CO and is maintained by IEC SC 3D with a joint working group formed between IEC SC 3D and ISO TC 184/SC4. The data model of the CDD references ISO/IEC 11179 for the identification of the registered elements . It is used to host product classifications. - This means the IEC CDD is a database providing classifications and metadata definitions for describing products. The IEC CDD is an International Standard in the form of an online database, not in the form of (e-)paper, and is given the standard number IEC 61360-4 DB. Thus


id: nickel-strunz-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel–Strunz_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Nickel–Strunz classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel–Strunz_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:55.685536+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nickel-strunz-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Nickel–Strunz classification is a scheme for categorizing minerals based upon their chemical composition, introduced by German mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz (24 February 1910 – 19 April 2006) in his Mineralogische Tabellen (1941). The 4th and the 5th edition were also edited by Christel Tennyson (1966). It was followed by A.S. Povarennykh with a modified classification (1966 in Russian, 1972 in English). As curator of the Mineralogical Museum of Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (now known as the Humboldt University of Berlin), Strunz had been tasked with sorting the museum's geological collection according to crystal-chemical properties. His book Mineralogical Tables, has been through a number of modifications; the most recent edition, published in 2001, is the ninth (Mineralogical Tables by Hugo Strunz and Ernest H. Nickel (31 August 1925 – 18 July 2009)). The IMA/CNMNC supports the Nickel–Strunz database. == Nickel–Strunz code scheme == The Nickel–Strunz code scheme is NN.XY.##x, where: NN: Nickel–Strunz mineral class number X: Nickel–Strunz mineral division letter Y: Nickel–Strunz mineral family letter ##x: Nickel–Strunz mineral/group number; x an add-on letter == Nickel–Strunz mineral classes == The current scheme divides minerals into ten classes, which are further divided into divisions, families and groups according to chemical composition and crystal structure. elements sulfides


id: physh-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhySH-0.md
category: reference
title: PhySH
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhySH
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:56.916789+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physh-20260505-0
summary:
PhySH, an abbreviation for Physics Subject Headings, is a classification scheme developed by the American Physical Society (APS) as a universal classification scheme covering all branches of physics including astronomy, quantum computation, and physics education. This scheme was unveiled in January 2016. It substitutes the previous Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme (PACS) of the American Institute of Physics (AIP) and is currently the working tool for all journals of APS and all scientific Conferences and Meetings called by APS. == Brief history == PACS was created by AIP in the 1970s. AIP maintained and updated it until 2010, when AIP decided to keep PACS 2010 as its final version because of the inherent limitations to the PACS system. Under these conditions, and confronted with the necessity to operate an efficient classification system well-accommodated to fast developments in various branches of physics, APS developed its own PhySH system. The development of PhySH started in 2012, and it has been unveiled in January 2016. Being word based, i.e., operating with regular English words rather than formal PACS codes, PhySH is much more intuitive than PACS. Also, new concepts originating in the course of the development of science can be organically incorporated into


id: physics-and-astronomy-classification-scheme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_and_Astronomy_Classification_Scheme-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_and_Astronomy_Classification_Scheme
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:58.111321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-and-astronomy-classification-scheme-20260505-0
summary:
The Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme (PACS) is a scheme developed in 1970 by the American Institute of Physics (AIP) for classifying scientific literature using a hierarchical set of codes. PACS has been used by over 160 international journals, including the Physical Review series since 1975. Since 2016, American Physical Society introduced the PhySH (Physics Subject Headings) system instead of PACS. == Discontinuation == AIP has announced that PACS 2010 will be the final version, but it will continue to be available through their website. The decision was made to discontinue PACS, owing to the administrative complexity of the revision process and its future viability in light of changing technological and research trends. However, PACS is still in use by scientific journals. In association with Access Innovations, Inc., the AIP has developed a new "AIP Thesaurus", which it states will enable faster, more accurate and more efficient searches. == See also == Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) Computing Classification System (CCS) PhySH (Physics Subject Headings) == References == == External links == "Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme (PACS)". Physical Review Journals. 11 January 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20070826124822/http://www.aip.org/pacs/Information on PACS https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041118/https://publishing.aip.org/publishing/pacs/pacs-2010-regular-editionPACS 2010 "PACS 2010". physics.zju.edu.cn. Archived from the original on 2019-02-02. Retrieved 2019-02-01. "PACS


id: comparison-of-butterflies-and-moths-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_butterflies_and_moths-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of butterflies and moths
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_butterflies_and_moths
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:59.785874+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-butterflies-and-moths-20260505-0
summary:
A common classification of the Lepidoptera involves their differentiation into butterflies and moths. Butterflies are a natural monophyletic group, historically treated as the suborder Rhopalocera, which includes Papilionoidea (true butterflies), Hesperiidae (skippers), and Hedylidae (butterfly moths). In this taxonomic scheme, moths formed the suborder Heterocera. Other taxonomic schemes have been proposed, the most common putting the butterflies into the suborder Ditrysia and then the "superfamily" Papilionoidea and ignoring a classification for moths. == Taxonomy == While the butterflies form a monophyletic group, the moths, which comprise the rest of the Lepidoptera, do not. Many attempts have been made to group the superfamilies of the Lepidoptera into natural groups, most of which fail because one of the two groups is not monophyletic: Microlepidoptera and Macrolepidoptera, Heterocera and Rhopalocera, Jugatae and Frenatae, Monotrysia and Ditrysia. Although the rules for distinguishing these groups are not absolute, one very good guiding principle is that butterflies have thin antennae and (with one exception) have small balls or clubs at the end of their antennae. Moth antennae can be quite varied in appearance, but in particular lack the club end. The divisions are named by this principle: "club-antennae" (Rhopalocera) or "varied-antennae" (Heterocera). The following families of


id: comparison-of-butterflies-and-moths-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_butterflies_and_moths-1.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of butterflies and moths
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_butterflies_and_moths
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:35:59.785874+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-butterflies-and-moths-20260505-0
summary:
=== Eye types === Despite appearances, butterflies and moths have different types of compound eyes. Though not universal, moths very commonly have superposition eyes, while butterflies equally commonly favour apposition eyes. This is due to the superposition eye's adaptations for low light environments suiting the nocturnal moths, and the apposition eye's superior resolution and potential for colour vision benefiting the more diurnal butterflies. There are several exceptions to this rule, such as with the diurnal Zygaenidae and Sytomidae families of moths, both of which have apposition eyes, or the Hedyloidea family of butterflies, which are nocturnal and feature superposition eyes. In most cases where one species is found to be using the opposite type of eye than expected, it is because they are active during the opposite time of day than is normal for other butterflies or moths. == Behavioural differences == === Time of activity === Most moths are nocturnal or crepuscular while most butterflies are diurnal. There are however exceptions, including the spectacular Uraniidae or sunset moths. A few species, such as the male European/North American spongy moth, fly during both day and night in search of the females, which are flightless. === Resting posture === Moths usually


id: characteristics-of-common-wasps-and-bees-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characteristics_of_common_wasps_and_bees-0.md
category: reference
title: Characteristics of common wasps and bees
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characteristics_of_common_wasps_and_bees
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:00.978181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: characteristics-of-common-wasps-and-bees-20260505-0
summary:
While observers can easily confuse common wasps and bees at a distance or without close observation, there are many different characteristics of large bees and wasps that can be used to identify them. == Characteristics == == See also == Schmidt sting pain index == Notes == == References == == Further reading == N. R. Levick; J. O. Schmidt; J. Harrison; G. S. Smith; K. D. Winkel (2000). "Review of bee and wasp sting injuries in Australia and the U.S.A. § Bees versus wasps: Appearance, Behaviour, and Venom chemistry". In Andrew D. Austin; Mark Dowton (eds.). Hymenoptera: evolution, biodiversity and biological control. Csiro Publishing. pp. 439–440. ISBN 978-0-643-06610-6. P. Gopalakrishnakone (1990). "Differences between wasps and bees". A Colour guide to dangerous animals. NUS Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-9971-69-150-9. Philip B. Mortenson (2008). "Bee · Wasp · Hornet · Ant". How to tell a turtle from a tortoise: a close look at nature's most confusing terms. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-7607-9002-1. Kevin T. Fitzgerald; Rebecca Vera (2006). "Insects — Hymenoptera". In Michael Edward Peterson; Patricia A. Talcott (eds.). Small animal toxicology (2nd ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-7216-0639-2. == External links == What's Buzzin' in My Garden? Differences between wasps


