# kb

id: scientific-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_study-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:02.158213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-study-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific study is a creative action to increase knowledge by systematically collecting, interpreting, and evaluating data. According to the hypothetico-deductive paradigm, it should encompass: The contextualization of the problem; A hypothesis for explaining the problem considering existing theoretical approaches; A verification of the hypotheses by an experiment; Analysis of the test outcome. Scientific study involves scientific theory, scientific method, scientific models, experiments and physical situations. It may refer to: Scientific method, a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, based on empirical or measurable evidence that is subject to the principles of logic and reasoning Observational study, draws inferences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator Randomized controlled trial, a type of scientific experiment, often in the medical field, where the people being studied are randomly allocated one of the different treatments Science, a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Scientific learning includes testing of theories and provide a basis for scientific knowledge. == History == Aristotle is believed to be the first to begin the study


id: scientific-temper-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_temper-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific temper
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_temper
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:03.358226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-temper-20260505-0
summary:
The term scientific temper is broadly defined as "a modest open-minded temper—develop new light, new knowledge, new experiments, even when their results are unfavourable to preconceived opinions and long-cherished theories." It is a way of life (defined in this context as an individual and social process of thinking and acting) which uses the scientific method and which may, consequently, include questioning, observing physical reality, testing, hypothesizing, analyzing, and communicating (not necessarily in that order). Discussion, argument and analysis are vital parts of scientific temper. It aims to inculcate the values of scientific thinking, appreciate scientific development, and drive away superstition, religious bigotry, and all forms of pseudo-science. == Development of Scientific Temperament in World == Scientific temper as a notion existed for a long time, and the origin of the term is unknown. The exact terminology became frequently used in the mid-19th century. A Jesuit scholar Thomas Aloysius Hughes gave a short definition in 1893, saying, "A scientific temper... means a scrupulous and rigid exactness... [which] is the outcome of exact science." In his Conway Memorial Lecture in 1922, Bertrand Russell used the example of Albert Einstein to explain the meaning of scientific temper:We have had in recent years a


id: scientific-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:04.644741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can be or that has been repeatedly tested and has corroborating evidence in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results. Where possible, theories are tested under controlled conditions in an experiment. In circumstances not amenable to experimental testing, theories are evaluated through principles of abductive reasoning. Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge. A scientific theory differs from a scientific fact: a fact is an observation, while a theory connects and explains multiple observations. Furthermore, a theory is expected to make predictions which could be confirmed or refuted with additional observations. Stephen Jay Gould wrote that: "...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty. Facts are the world's data. Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts." A theory differs from a scientific law in that a law is an empirical description of a relationship between facts and/or other laws. For example, Newton's Law of Gravity is a mathematical equation that can be used to predict the attraction between bodies, but it is not a theory


id: scientific-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:04.644741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
It can be subjected to minor adaptations to account for new data that do not fit it perfectly, as they are discovered, thus increasing its predictive capability over time. It is among the most parsimonious explanations, economical in the use of proposed entities or explanatory steps as per Occam's razor. This is because for each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives, because one can always burden failing explanations with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified; therefore, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable. === Definitions from scientific organizations === The United States National Academy of Sciences defines scientific theories as follows: The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word. It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence. Many scientific theories are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them substantially. For example, no new evidence will demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the Sun (heliocentric theory), or that living things


id: scientific-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:04.644741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Modification and improvement == If experimental results contrary to a theory's predictions are observed, scientists first evaluate whether the experimental design was sound, and if so they confirm the results by independent replication. A search for potential improvements to the theory then begins. Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework. Over time, as successive modifications build on top of each other, theories consistently improve and greater predictive accuracy is achieved. Since each new version of a theory (or a completely new theory) must have more predictive and explanatory power than the last, scientific knowledge consistently becomes more accurate over time. If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required. Since scientific knowledge is usually durable, this occurs much less commonly than modification. Furthermore, until such a theory is proposed and accepted, the previous theory will be retained. This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts. For example, it has been


id: scientific-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:04.644741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Theories and facts === A scientific theory does not turn into a fact. Scientific facts are observations that theories organize and explain. As new facts appear, a theory may be revised or new theories may emerge that encompass these additional facts. While American vernacular speech uses "theory" as similar to a "guess" in opposition to a "fact", in science the word "theory" means a model that is expected to explain a wide range of facts. == About theories == === Theories as axioms === The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as statements in a formal language. First-order logic is an example of a formal language. The logical positivists envisaged a similar scientific language. In addition to scientific theories, the language also included observation sentences ("the sun rises in the east"), definitions, and mathematical statements. The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts. In this view, theories function as axioms: predicted observations are derived from the theories much like theorems are derived in Euclidean geometry. However, the predictions are then tested against reality to verify the predictions, and the "axioms"


id: scientific-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:04.644741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
...it is incorrect to speak of an assumption as either true or false, since there is no way of proving it to be either (If there were, it would no longer be an assumption). It is better to consider assumptions as either useful or useless, depending on whether deductions made from them correspond to reality...Since we must start somewhere, we must have assumptions, but at least let us have as few assumptions as possible. Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists). However, theories do not generally make assumptions in the conventional sense (statements accepted without evidence). While assumptions are often incorporated during the formation of new theories, these are either supported by evidence (such as from previously existing theories) or the evidence is produced in the course of validating the theory. This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested. Conventional assumptions, without evidence, may be used if the theory is only intended to apply when the assumption is valid (or approximately valid). For example, the special theory of relativity


id: scientific-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:04.644741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verifications, for nearly every theory—if we look for confirmations. Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory. Every "good" scientific theory is a prohibition: it forbids certain things from happening. The more a theory forbids, the better it is. A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific. Irrefutability is not a virtue of a theory (as people often think) but a vice. Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it or to refute it. Testability is falsifiability; but there are degrees of testability: some theories are more testable, more exposed to refutation, than others; they take, as it were, greater risks. Confirming evidence should not count except when it is the result of a genuine test of the theory, and this means that it can be presented as a serious but unsuccessful attempt to falsify the theory. (I now speak in such cases of "corroborating evidence".) Some genuinely testable theories, when


id: scientific-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:04.644741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-theory-20260505-0
summary:
A theory is something other than myself. It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms. Mathematical theory reaches the highest perfection in this respect. But even a geographical map fully embodies in itself a set of strict rules for finding one's way through a region of otherwise uncharted experience. Indeed, all theory may be regarded as a kind of map extended over space and time. A scientific theory can also be thought of as a book that captures the fundamental information about the world, a book that must be researched, written, and shared. In 1623, Galileo Galilei wrote: Philosophy [i.e. physics] is written in this grand book—I mean the universe—which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a


id: selection-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Selection bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:08.366229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: selection-bias-20260505-0
summary:
Selection bias is the bias introduced by the selection of individuals, groups, or data for analysis in such a way that the association between exposure and outcome among those selected for analysis differs from the association among those eligible. It typically occurs when researchers condition on a factor that is influenced both by the exposure and the outcome (or their causes), creating a false association between them. Selection bias encompasses several forms of bias, including differential loss-to-follow-up, incidence–prevalence bias, volunteer bias, healthy-worker bias, and nonresponse bias. == Types of bias == === Sampling bias === Sampling bias is systematic error due to a non-random sample of a population, causing some members of the population to be less likely to be included than others, resulting in a biased sample, defined as a statistical sample of a population (or non-human factors) in which all participants are not equally balanced or objectively represented. It is mostly classified as a subtype of selection bias, sometimes specifically termed sample selection bias, but some classify it as a separate type of bias. A distinction of sampling bias (albeit not a universally accepted one) is that it undermines the external validity of a test (the ability of


id: selection-bias-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias-1.md
category: reference
title: Selection bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:08.366229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: selection-bias-20260505-0
summary:
=== Observer selection === Philosopher Nick Bostrom has argued that data are filtered not only by study design and measurement, but by the necessary precondition that there has to be someone doing a study. In situations where the existence of the observer or the study is correlated with the data, observation selection effects occur, and anthropic reasoning is required. An example is the past impact event record of Earth: if large impacts cause mass extinctions and ecological disruptions precluding the evolution of intelligent observers for long periods, no one will observe any evidence of large impacts in the recent past (since they would have prevented intelligent observers from evolving). Hence there is a potential bias in the impact record of Earth. Astronomical existential risks might similarly be underestimated due to selection bias, and an anthropic correction has to be introduced. === Volunteer bias === Self-selection bias or a volunteer bias in studies offer further threats to the validity of a study as these participants may have intrinsically different characteristics from the target population of the study. Studies have shown that volunteers tend to come from a higher social standing than from a lower socio-economic background. Furthermore, another study shows that


id: self-experimentation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation-0.md
category: reference
title: Self-experimentation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:09.699220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-experimentation-20260505-0
summary:
Self-experimentation refers to single-subject research in which the experimenter conducts the experiment on themself. Usually, this means that a single person is the designer, operator, subject, analyst, and user or reporter of the experiment. Self-experimentation is an example of citizen science since it can be done by patients or people interested in their own health and well-being, as both research subjects and self-experimenters. It is also referred to as personal science or N-of-1 research. == Biology and medicine == Human scientific self-experimentation principally (though not necessarily) falls into the fields of medicine and psychology. Self-experimentation has a long and well-documented history in medicine which continues to the present day. For example, after failed attempts to infect piglets in 1984, Barry Marshall drank a petri dish of Helicobacter pylori from a patient, and soon developed gastritis, achlorhydria, stomach discomfort, nausea, vomiting, and halitosis. The results were published in 1985 in the Medical Journal of Australia, and is among the most cited articles from the journal. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2005. Evaluations have been presented in the context of clinical trials and program evaluations. == Psychology == In psychology, the best-known self-experiments are the memory


id: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Self-experimentation in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:11.041214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Self-experimentation refers to scientific experimentation in which the experimenter conducts the experiment on themself. Often this means that the designer, operator, subject, analyst, and user or reporter of the experiment are all the same. Self-experimentation has a long and well-documented history in medicine which continues to the present. Some of these experiments have been very valuable and shed new and often unexpected insights into different areas of medicine. There are many motivations for self-experiment. These include the wish to get results quickly and avoid the need for a formal organisational structure, to take the ethical stance of taking the same risk as volunteers, or just a desire to do good for humanity. Other ethical issues include whether a researcher should self-experiment because another volunteer would not get the same benefit as the researcher will get, and the question of whether informed consent of a volunteer can truly be given by those outside a research program. A number of distinguished scientists have undertaken self-experimentation, including at least five Nobel laureates; in several cases, the prize was awarded for findings the self-experimentation made possible. Many experiments were dangerous; various people exposed themselves to pathogenic, toxic or radioactive materials. Some self-experimenters, like Jesse


id: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Self-experimentation in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:11.041214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
== Ethics == As already mentioned, it is an ethical principle that the researcher should not inflict on volunteers anything that the researcher would not be willing to do to themself, but the researcher is not always a suitable, or even possible, subject for the experiment. For instance, the researcher may be the wrong sex if the research is into hormone treatment for women, or may be too old, or too young. The ethical question for the researchers is would they agree to the experiment if they were in the same position as the volunteers? Another issue that can lead researchers not to take part is whether the researcher would stand to gain any benefit from taking part in the experiment. It is an ethical principle that volunteers must stand to gain some benefit from the research, even if that is only a remote future possibility of treatment being found for a disease that they only have a small chance of contracting. Tests on experimental drugs are sometimes conducted on sufferers of an untreatable condition. If the researcher does not have that condition then there can be no possible benefit to them personally. For instance, Ronald C. Desrosiers in responding


id: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Self-experimentation in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:11.041214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Anaesthesia === Dentist Horace Wells made multiple experiments with nitrous oxide, diethyl ether, and chloroform while trying to determine their uses as anaesthetics. The first, conducted in 1844, consisted of having his assistant John Riggs dose him with nitrous oxide and then extract one of his teeth. His later self-experimentation of ether and chloroform took place in 1848, and he eventually became addicted to chloroform due to excessive use. He inhaled chloroform as an anaesthetic shortly before committing suicide on January 24, 1848. Lidocaine, the first amino amide–type local anaesthetic, was first synthesized under the name xylocaine by Swedish chemist Nils Löfgren in 1943. His colleague Bengt Lundqvist performed the first injection anaesthesia experiments on himself. === Asthma === Roger Altounyan developed the use of sodium cromoglycate as a remedy for asthma, based on khella, a traditional Middle Eastern remedy, with experiments on himself. === Blood === ==== ABO blood group system ==== Dr. Karl Landsteiner's discovery of the ABO blood group system in 1900 was based on an analysis of blood samples from six members of his laboratory staff, including himself. ==== Thrombocytopenia ==== In the Harrington–Hollingsworth experiment in 1950, William J. Harrington performed an exchange blood transfusion


id: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: Self-experimentation in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:11.041214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
===== Helicobacter pylori ===== In 1984 a Western Australian scientist, Dr Barry Marshall, discovered the link between Helicobacter pylori (at that time known as Campylobacter pylori) and gastritis. This was based on a series of self-experiments that involved gastroscopy and biopsy, ingestion of H. pylori, regastroscopy and biopsy and subsequent treatment with tinidazole. His only option was self-experimentation: ethical measures forbade him from administering H. pylori to any other person. In 2005, Marshall and his long-time collaborator Robin Warren were awarded Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, "for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease". Marshall's experiment debunked the long-held belief of the medical profession that stress was the cause of gastritis. This cleared the way for the development of antibiotic treatments for gastritis and peptic ulcers and a new line of research into the likely role of H. pylori in stomach cancer. ===== Campylobacter jejuni ===== Marshall's investigation was preceded by David A. Robinson who, in 1980, ingested Campylobacter jejuni, a bacterium found in cow's milk, to investigate whether gastritis could be caused by drinking milk infected with C. jejuni. Robinson became sick as a result. Robinson needed to do


id: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine-4.md
category: reference
title: Self-experimentation in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:11.041214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
==== Disulfiram ==== In 1945, during the German occupation of Denmark, Erik Jacobsen and Jens Hald at the Danish drug company Medicinalco (which had a group of enthusiastic self-experimenters that called itself the "Death Battalion") were exploring the possible use of disulfiram to treat intestinal parasites, and in the course of testing it on themselves, accidentally discovered its effects (Disulfiram-alcohol reaction) when alcohol is ingested, which led several years later to the drug called Antabuse. ==== Furan ==== Chauncey D. Leake, in 1930, took furan as a possible substitute for aspirin but it just gave him a splitting headache and painful urination that lasted three days. ==== Grapefruit juice ==== David G. Bailey, in 1989, was researching the effects of drinking alcohol while taking the then experimental drug felodipine. It was usual in this kind of research to mix the alcohol with orange juice but Bailey did not like the taste of this drink so used grapefruit juice instead. Bailey found that there was three times more felodipine in his, and fellow researchers', blood than had been reported by other scientists using orange juice. It was later found that grapefruit juice suppresses an enzyme responsible for breaking down a large


id: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine-5.md
category: reference
title: Self-experimentation in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:11.041214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
==== Hanging ==== In the early 1900s Nicolae Minovici, a professor of forensic science in Bucharest, undertook a series of experiments into hanging. At first he put the noose around his neck while lying down and had an assistant put tension on the rope. He then moved on to full suspension by the neck. Finally, he attempted suspension with a slipping hangman's knot, but the pain was too great for him to continue. He could not swallow for a month. Minovici was determined to surpass a record set by Dr. Fleichmann of Erlangen, who in 1832, self-asphyxiated for two minutes. However, Minovici could not get close to this and disbelieved Fleichmann. Minovici and Fleichmann are not the only ones to self-experiment with strangulation. Graeme Hammond, a doctor in New York, tried it in 1882. Francis Bacon described an even earlier occasion in 1623 when the self-experimenter stepped off a stool with a rope around his neck, but was unable to regain his footing on the stool without assistance. ==== Rapid acceleration ==== John Paul Stapp, in 1954, sat in a rocket sled fired along rails in a series of steadily more violent tests. Speeds reached 631 mph, almost the speed