id: relationship-between-chemistry-and-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_chemistry_and_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between chemistry and physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_chemistry_and_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:02.196097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-chemistry-and-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between chemistry and physics is a topic of debate in the philosophy of science. The issue is a complicated one, since both physics and chemistry are divided into multiple subfields, each with their own goals. A major theme is whether, and in what sense, chemistry can be said to "reduce" to physics. == Background == Although physics and chemistry are branches of science that both study matter, they differ in the scopes of their respective subjects. While physics focuses on phenomena such as force, motion, electromagnetism, elementary particles, and spacetime, chemistry is concerned mainly with the structure and reactions of atoms and molecules, but does not necessarily deal with non-baryonic matter. However, the two disciplines overlap in subjects concerning the behaviour of fluids, the thermodynamics of chemical reactions, the magnetic forces between atoms and molecules, and quantum chemistry. Moreover, the laws of chemistry highly depend on the laws of quantum mechanics. == Material science == In some respects the two sciences have developed independently, but less so towards the end of the twentieth century. There are many areas where there is major overlap, for instance both chemical physics and physical chemistry combine the two, while materials science is


id: comparison-of-chernobyl-and-other-radioactivity-releases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:03.433289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-chernobyl-and-other-radioactivity-releases-20260505-0
summary:
This article compares the radioactivity release and decay from the Chernobyl disaster with various other events which involved a release of uncontrolled radioactivity. == Chernobyl compared to background radiation == Natural sources of radiation are prevalent in the environment, and come from cosmic rays, food sources (bananas have a particularly high source due to potassium-40 but all foods contain carbon and thereby carbon-14), radon gas, granite and other dense rocks, and others. The banana equivalent dose is sometimes used in science communication to visualize different levels of ionizing radiation. The collective radiation background dose for natural sources in Europe is about 500,000 man-Sieverts per year. The total dose from Chernobyl is estimated at 80,000 man-sieverts, or roughly 1/6 as much. However, some individuals, particularly in areas adjacent to the reactor, received massively higher doses. Chernobyl's radiation was detectable across Western Europe. Average doses received ranged from 0.02 mrem (Portugal) to 38 mrem (portions of Germany). == Chernobyl compared with an atomic bomb == Far fewer people died as an immediate result of the Chernobyl event than the immediate deaths from radiation at Hiroshima. Chernobyl is eventually predicted to result in up to 4,000 total deaths from cancer, sometime in the


id: comparison-of-chernobyl-and-other-radioactivity-releases-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases-1.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:03.433289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-chernobyl-and-other-radioactivity-releases-20260505-0
summary:
106Ru 7.9 TBq 103Ru 340 GBq 95Nb 11.2 TBq 95Zr 5.1 TBq 137Cs 505 GBq (estimated from the IAEA data) 141Ce 370 GBq 144Ce 240 GBq 125Sb 100 GBq 239Pu 5.2 GBq The very short-lived isotopes such as 140Ba and 131I were absent from this mixture, and the long-lived 137Cs was at a small concentration. This is because it is not able to enter the tributyl phosphate/hydrocarbon organic phase used in the first liquid-liquid extraction cycle of the PUREX process. The second cycle is normally to clean up the uranium and plutonium product. In the PUREX process, some zirconium, technetium, and other elements are extracted by the tributyl phosphate. Due to the radiation induced degradation of tributyl phosphate, the first cycle organic phase is always contaminated with ruthenium (later extracted by dibutyl hydrogen phosphate). Because the very short-lived radioisotopes and the relatively long-lived caesium isotopes are either absent or in low concentrations, the shape of the dose rate vs. time graph is different from Chernobyl, both for short times and long times after the accident. The size of the radioactive release at Tomsk-7 was much smaller, and while it caused moderate environmental contamination, it did not cause any early deaths.


id: comparison-of-chernobyl-and-other-radioactivity-releases-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases-2.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:03.433289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-chernobyl-and-other-radioactivity-releases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reactor accidents === In this type of accident a reactor or other critical assembly releases far more fission power than was expected, or it becomes critical at the wrong moment in time. The series of examples of such events include one in an experimental facility in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on September 23, 1983 (one death), and during the Manhattan Project several people were irradiated (two, Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin, were irradiated fatally) during "tickling the dragon's tail" experiments. These accidents tend to lead to very high doses due to direct irradiation of the workers within the site, but due to the inverse square law the dose suffered by members of the general public tends to be very small. Also, very little environmental contamination normally occurs as a result of these accidents. For instance, at Sarov the radioactivity remained confined to within the actinide metal objects which were part of the experimental system, according to the IAEA report (2001). Even the SL-1 accident (RIA, power surge in an experimental nuclear reactor in Idaho, 1961) failed to release much radioactivity outside the building in which it occurred. == See also == Church Rock uranium mill spill Comparison of Fukushima and


id: comparison-of-the-chernobyl-and-fukushima-nuclear-accidents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_the_Chernobyl_and_Fukushima_nuclear_accidents-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_the_Chernobyl_and_Fukushima_nuclear_accidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:04.617598+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-the-chernobyl-and-fukushima-nuclear-accidents-20260505-0
summary:
To date, the nuclear accidents at the Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima Daiichi (2011) nuclear power plants are the only INES level 7 nuclear accidents. == Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents == The following table compares the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents. == Radioactive contamination discharge == == See also == Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases Deaths due to the Chernobyl disaster List of accidents at the Mayak facility == Notes == == References == == External links == How Much Fuel Is at Risk at Fukushima? Chernobyl Accident. World Nuclear Association. Archived 1 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Fukushima Nuclear Crisis Unwrapped Archived 1 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Fukushima Nuclear Accident. IAEA Update Log BBC News: Fukushima and Chernobyl compared


id: comparison-of-the-imperial-and-us-customary-measurement-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_the_imperial_and_US_customary_measurement_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_the_imperial_and_US_customary_measurement_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:09.542342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-the-imperial-and-us-customary-measurement-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Both the British imperial measurement system and United States customary systems of measurement derive from earlier English unit systems used prior to 1824 that were the result of a combination of the local Anglo-Saxon units inherited from Germanic tribes and Roman units. Having this shared heritage, the two systems are quite similar, but there are differences. The US customary system is based on English systems of the 18th century, while the imperial system was defined in 1824, almost a half-century after American independence. == Volume == Volume may be measured either in terms of units of cubic length or with specific volume units. The units of cubic length (the cubic inch, cubic foot, cubic mile, etc.) are the same in the imperial and US customary systems, but they differ in their specific units of volume (the bushel, gallon, fluid ounce, etc.). The US customary system has a set of units for fluids, it has a different measure for dry goods for the pint, quart and barrel, and a peck and bushel for dry goods only. The imperial system has only one set of measurements, defined independently of the US customary system. By the end of the 18th century, various systems


id: comparison-of-the-imperial-and-us-customary-measurement-systems-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_the_imperial_and_US_customary_measurement_systems-1.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_the_imperial_and_US_customary_measurement_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:09.542342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-the-imperial-and-us-customary-measurement-systems-20260505-0
summary:
== Length == The international yard is defined as exactly 0.9144 metres. This definition was approved by the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand through the international yard and pound agreement of 1959, and corresponds with the previous 1930s British and American definitions of 1 inch being 25.4 mm. In all systems, a yard is 36 inches. The US survey foot and survey mile were maintained as separate units for surveying purposes to avoid the accumulation of error that would follow replacing them with the international versions, particularly with State Plane Coordinate Systems. The choice of unit for surveying purposes is based on the unit used when the overall framework or geodetic datum for the region was established; for example, much of the former British empire still uses the Clarke foot for surveying. The US survey foot is defined so that 1 metre is exactly 39.37 inches, making the international foot of 0.3048 metres exactly two parts per million shorter. This is a difference of just over 3.2 mm, or a little more than one-eighth of an inch per mile. According to the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the survey foot is obsolete


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-0.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:10.787237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) is a 1632 book by Galileo Galilei comparing Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric system model with Ptolemy's geocentric model. Written in Italian, it was translated into Latin as Systema cosmicum (Cosmic System) in 1635 by Matthias Bernegger. The book was dedicated to Galileo's patron, Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who received the first printed copy on February 22, 1632. It consists of four Socratic dialogues between the Copernican Salviati, the educated layman Sagredo and the geocentrist Simplicio. They discuss the findings of their "mutual friend the Academician" (Galileo). In the heliocentric system, the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, while in the Ptolemaic system, everything in the Universe circles around the Earth. The Dialogue was published in Florence under a formal license from the Inquisition. In 1633, Galileo was found to be "vehemently suspect of heresy" based on the book, which was then placed on the Index of Forbidden Books, from which it was not removed until 1835 (after the theories it discussed had been permitted in print in 1822). In an action that was not announced at the time, the publication of


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-1.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:10.787237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Direct physical argument for the Earth's motion, by means of an explanation of tides. As an account of the causation of tides or a proof of the Earth's motion, it is a failure. The fundamental argument is internally inconsistent and actually leads to the conclusion that tides do not exist. But, Galileo was fond of the argument and devoted the "Fourth Day" of the discussion to it. The degree of its failure is—like nearly anything having to do with Galileo—a matter of controversy. On the one hand, the whole thing has recently been described in print as "cockamamie." On the other hand, Einstein used a rather different description: It was Galileo's longing for a mechanical proof of the motion of the earth which misled him into formulating a wrong theory of the tides. The fascinating arguments in the last conversation would hardly have been accepted as proof by Galileo, had his temperament not got the better of him. [Emphasis added] === Omissions === The Dialogue does not treat the Tychonic system, which was becoming the preferred system of many astronomers at the time of publication and which was ultimately proven incorrect. The Tychonic system is a motionless Earth system but


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-2.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:10.787237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
=== Day one === Salviati starts with Aristotle's proof of the completeness and perfection of the world (i.e. the universe) because of its three dimensions. Simplicio points out that three was favoured by the Pythagoreans whereas Salviati cannot understand why three legs are better than two or four. He suggests that the numbers were "trifles which later spread among the vulgar" and that their definitions, such as those of straight lines and right angles, were more useful in establishing the dimensions. Simplicio's response was that Aristotle thought that in physical matters mathematical demonstration was not always needed. Salviati attacks Aristotle's definition of the heavens as incorruptible and unchanging whilst only the lunar-bound zone shows change. He points to the changes seen in the skies: the new stars of 1572 and 1604 and sunspots, seen through the new telescope. There is a discussion about Aristotle's use of a priori arguments. Salviati suggests that Aristotle uses Aristotle’s personal experience to choose an appropriate argument to prove just as others do and that Aristotle would change his mind in the present circumstances. Simplicio argues that sunspots could simply be small opaque objects passing in front of the Sun, but Salviati points out that


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-3.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:10.787237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
They consider three main objections to the motion of the Earth: that a falling body would be left behind by the Earth and thus fall far to the west of its point of release; that a cannonball fired to the west would similarly fly much further than one fired to the east; and that a cannonball fired vertically would also land far to the west. Salviati shows that these do not take account of the impetus of the cannon. He also points out that attempting to prove that the Earth does not move by using vertical fall commits the logical fault of paralogism (assuming what is to be proved), because if the Earth is moving then it is only in appearance that it is falling vertically; in fact it is falling at a slant, as happens with a cannonball rising through the cannon (illustrated). In rebutting a work which claims that a ball falling from the Moon would take six days to arrive, the odd-number rule is introduced: a body falling 1 unit in an interval would fall 3 units in the next interval, 5 units in the subsequent one, etc. This gives rise to the rule by which the


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-4.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:10.787237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Copernicus has succeeded in reducing some of the uneven motions of Ptolemy who had to deal with motions that sometimes go fast, sometimes slow, and sometimes backwards, by means of vast epicycles. Mars, above the Sun's sphere, often falls far below it, then soars above it. These anomalies are cured by the annual movement of the Earth. This is explained by a diagram in which the varying motion of Jupiter is shown using the Earth's orbit. Simplicio produces another booklet in which theological arguments are mixed with astronomic, but Salviati refuses to address the issues from Scripture. So he produces the argument that the fixed stars must be at an inconceivable distance with the smallest larger than the whole orbit of the Earth. Salviati explains that this all comes from a misrepresentation of what Copernicus said, resulting in a huge over-calculation of the size of a sixth magnitude star. But many other famous astronomers over-estimated the size of stars by ignoring the brightness factor. Not even Tycho, with his accurate instruments, set himself to measure the size of any star except the Sun and Moon. But Salviati (Galileo) was able to make a reasonable estimate simply by hanging a cord


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-5.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:10.787237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
=== Day four === They are in Sagredo's house in Venice, where tides are an important issue, and Salviati wants to show the effect of the Earth's movement on the tides. He first points out the three periods of the tides: daily (diurnal), generally with intervals of 6 hours of rising and six more of falling; monthly, seemingly from the Moon, which increases or decreases these tides; and annual, leading to different sizes at the equinoxes. He considers first the daily motion. Three varieties are observed: in some places the waters rise and fall without any forward motion; in others they move towards the east and back to the west without rising or falling; in still others there is a combination of both—this happens in Venice where the waters rise on entering and fall on leaving. In the Straits of Messina there are very swift currents between Scylla and Charybdis. In the open Mediterranean the alteration of height is small but the currents are noticeable. Simplicio counters with the peripatetic explanations, which are based on the depths of the sea, and the dominion of the Moon over the water, though this does not explain the risings when the Moon is


id: hardness-comparison-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness_comparison-0.md
category: reference
title: Hardness comparison
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness_comparison
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:11.946761+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hardness-comparison-20260505-0
summary:
A variety of hardness-testing methods are available, including the Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell, Meyer and Leeb tests. Although it is impossible in many cases to give an exact conversion, it is possible to give an approximate material-specific comparison table for steels. == Hardness comparison table == == References == == Further reading == ISO 18265: "Metallic materials — Conversion of hardness values" (2013) ASTM E140-12B(2019)e1: "Standard Hardness Conversion Tables for Metals Relationship Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers Hardness, Rockwell Hardness, Superficial Hardness, Knoop Hardness, Scleroscope Hardness, and Leeb Hardness" (2019) == External links == Hardness Conversion Table – Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers – Various steels . (Archived) (archived November 11, 2011) Rockwell to Brinell conversion chart (Brinell, Rockwell A, B, C) Struers hardness conversion table (Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell B, C, D)


id: integrative-and-comparative-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrative_and_Comparative_Biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Integrative and Comparative Biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrative_and_Comparative_Biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:13.082696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: integrative-and-comparative-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Integrative and Comparative Biology is the scientific journal for the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology (formerly the American Society of Zoologists). Prior to volume 42 (2002), the journal was known as American Zoologist ISSN 0003-1569. == See also == List of zoology journals == External links == Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology


id: life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-of-energy-sources-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_greenhouse_gas_emissions_of_energy_sources-0.md
category: reference
title: Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_greenhouse_gas_emissions_of_energy_sources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:14.271215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-of-energy-sources-20260505-0
summary:
Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the environmental impacts of electricity generation. Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global warming potential (GWP) of energy sources through life-cycle assessment. These are usually sources of only electrical energy but sometimes sources of heat are evaluated. The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source. The scale uses the global warming potential unit, the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), and the unit of electrical energy, the kilowatt hour (kWh). The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source, from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management. In 2014, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide. This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source. Coal is by far the worst emitter, followed by natural gas, with solar, wind and nuclear all low-carbon. Hydropower, biomass, geothermal and ocean power may generally be low-carbon, but poor design or other factors could result in higher emissions from individual power stations. For all


id: life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-of-energy-sources-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_greenhouse_gas_emissions_of_energy_sources-1.md
category: reference
title: Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_greenhouse_gas_emissions_of_energy_sources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:14.271215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-of-energy-sources-20260505-0
summary:
Although the life cycle assessments of each energy source should attempt to cover the full life cycle of the source from cradle-to-grave, they are generally limited to the construction and operation phase. The most rigorously studied phases are those of material and fuel mining, construction, operation, and waste management. However, missing life cycle phases exist for a number of energy sources. At times, assessments variably and sometimes inconsistently include the global warming potential that results from decommissioning the energy supplying facility, once it has reached its designed life-span. This includes the global warming potential of the process to return the power-supply site to greenfield status. For example, the process of hydroelectric dam removal is usually excluded as it is a rare practice with little practical data available. Dam removal however is becoming increasingly common as dams age. Larger dams, such as the Hoover Dam and the Three Gorges Dam, are intended to last "forever" with the aid of maintenance, a period that is not quantified. Therefore, decommissioning estimates are generally omitted for some energy sources, while other energy sources include a decommissioning phase in their assessments. Along with the other prominent values of the paper, the median value presented of