id: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine-6.md
category: reference
title: Self-experimentation in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-experimentation_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:11.041214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-experimentation-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
There have been several cases of surgeons operating on themselves, but most often it has been in the nature of an emergency rather than experiment. Such a case was Leonid Rogozov who was obliged to remove his own appendix in 1961 while stranded in Antarctica in winter. However, the first surgeon to carry out this self-operation, Evan O'Neill Kane in 1921, did so with an element of experiment. Although Kane's operation was necessary, it was not necessary to do it himself, so that in itself was experimental. More than that, Kane wished to experience the operation under local anaesthetic before trying the procedure on his patients. Kane advocated a reduction in the use of general anaesthetic by surgeons. In 2023, Michael Raduga, a Russian lucid dreaming researcher, performed self-neurosurgery that included trepanation, electrode implantation, and electrical stimulation of the motor cortex. ==== Sensory deprivation ==== John C. Lilly developed the first sensory deprivation tanks and self-experimented them with the intention to study the origin of consciousness and its relation to the brain by creating an environment which isolates an individual from external stimulation. ==== Temperature and pressure ==== Joseph Barcroft, in 1920, spent six days in a sealed glass chamber


id: serendipity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serendipity-0.md
category: reference
title: Serendipity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serendipity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:12.267758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: serendipity-20260505-0
summary:
Serendipity is an unplanned fortunate discovery. The term was coined by Horace Walpole in 1754. The concept is often associated with scientific and technological breakthroughs, where accidental discoveries led to new insights or inventions. Many significant discoveries in history were serendipitous, including penicillin, Post-it notes, Popsicles, and the microwave oven, arising from unforeseen circumstances that were then recognized and capitalized upon. == Definition == Christian Busch views serendipity as "active luck", where chance encounters and human action come together. A missed flight or a casual walk in the park can lead to new friendships, interests, or even career opportunities. While serendipity in popular usage is often understood as a matter of pure chance, scientific discussions emphasize the crucial role of human agency—recognizing, interpreting, and acting upon unexpected opportunities. This interaction between chance and conscious action has been a key theme in areas such as creativity, leadership, innovation, and entrepreneurship. == Etymology == The first noted use of "serendipity" was by Horace Walpole on 28 January 1754. In a letter he wrote to his friend Horace Mann, Walpole explained an unexpected discovery he had made about a painting of Bianca Cappello, which he recently received from Mann as a gift. The


id: serendipity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serendipity-1.md
category: reference
title: Serendipity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serendipity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:12.267758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: serendipity-20260505-0
summary:
Carbonated water was invented by Joseph Priestley, independently and by accident, in 1767 when he discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide after having suspended a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery in Leeds, Yorkshire. He wrote of the "peculiar satisfaction" he found in drinking it, and in 1772 he published a paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air. Vulcanization was discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839 when he accidentally dropped rubber mixed with sulfur on a hot frying pan. He noticed that the resulting rubber was stronger and heat-resistant. Corn flakes were invented in 1894 when John Harvey Kellogg unintentionally left a batch of wheat-berry dough out over night. The next day, he decided to figure out what could be done to salvage it, rather than throwing it out. John, Will, and Ella Kellogg then discerned what happened and realized that this process could be reliably recreated through a process known as tempering. Safety glass first originated when French chemist Édouard Bénédictus accidentally dropped a glass flask in 1903 and noticed that it did not shatter like traditional glass. He then sought to refine the material to create a safer form of glass.


id: serendipity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serendipity-2.md
category: reference
title: Serendipity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serendipity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:12.267758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: serendipity-20260505-0
summary:
== Related terms == Several uncommonly used terms have been derived from the concept and name of serendipity. William Boyd coined the term zemblanity in the late twentieth century to mean somewhat the opposite of serendipity: "making unhappy, unlucky and expected discoveries occurring by design". The derivation is speculative, but believed to be from Nova Zembla, a barren archipelago once the site of Russian nuclear testing. Bahramdipity is derived directly from Bahram Gur as characterized in The Three Princes of Serendip. It describes the suppression of serendipitous discoveries or research results by powerful individuals. In addition, Solomon & Bronstein (2018) further distinguish between perceptual and realised pseudo-serendipity and nemorinity. == See also == Browse Coincidence Felix culpa Insight Lateral thinking Multiple discovery Role of chance in scientific discoveries Serendipaceratops Serendipity Sapphire Side effect Synchronicity == References == == Further reading == Merton, Robert K.; Barber, Elinor (2004). The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in Sociological Semantics and the Sociology of Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691117546. (Manuscript written 1958). Hannan, Patrick J. (2006). Serendipity, Luck and Wisdom in Research. iUniverse. ISBN 978-0595365517. Roberts, Royston M. (1989). Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science. Wiley. ISBN 978-0471602033. Isabelle Rivoal and Noel


id: solomon-four-group-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_four-group_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Solomon four-group design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_four-group_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:13.508479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solomon-four-group-design-20260505-0
summary:
The Solomon four-group design is a research method developed by Richard Solomon in 1949. It is sometimes used in social science, psychology and medicine. It can be used if there are concerns that the treatment might be sensitized by the pre-test. In addition of the usual two groups (treatment and control), it has a second pair of groups who do not receive a pre-intervention evaluation. == Structure == The structure of the trial is shown in the table : The first two groups receive the evaluation test before and after the study, as in a normal two-group trial. The second groups receive the evaluation only after the study. The effectiveness of the treatment can be evaluated by comparisons between groups 1 and 3 and between groups 2 and 4.. In addition, the effect of the pre-treatment evaluation can be calculated by comparing the control group who received the pre-treatment evaluation with those who did not (groups 2 and 4). Various statistical treatments for the Solomon four-group design have been put forward, including Stouffer's Z and Monte Carlo. == References ==


id: statistical-alchemy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_alchemy-0.md
category: reference
title: Statistical alchemy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_alchemy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:16.221389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statistical-alchemy-20260505-0
summary:
Statistical alchemy was a term originated by John Maynard Keynes to describe econometrics in 1939. The phrase has subsequently been used by Alvan Feinstein to describe meta-analysis. It is generally regarded as a deprecatory term which undermines attempts to present such activities as meeting the rigorous standards of science. == Econometrics == Keynes (1939) wrote a review of Jan Tinbergen's Statistical Testing of Business-Cycle Theories. Although he praised Tinbergen for his objectivity, he however depicted his methodology as "black magic" which he regarded as essentially untrustworthy. He was unpersuaded that "this brand of statistical alchemy is ripe to become a branch of science" (emphasis in the original). Often this metaphor is seen as a way of suggesting that econometricians were following a foolhardy pursuit comparable to the alchemical quest of turning base metal into gold. However G. M. P. Swann points out that Keynes was well aware that such eminent early scientists as Isaac Newton. He rather proposes a more nuanced interpretation of the metaphor as referring to the Alkahest, a universal solvent, which, it was claimed could turn stone into water. He claimed that by restricting econometrics to theory, mathematics and statistics, econometricians had discarded other important applied techniques.


id: statistical-inference-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference-0.md
category: reference
title: Statistical inference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:17.584057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statistical-inference-20260505-0
summary:
Statistical inference is the process of using data analysis to infer properties of an underlying probability distribution. Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of a population, for example by testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is sampled from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be contrasted with descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics is solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a larger population. In machine learning, the term inference is sometimes used instead to mean "make a prediction, by evaluating an already trained model"; in this context inferring properties of the model is referred to as training or learning (rather than inference), and using a model for prediction is referred to as inference (instead of prediction); see also predictive inference. == Introduction == Statistical inference makes propositions about a population, using data drawn from the population with some form of sampling. Given a hypothesis about a population, for which we wish to draw inferences, statistical inference consists of (first) selecting a statistical model of the process that generates the data and (second) deducing propositions from the model. Konishi and Kitagawa state


id: statistical-inference-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference-1.md
category: reference
title: Statistical inference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:17.584057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statistical-inference-20260505-0
summary:
Given the difficulty in specifying exact distributions of sample statistics, many methods have been developed for approximating these. With finite samples, approximation results measure how close a limiting distribution approaches the statistic's sample distribution: For example, with 10,000 independent samples the normal distribution approximates (to two digits of accuracy) the distribution of the sample mean for many population distributions, by the Berry–Esseen theorem. Yet for many practical purposes, the normal approximation provides a good approximation to the sample-mean's distribution when there are 10 (or more) independent samples, according to simulation studies and statisticians' experience. Following Kolmogorov's work in the 1950s, advanced statistics uses approximation theory and functional analysis to quantify the error of approximation. In this approach, the metric geometry of probability distributions is studied; this approach quantifies approximation error with, for example, the Kullback–Leibler divergence, Bregman divergence, and the Hellinger distance. With indefinitely large samples, limiting results like the central limit theorem describe the sample statistic's limiting distribution if one exists. Limiting results are not statements about finite samples, and indeed are irrelevant to finite samples. However, the asymptotic theory of limiting distributions is often invoked for work with finite samples. For example, limiting results are often invoked to


id: statistical-inference-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference-2.md
category: reference
title: Statistical inference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:17.584057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statistical-inference-20260505-0
summary:
This paradigm calibrates the plausibility of propositions by considering (notional) repeated sampling of a population distribution to produce datasets similar to the one at hand. By considering the dataset's characteristics under repeated sampling, the frequentist properties of a statistical proposition can be quantified—although in practice this quantification may be challenging. ==== Examples of frequentist inference ==== p-value Confidence interval Null hypothesis significance testing ==== Frequentist inference, objectivity, and decision theory ==== One interpretation of frequentist inference (or classical inference) is that it is applicable only in terms of frequency probability; that is, in terms of repeated sampling from a population. However, the approach of Neyman develops these procedures in terms of pre-experiment probabilities. That is, before undertaking an experiment, one decides on a rule for coming to a conclusion such that the probability of being correct is controlled in a suitable way: such a probability need not have a frequentist or repeated sampling interpretation. In contrast, Bayesian inference works in terms of conditional probabilities (i.e. probabilities conditional on the observed data), compared to the marginal (but conditioned on unknown parameters) probabilities used in the frequentist approach. The frequentist procedures of significance testing and confidence intervals can be constructed without regard


id: statistical-inference-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference-3.md
category: reference
title: Statistical inference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_inference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:17.584057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statistical-inference-20260505-0
summary:
Formulating the statistical model: A statistical model is defined based on the problem at hand, specifying the distributional assumptions and the relationship between the observed data and the unknown parameters. The model can be simple, such as a normal distribution with known variance, or complex, such as a hierarchical model with multiple levels of random effects. Constructing the likelihood function: Given the statistical model, the likelihood function is constructed by evaluating the joint probability density or mass function of the observed data as a function of the unknown parameters. This function represents the probability of observing the data for different values of the parameters. Maximizing the likelihood function: The next step is to find the set of parameter values that maximizes the likelihood function. This can be achieved using optimization techniques such as numerical optimization algorithms. The estimated parameter values, often denoted as y ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {y}}} , are the maximum likelihood estimates (MLEs). Assessing uncertainty: Once the MLEs are obtained, it is crucial to quantify the uncertainty associated with the parameter estimates. This can be done by calculating standard errors, confidence intervals, or conducting hypothesis tests based on asymptotic theory or simulation techniques such as bootstrapping. Model checking:


id: stigler-s-law-of-eponymy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigler's_law_of_eponymy-0.md
category: reference
title: Stigler's law of eponymy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigler's_law_of_eponymy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:18.810696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stigler-s-law-of-eponymy-20260505-0
summary:
Stigler's law of eponymy, proposed by University of Chicago statistics professor Stephen Stigler in 1980, states that no scientific discovery is named after its original discoverer. Examples include Hubble's law, which was derived by Georges Lemaître two years before Edwin Hubble; the Pythagorean theorem, which was known to Babylonian mathematicians and to Indian mathematicians before Pythagoras; and Halley's Comet, which was observed by astronomers since at least 240 BC (although its official designation is due to the first ever mathematical prediction of such astronomical phenomenon in the sky, not to its discovery). Stigler attributed the discovery of Stigler's law to sociologist Robert K. Merton, making "Stigler's law" an example of Stigler's law. In his paper, Stigler wrote: I have chosen as a title for this paper, and for the thesis I wish to present and discuss, "Stigler's law of eponymy". At first glance this may appear to be a flagrant violation of the "Institutional Norm of Humility," and since statisticians are even more aware of the importance of norms than are members of other disciplines, I hasten to add a humble disclaimer. If there is an idea in this paper that is not at least implicit in Merton's The Sociology


id: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law-0.md
category: reference
title: List of examples of Stigler's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:20.028518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
Stigler's law concerns the supposed tendency of eponymous expressions for scientific discoveries to honor people other than their respective originators. Examples include: == A == Aharonov–Bohm effect. Werner Ehrenberg and Raymond E. Siday first predicted the effect in 1949, and similar effects were later rediscovered by Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm in 1959. Ampère's circuital law was inspired by the experimental results of André-Marie Ampère, and named in his honor. However, it was James Clerk Maxwell who combined those results into a single mathematical law. Arabic numerals, first developed in India around 7th century. Archimedes' screw is known to predate Archimedes by at least three centuries in ancient Babylon. Argand diagram by Caspar Wessel in 1797, predating Jean-Robert Argand by nine years. Arrhenius equation. The equation was first proposed by the Dutch chemist J. H. van 't Hoff in 1884; five years later in 1889, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for it. Auger effect. First discovered by Lise Meitner in 1922 and then, independently, in 1923 by Pierre Victor Auger. == B == Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula was discovered by Simon Plouffe, who has since expressed regret at having to share credit for his discovery. Bell


id: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law-1.md
category: reference
title: List of examples of Stigler's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:20.028518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Cantor–Bernstein–Schröder theorem (also known by other variations, such as Schröder-Bernstein theorem) first proved by Richard Dedekind Cantor set, discovered in 1874 by Henry John Stephen Smith and introduced by German mathematician Georg Cantor 1883. Carmichael number: Václav Šimerka listed the first seven Carmichael numbers in 1885; they are named after Robert Daniel Carmichael who subsequently discovered the first one in 1910. Cartan matrices, first investigated by Wilhelm Killing. Cardano's formula, the solution to general cubic equations. Cardano stated that it was discovered by Scipione del Ferro, who passed the knowledge to his student Antonio Maria Fior. Around 1535 Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia learned of this from Fior and re-derived the formula for the cubic, which he later shared with Cardano. Cassegrain reflector, named after a design published in 1672 which has been attributed to Laurent Cassegrain, but was already known to Bonaventura Cavalieri in 1632 and Marin Mersenne in 1636. Cartesian duality: Named for René Descartes, but Teresa of Avila and her contemporaries wrote about similar methods of philosophical exploration eight to ten years before Descartes was born. Cavendish balance for measuring the universal gravitational constant, first devised and constructed by John Michell. The Cayley–Hamilton theorem was proven


id: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law-2.md
category: reference
title: List of examples of Stigler's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:20.028518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Galileo's paradox: the property of infinite sets was known to Duns Scotus. Gauss's law: first described by Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1773, over half a century before Gauss. Gauss's theorem: first proved by Ostrogradsky in 1831. Gaussian distribution: the normal distribution was introduced by Abraham de Moivre in 1733, but named after Carl Friedrich Gauss who began using it in 1794. Gaussian elimination: was already in well-known textbooks such as Thomas Simpson's when Gauss in 1809 remarked that he used "common elimination." Gibbs phenomenon: named for Josiah Willard Gibbs who published in 1901. First discovered by Henry Wilbraham in 1851. Goodhart's law, with several earlier variations, like Campbell's law. The Graetz circuit, also known as the diode bridge, was invented and patented in 1896 by Karol Pollak a year before it was published by Leo Graetz. The Graham escapement is often erroneously credited to English clockmaker George Graham but it was actually invented by astronomer Richard Towneley. The Gregorian telescope is named after James Gregory, who published it in 1663, but was already known to Bonaventura Cavalieri in 1632 and Marin Mersenne in 1636. Gresham's law was described by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1519, the year of Thomas


id: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law-3.md
category: reference
title: List of examples of Stigler's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:20.028518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Maxwell's equations. The modern form of the equations in their most common formulation is credited to Oliver Heaviside, based on James Clerk Maxwell's original work. Madelung rule, describing the order in which electron orbitals are filled, named after Erwin Madelung but first discovered by Charles Janet. Magellanic Clouds, while observed by Antonio Pigafetta on one of Magellan's voyages there were previous reports made by 16th century Italian authors Peter Martyr d'Anghiera and Andrea Corsali and earlier reports by Arabic astronomers. Matthew effect, named by Robert K. Merton after the writer of the Gospel of Matthew quoting the words of Jesus. Meadow's law, the formulation that one cot death in a family is tragic, two suspicious, and three murder, originally described by D.J. and V.J.M. Di Maio. Metropolis–Hastings algorithm. The algorithm was named after Nicholas Metropolis, who was the director of the Theoretical Division of Los Alamos National Laboratory at the time of writing the paper Equation of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines. However, Metropolis did not contribute to that study in any way, as confirmed by various sources. The research problem was proposed by Augusta H. Teller and solved by Marshall N. Rosenbluth and Arianna W.