id: criticism-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:17.168432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Criticism of science addresses problems within science in order to improve science as a whole and its role in society. Criticisms come from philosophy, from social movements like feminism, and from within science itself. The emerging field of metascience seeks to increase the quality of and efficiency of scientific research by improving the scientific process. == Philosophical critiques == Philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend advanced the idea of epistemological anarchism, which holds that there are no useful and exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science or the growth of knowledge, and that the idea that science can or should operate according to universal and fixed rules is unrealistic, pernicious and detrimental to science itself. Feyerabend advocates a democratic society where science is treated as equal to other ideologies or social institutions such as religion, and education, or magic and mythology, and considers the dominance of science in society authoritarian and unjustified. He also contended (along with Imre Lakatos) that the demarcation problem of distinguishing science from pseudoscience on objective grounds is not possible and thus fatal to the notion of science running according to fixed, universal rules. Feyerabend also criticized science for not having evidence for its own philosophical


id: criticism-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:17.168432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reproducibility === The social sciences, such as social psychology, have long suffered from the problem of their studies being largely not reproducible. Now, medicine has come under similar pressures. In a phenomenon known as the replication crisis, journals are less likely to publish straight replication studies so it may be difficult to disprove results. Another result of publication bias is the Proteus phenomenon: early attempts to replicate results tend to contradict them. However, there are claims that this bias may be beneficial, allowing accurate meta-analysis with fewer publications. === Cognitive biases === Critics argue that the biggest bias within science is motivated reasoning, whereby scientists are more likely to accept evidence that supports their hypothesis and more likely to scrutinize findings that do not. Scientists do not practice pure induction but instead often come into science with preconceived ideas and often will, unconsciously or consciously, interpret observations to support their own hypotheses through confirmation bias. For example, scientists may re-run trials when they do not support a hypothesis but use results from the first trial when they do support their hypothesis. It is often argued that while each individual has cognitive biases, these biases are corrected for when scientific


id: criticism-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:17.168432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The mass media face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate requires considerable expertise regarding the matter. Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may know little about other ones they are suddenly asked to cover. Many issues damage the relationship of science to the media and the use of science and scientific arguments by politicians. As a very broad generalisation, many politicians seek certainties and facts whilst scientists typically offer probabilities and caveats. However, politicians' ability to be heard in the mass media frequently distorts the scientific understanding by the public. Examples in Britain include the controversy over the MMR inoculation, and the 1988 forced resignation of a government minister, Edwina Currie, for revealing the high probability that battery eggs were contaminated with Salmonella. Some scientists and philosophers suggest that scientific theories are more or less shaped by the dominant political, economic, or cultural models of the time, even though the scientific community may claim to


id: academese-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academese-0.md
category: reference
title: Academese
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academese
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:19.576791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academese-20260505-0
summary:
Academese is the unnecessary use of jargon in academia, particularly in academic writing in social science and humanities; it is contrasted with plain language. The term is often but not always pejorative, and occasionally can be used to refer to complex but necessary terminology. Critics of academese argue that it usually creates unnecessary difficulty in communication, with the harshest critics arguing this is intentional with writers aiming to impress the readers and hide the fact that they are not saying anything of substance. == Related concepts == In the context of medical sciences, a similar term, medicalese, exists; likewise, legal science jargon is called legalese. In the context of the English language, the term Engfish has also been used ("sounds like English but stinks like a fish"). Another related and highly pejorative term is academic bullshit. == History, examples of usage and criticism == The usage of the word in English has been traced to at least 1917, and is attributed to Will Durant, who in his Philosophy and the Social Problem defined it as an opposite of "plain language". Academic writing, particularly in the fields of art and literary criticism, was the subject of criticism by George Orwell in


id: against-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method-0.md
category: reference
title: Against Method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:20.726635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: against-method-20260505-0
summary:
Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge is a 1975 book by Austrian philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend. The central thesis of the book is that science should become an anarchic enterprise. In the context of the work, the term "anarchy" refers to epistemological anarchy, which does not remain within one single prescriptive scientific method on the grounds that any such method would restrict scientific progress. The work is notable in the history and philosophy of science partially due to its detailed case study of Galileo's hypothesis that the earth rotates on its axis and has since become a staple reading in introduction to philosophy of science courses at undergraduate and graduate levels. Against Method contains many verbatim excerpts from Feyerabend's earlier papers including "Explanation, Reduction, and Empiricism", "How to be a Good Empiricist: A Plea for Tolerance in Matters Epistemological", and "Problems of Empiricism, Part I." Because of this, Feyerabend claims that "[Against Method] is not a book, it is a collage." Later editions of Against Method included passages from Science in a Free Society. == Publication, Translations, and Editions == Feyerabend began writing Against Method in 1968 and it was originally released as a long paper


id: against-method-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method-1.md
category: reference
title: Against Method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:20.726635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: against-method-20260505-0
summary:
=== Counterinduction === Feyerabend contends that for every methodological rule, there is a 'counter rule' – namely, a methodological rule that recommends the opposite of its counter – which also has value. As an example of this general hypothesis, Feyerabend defends 'counterinduction' as the counter rule to inductivism and "induction by falsification" as a valuable methodological rule. Counterinduction involves developing theories that are inconsistent with currently accepted empirical evidence, which is the opposite of the (then) commonly accepted rule that theories should be developed that are consistent with known facts. Feyerabend argues for counterinduction by showing that theories that conflict with known facts are useful for revealing 'natural interpretations' which must be made explicit so that they can be examined. Natural interpretations are interpretations of experience, expressed in language, that follow automatically and unconsciously from describing observations. After a theory has been accepted for a long period of time, it becomes habit to describe events or processes using certain concepts. Because, Feyerabend argues, observation underdetermines the ways we describe what we observe, theories that redescribe experience in new ways force us to make comparisons between old natural interpretations and new ones. This is the first step to evaluating the plausibility


id: against-method-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method-2.md
category: reference
title: Against Method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:20.726635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: against-method-20260505-0
summary:
=== Galileo case study === The primary case study in Against Method is Galileo's hypothesis that the earth rotates on its axis. According to Feyerabend's reconstruction, Galileo did not justify this hypothesis by reference to known facts, nor did he offer an unfalsified conjecture that had more empirical content than its predecessor. Rather, Galileo's hypothesis would rationally have been considered to be false by the existing evidence at the time, and it is lower in empirical content than Aristotelian theory of motion. Moreover, Galileo did not provide arguments to justify his contention but instead used propaganda. According to the existing evidence in the early 17th century, the position that the earth rotates on its axis would have rightly been regarded as false. For example, Galileo's theory of the tides suggested by the motion of the earth was inaccurate and the differences "were big enough to be known even to the most bleary-eyed sailor." In addition, the motion of the earth on its axis leads to the wrong predictions of the relative brightness of Mars and Venus when measured with the naked eye. To correct for these mistakes, Galileo introduces new evidence through his telescope. However, the telescope was not theoretically


id: against-method-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method-3.md
category: reference
title: Against Method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:20.726635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: against-method-20260505-0
summary:
=== Discovery/justification distinction === Herbert Feigl criticizes Feyerabend's earlier work, including the paper edition of Against Method, for conflating the distinction between the context of discovery and the context of justification. According to this distinction, formulated by Hans Reichenbach and Karl Popper, there is no logic about how scientists develop scientific theories but there should be a logic of confirming or disconfirming scientific theories. Once this distinction is accepted, then Feyerabend's claim that 'anything goes' would be a truism and would not run against logical empiricism. Feyerabend's response in Against Method is to reject the validity of the discovery/justification distinction. He argues that while the distinction can be maintained abstractly, it does not find a "point of attack" in scientific practice. This is because the two contexts are not separated in different phases of scientific research but are always comingled. Discounting evidence, for example is often necessary for scientific discovery but is rejected when seeking justification. Justifying scientific theories has implications for what research is conducted and, therefore, questions about what is justified also affects the paths open to discovery. === Criticism of Lakatos === The first edition of Against Method contains a chapter devoted to critically discussing Lakatos' methodology