id: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law-4.md
category: reference
title: List of examples of Stigler's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_examples_of_Stigler's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:20.028518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-examples-of-stigler-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
== R == The Reynolds number in fluid mechanics was introduced by George Stokes, but is named after Osborne Reynolds, who popularized its use. Richards equation is attributed to Richards in his 1931 publication, but was earlier introduced by Richardson in 1922 in his book "Weather prediction by numerical process." (Cambridge University press. p. 262) as pointed out by John Knight and Peter Raats in "The contributions of Lewis Fry Richardson to drainage theory, soil physics, and the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum" EGU General Assembly 2016. Russell's paradox is a paradox in set theory that Bertrand Russell discovered and published in 1901. However, Ernst Zermelo had independently discovered the paradox in 1899. == S == The Sankey diagram was invented by Charles Joseph Minard The Schottky diode was neither discovered by Schottky nor its operation correctly explained by him. The actual nature of the metal–semiconductor junction was noted by Hans Bethe. The Schröder–Bernstein theorem in set theory was first stated without proof by Georg Cantor and first proved by Richard Dedekind Shuey's equation from 1985, which is an approximation of the Zoeprittz Equation first published in 1919. Simpson's paradox, a term introduced by Colin R. Blyth in 1972; but Edward Simpson did


id: strong-inference-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_inference-0.md
category: reference
title: Strong inference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_inference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:21.302231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strong-inference-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy of science, strong inference is a model of scientific inquiry that emphasizes the need for alternative hypotheses, rather than a single hypothesis to avoid confirmation bias. The term "strong inference" was coined by John R. Platt, a biophysicist at the University of Chicago. Platt notes that some fields, such as molecular biology and high-energy physics, seem to adhere strongly to strong inference, with very beneficial results for the rate of progress in those fields. == The single hypothesis problem == The problem with single hypotheses, confirmation bias, was aptly described by Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin in 1897: The moment one has offered an original explanation for a phenomenon which seems satisfactory, that moment affection for [one’s] intellectual child springs into existence, and as the explanation grows into a definite theory [one’s] parental affections cluster about [the] offspring and it grows more and more dear .... There springs up also unwittingly a pressing of the theory to make it fit the facts and a pressing of the facts to make them fit the theory... The temptation to misinterpret results that contradict the desired hypothesis is probably irresistible. Despite the admonitions of Platt, reviewers of grant-applications often require "A Hypothesis" as


id: structuralism-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Structuralism (philosophy of science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:22.643026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: structuralism-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the philosophy of science, structuralism (also known as scientific structuralism or as the structuralistic theory-concept) asserts that all aspects of reality are best understood in terms of empirical scientific constructs of entities and their relations, rather than in terms of concrete entities in themselves. == Overview == Structuralism is an active research program in the philosophy of science, which was first developed in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s by several analytic philosophers. As an instance of structuralism, the concept of matter should be interpreted not as an absolute property of nature in itself, but instead of how scientifically grounded mathematical relations describe how the concept of matter interacts with other properties, whether that be in a broad sense such as the gravitational fields that mass-produces or more empirically as how matter interacts with sense systems of the body to produce sensations such as weight. Structuralism's aim is to comprise all important aspects of an empirical theory in one formal framework. The proponents of this meta-theoretic theory are Frederick Suppe, Patrick Suppes, Ronald Giere, Joseph D. Sneed, Wolfgang Stegmüller, Carlos Ulises Moulines, Wolfgang Balzer, John Worrall, Elie Georges Zahar, Pablo Lorenzano, Otávio Bueno, Anjan Chakravartty, Tian Yu Cao,


id: structuralism-philosophy-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)-1.md
category: reference
title: Structuralism (philosophy of science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:22.643026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: structuralism-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ontic structural realism === While ESR claims that only the structure of reality is knowable, ontic structural realism (OSR) goes further to claim that structure is all there is. In this view, reality has no "nature" underlying its observed structure. Rather, reality is fundamentally structural, though variants of OSR disagree on precisely which aspects of structure are primitive. OSR is strongly motivated by modern physics, particularly quantum field theory, which undermines intuitive notions of identifiable objects with intrinsic properties. Some early quantum physicists held this view, including Hermann Weyl (1931), Ernst Cassirer (1936), and Arthur Eddington (1939). Recently, OSR has been called "the most fashionable ontological framework for modern physics". Max Tegmark takes this concept even further with the mathematical universe hypothesis, which proposes that, if our universe is only a particular structure, then it is no more real than any other structure. == Definition of structure == In mathematical logic, a mathematical structure is a standard concept. A mathematical structure is a set of abstract entities with relations between them. The natural numbers under arithmetic constitute a structure, with relations such as "is evenly divisible by" and "is greater than". Here the relation "is greater than" includes the


id: suspension-of-judgment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment-0.md
category: reference
title: Suspension of judgment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:23.829938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: suspension-of-judgment-20260505-0
summary:
Suspended judgment is a cognitive process and a rational state of mind in which one withholds judgments, particularly on the drawing of moral or ethical conclusions. The opposite of suspension of judgment is premature judgement, usually shortened to prejudice. While prejudgment involves drawing a conclusion or making a judgment before having the information relevant to such a judgment, suspension of judgment involves waiting for all the facts before making a decision. == Law == Suspension of judgment is used in civil law to indicate a court's decision to nullify a civil judgment. Motions to set aside judgments entered in civil cases in the United States district courts are governed by Rule 60 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure which opens with the statement, "On motion and just terms, the court may relieve a party or its legal representative from a final judgment, order, or proceeding...". The rule is quite straightforward and court room application is mostly as stated. In the New York Law Journal David Bliven argues that suspended judgement ought to be an alternative disposition in family offenses (a type of civil case), particularly in cases where a family judgement is being used as behavior modification rather than


id: testability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testability-0.md
category: reference
title: Testability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:25.025771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: testability-20260505-0
summary:
Testability is a primary aspect of science and the scientific method. There are two components to testability: Falsifiability or defeasibility, which means that counterexamples to the hypothesis are logically possible. The practical feasibility of observing a reproducible series of such counterexamples if they do exist. In short, a hypothesis is testable if there is a possibility of deciding whether it is true or false based on experimentation by anyone. This allows anyone to decide whether a theory can be supported or refuted by data. However, the interpretation of experimental data may be also inconclusive or uncertain. Karl Popper introduced the concept that scientific knowledge had the property of falsifiability as published in The Logic of Scientific Discovery. == See also == Confirmability Controllability Observability Scientific method Test method == Further reading == == References ==


id: twyman-s-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyman's_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Twyman's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyman's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:26.280989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: twyman-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
Twyman's law states that "Any figure that looks interesting or different is usually wrong", following the principle that "the more unusual or interesting the data, the more likely they are to have been the result of an error of one kind or another". It is named after the media and market researcher Tony Twyman and has been described as one of the most important laws of data analysis. The law is based on the fact that errors in data measurement and analysis can lead to observed quantities that are wildly different from typical values. These errors are usually more common than real changes of similar magnitude in the underlying process being measured. For example, if an analyst at a software company notices that the number of users has doubled overnight, the most likely explanation is a bug in logging, rather than a true increase in users. The law can also be extended to situations where the underlying data is influenced by unexpected factors that differ from what was intended to be measured. For example, when schools show unusually large improvements in test scores, subsequent investigation often reveals that those scores were driven by fraud. == See also == Extraordinary claims


id: violation-paradigm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violation_paradigm-0.md
category: reference
title: Violation paradigm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violation_paradigm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:38.826382+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: violation-paradigm-20260505-0
summary:
A violation paradigm is a scientific method where the scientist perturbs an expected factor to look at the subject's following reactions. These reactions are believed to be relevant to the process studied. For example, creating wrong word segmentations in a text will destabilize the reader. This warns the researcher that the respondent's brain considers the characters are united into words, and not just as a succession of given sets of letters. The process was originally developed by Danks, Bohn & Fear (1983), and proved valid (Chen 1999). == See also == Danks, Bohn, Fear (1983), Comprehension processes in oral reading, The process of language understanding, pp. 193–223. Chen, H.-C. (1999), "How do readers of Chinese process words during reading for comprehension ?", Reading Chinese Script: A Cognitive Analysis, Routledge, pp. 257–278, ISBN 9780805824780


id: why-most-published-research-findings-are-false-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-0.md
category: reference
title: Why Most Published Research Findings Are False
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:40.049921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: why-most-published-research-findings-are-false-20260505-0
summary:
"Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" is a 2005 essay written by John Ioannidis, a professor at the Stanford School of Medicine, and published in PLOS Medicine. It is considered foundational to the field of metascience. In the paper, Ioannidis argued that a large number, if not the majority, of published medical research papers contain results that cannot be replicated. In simple terms, the essay states that scientists use hypothesis testing to determine whether scientific discoveries are significant. Statistical significance is formalized in terms of probability, with its p-value measure being reported in the scientific literature as a screening mechanism. Ioannidis posited assumptions about the way people perform and report these tests; then he constructed a statistical model which indicates that most published findings are likely false positive results. While the general arguments in the paper recommending reforms in scientific research methodology were well-received, Ionnidis received criticism for the validity of his model and his claim that the majority of scientific findings are false. Responses to the paper suggest lower false positive and false negative rates than what Ioannidis puts forth. == Argument == Suppose that in a given scientific field there is a known baseline probability that a


id: why-most-published-research-findings-are-false-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False-1.md
category: reference
title: Why Most Published Research Findings Are False
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Most_Published_Research_Findings_Are_False
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:40.049921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: why-most-published-research-findings-are-false-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Despite skepticism about extreme statements made in the paper, Ioannidis's broader argument and warnings have been accepted by a large number of researchers. The growth of metascience and the recognition of a scientific replication crisis have bolstered the paper's credibility, and led to calls for methodological reforms in scientific research. In commentaries and technical responses, statisticians Goodman and Greenland identified several weaknesses in Ioannidis' model. Ioannidis's use of dramatic and exaggerated language that he "proved" that most research findings' claims are false and that "most research findings are false for most research designs and for most fields" [italics added] was rejected, and yet they agreed with his paper's conclusions and recommendations. Biostatisticians Jager and Leek criticized the model as being based on justifiable but arbitrary assumptions rather than empirical data, and did an investigation of their own which calculated that the false positive rate in biomedical studies was estimated to be around 14%, not over 50% as Ioannidis asserted. Their paper was published in a 2014 special edition of the journal Biostatistics along with extended, supporting critiques from other statisticians. Leek summarized the key points of agreement as: when talking about the science-wise false discovery rate one


id: woozle-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Woozle effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:41.522778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: woozle-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The Woozle effect, also known as evidence by citation, occurs when a source is widely cited for a claim that the source does not adequately support, giving said claim undeserved credibility. If results are not replicated and no one notices that a key claim was never well-supported in its original publication, faulty assumptions may affect further research. The Woozle effect is somewhat similar to circular reporting in journalism, where someone makes a questionable claim, and a journalist unthinkingly accepts the claim and republishes it without realizing its dubious and unreliable origins. In turn, other journalists and the public then continue to repeat and duplicate the unsupported claim. == Origin and definition == A Woozle is an imaginary character in the A. A. Milne book Winnie-the-Pooh, published in 1926. In chapter three, "In which Pooh and Piglet Go Hunting and Nearly Catch a Woozle", Winnie-the-Pooh and Piglet start following tracks left in snow believing they are the tracks of an imaginary animal called a woozle. The tracks keep multiplying until Christopher Robin explains to them that they have been following their own tracks in circles around a spinney. Prior to the introduction of the specific term "Woozle effect", the underlying concept


id: woozle-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Woozle effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woozle_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:41.522778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: woozle-effect-20260505-0
summary:
== Examples == In 1980, Gelles illustrated the Woozle effect, showing how work by Gelles (1974) based on a small sample and published in The Violent Home by Straus, who had written the foreword for Gelles's book, was presented as if it applied to a large sample. Both of these were then cited by Langley & Levy in their 1977 book, Wife Beating: The Silent Crisis. In the 1998 book Intimate Violence, Gelles and Straus use the Winnie-the-Pooh woozle to illustrate how poor practice in research and self-referential research causes older research to be taken as fresh evidence causing error and bias. One notable example of the effect can be seen in citations of "Addiction Rare in Patients Treated with Narcotics", a letter to the editor by Jane Porter and Hershel Jick published by the New England Journal of Medicine in 1980. The letter, which was five sentences long and unlikely to have been peer reviewed according to a NEJM spokesperson, reported findings from analysis of medical records regarding the use of pain medication for hospital patients and concluded that "despite widespread use of narcotic drugs in hospitals, the development of addiction is rare in medical patients with no history


id: natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:43.333493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a naturalist or natural historian. Natural history encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it. It involves the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms, so while it dates from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the medieval Arab world, through to European Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a cross-discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g., geobiology has a strong multidisciplinary nature. == Definitions == === Before 1900 === The meaning of the English term "natural history" (a calque of the Latin historia naturalis) has narrowed progressively with time, while, by contrast, the meaning of the related term "nature" has widened (see also History below). In antiquity, "natural history" covered essentially anything connected with nature, or used materials drawn from nature, such as Pliny the Elder's encyclopedia of this title, published c. 77 to 79 AD, which covers astronomy, geography, humans and their technology, medicine, and superstition, as well as animals and plants. Medieval European


id: natural-history-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:43.333493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prehistory === Prior to the advent of Western science, humans were engaged and highly competent in indigenous ways of understanding the more-than-human world that are now referred to as traditional ecological knowledge. 21st century definitions of natural history are inclusive of this understanding, such as this by Thomas Fleischner of the Natural History Institute (Prescott, Arizona): Natural history – a practice of intentional focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy – is the oldest continuous human endeavor. In the evolutionary past of our species, the practice of natural history was essential for our survival, imparting critical information on habits and chronologies of plants and animals that we could eat or that could eat us. Natural history continues to be critical to human survival and thriving. It contributes to our fundamental understanding of how the world works by providing the empirical foundation of natural sciences, and it contributes directly and indirectly to human emotional and physical health, thereby fostering healthier human communities. It also serves as the basis for all conservation efforts, with natural history both informing the science and inspiring the values that drive these. === Ancient === As a precursor to Western


id: natural-history-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-2.md
category: reference
title: Natural history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:43.333493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
Natural history museums, which evolved from cabinets of curiosities, played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own morphological research. == Societies == The term "natural history" alone, or sometimes together with archaeology, forms the name of many national, regional, and local natural history societies that maintain records for animals—including birds (ornithology), insects (entomology) and mammals (mammalogy)—fungi (mycology), plants (botany), and other organisms. They may also have geological and microscopical sections. Examples of these societies in Britain include the Natural History Society of Northumbria founded in 1829, London Natural History Society (1858), Birmingham Natural History Society (1859), British Entomological and Natural History Society founded in 1872, Glasgow Natural History Society, Manchester Microscopical and Natural History Society established in 1880, Whitby Naturalists' Club founded in 1913, Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society, Sheffield, founded in 1918. The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many civil servants took an


id: list-of-natural-history-dealers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history dealers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:44.538558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-dealers-20260505-0
summary:
Natural history specimen dealers had an important role in the development of science in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. They supplied the rapidly growing, both in size and number, museums and educational establishments and private collectors whose collections, either in entirety or parts finally entered museums. Most sold not just zoological, botanical and geological specimens but also equipment and books. Many also sold archaeological and ethnographic items. They purchased specimens from professional and amateur collectors, sometimes collected themselves as well as acting as agents for the sale of collections. Many were based in mercantile centres notably Amsterdam, Hamburg, and London or in major cities. Some were specialists and some were taxonomic authorities who wrote scientific works and manuals, some functioned as trading museums or institutes. This is a list of natural history dealers from the 16th to the 19th century: here are names that are frequently encountered in museum collections. Johan Hans Abegg (fl. 1882–1885) Mineral collector and dealer in Zurich. Augustus Theodore Abel (?1802-1882); German Mineral dealer resident in Ballarat. Anton Franz Abraham Preparator and dealer in educational materials at " "Naturhistorisches Institut" on Beatrixgasse, Vienna, 1896, on Ungargasse, Vienna in 1903–1906.Supplied specimens to Archduke Franz Ferdinand.