id: against-method-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method-4.md
category: reference
title: Against Method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against_Method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:20.726635+00:00
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parent: against-method-20260505-0
summary:
== Aftermath == Feyerabend responded to these criticisms in several follow-up publications, many of which he collected in Science in a Free Society. He was extremely frustrated by the quality of the reviews of Against Method, leading him to accuse them of illiteracy and a lack of competence. In his autobiography, he writes that he sometimes wishes that "he had never written that fucking book." This response led to Feyerabend's gradual removal from the academic community which also corresponded to changes of research topics in his work in the 1980s. == References == == Further reading == The first, 1970 edition, is available for download in pdf form from the Minnesota Center for Philosophy of Science (part of the University of Minnesota). Follow this link path: Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science > 4. Analyses of Theories & Methods of Physics and Psychology. 1970. Editors: M. Radner and S. Winokur > Open Access > Under the "Whoops!" message click 'Download' From the resulting file '4_Theories&Methods.zip' you need the three Feyerabend sections, 4_2_1_Feyerabend.pdf, 4_2_2_Feyerabend.pdf, 4_2_3_Feyerabend.pdf and the immediate following article on A Picture Theory of Theory Meaning (sic) (4_3_Hanson.pdf) in order to get the complete set of footnotes. Discussion of


id: the-age-of-the-world-picture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_the_World_Picture-0.md
category: reference
title: The Age of the World Picture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_the_World_Picture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:21.931182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-age-of-the-world-picture-20260505-0
summary:
"The Age of the World Picture" or "The Age of the World View" (German: Die Zeit des Weltbildes) is a 1938 lecture by Martin Heidegger in which he addresses the metaphysical ground of modern science. It was published in the essay collection Off the Beaten Track in 1950. == English translations == The essay has been translated as "The Age of the World View" by Marjorie Grene (1951) and as "The Age of the World Picture" by William Lovitt (1977) and Julian Young (2002). == Critique == Sidonie Kellerer believes that Heidegger published the text to show his “inner resistance” after the mid-1930s against the Nazi regime and as evidence for his early refusal of National Socialism and his rejection of a modern ideology that resulted in the totalitarian system. Emphasizing the differences between the published text and the original lecture delivered in 1938, she thinks that the differences show "the artful falsifications" used by Heidegger in order to re-establish his reputation. == References == == External links == The Age of the World Picture: Hermeneutics and the Weltanschauung Theory The Age of the World-Picture is a Fine Thirty-Two (at the Time of Writing) The Age of the World Picture


id: anarcho-primitivism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism-0.md
category: reference
title: Anarcho-primitivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:26.676753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anarcho-primitivism-20260505-0
summary:
Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of civilization and a branch of green anarchism that advocates a return to non-civilized ways of life through deindustrialization, abolition of the division of labor or specialization, abandonment of large-scale organization and all technology other than prehistoric technology, and the dissolution of agriculture. Anarcho-primitivists critique the origins and alleged progress of the Industrial Revolution and industrial society. Most anarcho-primitivists advocate for a tribal-like way of life while some see an even simpler lifestyle as beneficial. According to anarcho-primitivists, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence during the Neolithic Revolution gave rise to coercion, social alienation, and social stratification. Anarcho-primitivism argues that civilization is at the root of societal and environmental problems. Primitivists also consider domestication, technology and language to cause social alienation from "authentic reality". As a result, they propose the abolition of civilization and a return to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. == Roots == The roots of primitivism lay in Enlightenment philosophy and the critical theory of the Frankfurt School. The early-modern philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau blamed agriculture and cooperation for the development of social inequality and causing habitat destruction. In his Discourse on Inequality, Rousseau depicted the state of nature as a "primitivist utopia"; however,


id: antiscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Antiscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:27.931824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiscience-20260505-0
summary:
Antiscience is a set of attitudes and a form of anti-intellectualism that involves a rejection of science and the scientific method. People holding antiscientific views do not accept science as an objective method that can generate universal knowledge. Antiscience commonly manifests through rejection of scientific ideas such as climate change and evolution and the effectiveness of vaccination. It also includes pseudoscience, methods that claim to be scientific but reject the scientific method. Antiscience can lead to belief in false conspiracy theories and alternative medicine. Lack of trust in science has been linked to the promotion of political extremism, corruption and distrust in medical treatments. == History == In the early days of the Scientific Revolution, scientists such as Robert Boyle (1627–1691) found themselves in conflict with those such as Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), who were skeptical of whether science was a satisfactory way to obtain genuine knowledge about the world. Hobbes' stance is regarded by Ian Shapiro as an antiscience position: In his Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics,...[published in 1656, Hobbes] distinguished 'demonstrable' fields, as 'those the construction of the subject whereof is in the power of the artist himself,' from 'indemonstrable' ones 'where the causes are to seek


id: antiscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Antiscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:27.931824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiscience-20260505-0
summary:
The term "scientism", originating in science studies, was adopted and is used by sociologists and philosophers of science to describe the views, beliefs and behavior of strong supporters of applying ostensibly scientific concepts beyond its traditional disciplines. Specifically, scientism promotes science as the best or only objective means to determine normative and epistemological values. The term scientism is generally used critically, implying a cosmetic application of science in unwarranted situations considered not amenable to application of the scientific method or similar scientific standards. The word is commonly used in a pejorative sense, applying to individuals who seem to be treating science in a similar way to a religion. The term reductionism is occasionally used in a similarly pejorative way (as a more subtle attack on scientists). However, some scientists feel comfortable being labelled as reductionists, while agreeing that there might be conceptual and philosophical shortcomings of reductionism. However, non-reductionist (see Emergentism) views of science have been formulated in varied forms in several scientific fields like statistical physics, chaos theory, complexity theory, cybernetics, systems theory, systems biology, ecology, information theory, etc. Such fields tend to assume that strong interactions between units produce new phenomena in "higher" levels that cannot be accounted


id: antiscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience-2.md
category: reference
title: Antiscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:27.931824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiscience-20260505-0
summary:
Historically, antiscience first arose as a reaction against scientific materialism. The 18th century Enlightenment had ushered in "the ideal of a unified system of all the sciences", but there were those fearful of this notion, who "felt that constrictions of reason and science, of a single all-embracing system... were in some way constricting, an obstacle to their vision of the world, chains on their imagination or feeling". Antiscience then is a rejection of "the scientific model [or paradigm]... with its strong implication that only that which was quantifiable, or at any rate, measurable... was real". In this sense, it comprises a "critical attack upon the total claim of the new scientific method to dominate the entire field of human knowledge". However, scientific positivism (logical positivism) does not deny the reality of non-measurable phenomena, only that those phenomena should not be adequate to scientific investigation. Moreover, positivism, as a philosophical basis for the scientific method, is not consensual or even dominant in the scientific community (see philosophy of science). Recent developments and discussions around antiscience attitudes reveal how deeply intertwined these beliefs are with social, political, and psychological factors. A study published by Ohio State News on July 11, 2022, identified


id: antiscience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience-3.md
category: reference
title: Antiscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:27.931824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ecology and health sphere === Within the ecological and health spheres, Levins identifies a conflict "not between science and antiscience, but rather between different pathways for science and technology; between a commodified science-for-profit and a gentle science for humane goals; between the sciences of the smallest parts and the sciences of dynamic wholes... [he] offers proposals for a more holistic, integral approach to understanding and addressing environmental issues". These beliefs are also common within the scientific community, with for example, scientists being prominent in environmental campaigns warning of environmental dangers such as ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect. In the medical sphere, patients and practitioners may choose to reject science and adopt a pseudoscientific approach to health problems. This can be both a practical and a conceptual shift and has attracted strong criticism: "therapeutic touch, a healing technique based upon the laying-on of hands, has found wide acceptance in the nursing profession despite its lack of scientific plausibility. Its acceptance is indicative of a broad antiscientific trend in nursing". Glazer also criticises the therapists and patients, "for abandoning the biological underpinnings of nursing and for misreading philosophy in the service of an antiscientific world-view". In contrast, Brian Martin criticized


id: antiscience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience-4.md
category: reference
title: Antiscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:27.931824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antiscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == A Bullock & S Trombley [Eds.], The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, third edition, London: Harper Collins, 1999 Burger, P and Luckman, T, "The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise" in the Sociology of Knowledge. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966 Collins, Harry and Pinch, Trevor, The Golem. What everyone should know about science, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Gross, Paul R and Norman Levitt, Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994 Gerald Holton, Science and anti-science, Harvard University Press, 1993 ISBN 0674792998 Knorr-Cetina, Karin D, & Mulkay, Michael, Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science, Sage Publications Ltd, 1983 Knorr-Cetina, Karin D, Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge, Harvard University Press, 1999 Levins, R. "Ten propositions on science and antiscience" in Social Text, 46/47:101–111, 1996. Levins, R. "Touch Red," in Judy Kaplan an Linn Shapiro, eds., Red Diapers: Growing up in the Communist Left, U. of Illinois, 1998, pp. 257–266. Levins, R. "Dialectics and systems theory" in Science and Society 62(3):373–399, 1998. Levins, R. "The internal and external in explanatory theories", Science as Culture, 7(4):557–582, 1998. Levins, R. and Lopez C. "Toward an ecosocial