id: list-of-natural-history-dealers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history dealers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:44.538558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-dealers-20260505-0
summary:
Edmund Reitter "Natural History Institute" 1879 -1880 Vienna, 1881-1891 Mödling, after 1891 Paskau and Munich (extant). Carl Ribbe Heinrich Ribbe (1832–1898) Entomologist and dealer in Berlin Hermann Rolle Berlin William Frederick Henry Rosenberg (1868–1957) 57 Haverstock Hill, London fl. 1920s. Claimed to hold 5,000 bird species as scientific skins (and to be the largest bird skin dealership in the world). Supplier to museums and private collectors. Traveller. Emil Adolf Rossmässler Natural History dealer Karl Rost Fritz Rühl Auguste Sallé L.W. Schaufuß else E. Klocke, Dresden Christian Julius Wilhelm Schiede Wilhelm Schlüter Gustav Schneider (1867–1958) Basel Gustav Schrader Wilhelm Schlüter Abraham Scrivener (fl. 1840s) naturalist and merchant with a shop at Deptford Bridge, Greenwich. Paul Smart Southwick & Jencks’ Natural History Store Providence, Rhode Island Otto Staudinger Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn Marine specimens. Wilh. Steeg "Dr. Steeg & Reuter" after 1879. Crystallographic microscope slides. Alexandre Stuer(fl. 1890s-1920?) Paris mineral dealer. Owner of Comptoir Géologique et Minéralogique, 40, rue de Mathurins and at 4, rue de Castellane. John Crace Stevens Covent Gardens auctioneer. Emanuel Sweerts (1552–1612) Dutch merchant and natural history dealer. Rudolf Tancré (1842–1934) Anklam, Pomerania Dealer in Lepidoptera mainly of Central Asia and Siberia. Georg Thorey - Hamburg pharmacist and


id: affinity-taxonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_(taxonomy)-0.md
category: reference
title: Affinity (taxonomy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_(taxonomy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:45.754091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: affinity-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Affinity (taxonomy) – mainly in life sciences or natural history – refers to resemblance suggesting a common descent, phylogenetic relationship, or type. The term does, however, have broader application, such as in geology (for example, in descriptive and theoretical works), and similarly in astronomy (for example, see "Centaur object" in the context of 2060 Chiron's close affinity with icy comet nuclei.) == Basis == In taxonomy the basis of any particular type of classification is the way in which objects in the domain resemble each other. A resemblance of a type that seems appropriate to the classification that we propose, we may call an affinity, and when we decide how to classify say, a specimen of rock or butterfly, we justify our decision according to the affinities that we observe. Other resemblances we dismiss as being out of context or at least non-cogent; for example, in deciding whether to classify a lizard as having closer affinities to a snake than to a table, biologists rely on affinities such as the scales, blood, physiology, vertebral anatomy, and reproductive system as being more relevant than the possession of four "feet". == Application and obstacles == Analysing and determining the proper classification of


id: alfred-russel-wallace-centenary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace_centenary-0.md
category: reference
title: Alfred Russel Wallace centenary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace_centenary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:47.023875+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfred-russel-wallace-centenary-20260505-0
summary:
The centenary of the death of the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace on 7 November 1913 was marked in 2013 with events around the world to celebrate his life and work. The commemorations was co-ordinated by the Natural History Museum, London. Events between October 2013 and June 2014 were planned by the Natural History Museum and other organisations including the Zoological Society of London, Cardiff University, the University of Alberta, Dorset County Museum, Swansea Museum, Dorset Wildlife Trust, Ness Botanical Gardens (South Wirral), the Royal Society, the Linnean Society, the Harvard Museum of Natural History, the American Museum of Natural History, Hertford Museum and the National Museum of Wales. == Context == The naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist Alfred Russel Wallace (born 8 January 1823) died on 7 November 1913. He is principally remembered now for having independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection, which prompted Charles Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species. Some of his books such as The Malay Archipelago remain in print; it is considered one of the best accounts of scientific exploration published during the 19th century. Wallace is also remembered for recognizing the presence of a biogeographical boundary, now known as


id: botanical-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Botanical expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:48.362768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
A botanical expedition (sometimes called "Plant hunting") is a scientific voyage designed to explore the flora of a particular region, either as a specific design or part of a larger expedition. A naturalist or botanist would be responsible for identification, description and collection of specimens. In some cases the plants might be collected by the person in the field, but described and named by a government sponsored scientist at a botanical garden or university. For example, species collected on the Lewis and Clark Expedition were described and named by Frederick Traugott Pursh. While accounts of plant collection occur in antiquity, a scientific basis occurred during the Renaissance and was associated with the establishment of botanical gardens and the teaching of botany as a discipline. The practice of botanical expeditions reached a peak in the late 18th and during the 19th century with the systematic organisation of plants into taxonomic classifications. Plant collection has attracted a number of criticisms of exploitation and colonialism leading to the establishment of international regulations and safeguards. == Description == Botanical expeditions have often been referred to as "plant hunting" (or less commonly "botanomania"). They are mainly scientific journeys or voyages designed to explore the flora


id: conservation-and-restoration-of-insect-specimens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens-0.md
category: reference
title: Conservation and restoration of insect specimens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:49.658173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-and-restoration-of-insect-specimens-20260505-0
summary:
The conservation and restoration of insect specimens is the process of caring for and preserving insects as a part of a collection. Conservation concerns begin at collection and continue through preparation, storage, examination, documentation, research and treatment when restoration is needed. == Collection == Insect collecting can be done in many different ways depending on the kind of insects being collected and from which habitats. Both hobbyists and professional entomologist have found particular ways to collect with minimal damage to their specimens. Following established techniques helps begin the conservation of insect specimens from the beginning by eliminating as much potential damage as possible. It must be done delicately to ensure that neither the collector nor the live insect itself will cause harm to the distinctive features such as wings, legs and antennae that give purpose to the collection. Special collection nets, traps and techniques must be utilized in consideration of how easily breakage can happen. A kill jar is often used to immediately immobilize the insect before it can damage itself. == Preparation == The way an insect specimen is prepared is often the first step in their conservation. They have to be carefully prepared with the appropriate methods depending


id: conservation-and-restoration-of-insect-specimens-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens-1.md
category: reference
title: Conservation and restoration of insect specimens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:49.658173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-and-restoration-of-insect-specimens-20260505-0
summary:
==== Safe handling ==== Proper handling for insect specimens prevents the excessive breaking of legs, antennae and other body parts that could then easily be lost. Curved forceps may be used to allow more precision and less chance of the brittle specimen coming in contact with the handler. The handler picks up the specimen by the pin, which is placed with enough space below the specimen for the handler to put in the pinning block and enough space above to grip without touching the specimen. ==== Integrated pest management ==== Integrated pest management (IPM) is a specialized modern pest control used in museums. All IPM systems begin with regular sanitation and monitoring of collections to detect castings from various pests, and checking insect traps laid out to capture and identify which pests are present. Some pests, such as carpet beetles and flour beetles, feed on dried insects. When an infestation is present, treatment may be necessary. Freezing is commonly used to rid insect collections of pests. Alternatively, inert gases may be used for an anoxic fumigation – depriving the pests of oxygen to exterminate, and in extreme cases chemical fumigation proven to be safe for collections and people may be


id: cymdeithas-edward-llwyd-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymdeithas_Edward_Llwyd-0.md
category: reference
title: Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymdeithas_Edward_Llwyd
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:50.979654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cymdeithas-edward-llwyd-20260505-0
summary:
Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd (Welsh for 'Edward Llwyd Society') is a Welsh natural history organisation whose name commemorates the great Welsh natural historian, geographer and linguist Edward Llwyd (1660–1709). The Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd organises regular country walks throughout Wales in sites of interest of the Welsh environment, including SSSIs and post-industrial landscapes. These are Welsh-language walking groups, although learners are just as welcome. They also organise a variety of nature and environmental activities, including lectures, publications and conservation work. They have worked on collecting and documenting the names of natural species. In 2010, the society held a conference on Welsh toponymy, at which it was agreed to form the Welsh Place-Name Society. == References == == External links == Official site


id: field-guide-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_guide-0.md
category: reference
title: Field guide
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_guide
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:52.197836+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-guide-20260505-0
summary:
A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (flora or fauna or funga) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. rocks and minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the "field" or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects. Field guides are often designed to help users distinguish animals and plants that may be similar in appearance but are not necessarily closely related. It will typically include a description of the objects covered, together with paintings or photographs and an index. More serious and scientific field identification books, including those intended for students, will probably include identification keys to assist with identification, but the publicly accessible field guide is more often a browsable picture guide organized by family, colour, shape, location or other descriptors. == History == Popular interests in identifying things in nature probably were strongest in bird and plant guides. Perhaps the first popular field guide to plants in the United States was the 1893 How to Know the Wildflowers by "Mrs. William Starr Dana" (Frances Theodora Parsons). In 1890, Florence Merriam published Birds Through an Opera-Glass, describing 70 common species. Focused on living birds observed


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-0.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:53.459168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
A number of animals are capable of aerial locomotion, either by active flight, by passive gliding or, in rare occasions, by kiting/ballooning. Such animals typically have appendages that interact with air to generate lift in order to overcome the weight of their own body and any payload they are carrying (e.g. food/prey, nesting materials). Majority of flying and glide animals are terrestrial, while species from one extant taxon, i.e. the flying fish, are aquatic. The ability to fly or glide has appeared via convergent evolution many times throughout the history of life, and has evolved prominently in at least four terrestrial clades: insects, pterosaurs, birds and bats. Gliding and kiting, which are essentially controlled, prolonged free falls, have evolved on many more occasions, especially among arboreal species. Usually the aerial trait is to aid animals leaping directly across extended distances from one tree canopy to another without having to descend to the ground, which will otherwise expose them to risks from ground predators, although there are other reasons why aerial locomotions have developed. Gliding, in particular, has evolved among forest animals, especially in the rainforests in Asia (most especially Borneo) where the trees are tall (making it costly to descend


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-1.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:53.459168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gliding and parachuting === While gliding occurs independently from powered flight, it has some ecological advantages of its own as it is the simplest form of flight. Gliding is a very energy-efficient way of travelling from tree to tree. Although moving through the canopy running along the branches may be less energetically demanding, the faster transition between trees allows for greater foraging rates in a particular patch. Glide ratios can be dependent on size and current behavior. Higher foraging rates are supported by low glide ratios as smaller foraging patches require less gliding time over shorter distances and greater amounts of food can be acquired in a shorter time period. Low ratios are not as energy efficient as the higher ratios, but an argument made is that many gliding animals eat low energy foods such as leaves and are restricted to gliding because of this, whereas flying animals eat more high energy foods such as fruits, nectar, and insects. Mammals tend to rely on lower glide ratios to increase the amount of time foraging for lower energy food. An equilibrium glide, achieving a constant airspeed and glide angle, is harder to obtain as animal size increases. Larger animals need


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-2.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:53.459168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
Powered flight has evolved unambiguously only four times—birds, bats, pterosaurs, and insects (though see above for possible independent acquisitions within bird and bat groups). In contrast to gliding, which has evolved more frequently but typically gives rise to only a handful of species, all three extant groups of powered flyers have a huge number of species, suggesting that flight is a very successful strategy once evolved. Bats, after rodents, have the most species of any mammalian order, about 20% of all mammalian species. Birds have the most species of any class of terrestrial vertebrates. Finally, insects (most of which fly at some point in their life cycle) have more species than all other animal groups combined. The evolution of flight is one of the most striking and demanding in animal evolution, and has attracted the attention of many prominent scientists and generated many theories. Additionally, because flying animals tend to be small and have a low mass (both of which increase the surface-area-to-mass ratio), they tend to fossilize infrequently and poorly compared to the larger, heavier-boned terrestrial species they share habitat with. Fossils of flying animals tend to be confined to exceptional fossil deposits formed under highly specific circumstances, resulting


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-3.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:53.459168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
Unlike most air vehicles, in which the objects that generate lift (wings) and thrust (engine or propeller) are separate and the wings remain fixed, flying animals use their wings to generate both lift and thrust by moving them relative to the body. This has made the flight of organisms considerably harder to understand than that of vehicles, as it involves varying speeds, angles, orientations, areas, and flow patterns over the wings. A bird or bat flying through the air at a constant speed moves its wings up and down (usually with some fore-aft movement as well). Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of its wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing. This will generate lift force vector pointing forwards and upwards, and a drag force vector pointing rearwards and upwards. The upwards components of these counteract gravity, keeping the body in the air, while the forward component provides thrust to counteract both the drag from the wing and from the body as a whole. Pterosaur flight likely worked in a similar manner, though no living pterosaurs remain for study. Insect flight is considerably different, due


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-4.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:53.459168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
==== Most maneuverable glider ==== Many gliding animals have some ability to turn, but which is the most maneuverable is difficult to assess. Even paradise tree snakes, Chinese gliding frogs, and gliding ants have been observed as having considerable capacity to turn in the air. == Flying animals == === Extant === ==== Insects ==== Pterygota: The first of all animals to evolve flight, they are also the only invertebrates that have evolved flight. As they comprise almost all insects, the species are too numerous to list here. Insect flight is an active research field. ==== Birds ==== Birds (flying, soaring) – Most of the approximately 10,000 living species can fly (flightless birds are the exception). Bird flight is one of the most studied forms of aerial locomotion in animals. See List of soaring birds for birds that can soar as well as fly. ==== Mammals ==== Bats. There are approximately 1,240 bat species, representing about 20% of all classified mammal species. Most bats are nocturnal and many feed on insects while flying at night, using echolocation to home in on their prey. === Extinct === ==== Reptile: Pterosaurs ==== Pterosaurs were the first flying vertebrates, and are generally agreed


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-5.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:53.459168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
==== Fish ==== Flying fish. There are over 50 species of flying fish belonging to the family Exocoetidae. They are mostly marine fishes of small to medium size. The largest flying fish can reach lengths of 45 centimetres (18 in) but most species measure less than 30 cm (12 in) in length. They can be divided into two-winged varieties and four-winged varieties. Before the fish leaves the water it increases its speed to around 30 body lengths per second and as it breaks the surface and is freed from the drag of the water it can be traveling at around 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph). The glides are usually up to 30–50 metres (100–160 ft) in length, but some have been observed soaring for hundreds of metres using the updraft on the leading edges of waves. The fish can also make a series of glides, each time dipping the tail into the water to produce forward thrust. The longest recorded series of glides, with the fish only periodically dipping its tail in the water, was for 45 seconds (Video here). It has been suggested that the genus Exocoetus is on an evolutionary borderline between flight and gliding. It flaps


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-6.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:53.459168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
Flying squirrels (tribe pteromyini). There are more than 50 living species divided between 16 genera of flying squirrel. Flying squirrels are found in Asia (most species), North America (genus Glaucomys) and Europe (Siberian flying squirrel). They inhabit tropical, temperate, and Subarctic environments, with the Glaucomys preferring boreal and montane coniferous forests, specifically landing on red spruce (Picea rubens) trees as landing sites; they are known to rapidly climb trees, but take some time to locate a good landing spot. They tend to be nocturnal and are highly sensitive to light and noise. When a flying squirrel wishes to cross to a tree that is further away than the distance possible by jumping, it extends the cartilage spur on its elbow or wrist. This opens out the flap of furry skin (the patagium) that stretches from its wrist to its ankle. It glides spread-eagle and with its tail fluffed out like a parachute, and grips the tree with its claws when it lands. Flying squirrels have been reported to glide over 200 metres (660 ft). Anomalures or scaly-tailed flying squirrels (family Anomaluridae). These brightly coloured African rodents are not squirrels but have evolved to a resemble flying squirrels by convergent evolution.


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-7.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:53.459168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Davenport, J. (1994). "How and why do flying fish fly?". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 40 (2): 184–214. Bibcode:1994RFBF....4..184D. doi:10.1007/BF00044128. S2CID 34720887. Saidel, W.M.; Strain, G.F.; Fornari, S.K. (2004). "Characterization of the aerial escape response of the African butterfly fish, Pantodon buchholzi Peters". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 71 (1): 63–72. Bibcode:2004EnvBF..71...63S. doi:10.1023/b:ebfi.0000043153.38418.cd. S2CID 11856131. Xu, Xing; Zhou, Zhonghe; Wang, Xiaolin; Kuang, Xuewen; Zhang, Fucheng; Du, Xiangke (2003). "Four-winged dinosaurs from China" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6921): 335–340. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..335X. doi:10.1038/nature01342. PMID 12540892. S2CID 1160118. Schiøtz, A.; Vosloe, H. (1959). "The gliding flight of Holaspis guentheri Gray, a west-African lacertid". Copeia. 1959 (3): 259–260. doi:10.2307/1440407. JSTOR 1440407. Arnold, E. N. (2002). "Holaspis, a lizard that glided by accident: mosaics of cooption and adaptation in a tropical forest lacertid (Reptilia, Lacertidae. )". Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Zoology Series. 68 (2): 155–163. doi:10.1017/s0968047002000171. S2CID 49552361. McGuire, J. A. (2003). "Allometric Prediction of Locomotor Performance: An Example from Southeast Asian Flying Lizards". The American Naturalist. 161 (2): 337–349. Bibcode:2003ANat..161..337M. doi:10.1086/346085. PMID 12675377. S2CID 29494470. Demes, B.; Forchap, E.; Herwig, H. (1991). "They seem to glide. Are there aerodynamic effects in leaping prosimian primates?". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 78


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-0.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:54.644606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
The geologic time scale or geological time scale describes how geologic time is divided into standardised intervals. It uses the rock record together with the principles of chronostratigraphy to place rock sequences into their relative age positions, and geochronology techniques, such as radiometric dating, to precisely date the boundaries between them. It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils. The definition of standardised international units of geological time is the responsibility of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC) that are used to define divisions of geological time. The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to define geochronologic units. == Principles == The geologic time scale is a way of representing deep time based on events that have occurred throughout Earth's history, a time span of about 4.54 ±


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-1.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:54.644606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) === Historically, regional geologic time scales were used due to the litho- and biostratigraphic differences around the world in time equivalent rocks. The ICS has long worked to reconcile conflicting terminology by standardising globally significant and identifiable stratigraphic horizons that can be used to define the lower boundaries of chronostratigraphic units. A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) defines the lower boundary of a stage as being at a precise point in a specific rock succession in a particular geographic location. These reference points are known informally as "golden" spikes. All the beds above the spike belong to one time interval and all those below it to another. This allows beds of a similar age around the world to be correlated with the strata that contain the golden spike. For example, the iridium anomaly produced by the Chicxulub asteroid impact marks the lower boundary of the Paleogene System and thus the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene. Whilst the GSSP is defined at Oued Djerfane in Tunisia, strata containing the iridium anomaly are found worldwide. The Proterozoic (apart from the Ediacaran), Archean and Hadean are subdivided by absolute ages (Global Standard


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-2.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:54.644606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early history === The most modern geological time scale was not formulated until 1911 by Arthur Holmes (1890 – 1965), who drew inspiration from James Hutton (1726–1797), a Scottish Geologist who presented the idea of uniformitarianism or the theory that changes to the Earth's crust resulted from continuous and uniform processes. The broader concept of the relation between rocks and time can be traced back to (at least) the philosophers of Ancient Greece from 1200 BC to 600 AD. Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–487 BCE) observed rock beds with fossils of seashells located above the sea-level, viewed them as once living organisms, and used this to imply an unstable relationship in which the sea had at times transgressed over the land and at other times had regressed. This view was shared by a few of Xenophanes's scholars and those that followed, including Aristotle (384–322 BC) who (with additional observations) reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. The concept of deep time was also recognized by Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Islamic scientist-philosophers, notably the Brothers of Purity, who wrote on the processes of stratification over the passage of time in


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-3.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:54.644606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
Respectively, these are the principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships. From this Steno reasoned that strata were laid down in succession and inferred relative time (in Steno's belief, time from Creation). While Steno's principles were simple and attracted much attention, applying them proved challenging. These basic principles, albeit with improved and more nuanced interpretations, still form the foundational principles of determining the correlation of strata relative to geologic time. Over the course of the 18th-century geologists realised that: Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history === Formulation of a modern geologic time scale === The apparent, earliest formal division of the geologic record with respect to time was introduced during the era of Biblical models by Thomas Burnet who applied a two-fold terminology to mountains by identifying "montes primarii" for rock formed at the time of the 'Deluge', and younger "monticulos secundarios" formed later from the debris of the "primarii". Anton Moro (1687–1784) also used primary and secondary divisions for rock units


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-4.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:54.644606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Modern international geological time scale === The establishment of the IUGS in 1961 and acceptance of the Commission on Stratigraphy (applied in 1965) to become a member commission of IUGS led to the founding of the ICS. One of the primary objectives of the ICS is "the establishment, publication and revision of the ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart which is the standard, reference global Geological Time Scale to include the ratified Commission decisions". Following on from Holmes, several A Geological Time Scale books were published in 1982, 1989, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020. However, since 2013, the ICS has taken responsibility for producing and distributing the ICC citing the commercial nature, independent creation, and lack of oversight by the ICS on the prior published GTS versions (GTS books prior to 2013) although these versions were published in close association with the ICS. Subsequent Geologic Time Scale books (2016 and 2020) are commercial publications with no oversight from the ICS, and do not entirely conform to the chart produced by the ICS. The ICS produced GTS charts are versioned (year/month) beginning at v2013/01. At least one new version is published each year incorporating any changes ratified by the ICS since


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-5.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:54.644606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
==== Van Kranendonk et al. 2012 (GTS2012) ==== The book, Geologic Time Scale 2012, was the last commercial publication of an international chronostratigraphic chart that was closely associated with the ICS and the Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy. It included a proposal to substantially revise the pre-Cryogenian time scale to reflect important events such as the formation of the Solar System and the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span. As of April 2022 these proposed changes have not been accepted by the ICS. The proposed changes (changes from the current scale [v2023/09]) are italicised: Hadean Eon (4567–4030 Ma) Chaotian Era/Erathem (4567–4404 Ma) – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic phase of planet formation. Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era/Erathem (4404–4030 Ma) – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth, zircons. Archean Eon/Eonothem (4030–2420 Ma) Paleoarchean Era/Erathem (4030–3490 Ma) Acastan Period/System (4030–3810 Ma) – named after the Acasta Gneiss, one of the oldest preserved pieces of continental crust. Isuan Period/System (3810–3490 Ma) – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt. Mesoarchean Era/Erathem (3490–2780


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-6.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:54.644606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Van Couvering, John A.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas; Landing, Ed; Pratt, Brian R.; Owen, Donald E.; Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael (2009). "Terminology of geological time: Establishment of a community standard". Stratigraphy. 6 (2): 100–105. doi:10.7916/D8DR35JQ. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G. (June 2004). "Geologic Time Scale 2004 – why, how, and where next!". Lethaia. 37 (2): 175–181. Bibcode:2004Letha..37..175G. doi:10.1080/00241160410006483. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G., eds. (2005). A Geologic Time Scale 2004. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511536045. ISBN 978-0-521-78673-7. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G.; Bleeker, Wouter; Laurens, Lucas, J. (June 2004). "A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene". Episodes. 27 (2): 83–100. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002. CORE output ID 11773078.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Ialenti, Vincent (28 September 2014). "Embracing 'Deep Time' Thinking". NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture. Ialenti, Vincent (21 September 2014). "Pondering 'Deep Time' Could Inspire New Ways To View Climate Change". NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture. Knoll, Andrew H.; Walter, Malcolm R.; Narbonne, Guy M.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas (30 July 2004). "A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale". Science. 305 (5684): 621–622. doi:10.1126/science.1098803. PMID 15286353. Levin, Harold L. (2010). "Time and Geology". The Earth Through Time.


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:56.922582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
Humboldtian science refers to a movement in science in the 19th century closely connected to the work and writings of German scientist, naturalist, and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. It maintained a certain ethics of precision and observation, which combined scientific field work with the sensitivity and aesthetic ideals of the age of Romanticism. Like Romanticism in science, it was rather popular in the 19th century. The term was coined by Susan Faye Cannon in 1978. The example of Humboldt's life and his writings allowed him to reach out beyond the academic community with his natural history and address a wider audience with popular science aspects. It has supplanted the older Baconian method, related as well to a single person, Francis Bacon. == Brief biography == Humboldt was born in Berlin in 1769 and worked as a Prussian mining official in the 1790s until 1797 when he quit and began collecting scientific knowledge and equipment. His extensive wealth aided his infatuation with the spirit of Romanticism; he amassed an extensive collection of scientific instruments and tools as well as a sizeable library. In 1799 Humboldt, under the protection of King Charles IV of Spain, left for South America and New Spain,


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:56.922582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
insistence on accuracy for all scientific instruments and observations; a mental sophistication in which theoretical mechanisms and entities of past science were taken lightly; a new set of conceptual tools, including isomaps, graphs, and a theory of errors; the application of accuracy, mental sophistication, and tools not to isolated science in laboratories, but to greatly variable real phenomena. == Humboldt's "terrestrial physicist" == Humboldt was committed to what he called 'terrestrial physics.' Essentially Humboldt's new scientific approach required a new type of scientist: Humboldtian science demanded a transition from the naturalist to the physicist. Humboldt described how his idea of terrestrial physics differs from traditional "descriptive" natural history when he stated, "[traveling naturalists] have neglected to track the great and constant laws of nature manifested in the rapid flux of phenomena…and to trace the reciprocal interaction of the divided physical forces." Humboldt did not consider himself an explorer, but rather a scientific traveler, who accurately measured what explorers had reported inaccurately. According to Humboldt, the goal of the terrestrial physicist was to investigate the confluence and interweaving of all physical forces. An incredibly extensive array of precise instrumentation had to be readily available for Humboldt's terrestrial physicist. The expansive amount


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:56.922582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Transformation of Humboldtian science == Ralph Waldo Emerson once dubbed Humboldt to be "one of those wonders of the world… who appear from time to time, as if to show us the possibilities of the human mind." When Humboldt first began his studies of organisms and the environment he claimed that he wanted to "reorganize the general connections that link organic beings and to study the great harmonies of Nature". He is often considered one of the world's first genuine ecologists. Humboldt succeeded in developing a comprehensive science that joined the separate branches of natural philosophy under a model of natural order founded on the concept of dynamic equilibrium. Humboldt's work reached far beyond his personal expeditions and discoveries. Figures from all across the globe participated on his work. Some such participants included French naval officers, East India Company physicians, Russian provincial administrators, Spanish military commanders, and German diplomats. As was mentioned previously, Charles Darwin carried a copy of Humboldt's Personal Narrative aboard H.M.S. Beagle. Humboldt's projects, particularly those related to natural philosophy, played a significant role in the influx of European money and travelers to Spanish America in increasing numbers in the early 19th century. Sir Edward Sabine,


id: insect-collecting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting-0.md
category: reference
title: Insect collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:58.244249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Insect collecting refers to the collection of insects and other arthropods for scientific study or as a hobby. Most insects are small and the majority cannot be identified without the examination of minute morphological characters, so entomologists often make and maintain insect collections. Very large collections are preserved in natural history museums or universities where they are maintained and studied by specialists. Many college courses require students to form small collections. There are also amateur entomologists and collectors who keep collections. Historically, insect collecting has been widespread and was in the Victorian age a very popular educational hobby. Insect collecting has left traces in European cultural history, literature and songs, e.g., Georges Brassens's La chasse aux papillons (The Hunt for Butterflies). The practice is particularly common among Japanese youths. == Capture and kill techniques == Insects may be passively caught using traps such as funnels, pitfall traps, bottle traps, malaise traps, or flight interception traps, some of which are baited with small bits of sweet foods (such as honey). Entomologists collecting nocturnal insects (especially moths) during faunistic survey studies might utilize ultraviolet light traps such as the Robinson trap. Aspirators, sometimes called "pooters", suck up insects too small or delicate


id: insect-collecting-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting-1.md
category: reference
title: Insect collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:58.244249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Direct pinning. Direct pinning is the insertion of an entomological pin directly through the thorax of a specimen. The insects are pinned vertically through the thorax with a suitably sized pin, but by convention they are not pinned on the midline, but to the right, so as to leave at least one side undamaged. Point. A point is a triangular piece of white card. Specially designed point punches permit the production of large numbers of points of standard sizes as required. To use a point, a pin is inserted through the broad base of the triangle. To mount the specimen, a tiny amount of glue is placed on the tip and applied to the right side of the insect's thorax. If appropriate the tip of the point may be bent at the necessary angle to hold the body of the specimen horizontal when the pin is vertical, with the long axis of the insect at right angles to the point. Minuten pins. Insect pins without heads, 12mm long. They are used for double mounting (staging) very small insects. They also may be used profitably for staging insects of moderate size, where they have the advantage of being less damaging to


id: list-of-natural-history-articles-by-gerard-krefft-in-the-sydney-mail-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of Natural History articles by Gerard Krefft in The Sydney Mail
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Natural_History_articles_by_Gerard_Krefft_in_The_Sydney_Mail
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:29:59.450148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-articles-by-gerard-krefft-in-the-sydney-mail-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Natural_History_articles_by_Gerard_Krefft_in_The_Sydney_Mail-0.md

summary:
Johann Ludwig (Louis) Gerard Krefft (1830 – 1881), one of Australia's first and most influential zoologists and palaeontologists, was an artist, draughtsman, scientist, and natural historian who served as the curator of the Australian Museum, in Sydney, New South Wales, for 13 years (1861–1874). The following is a list of Krefft's articles that were regularly published in the "Natural History" Section of The Sydney Mail between 4 March 1871 and 26 June 1875. Although a small number of relevant items written by others appeared in The Sydney Mail's "Natural History" section from time to time — e.g., John William Brazier (2 March 1872), George Bennett (9 August 1873), Georgen Mivart (7 March 1874), "Anonymous" (16 May 1874), etc. — the section's very first article was Krefft's 4 March 1871 contribution, and its very last was Krefft's 26 June 1875 contribution: == See also == Krefft's "Natural History" articles in The Sydney Mail


id: kunstformen-der-natur-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur-0.md
category: reference
title: Kunstformen der Natur
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:00.723589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kunstformen-der-natur-20260505-0
summary:
Kunstformen der Natur (known in English as Art Forms in Nature) is a book of lithographic and halftone prints by German biologist Ernst Haeckel. == Publication == Originally published in sets of ten between 1899 and 1904 and collectively in two volumes in 1904, it consists of 100 prints of various organisms, many of which were first described by Haeckel himself. Over the course of his career, over 1000 prints were produced based on Haeckel's sketches and watercolors; many of the best of these were chosen for Kunstformen der Natur, translated from sketch to print by lithographer Adolf Giltsch. A second edition of Kunstformen, containing only 30 prints, was produced in 1914. == Themes == According to Haeckel scholar Olaf Breidbach, the work was "not just a book of illustrations but also the summation of his view of the world." The over-riding themes of the Kunstformen plates are symmetry and level of organization. The subjects were selected to embody these to the full, from the scale patterns of boxfishes to the spirals of ammonites to the perfect symmetries of jellies and microorganisms, while images composing each plate are arranged for maximum visual impact. Among the notable prints are numerous radiolarians,


id: list-of-parson-naturalists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of parson-naturalists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:01.898935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-parson-naturalists-20260505-0
summary:
Parson-naturalists were ministers of religion who also studied natural history. The archetypical parson-naturalist was a priest in the Church of England in charge of a country parish, who saw the study of science as an extension of his religious work. The philosophy entailed the belief that God, as the Creator of all things, wanted man to understand his Creations and thus to study them through scientific techniques. They often collected and preserved natural artefacts such as leaves, flowers, birds' eggs, birds, insects, and small mammals to classify and study. Some wrote books or kept nature diaries. == Parson-naturalists == == See also == List of Christian thinkers in science Science in the Age of Enlightenment == References == == Bibliography == Armstrong, Patrick (2000). The English Parson-naturalist: A Companionship Between Science and Religion. Gracewing Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85244-516-7.