id: betrayers-of-the-truth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betrayers_of_the_Truth-0.md
category: reference
title: Betrayers of the Truth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betrayers_of_the_Truth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:29.087160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: betrayers-of-the-truth-20260505-0
summary:
Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science is a book by William Broad and Nicholas Wade, published in 1982 by Simon & Schuster in New York, and subsequently (1983) also by Century Publishing in London, and with a simplified subtitle as Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in Science by Oxford University Press in 1985. The book is a critique of some widely held beliefs about the nature of science and the scientific process. Broad and Wade argue that the conventional wisdom that science is a strictly logical process, with objectivity the essence of scientist's attitudes, errors being speedily corrected by rigorous peer scrutiny and experiment replication, is a mythical ideal. Our conclusion, in brief, is that science bears little resemblance to its conventional portrait. We believe that the logical structure discernible in scientific knowledge says nothing about the process by which the structure was built or the mentality of the builders. In the acquisition of knowledge, scientists are not guided by logic and objectivity alone, but also by such nonrational factors as rhetoric, propaganda, and personal prejudice. Scientists do not depend solely on rational thought, and have no monopoly on it. The authors


id: conquest-of-abundance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest_of_Abundance-0.md
category: reference
title: Conquest of Abundance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest_of_Abundance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:31.442333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conquest-of-abundance-20260505-0
summary:
Conquest of Abundance: A Tale of Abstraction versus the Richness of Being is the last book by the Austrian philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend, published posthumously by the University of Chicago Press in 1999. It is edited by Bert Terpstra and includes a foreword from Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend, Feyerabend's 4th and final wife. The book was uncompleted due to Feyerabend's death in 1994 and was written to fulfill a promise made to Borrini-Feyerabend. The unfinished manuscript was published alongside several other previously published papers that engaged with the core themes of the book. == Translations == Conquest of Abundance has been translated into four languages: Spanish translation by Radamés Molina and César Mora: La conquista de la abundancia: La abstracción frente a la riqueza del ser, Paidós: Barcelona and Buenos Aires 2001, 336 pp. Italian translation by P. Adamo: Conquista dell'abbondanza: Storie dello scontro fra astrazione e ricchezza dell'essere, Raffaello Cortina: Milan 2002, 350 pp. German translation by Volker Böhnigk and Rainer Noske: Die Vernichitung der Vielfalt: Ein Bericht, Peter Engelmann (ed.), Passagen: Vienna 2005, 344 pp. Portuguese translation by Cecília Prada and Marcelo Rouanet: A Conquista da Abundância, Unisinos: São Leopoldo 2005. == Content == Conquest of Abundance contains two


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
Criticism of the theory of relativity of Albert Einstein was mainly expressed in the early years after its publication in the early twentieth century, on scientific, pseudoscientific, philosophical, or ideological bases. Though some of these criticisms had the support of reputable scientists, Einstein's theory of relativity is now accepted by the scientific community. Reasons for criticism of the theory of relativity have included alternative theories, rejection of the abstract-mathematical method, and alleged errors of the theory. Antisemitic objections to Einstein's Jewish heritage also occasionally played a role in these objections. There are still some critics of relativity today, but their opinions are not shared by the majority in the scientific community. == Special relativity == === Relativity principle versus electromagnetic worldview === Around the end of the 19th century, the view was widespread that all forces in nature are of electromagnetic origin (the "electromagnetic worldview"), especially in the works of Joseph Larmor (1897) and Wilhelm Wien (1900). This was apparently confirmed by the experiments of Walter Kaufmann (1901–1903), who measured an increase of the mass of a body with velocity which was consistent with the hypothesis that the mass was generated by its electromagnetic field. Max Abraham (1902) subsequently sketched


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-1.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
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parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Claimed experimental refutations === Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments: To conclusively decide between the theories of Abraham and Lorentz, Kaufmann repeated his experiments in 1905 with improved accuracy. However, in the meantime the theoretical situation had changed. Alfred Bucherer and Paul Langevin (1904) developed another model, in which the electron is contracted in the line of motion, and dilated in the transverse direction, so that the volume remains constant. While Kaufmann was still evaluating his experiments, Einstein published his theory of special relativity. Eventually, Kaufmann published his results in December 1905 and argued that they are in agreement with Abraham's theory and require rejection of the "basic assumption of Lorentz and Einstein" (the relativity principle). Lorentz reacted with the phrase "I am at the end of my Latin", while Einstein did not mention those experiments before 1908. Yet, others started to criticize the experiments. Max Planck (1906) alluded to inconsistencies in the theoretical interpretation of the data, and Adolf Bestelmeyer (1906) introduced new techniques, which (especially in the area of low velocities) gave different results and which cast doubts on Kaufmann's methods. Therefore, Bucherer (1908) conducted new experiments and arrived at the conclusion that they confirm the mass formula of relativity and


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-2.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
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parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Acceleration in special relativity === It was also claimed that special relativity cannot handle acceleration, which would lead to contradictions in some situations. However, this assessment is not correct, since acceleration actually can be described in the framework of special relativity (see Acceleration (special relativity), Proper reference frame (flat spacetime), Hyperbolic motion, Rindler coordinates, Born coordinates). Paradoxes relying on insufficient understanding of these facts were discovered in the early years of relativity. For example, Max Born (1909) tried to combine the concept of rigid bodies with special relativity. That this model was insufficient was shown by Paul Ehrenfest (1909), who demonstrated that a rotating rigid body would, according to Born's definition, undergo a contraction of the circumference without contraction of the radius, which is impossible (Ehrenfest paradox). Max von Laue (1911) showed that rigid bodies cannot exist in special relativity, since the propagation of signals cannot exceed the speed of light, so an accelerating and rotating body will undergo deformations. Paul Langevin and von Laue showed that the twin paradox can be completely resolved by consideration of acceleration in special relativity. If two twins move away from each other, and one of them is accelerating and coming back to


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-3.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
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parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Aether and absolute space === Many physicists (like Hendrik Lorentz, Oliver Lodge, Albert Abraham Michelson, Edmund Taylor Whittaker, Harry Bateman, Ebenezer Cunningham, Charles Émile Picard, Paul Painlevé) were uncomfortable with the rejection of the aether, and preferred to interpret the Lorentz transformation based on the existence of a preferred frame of reference, as in the aether-based theories of Lorentz, Larmor, and Poincaré. However, the idea of an aether hidden from any observation was not supported by the mainstream scientific community, therefore the aether theory of Lorentz and Poincaré was superseded by Einstein's special relativity which was subsequently formulated in the framework of four-dimensional spacetime by Minkowski. Others such as Herbert E. Ives argued that it might be possible to experimentally determine the motion of such an aether, but it was never found despite numerous experimental tests of Lorentz invariance (see tests of special relativity). Also attempts to introduce some sort of relativistic aether (consistent with relativity) into modern physics such as by Einstein on the basis of general relativity (1920), or by Paul Dirac in relation to quantum mechanics (1951), were not supported by the scientific community (see Luminiferous aether#End of aether?). In his Nobel lecture, George F. Smoot


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-4.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
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parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== General covariance === Einstein emphasized the importance of general covariance for the development of general relativity, and took the position that the general covariance of his 1915 theory of gravity ensured implementation of a generalized relativity principle. This view was challenged by Erich Kretschmann (1917), who argued that every theory of space and time (even including Newtonian dynamics) can be formulated in a covariant way, if additional parameters are included, and thus general covariance of a theory would in itself be insufficient to implement a generalized relativity principle. Although Einstein (1918) agreed with that argument, he also countered that Newtonian mechanics in general covariant form would be too complicated for practical uses. Although it is now understood that Einstein's response to Kretschmann was mistaken (subsequent papers showed that such a theory would still be usable), another argument can be made in favor of general covariance: it is a natural way to express the equivalence principle, i.e., the equivalence in the description of a free-falling observer and an observer at rest, and thus it is more convenient to use general covariance together with general relativity, rather than with Newtonian mechanics. Connected with this, also the question of absolute motion was


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-5.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
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parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
== Philosophical criticism == The consequences of relativity, such as the change of ordinary concepts of space and time, as well as the introduction of non-Euclidean geometry in general relativity, were criticized by some philosophers of different philosophical schools. Many philosophical critics had insufficient knowledge of the mathematical and formal basis of relativity, which led to the criticisms often missing the heart of the matter. For example, relativity was misinterpreted as some form of relativism. However, this is misleading as it was emphasized by Einstein or Planck. Although space and time did become relative in Einstein's theories, and inertial frames of reference are handled on equal footing, on the other hand, the theory makes natural laws invariant—examples are the constancy of the speed of light and the covariance of Maxwell's equations. Consequently, Felix Klein (1910) called it the "invariant theory of the Lorentz group" instead of relativity theory, and Einstein (who reportedly used expressions like "absolute theory") sympathized with this expression as well. Critical responses to relativity were also expressed by proponents of neo-Kantianism (Paul Natorp, Bruno Bauch etc.), and phenomenology (Oskar Becker, Moritz Geiger etc.). While some of them only rejected the philosophical consequences, others rejected also the physical


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-6.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
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parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Academic and non-academic criticism === Some academic scientists, especially experimental physicists such as the Nobel laureates Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark, as well as Ernst Gehrcke, Stjepan Mohorovičić, Rudolf Tomaschek and others criticized the increasing abstraction and mathematization of modern physics, especially in the form of relativity theory, and later quantum mechanics. It was seen as a tendency to abstract theory building, connected with the loss of intuitive "common sense". In fact, relativity was the first theory, in which the inadequacy of the "illustrative" classical physics was thought to have been demonstrated. Some of Einstein's critics ignored these developments and tried to revitalize older theories, such as aether drag models or emission theories (see "Alternative Theories"). However, those qualitative models were never sufficiently advanced to compete with the success of the precise experimental predictions and explanatory powers of the modern theories. Additionally, there was also a great rivalry between experimental and theoretical physicists, as regards the professorial activities and the occupation of chairs at German universities. The opinions clashed at the "Bad Nauheim debates" in 1920 between Einstein and (among others) Lenard, which attracted much public attention. In addition, there were many critics (with or without physical training) whose


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-7.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
While the theory of relativity was enthusiastically studied in Japan and China, it faced criticism in nations with older scientific establishments. Shortly before and during World War I, there appeared some nationalistically motivated criticisms of relativity and modern physics. For example, French theoretical physicists Pierre Duhem regarded relativity as the product of the "too formal and abstract" German spirit, which was in conflict with "common sense". In Germany the Jewish ancestry of some leading relativity proponents such as Einstein and Minkowski made them targets of racially minded critics, although many of Einstein's German critics did not show evidence of such motives. The engineer Paul Weyland, a known nationalistic agitator, arranged the first public meeting against relativity in Berlin in 1919. While Lenard and Stark were also known for their nationalistic opinions, they declined to participate in Weyland's rallies, and Weyland's campaign eventually fizzled out due to a lack of prominent speakers. Lenard and others instead responded to Einstein's challenge to his professional critics to debate his theories at the scientific conference held annually at Bad Nauheim. While Einstein's critics, assuming without any real justification that Einstein was behind the activities of the German press in promoting the triumph of relativity,


id: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity-8.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of the theory of relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_theory_of_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:32.666932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-the-theory-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== A Hundred Authors Against Einstein === A collection of various criticisms can be found in the book Hundert Autoren gegen Einstein (A Hundred Authors Against Einstein), published in 1931. It contains very short texts from 28 authors, and excerpts from the publications of another 19 authors. The rest consists of a list that also includes people who only for some time were opposed to relativity. The most targeted one is space-time followed by the speed of light as a constant and the relativity of simultaneity, with other concepts following. Besides philosophic objections (mostly based on Kantianism), also some alleged elementary failures of the theory were included; however, as some commented, those failures were due to the authors' misunderstanding of relativity. For example, Hans Reichenbach wrote a report in the entertainment section of a newspaper, describing the book as "a magnificent collection of naive mistakes" and as "unintended droll literature". Albert von Brunn interpreted the book as a pamphlet "of such deplorable impotence as occurring elsewhere only in politics" and "a fallback into the 16th and 17th centuries" and concluded “it can only be hoped that German science will not again be embarrassed by such sad scribblings”. Jacob Epstein quoted


id: nalin-de-silva-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalin_de_Silva-0.md
category: reference
title: Nalin de Silva
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalin_de_Silva
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:33.818068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nalin-de-silva-20260505-0
summary:
Thakurartha Devadithya Guardiyawasam Lindamulage Nalin Kumar de Silva (Sinhala: නලින් ද සිල්වා; 20 October 1944 – 1 May 2024) was a Sri Lankan philosopher, polymath and a political analyst. He was the former Sri Lankan ambassador in Myanmar. He was a professor in the department of mathematics, a member of University Grant Commission and the dean of the faculty of science at the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. De Silva openly stated that the so-called 'objective scientific method' was a lie. In June 2011 he stated that information regarding the presence of arsenic in water claiming that the cause of Rajarata chronic kidney disease had been given to him by the god Natha. The Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, an organisation in which De Silva claimed lifelong membership, has said that they consider it "extremely unfortunate that the Dean of a Science Faculty should make it his publicly stated aim to run down science and bring it into disrepute." However the presence of arsenic was verified in water and vegetation, and the source was found to be agrochemical fertilizers. == Early life and education == Nalin de Silva was born on 20 October 1944 in Kovilagodella, Panadura,


id: nalin-de-silva-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalin_de_Silva-1.md
category: reference
title: Nalin de Silva
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalin_de_Silva
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:33.818068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nalin-de-silva-20260505-0
summary:
The merit (pina) in this regard should go to the "samyak drshtika devivaru" who first told that Arsenic is present in Rajarata drinking water and later revealed to us that Arsenic which is not found naturally in Sri Lanka has found its way to the wells and the wewas in Rajarata through Agrochemicals. It's simply like this. We can see professors. Professors cannot see Arsenic. We cannot see gods. Gods can see Arsenic. I like this because there is certain symmetry in it... I know very well that the so-called objective scientific method is a lie. Paranagama too has stood by De Silva and defended their methods. She said that they had first been told of the arsenic by the wife of "a university lecturer who had developed her mental faculties to communicate with a higher being", but then used scientific methods to deduce it. The Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science released a statement in July 2011 questioning the validity of the findings and the process and individuals involved in the study. Their statement laid the blame for the scandal firmly on Prof Nalin De Silva, and they called for other scientists and researchers in the group


id: decline-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Decline effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:35.033819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decline-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The decline effect may occur when scientific claims receive decreasing support over time. The term was first described by parapsychologist Joseph Banks Rhine in the 1930s to describe the disappearance of extrasensory perception (ESP) psychic experiments conducted by Rhine over time. More generally, Cronbach, in his review article "Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology" referred to the phenomenon as "generalizations decay." The term was once again used in a 2010 article by Jonah Lehrer published in The New Yorker. == Examples == In his article, Lehrer gives several examples where the decline effect is allegedly showing. In the first example, the development of second generation anti-psychotic drugs, reveals that the first tests had demonstrated a dramatic decrease in the subjects' psychiatric symptoms. However, after repeating tests this effect declined and in the end it was not possible to document that these drugs had any better effect than the first generation anti-psychotics. A well-known example of the decline effect can be seen in early experiments conducted by Professor Jonathan Schooler examining the effects of verbalization on non-verbal cognition. In an initial series of studies Schooler found evidence that verbal rehearsal of previously seen faces or colors markedly impaired subsequent recognition.