id: marine-counterparts-of-land-creatures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_counterparts_of_land_creatures-0.md
category: reference
title: Marine counterparts of land creatures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_counterparts_of_land_creatures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:03.121716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-counterparts-of-land-creatures-20260505-0
summary:
The idea that there are specific marine counterparts to land creatures, inherited from the writers on natural history in Antiquity, was firmly believed in Islam and in Medieval Europe. It is exemplified by the creatures represented in the medieval animal encyclopedias called bestiaries, and in the parallels drawn in the moralising attributes attached to each. "The creation was a mathematical diagram drawn in parallel lines," T. H. White said a propos the bestiary he translated. "Things did not only have a moral they often had physical counterparts in other strata. There was a horse in the land and a sea-horse in the sea. For that matter there was probably a Pegasus in heaven". The idea of perfect analogies in the fauna of land and sea was considered part of the perfect symmetry of the Creator's plan, offered as the "book of nature" to mankind, for which a text could be found in Job: But ask the animals, and they will teach you, or the birds of the air, and they will tell you; or speak to the earth, and it will teach you, or let the fish of the sea inform you. Which of all these does not know that


id: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural history of Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:04.304247+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The natural history of Australia has been shaped by the geological evolution of the Australian continent from Gondwana and the changes in global climate over geological time. The building of the Australian continent and its association with other land masses, as well as climate changes over geological time, have created the unique flora and fauna present in Australia today. There are many species of flora and fauna that are unique to Australia, and do not exist in any other part of the world. The natural history of Australia begins with rock formation, followed by geological development, life evolution, and continues to change today. == Precambrian == Three areas of the Australian landmass that are made of Archaean rocks are more than 2.5 billion years old, among the oldest known rocks. These igneous and metamorphic rocks are found in the Yilgarn (West) and Pilbara (North) cratons in today's Western Australia and the Gawler (South) craton which makes up the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. During the Proterozoic, 2,500 to 545 Ma, continent building took place around the existing cratons; the accretions include sedimentary deposition of the banded iron formations and the formation of Australia's major orebodies – sources of gold, copper,


id: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural history of Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:04.304247+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
summary:
During the Carboniferous glaciation, erosion by ice extended into the Early Permian. Crustal extension and subsidence around 295 Ma formed shallow basins in which thick coal deposits were formed. During the Mesozoic, when the Earth became much warmer, 251 to 140 Ma, the Australian landmass was covered with riverine plains. Humid conditions allowed the formation of peatlands, particularly in the east. Dinosaurs, reptiles and primitive mammals were present in Australia. Between 140 and 99 Ma, sea levels rose, and much of the continent was covered. In the same period (between 120 and 105 Ma), there was more volcanism in eastern Australia, leading to uplift creating the Tasman Sea to the southeast and the Coral Sea to the north. The earliest land plants preserved in Australia occur in deposits from the Upper Silurian and the Lower Devonian in marine sediments in Victoria, named the Baragwanathia Assemblage for its most prominent element, the simple vascular plant the lycopod Baragwanathia. The assemblage also included Rhyniophyta, Zosterophyllophyta, and Trimerophyta in addition to other lycopods. All these plants were herbaceous, coastal and required an aqueous environment for reproduction. During the Devonian the first shrub-sized to tree-sized lycopods appeared in Australia and Antarctica; they dominated the


id: nature-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_center-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:05.519588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-center-20260505-0
summary:
A nature center (or nature centre) is an organization with a visitor center or interpretive center designed to educate people about nature and the environment. Usually in a protected open space, nature centers often have trails through their property. Some are in a state or city park, and some have special gardens or an arboretum. Their properties can be characterized as nature preserves and wildlife sanctuaries. Nature centers generally display small live animals, such as reptiles, rodents, insects, or fish. There are often museum exhibits and displays about natural history, or preserved mounted animals or nature dioramas. Nature centers are staffed by paid or volunteer naturalists and most offer educational programs to the general public, as well as summer camp, after-school and school group programs. These educational programs teach people about nature conservation as well as the scientific method, biology, and ecology. Some nature centers allow free admission but collect voluntary donations in order to help offset expenses. They usually rely on support from volunteers. Environmental education centers differ from nature centers in that their museum exhibits and education programs are available mostly by appointment, although casual visitors may be allowed to walk on their grounds. Some city, state and


id: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet-0.md
category: reference
title: Naturhistorieselskabet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:07.963217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
summary:
Naturhistorieselskabet (lit. 'the Society for Natural History') was a private society that was the only institution to offer education in natural history in Denmark in the late 18th century. The spirit of the Age of Enlightenment and an escalating agricultural crisis, led the king and the Danish elite to call foreign experts on economy, including botany and silviculture, to the country. The autonomous University of Copenhagen, on the other hand, was reluctant to employ foreign experts in little-established disciplines. Naturhistorieselskabet was formed in 1788 in order to ensure education in botany, zoology and mineralogy based on private funds. For example, Martin Vahl lectured in botany. After the appointment in 1795 of a professor in geology and in 1797 one in botany, the society gradually lost its importance. It was soon abolished and its collections donated to the state (much later united with the university collections). == Sources == Wagner, P.H. 2001. Institutionaliseringen af botanik og geologi i Danmark-Norge i det 18. århundrede (colloquium). Institut for Videnskabshistorie.


id: peterson-identification-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Identification_System-0.md
category: reference
title: Peterson Identification System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Identification_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:09.311795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peterson-identification-system-20260505-0
summary:
The Peterson Identification System is a practical method for the field identification of animals, plants and other natural phenomena. It was devised by ornithologist Roger Tory Peterson in 1934 for the first of his series of Field Guides (See Peterson Field Guides.) Peterson devised his system "so that live birds could be identified readily at a distance by their 'field marks' without resorting to the bird-in-hand characters that the early collectors relied on. During the last half century the binocular and the spotting scope have replaced the shotgun." As such, it both reflected and contributed to awareness of the emerging early environmental movement. Another application of this system was made when Roger Tory Peterson was enlisted in the US Army Corps of Engineers from 1943 to 1945. “...plane identification—the aircraft spotting technique—was based on Roger’s bird identification method-the Peterson system.”. == The system == Created for use by amateur naturalists and laymen, rather than specialists, the "Peterson System" is essentially a pictorial key based upon readily noticed visual impressions rather than on the technical features of interest to scientists. The technique involves patternistic drawings with arrows that pinpoint the key field comparisons between similar species. == Influence == Since the


id: plant-collecting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-0.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:10.627431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Plant collecting is the acquisition of plant specimens for the purposes of research, cultivation, or as a hobby. Plant specimens may be kept alive, but are more commonly dried and pressed to preserve the quality of the specimen. Plant collecting is an ancient practice with records of a Chinese botanist collecting roses over 5000 years ago. Herbaria are collections of preserved plants samples and their associated data for scientific purposes. The largest herbarium in the world exist at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, in Paris, France. Plant samples in herbaria typically include a reference sheet with information about the plant and details of collection. This detailed and organized system of filing provides horticulturist and other researchers alike with a way to find information about a certain plant, and a way to add new information to an existing plant sample file. The collection of live plant specimens from the wild, sometimes referred to as plant hunting, is an activity that has occurred for centuries. The earliest recorded evidence of plant hunting was in 1495 BC when botanists were sent to Somalia to collect incense trees for Queen Hatshepsut. The Victorian era saw a surge in plant hunting activity as botanical adventurers


id: plant-collecting-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-1.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:10.627431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
=== Preservation without pressing === Some specimens cannot be compressed, degrade when dried, or require other techniques for preservation and storage. Large seeds or fruits may be stored in boxes without compression. Aquatic plants and delicate plants may be stored in a liquid preservative. Cacti may be stored in ethanol. In cases where drying or pressing a plant may destroy or alter a plant feature being studied, 50-75% ethanol can be used to preserve the specimen for up to 4 weeks. This is commonly used when sectioning tissue samples. If a collector wishes to preserve a flower in its natural shape they will use a desiccant. The most commonly used desiccant is silica gel. To do this flowers are placed in a box, and the desiccant is added till the flowers are covered. After 2–7 days the desiccant is removed, revealing the preserved flowers. == Collection of herbarium specimens == Herbarium specimens of plants are collected for a number of different uses. They can assist in accurate identification and provide a species record for a time and place that can be used in distribution maps. They can also provide biological material for researchers, a reference point to document scientific names


id: plant-collecting-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-2.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:10.627431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Another Victorian craze known as Orchidelirium similarly led to a drastic decline of several species of orchids. The lady's slipper orchid Cypripedium calceolus was declared extinct in the UK in 1917 and later rediscovered in 1930 as a single wild plant in the Yorkshire Dales, the only remaining site in the UK for these plants. Once found, the plant was guarded 24 hours a day. ==== Summer lady's-tresses orchid ==== In 1956, the UK's last remaining plants of the Spiranthes aestivalis, summer lady's-tresses orchid, were stolen. The orchid is still classified as extinct in the UK. === Modern examples === Many botanical gardens have been the target of plant theft, given the nature of their collections, which often house rare and valuable plants. ==== Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (2014) ==== In 2014, Kew Royal Botanic Gardens saw the theft of one of twenty-four of their Nymphaea thermarum, the world's smallest water lily ever discovered. There are about 100 of these species left, which survive solely in botanical gardens, last seen in the wild in 2008. ==== Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden (2014) ==== In 2014 in two separate incidents, a total of twenty four cycads were taken from the Kirstenbosch National


id: regius-professor-of-natural-history-aberdeen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Natural_History_(Aberdeen)-0.md
category: reference
title: Regius Professor of Natural History (Aberdeen)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Natural_History_(Aberdeen)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:11.920124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regius-professor-of-natural-history-aberdeen-20260505-0
summary:
The Regius Professor of Natural History is a Regius Professorship at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland. It was originally called the Regius Professor of Civil and Natural History at Marischal College until in 1860 Marischal College and King's Colleges merged to form the University of Aberdeen, and the title changed to Natural History. == References ==


id: synopses-of-the-british-fauna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synopses_of_the_British_Fauna-0.md
category: reference
title: Synopses of the British Fauna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synopses_of_the_British_Fauna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:13.278758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synopses-of-the-british-fauna-20260505-0
summary:
Synopses of the British Fauna is a series of identification guides, published by The Linnean Society and The Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association. Each volume in the series provides and in-depth analysis of a group of animals and is designed to bridge the gap between the standard field guide and more specialised monograph or treatise. The series is now published by The Field Studies Council on behalf of The Linnean Society and The Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association. The series is designed for use in the field and is kept as user friendly as possible with technical terminology kept to a minimum and a glossary of terms provided, although the complexity of the subject matter makes the books more suitable for the more experienced practitioner. == History of the series == On 11 March 1943, at a meeting of The Linnean Society in Burlington House, TH Savoy presented his "Synopsis of the Opiliones" (Harvestmen). It was so well received that a decision was made there and then to publish it as the first of a series of "ecological fauna lists". Re-launched by Dr Doris Kermack in the mid-1960s, the New Series of Synopses of the British Fauna went from strength


id: list-of-scientific-occupations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_occupations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific occupations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_occupations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:14.870222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-occupations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of science and science-related occupations, which include various scientific occupations and careers based upon scientific research disciplines and explorers. == Life science == Biologist Biomedical scientist Botanist Clinical pharmaceutical scientist Ecologist Geneticist Herpetologist Medical laboratory scientist Microbiologist Neuroscientist Physician Veterinarian Zoologist Bioinformatician == Applied science == Aeronautical engineer Biomedical engineer Chemical engineer Civil engineer Computer engineer Educational technologist Electrical engineer Engineering technician Engineering technologist Mechanical engineer Petrochemical engineer == Formal science == Computational scientist Mathematician – A person with an extensive knowledge of mathematics, a field informally defined as being concerned with numbers, data, collection, quantity, structure, space and calculus. == Statistics == Actuary Demographic marketer Statistician == General scientific occupations == Forensic scientist Gentleman scientist – A financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study as a hobby Government scientist Healthcare science Hiwi – A German abbreviation for "assistant scientist" Inventor Psychologist Research fellow School science technician Science attaché – A member of a diplomatic mission (usually an embassy) that focuses on scientific and technical matters Scientist == Natural science == Archaeologist Astronaut Astronomer Biochemist Biologist Chemist Ecologist Forester Geographer Naturalist Oceanographer Paleontologist Pathologist == Physical science == Chemist Physicist == Earth science == Geographer Geologist


id: scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:16.107210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A scientist is an expert who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in science. In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural philosophy. Though Thales (c. 624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods, it was not until the 19th century that the term scientist came into regular use: it was coined by the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science Wang Zhenyi and William Whewell to describe Mary Somerville. == History == The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential. Some historians point to the


id: scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:16.107210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were commonly referred to as "natural philosophers" or "men of science". English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833. It first appeared in print in his anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, published in the Quarterly Review. In the review, Whewell discussed what he described as an increasing tendency toward specialization within the sciences. As highly specific terms such as chemist, mathematician, and naturalist became common, the broader term philosopher no longer adequately described those engaged in scientific study. Whewell contrasted this trend with Somerville's aim of demonstrating how distinct branches of science had historically been unified through general principles. Whewell reported that members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science had expressed concern over the absence of a suitable collective term for "students of the knowledge of the material world." Referring indirectly to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman" had proposed the word scientist by analogy with artist, arguing that similar formations such as economist and atheist were already in use. The suggestion, however, was not immediately well received. Whewell


id: scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:16.107210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
==== Research interests ==== Scientists include experimentalists who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and theoreticians who mainly develop models to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between the two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks. Those considering science as a career often look to the frontiers. These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of matter at the scale of elementary particles as described by high-energy physics, and materials science, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study brain function and neurotransmitters, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier". There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the mind and human thought, much of which still remains unknown. === By specialization === ==== Natural science ==== ===== Physical science ===== ===== Life science ===== ==== Social science ==== ==== Formal science ==== ==== Applied ==== ==== Interdisciplinary ==== === By employer === Academic Independent scientist Industrial/applied scientist Citizen scientist Government scientist == Demography == === By country === The number of scientists


id: astronaut-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek ἄστρον (astron), meaning 'star', and ναύτης (nautes), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and space tourists. In the United States, it is a designated term used by three agencies: NASA, the FAA, and the military. The term is also used for people who are trained to fly in a spacecraft after passing certain training courses, regardless of their experience of space travel. "Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality. However, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greek κόσμος). Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin "tàikōng" (太空), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called


id: astronaut-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-1.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
A professional space traveler is called an astronaut. The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book Across the Zodiac, "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de l'infini (1925) by J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word astronautique (astronautics) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to balloonists. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is Eric Frank Russell's poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps. The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for


id: astronaut-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-2.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
one who flies in a vehicle above 50 miles (80 km) for NASA or the military is considered an astronaut (with no qualifier) one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a spaceflight participant one who flies above 50 miles (80 km) in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember and demonstrates activities during flight that are essential to public safety, or contribute to human space flight safety, is considered a commercial astronaut by the Federal Aviation Administration one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a private astronaut by NASA (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status) On July 20, 2021, the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson. The new criteria states that one must have "[d]emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public


id: astronaut-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-3.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
=== Civilian and non-government milestones === The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the 100 kilometers (54 nautical miles) line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight. Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1. The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983. In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut". Akiyama