id: decline-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Decline effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:35.033819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decline-effect-20260505-0
summary:
If the true effect size is small, but the initial study has low power (i.e., small sample size), then the null hypothesis will only be rejected if the effect estimate is far from zero, as illustrated in the figure. This means that subsequent replications, with larger sample sizes, will discover effect estimates that are closer to the true effect, which is closer to zero than the initial estimate. === Publication bias === Another reason may be the publication bias: scientists and scientific journals prefer to publish positive results of experiments and tests over null results, especially with new ideas. As a result, the journals may refuse to publish papers that do not prove that the idea works. Later, when an idea is accepted, journals may refuse to publish papers that support it. === Experimenter effect === In the debate that followed the original article, Lehrer answered some of the questions by claiming that scientific observations might be shaped by one's expectations and desires, sometimes even unconsciously, thus creating a bias towards the desired outcome. This is known as the experimenter effect. For example, in parapsychology, the "experimenter effect" is used to explain how an experimenter who does not believe in


id: decline-effect-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_effect-2.md
category: reference
title: Decline effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:35.033819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decline-effect-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == One concern that some have expressed is that Lehrer's article may further fuel people's skepticism about academic science. It was long believed that Lehrer's article originally hinted that academic science is not as rigid as people would like to believe. It is especially the article's ending that has upset many scientists and led to broad criticism of the article. Lehrer ends the article by saying: "Just because an idea is true doesn't mean it can be proved. And just because an idea can be proved doesn't mean it's true. When the experiments are done, we still have to choose what to believe." This has upset scientists in the scientific community. Many have written back to Lehrer and questioned his agenda. Some have characterized Lehrer's assertion as "absurd", while others claiming that Lehrer is trying to use publication bias as an excuse for not believing in anything. As an answer to the many comments Lehrer received upon publishing the article, Lehrer published a comment on his blog, The Frontal Cortex, where he denied that he was implicitly questioning science and scientific methods in any way. In the same blog comment, Lehrer stated that he was not questioning fundamental


id: the-engine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Engine-0.md
category: reference
title: The Engine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Engine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:36.317135+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-engine-20260505-0
summary:
The Engine is a fictional device for writing books described in the 1726 satirical novel Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. Eric A. Weiss suggests that it is an early reference to a device resembling what is now known as artificial intelligence. The Engine is a device that generates permutations of word sets. It is found at the Academy of Projectors in Lagado on the flying island of Laputa. It is described thus by Swift: “... Every one knew how laborious the usual method is of attaining to arts and sciences; whereas, by his contrivance, the most ignorant person, at a reasonable charge, and with a little bodily labour, might write books in philosophy, poetry, politics, laws, mathematics, and theology, without the least assistance from genius or study.” He then led me to the frame, about the sides, whereof all his pupils stood in ranks. It was twenty feet square, placed in the middle of the room. The superfices was composed of several bits of wood, about the bigness of a die, but some larger than others. They were all linked together by slender wires. These bits of wood were covered, on every square, with paper pasted on them; and on


id: farewell-to-reason-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farewell_to_Reason-0.md
category: reference
title: Farewell to Reason
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farewell_to_Reason
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:37.443488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: farewell-to-reason-20260505-0
summary:
Farewell to Reason is a 1987 book by the Austrian philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend. The book includes some reprinted essays published in other venues and was published by Verso Books, which also published Against Method and Science in a Free Society. The primary goal of the book is to trace the historical origins of "rationalism" and argue for a version of relativism and cultural diversity. == Translations == Farewell to Reason has been translated into numerous languages: Spanish translation by José R. de Rivera: Adios a la razón, Tecnos: Madrid 1984, 300 pp. French translation by Baudouin Jurdant: Adieu à la raison, Seuil: Paris 1989, 373 pp. German translation by Jürgen Blasius: Irrwege der Vernunft, Suhrkamp: Frankfurt am Main 1989, 471 pp. Reprinted 1990. Italian translation by Marcello D'Agostino: Addio alla ragione, Armando: Roma 1990, 320 pp. Japanese translation: Risei yo saraba, Hoseidaigakushuppankyoku: Tokyo 1992, 34+399 pp. Portuguese translation: Adeus à razão, UNESP: São Paulo 2010, 399 pp. The book was reprinted in 1988, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1996, and 1999. A 2nd edition was released including a new preface by Feyerabend. == Content == Farewell to Reason begins with a lengthy chapter on relativism. He distinguishes it from absolutism,


id: paul-feyerabend-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend-0.md
category: reference
title: Paul Feyerabend
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:42.054365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-feyerabend-20260505-0
summary:
Paul Karl Feyerabend (; FY-ur-ah-bent; German: [ˈfaɪɐˌʔaːbm̩t]; January 13, 1924 – February 11, 1994) was an Austrian philosopher best known for his work in the philosophy of science. He started his academic career as lecturer in the philosophy of science at the University of Bristol (1955–1958); afterward, he moved to the University of California, Berkeley, where he taught for three decades (1958–1989). At various points in his life, he held joint appointments at the University College London (1967–1970), the London School of Economics (1967), the FU Berlin (1968), Yale University (1969), the University of Auckland (1972, 1975), the University of Sussex (1974), and the ETH Zurich (1980–1990). He gave lectures and lecture series at the University of Minnesota (1958–1962), Stanford University (1967), the University of Kassel (1977), and the University of Trento (1992). Feyerabend's most famous work is Against Method (1975), wherein he argues that there are no universally valid methodological rules for scientific inquiry. He also wrote on topics related to the politics of science in several essays and in his book Science in a Free Society (1978). Feyerabend's later works include Wissenschaft als Kunst (Science as Art) (1984), Farewell to Reason (1987), Three Dialogues on Knowledge (1991), and


id: paul-feyerabend-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend-1.md
category: reference
title: Paul Feyerabend
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:42.054365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-feyerabend-20260505-0
summary:
=== Nazi Occupation of Austria and World War II === Feyerabend's parents were both welcoming of the Anschluss. His mother was entranced by Hitler's voice and demeanor and his father was similarly impressed by Hitler's charisma and later joined the Nazi Party. Feyerabend himself was unmoved by the Anschluss or World War II, which he saw as an inconvenience that got in the way of reading and astronomy. Feyerabend was in the Hitler Youth as a part of compulsory policies and sometimes rebelled, praising the British or claiming he had to leave a meeting to attend Mass, and sometimes conformed, bringing in members who missed meetings. After the war, Feyerabend recounts that he "did not accept the aims of Nazism" and that he "hardly knew what they were." Later, he wondered why he did not see the occupation and war as moral problems. They were just "inconveniences" and his reactions—recalled with uncommon honesty—were suggested by accidental moods and circumstances rather than by a "well defined outlook". “Looking back, I notice a rather unstable combination of contrariness and a tendency to conform. A critical judgement or a feeling of unease could be silenced or turned into its opposite by an almost


id: paul-feyerabend-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend-2.md
category: reference
title: Paul Feyerabend
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:42.054365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-feyerabend-20260505-0
summary:
After getting wounded in action, Feyerabend was hospitalized in and around Weimar where he spent more than a year recovering and where he witnessed the end of the war and Soviet occupation. The mayor of Apolda gave him a job in the education sector and he, then still on two crutches, worked in public entertainment including writing speeches, dialogues, and plays. Later, at the music academy in Weimar, he was granted a scholarship and food stamps and took lessons in Italian, harmony, singing, enunciation, and piano. He also joined the Cultural Association for the Democratic Reform of Germany, the only association he ever joined. As Feyerabend moved back to Vienna, he was permitted to pursue a PhD at the University of Vienna. He originally intended to study physics, astronomy, and mathematics (while continuing to practice singing) but decided to study history and sociology to understand his wartime experiences. He became dissatisfied, however, and soon transferred to physics and studied astronomy, especially observational astronomy and perturbation theory, as well as differential equations, nuclear physics, algebra, and tensor analysis. He took classes with Hans Thirring, Hans Leo Przibram, and Felix Ehrenhaft. He also had a small role in a film directed by


id: paul-feyerabend-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend-3.md
category: reference
title: Paul Feyerabend
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:36:42.054365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-feyerabend-20260505-0
summary:
Feyerabend's primary academic appointment was at the University of California at Berkeley. While he was hired there in 1958, he spent part of his first years in the United States at the University of Minnesota, working closely with Herbert Feigl and Paul Meehl after rejecting a job offer from Cornell University. In California, he met and befriended Rudolf Carnap, whom he described as a "wonderful person, gentle, understanding, not at all as dry as would appear from some (not all) of his writings", and Alfred Tarski, among others. He also married for a third time. At Berkeley, Feyerabend mostly lectured on general philosophy and philosophy of science. During the student revolution, he also lectured on revolutionaries (Lenin, Mao, Mill, and Cohn-Bendit). He often invited students and outsiders, including Lenny Bruce and Malcolm X, to guest lecture on a variety of issues including gay rights, racism, and witchcraft. He supported the students but did not support student strikes. John Searle attempted to get Feyerabend fired from his position for hosting lectures off-campus. As Feyerabend was highly marketable in academia and personally restless, he kept accepting and leaving university appointments while holding more 'stable' positions in Berkeley and London. For instance, starting