id: astronaut-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-4.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare. A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to


id: astronaut-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-5.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
As of 2020, eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have died during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli. As of 2020, eleven people (all men) have died training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments. Astronaut David Scott left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled Fallen Astronaut on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 Apollo 15 mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service. The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of an X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military


id: astronaut-training-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
Astronaut training describes the complex process of preparing astronauts in regions around the world for their space missions before, during and after the flight, which includes medical tests, physical training, extra-vehicular activity (EVA) training, wilderness survival training, water survival training, robotics training, procedure training, rehabilitation process, as well as training on experiments they will perform during their stay in space. Virtual and physical training facilities have been integrated to familiarize astronauts with the conditions they will encounter during all phases of flight and prepare astronauts for a microgravity environment. Special considerations must be made during training to ensure a safe and successful mission, which is why the Apollo astronauts received training for geology field work on the Lunar surface and why research is being conducted on best practices for future extended missions, such as trips to Mars. == Purpose of training == === Training flow === The selection and training of astronauts are integrated processes to ensure the crew members are qualified for space missions. The training is categorized into five objectives to train the astronauts on the general and specific aspects: basic training, advanced training, mission-specific training, onboard training, and proficiency maintenance training. The trainees must learn medicine, language,


id: astronaut-training-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-1.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science experiments === Scientific experimentation are the primary focus of the International Space Station, and is a mandatory part of training. Once on-orbit, communication between astronauts and scientists on the ground can be limited, so astronauts must be familiar with their assigned experiments. For missions to the ISS, each astronaut is required to become proficient at one hundred or more experiments. During training, the scientists responsible for the experiments do not have direct contact with the astronauts who will be carrying them out. Instead, scientists instruct trainers who in turn prepare the astronauts for carrying out the experiment. Much of this training is done at the European Astronaut Center. For human experiments, scientists describe their experiments to astronauts who then choose whether to participate on board the ISS. For these experiments, the astronauts will be tested before, during, and after the mission to establish a baseline and determine when the astronaut returned to the baseline. == Training by region == === United States === At NASA, following the selection phase, the so-called "AsCans" (Astronaut candidates) have to undergo up to two years of training to become fully qualified astronauts. Initially, all AsCans must go through basic training to learn


id: astronaut-training-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-2.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
For all ESA selected astronauts, Basic Training begins at the EAC headquarters. This section of the training cycle has four separate training blocks that last 16 months. Astronauts will receive an orientation on the major spacefaring nations, their space agencies, and all major crewed and uncrewed space programs. Training in this phase also looks into applicable laws and policies of the space sector. Technical (including engineering, astrodynamics, propulsion, orbital mechanics, etc.) and scientific (including human physiology, biology, earth observation, and astronomy) basics are introduced, to ensure that all new astronauts have the required base level of knowledge. Training is done on ISS operations and facilities, including an introduction to all major operating systems on board the ISS that are required for its functionality as a crewed space research laboratory. This phase also covers in-depth systems operations for all spacecraft that service the ISS (e.g. Soyuz, Progress, Automatic Transfer Vehicle (ATV), and the H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV)), as well as ground control and launch facility training. This training phase also focuses on skills such as robotic operations, rendezvous and docking, Russian language courses, human behavior and performance, and finally a PADI open water scuba diving course. This scuba course provides basic


id: astronaut-training-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-3.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
=== China === Although official details of the selection process for the Shenzhou program are not available, what is known is that candidates are chosen by the Chinese National Space Administration from the Chinese air force and must be between 25 and 30 years of age, with a minimum of 800 hours flying time, and a degree-level education. Candidates must be between 160 cm and 172 cm in height, and between 50 kg and 70 kg in weight. For China's Shenzhou astronauts, training begins with a year-long program of education in the basics of spaceflight. During this period, candidates are also introduced to human physiology and psychology. The second phase of training, lasting nearly 3 years involves extensive training in piloting the Shenzhou vehicle in nominal and emergency modes. The third and final stage of training is mission specific training, and lasts approximately 10 months. During this phase of training, astronauts are trained in the high fidelity Shenzhou trainer, as well as the Neutral Buoyancy Facility located at the Astronaut Center of China (ACC), in Beijing. As well as time spent in the Neutral Buoyancy Facility (NBF), training for EVA takes place in a high vacuum, low temperature chamber that


id: astronaut-training-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-4.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
Virtual reality technologies first came to a commercial release in the 1990s. It is not until then did people realize that VR can be used in training astronauts. The earlier VR gears for astronaut training are dedicated to enhance the communication between robot arm operators and the astronaut during Extravehicular Activities (EVA). It brings EVA crew members and robot arm operators together, in live, even when they are on board a spacecraft. It is also used to replace some of the oversized models that cannot fit in the Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NBL). In 1993, astronauts were trained and evaluated on working on the Hubble Space Telescope through a virtual reality training tool, Research in Human Factors Aspects of Enhanced Virtual Environments for EVA Training and Simulation (RAVEN). However, the aim of RAVEN was not to train astronauts but to evaluate the efficacy of training using virtual reality versus underwater and other setup. Virtual reality can be used for mission planning, cooperative and interactive designing, and engineering problem-solving, among other use cases. === Current virtual reality training === While the extravehicular activities (EVAs) training facility can simulate the space conditions, including pressure and lighting, the Micro-g environment cannot be fully reconstructed


id: astronaut-training-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-5.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
=== Advantages of virtual reality training === Visual reorientation is a phenomenon that happens when the perception of an object changes because of the changing visual field and cues. This illusion will alter the astronaut's perception of the orienting force of gravity and then lose spatial direction. The astronauts must develop good spatial awareness and orientation to overcome visual reorientation. In the traditional disorientation training, for instance, the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center trains the astronaut by simulating a microgravity environment through a centrifuge. In contrast, VR training requires less gear, training the astronauts more economically. Virtual reality training utilizes the mix-realistic interaction devices, such as cockpits in flight simulators can reduce the simulation sickness and increase user movement. Compared to traditional training, VR training performs better to minimize the effects of space motion sickness and spatial disorientation. Astronauts who received VR training can perform the task 12% faster, with a 53% decrease in nausea symptoms. While VR is used in astronaut training on the ground, immersive technology also contributes to on-orbit training. VR head-mounted display can help the astronaut maintain physical well-being as part of proficiency maintenance training. Moreover, VR systems are used to ensure the mental health of


id: astronomer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronomer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:20.108435+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomer-20260505-0
summary:
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. Astronomers study astronomical objects, such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, by some combination of observation and the application of astrophysical models. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the universe as a whole. == Character of work == Astronomers cannot typically perform experiments: the objects of interest in the field are far away. Consequently they rely primarily on observations, collecting electromagnetic radiation, gravitational waves, or particles such as cosmic rays. Some experiments on planets in the solar system are now possible via remote controlled spacecraft. Some of the measurements astronomers perform include astrometry (positions of celestial bodies), photometry (light flux), spectroscopy (intensity vs wavelength), and imaging. == Subfields == Astronomy includes astrometry, planetary astronomy, astrophysics, astrochemistry astrobiology, stellar astronomy, galactic astronomy, extragalactic astronomy, and physical cosmology. Astronomers can also specialize in certain specialties of observational astronomy, such as infrared astronomy, neutrino astronomy, x-ray astronomy, and gravitational-wave astronomy. == Academic


id: bacteriologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Bacteriologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:22.330619+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bacteriologist-20260505-0
summary:
A bacteriologist is a microbiologist, or similarly trained professional, in bacteriology— a subdivision of microbiology that studies bacteria, typically pathogenic ones. Bacteriologists are interested in studying and learning about bacteria, as well as using their skills in clinical settings. This includes investigating properties of bacteria such as morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry, phylogenetics, genomics and many other areas related to bacteria like disease diagnostic testing. Alongside human and animal healthcare providers, they may carry out various functions as medical scientists, veterinary scientists, pathologists, or diagnostic technicians in locations like clinics, blood banks, hospitals, laboratories and animal hospitals. Bacteriologists working in public health or biomedical research help develop vaccines for public use as well as public health guidelines for restaurants and businesses. == Education == Because bacteriology is a sub-field of microbiology, most careers in bacteriology require an undergraduate degree in microbiology or a closely related field. Graduate degrees in microbiology or disciplines like it are common for bacteriologists because graduate degree programs provide more in-depth and specific education on topics related to bacteriology. They also often include research and lab experience. Graduate studies also provide opportunities for practical experience in applying bacteriological concepts to a work environment. If someone wants


id: biochemist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemist-0.md
category: reference
title: Biochemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:23.586309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemist-20260505-0
summary:
Biochemists are scientists who are trained in biochemistry. They study chemical processes and chemical transformations in living organisms. Biochemists study DNA, proteins and cell parts. The word "biochemist" is a portmanteau of "biological chemist." Biochemists also research how certain chemical reactions happen in cells and tissues and observe and record the effects of products in food additives and medicines. Biochemist researchers focus on planning and constructing research experiments, mainly for developing new products, updating existing products and analyzing said products. It is also the responsibility of a biochemist to present their research findings and create grant proposals to obtain funds for future research. Biochemists study aspects of the immune system, the expressions of genes, isolating, analyzing, and synthesizing different products, mutations that lead to cancers, and manage laboratory teams and monitor laboratory work. Biochemists also have to have the capabilities of designing and building laboratory equipment and devise new methods of producing correct results for products. The most common industry role is the development of biochemical products and processes. Identifying substances' chemical and physical properties in biological systems is of great importance, and can be carried out by doing various types of analysis. Biochemists must also prepare technical reports after


id: biologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Biologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:24.716492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biologist-20260505-0
summary:
A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell, a multicellular organism, or a community of interacting populations. They usually specialize in a particular branch (e.g., molecular biology, zoology, and evolutionary biology) of biology and have a specific research focus (e.g., studying malaria or cancer). Biologists who are involved in basic research have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world. They conduct their research using the scientific method, which is an empirical method for testing hypotheses. Their discoveries may have applications for some specific purpose such as in biotechnology, which has the goal of developing medically useful products for humans. In modern times, most biologists have one or more academic degrees such as a bachelor's degree, as well as an advanced degree such as a master's degree or a doctorate. Like other scientists, biologists can be found working in different sectors of the economy such as in academia, nonprofits, private industry, or government. == History == Francesco Redi, the founder of experimental biology, is recognized to be one of the greatest biologists of all time. Robert Hooke, an English natural philosopher, coined the


id: biologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist-1.md
category: reference
title: Biologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:24.716492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biologist-20260505-0
summary:
Geneticists study genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. Neuroscientists study the nervous system. Developmental biologists study the process of development and growth of organisms Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They analyze the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, and growth. Molecular biologists study the biological activity between biomolecules. Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals, in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists often specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism. Biophysicists use experimental methods traditionally employed in physics to answer biological questions . Computational biologists apply the techniques of computer science, applied mathematics and statistics to address biological problems. The main focus lies on developing mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques. By these means it addresses scientific research topics with their theoretical and experimental questions without a laboratory. Zoologists and wildlife biologists study animals and wildlife—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals


id: biomedical-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:26.013113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Biomedical sciences are a set of sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology that are of use in healthcare or public health. Such disciplines as medical microbiology, clinical virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology, and biomedical engineering are medical sciences. In explaining physiological mechanisms operating in pathological processes, however, pathophysiology can be regarded as basic science. Biomedical Sciences, as defined by the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education Benchmark Statement in 2015, includes those science disciplines whose primary focus is the biology of human health and disease and ranges from the generic study of biomedical sciences and human biology to more specialised subject areas such as pharmacology, human physiology and human nutrition. It is underpinned by relevant basic sciences including anatomy and physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics and molecular biology, pharmacology, immunology, mathematics and statistics, and bioinformatics. As such the biomedical sciences have a much wider range of academic and research activities and economic significance than that defined by hospital laboratory sciences. Biomedical Sciences are the major focus of bioscience research and funding in the 21st century. == Roles within biomedical science == A sub-set of biomedical sciences is


id: biomedical-sciences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_sciences-1.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:26.013113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1940s === During and after World War II, the field of biomedical science saw a new age of technology and treatment methods. For instance in 1941 the first hormonal treatment for prostate cancer was implemented by Urologist and cancer researcher Charles B. Huggins. Huggins discovered that if you remove the testicles from a man with prostate cancer, the cancer had nowhere to spread, and nothing to feed on thus putting the subject into remission. This advancement lead to the development of hormonal blocking drugs, which is less invasive and still used today. At the tail end of this decade, the first bone marrow transplant was done on a mouse in 1949. The surgery was conducted by Dr. Leon O. Jacobson, he discovered that he could transplant bone marrow and spleen tissues in a mouse that had both no bone marrow and a destroyed spleen. The procedure is still used in modern medicine today and is responsible for saving countless lives. === 1950s === In the 1950s, we saw innovation in technology across all fields, but most importantly there were many breakthroughs which led to modern medicine. On 6 March 1953, Dr. Jonas Salk announced the completion of the first


id: biomedical-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:27.370205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A biomedical scientist is a scientist trained in biology, particularly in the context of medical laboratory sciences or laboratory medicine. These scientists work to gain knowledge on the main principles of how the human body works and to find new ways to cure or treat disease by developing advanced diagnostic tools or new therapeutic strategies. The research of biomedical scientists is referred to as biomedical research. == Description == The specific activities of the biomedical scientist can differ in various parts of the world and vary with the level of education. Generally speaking, biomedical scientists conduct research in a laboratory setting, using living organisms as models to conduct experiments. These can include cultured human or animal cells grown outside of the whole organism, small animals such as flies, worms, fish, mice, and rats, or, rarely, larger animals and primates. Biomedical scientists may also work directly with human tissue specimens to perform experiments as well as participate in clinical research. Biomedical scientists employ a variety of techniques in order to carry out laboratory experiments. These include: Molecular and biochemical techniques Electrophoresis and blotting Immunostaining Chromatography Mass spectrometry PCR and sequencing Microarrays Imaging technologies Light, fluorescence, and electron microscopy MRI PET X-ray


id: biomedical-scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:27.370205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === Biomedical Sciences, as defined by the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education Benchmark Statement in 2015 includes those science disciplines whose primary focus is the biology of human health and disease and ranges from the generic study of biomedical sciences and human biology to more specialised subject areas such as pharmacology, human physiology and human nutrition. It is underpinned by relevant basic sciences including anatomy and physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics and molecular biology, immunology, mathematics and statistics, and bioinformatics. "Biomedical scientist" is the protected title used by professionals qualified to work unsupervised within the pathology department of a hospital. The biomedical sciences are made up of the following disciplines; biochemistry, haematology, immunology, microbiology, histology, cytology, and transfusion services. These professions are regulated within the United Kingdom by the Health and Care Professions Council. Anyone who falsely claims to be a biomedical scientist commits an offence and could be fined up to £5000. Each department specialises in aiding the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Entry to the profession requires an Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) accredited BSc honours degree followed by a minimum of 12 months laboratory training in one of the pathology disciplines,


id: biomedical-scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:27.370205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Biochemistry: studies the chemical composition of cells, and in serum/plasma, and the chemistry behind biological processes Molecular biology: studies the molecular makeup and processes of living organisms Biophysics: studies mechanical and electrical energy in living cells and tissues Cell biology: studies cell-level organization and processes Cytopathology: Studies cell obtained by different means from human and sometimes animal bodies, using microscope and recent technologies to evaluate morphology, molecular pathology changes by molecular diagnostics. Also cytopathology involves cancer screening such cervical, breast, colon and prostate cancers. Computational biology and Bioinformatics: uses computer modeling and data analysis to understand biological systems Developmental biology: studies the growth and development of organisms and focuses on diseases of abnormal development Epidemiology: studies the incidence and transmission of diseases in a population and population characteristics (behaviors, environment, etc.) that associate with diseases Genetics: studies DNA and genes of humans and animals, as well as diseases caused by abnormal or mutated DNA. Haematology: studies of the blood, such as blood cells, and mechanisms of coagulation. Blood transfusion: studies of transfusion science (although frequently linked to haematology, it is however a specialist discipline in its own right). Histopathology: Studies tissues for disease diagnosis, using histological, histochemical, immunohistochemical analysis or


id: chemist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:28.548712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemist-20260505-0
summary:
A chemist (from Greek chēm(ía) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist) is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the field. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties. In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists. Chemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products. == History of chemistry == The


id: chemist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-1.md
category: reference
title: Chemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:28.548712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemist-20260505-0
summary:
In addition to all the training usually given to chemical technologists in their respective degree (or one given via an associate degree), a chemist is also trained to understand more details related to chemical phenomena so that the chemist can be capable of more planning on the steps to achieve a distinct goal via a chemistry-related endeavor. The higher the competency level achieved in the field of chemistry (as assessed via a combination of education, experience and personal achievements), the higher the responsibility given to that chemist and the more complicated the task might be. Chemistry, as a field, has so many applications that different tasks and objectives can be given to workers or scientists with these different levels of education or experience. The specific title of each job varies from position to position, depending on factors such as the kind of industry, the routine level of the task, the current needs of a particular enterprise, the size of the enterprise or hiring firm, the philosophy and management principles of the hiring firm, the visibility of the competency and individual achievements of the one seeking employment, economic factors such as recession or economic depression, among other factors, so this makes


id: chemist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-2.md
category: reference
title: Chemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:28.548712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Subdisciplines === Chemistry is typically organised into several major subdisciplines — including organic, inorganic, physical, analytical, and biochemistry — and encompasses numerous specialised and interdisciplinary fields. Many of these areas overlap with one another and with related sciences, and chemical research often intersects with disciplines such as biology, medicine, physics, materials science, and engineering. Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, for example, in medicinal chemistry. Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. The Inorganic chemistry is also the study of atomic and molecular structure and bonding. Medicinal chemistry is the science involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities


id: chief-experimental-officer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experimental_officer-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief experimental officer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experimental_officer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:29.698212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-experimental-officer-20260505-0
summary:
A chief experimental officer (CEO) is the head of an experimental organization, especially in the military or civil service. Chief Experimental Officer has been the topmost class in the Experimental Officer Class of the British Civil Service. == See also == Chief executive officer (CEO) Chief innovation officer (CINO) Chief scientific officer (CSO) Chief technology officer (CTO) Government scientist == References ==


id: chief-scientific-officer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_scientific_officer-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief scientific officer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_scientific_officer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:30.954876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-scientific-officer-20260505-0
summary:
A chief scientific officer (CSO) is a position at the head of scientific research operations at organizations or companies performing significant scientific research projects. == Description == A CSO is typically responsible for envisioning and developing research capabilities (human, methodological, and technological) for developing evidence of the validity and utility of research products, and for communicating with the scientific and customer communities concerning capabilities and scientific product offerings. In some organizations, the same person may hold this title along with that of chief technology officer (CTO). Alternatively, a company could have one or the other, or both occupied by separate people. Often, CSOs exist in heavily research-oriented companies; while CTOs exist in product development focused companies. The typical category of research and development that exists in many science and technology companies can be led by either post, depending upon which area is the organization's primary focus. A CSO almost always has a pure science background and an advanced degree, whereas a CTO often has a background in engineering or business development. Some academic research organizations, such as the Fox Chase Cancer Center, Dana–Farber Cancer Institute, and the San Diego Supercomputer Center have adopted a similar title of CSO. Typically, their


id: clinical-technologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_technologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical technologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_technologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:33.368380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-technologist-20260505-0
summary:
A clinical technologist, also known as a healthcare science practitioner, is a medical professional involved in the practical delivery of medical physics and clinical engineering services. In some locations there is considerable overlap in closely related terms, for example in many countries technologist and radiographer are synonyms, while in the United Kingdom they are considered separate professions. Clinical technologists can be found in nuclear medicine, radiotherapy, radiation protection, and rehabilitation engineering departments, and they are often described by their scope of practice (for example as a nuclear medicine technologist). == Roles and responsibilities == Depending on local practices, in radiology and radiotherapy technologist may be a synonym for radiographer or a separate position. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) uses technologist primarily to refer to the staff involved in the practical clinical delivery of radiotherapy, radiology and nuclear medicine. There is no single European Union definition or minimum training level for technologists, and the use of the term varies between member states. In radiotherapy, the European SocieTy for Radiotherapy and Oncology (ESTRO) previously referred to the staff carrying out the practical elements of treatment as Radiation Technologists (RTT), however they have since revised this to Radiation TherapisTs. In the United


id: computational-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Computational scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:34.596758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computational-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A computational scientist is a person skilled in scientific computing. This person is usually a scientist, a statistician, an applied mathematician, or an engineer who applies high-performance computing and sometimes cloud computing in different ways to advance the state-of-the-art in their respective applied discipline; physics, chemistry, social sciences and so forth. Thus scientific computing has increasingly influenced many areas such as economics, biology, law, and medicine to name a few. Because a computational scientist's work is generally applied to science and other disciplines, they are not necessarily trained in computer science specifically, though concepts of computer science are often used. Computational scientists are typically researchers at academic universities, national labs, or tech companies. One of the tasks of a computational scientist is to analyze large amounts of data, often from astrophysics or related fields, as these can often generate huge amounts of data. Computational scientists often have to clean up and calibrate the data to a usable form for an effective analysis. Computational scientists are also tasked with creating artificial data through computer models and simulations. == References ==


id: demographic-marketer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_marketer-0.md
category: reference
title: Demographic marketer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_marketer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:35.835323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: demographic-marketer-20260505-0
summary:
Demographic marketers use demographics in marketing research, and the assessment of the changing trends of consumer behavior. Demographics can be called a science, and demographic marketers can be called scientists. A demographic is used to describe individuals who are from a particular area. It can also be used to describe individuals who would rely on purchasing a particular product or service. Using demographics, a marketing manager can try to grasp what certain people think and what they are willing to buy. By understanding how various characteristics of the population reflect their tastes, demographic marketers get an idea of the probability of the sales returns of a launched product in a given area. For any type of business, knowing who the customers are most likely to be through demographic analysis will make it easier to market effectively. == References == == External links == Demographics Reports


id: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md
category: reference
title: List of developers of optical scientific equipment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:37.128449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
summary:
A developer of optical scientific equipment is an individual who makes and adjusts optical aids for scientific purposes, including telescope optics and microscope lenses. == Telescope developers == James Gilbert Baker Denis Albert Bardou John A. Brashear Laurent Cassegrain Henri Chrétien Alvan Clark John Dollond Charles Wesley Elmer and Richard Scott Perkin Galileo Galilei James Gregory John Hadley Chester Moore Hall Robert Hooke Johannes Kepler Frederick James Hargreaves Christiaan Huygens Hans Lippershey Raymond Augustin Mailhat Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov James Henry Marriott Jacob Metius Isaac Newton Georg Simon Plössl Russell W. Porter Jesse Ramsden George Willis Ritchey Christoph Scheiner Bernhard Schmidt James Short See also Timeline of telescope technology and List of astronomical instrument makers == Microscope developers == Ernst Karl Abbe Denis Albert Bardou Christopher Cock Siegfried Czapski Cornelius Drebbel Galileo Galilei Robert Hooke Christiaan Huygens Carl Kellner Anton van Leeuwenhoek Moritz von Rohr See also Timeline of microscope technology == References ==


id: engineer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:39.424790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineer-20260505-0
summary:
An engineer is a practitioner of engineering. The word engineer (Latin ingeniator, Ir is the term and or title of an engineer in countries like Belgium, The Netherlands, and Indonesia) is derived from the Latin words ingeniare ("to contrive, devise") and ingenium ("cleverness"). The foundational qualifications of a licensed professional engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice (culminating in a project report or thesis) and passage of engineering board examinations. The work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. == Definition == In 1961, the Conference of Engineering Societies of Western Europe and the United States of America defined "professional engineer" as follows: A professional engineer is competent by virtue of his/her fundamental education and training to apply the scientific method and outlook to the analysis and solution of engineering problems. He/she is able to assume personal responsibility for the development and application of engineering science and knowledge, notably in research, design, construction, manufacturing, superintending, managing, and in the education of the


id: engineer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-1.md
category: reference
title: Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:39.424790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineer-20260505-0
summary:
There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies and products. Typically, engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. For example, mechanical engineering curricula typically include introductory courses in electrical engineering, computer science, materials science, metallurgy, mathematics, and software engineering. An engineer may either be hired for a firm that requires engineers on a continuous basis, or may belong to an engineering firm that provides engineering consulting services to other firms. When developing a product, engineers typically work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers. A mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators. An electrical engineer would design the power systems, sensors, electronics, embedded software in electronics, and control circuitry. Finally, a software engineer would develop the software that makes the robot behave properly. Engineers that aspire to management engage in further study in business administration, project management and organizational or business psychology. Often engineers move up the management hierarchy from managing projects, functional departments, and divisions, and some eventually become CEOs of multi-national corporations. == Ethics == Engineers have obligations to the public, their


id: engineer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-2.md
category: reference
title: Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:39.424790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineer-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensure is generally attainable through combination of education, pre-examination (Fundamentals of Engineering exam), examination (professional engineering exam), and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and licenses professional engineers. Currently, most states do not license by specific engineering discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional judgment regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the professional societies. Despite this, at least one of the examinations required by most states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise. In the United States, an "industrial exemption" allows businesses to employ employees and call them an "engineer", as long as such individuals are under the direct supervision and control of the business entity and function internally related to manufacturing (manufactured parts) related to the business entity, or work internally within an exempt organization. Such person does not have the final authority to approve, or the ultimate responsibility for, engineering designs, plans, or specifications that are to be


id: engineer-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-3.md
category: reference
title: Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:39.424790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineer-20260505-0
summary:
In France, the term ingénieur (engineer) is not a protected title and can be used by anyone who practices this profession. However, the title ingénieur diplomé (graduate engineer) is an official academic title that is protected by the government and is associated with the Diplôme d'Ingénieur, which is a renowned academic degree in France. Anyone misusing this title in France can be fined a large sum and jailed, as it is usually reserved for graduates of French engineering grandes écoles. Engineering schools which were created during the French revolution have a special reputation among the French people, as they helped to make the transition from a mostly agricultural country of late 18th century to the industrially developed France of the 19th century. A great part of 19th-century France's economic wealth and industrial prowess was created by engineers that have graduated from École Centrale Paris, École des Mines de Paris, École polytechnique or Télécom Paris. This was also the case after WWII when France had to be rebuilt. Before the "réforme René Haby" in the 1970s, it was very difficult to be admitted to such schools, and the French ingénieurs were commonly perceived as the nation's élite. However, after the Haby


id: engineering-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineering technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:40.661747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-technician-20260505-0
summary:
An engineering technician is a professional trained in skills and techniques related to a specific branch of technology, with a practical understanding of the relevant engineering concepts. Engineering technicians often assist in projects relating to research and development, or focus on post-development activities like implementation or operation. The Dublin Accord was signed in 2002 as an international agreement recognizing engineering technician qualifications. The Dublin Accord is analogous to the Washington Accord for engineers and the Sydney Accord for engineering technologists. == Nature of work == Engineering technicians help solve technical problems in many ways. They build or set up equipment, conduct experiments, collect data, and calculate results. They might also help to make a model of new equipment. Some technicians work in quality control, checking products, tests, and collecting data. In manufacturing, they help to design and develop products. They also find ways to produce things efficiently. There are multiple fields in this job such as; software design, repair, etc. They may also be people who produce technical drawings or engineering drawings. Engineering technicians are responsible for using the theories and principles of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve problems and come up with solutions in the research, design, development,


id: engineering-technologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineering technologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:41.853196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-technologist-20260505-0
summary:
An engineering technologist is a professional trained in certain aspects of development and implementation of a respective area of technology. An education in engineering technology concentrates more on application and less on theory than does an engineering education. Engineering technologists often assist engineers; but after years of experience, they can also become engineers. Like engineers, areas where engineering technologists can work include product design, fabrication, and testing. Engineering technologists sometimes rise to senior management positions in industry or become entrepreneurs. Engineering technologists are more likely than engineers to focus on post-development implementation, product manufacturing, or operation of technology. The American National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) makes the distinction that engineers are trained in conceptual skills, to "function as designers", while engineering technologists "apply others' designs". The mathematics and sciences, as well as other technical courses, in engineering technology programs, are taught with more application-based examples, whereas engineering coursework provides a more theoretical foundation in math and science. Moreover, engineering coursework tends to require higher-level mathematics including calculus and calculus-based theoretical science courses, as well as more extensive knowledge of the natural sciences, which serves to prepare students for research (whether in graduate studies or industrial R&D) as opposed to


id: engineering-technologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist-1.md
category: reference
title: Engineering technologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:41.853196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-technologist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === In Canada, the new occupational category of "technologist" was established in the 1960s, in conjunction with an emerging system of community colleges and technical institutes. It was designed to effectively bridge the gap between the increasingly theoretical nature of engineering degrees and the predominantly practical approach of technician and trades programs. Provincial associations may certify individuals as a professional technologist (P.Tech.), certified engineering technologist (C.E.T.), registered engineering technologist (R.E.T.), applied science technologist (AScT), or technologue professionel (T.P.). These provincial associations are constituent members of Technology Professionals Canada (TPC), which accredits technology programs across Canada, through its Technology Accreditation Canada (TAC). Nationally accredited engineering technology programs range from two to three years in length, depending on the province, and often require as many classroom hours as a 4-year degree program. === United States === In the United States, the U.S. Department of Education or the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) are at the top of the educational accreditation hierarchy. The U.S. Department of Education acknowledges regional and national accreditation and CHEA recognizes specialty accreditation. One technology accreditation is currently recognized by CHEA: The Association of Technology, Management and Applied Engineering (ATMAE). CHEA recognizes ATMAE for accrediting associate,


id: engineering-technologist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist-2.md
category: reference
title: Engineering technologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:41.853196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-technologist-20260505-0
summary:
writing a technical report, based upon their experience and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of engineering principles; earning the City and Guilds graduate diploma (bachelors level) and a postgraduate diploma (masters level) accredited by the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE); following a work-based learning program; or taking an academic program specified by the institution to which they are applying. === Germany – European Union === ==== Engineering technologist / state-certified engineer ==== The engineering technologist (state-certified technician; German: Staatlich geprüfter Techniker) are vocational (non-academic) qualifications at the tertiary level in Germany. The degree is governed by the framework agreement of trade and technical schools (resolution of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the states in the Federal Republic of Germany of 7 November 2002 in its respective applicable version) and is recognised by all states of the Federal Republic of Germany. It is awarded after passing state examinations at state or state-recognised technical school or academies (German: Fachschule/Fachakademie). Through the Vocational Training Modernisation Act (12.12.2019), state-certified engineers are also allowed to hold the title Bachelor Professional in Technik as of 1 January


id: geneticist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticist-0.md
category: reference
title: Geneticist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:43.065721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geneticist-20260505-0
summary:
A geneticist is a biologist or physician who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. A geneticist can be employed as a scientist or a lecturer. Geneticists may perform general research on genetic processes or develop genetic technologies to aid in the pharmaceutical or and agriculture industries. Some geneticists perform experiments in model organisms such as Drosophila, C. elegans, zebrafish, rodents or humans and analyze data to interpret the inheritance of biological traits. A basic science geneticist is a scientist who usually has earned a PhD in genetics and undertakes research and/or lectures in the field. A medical geneticist is a physician who has been trained in medical genetics as a specialization and evaluates, diagnoses, and manages patients with hereditary conditions or congenital malformations; and provides genetic risk calculations and mutation analysis. == Education == Geneticists participate in courses from many areas, such as biology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, cell biology, bioinformatics, and mathematics. They also participate in more specifie genetics courses such as molecular genetics, transmission genetics, population genetics, quantitative genetics, ecological genetics, epigenetics, and genomics. == Careers == Geneticists can work in many different fields, doing a variety of jobs. There are many careers for


id: geographer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographer-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:44.365941+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographer-20260505-0
summary:
A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interact. The Greek prefix "geo" means "earth" and the Greek suffix, "graphy", meaning "description", so a geographer is someone who studies the earth. The word "geography" is a Middle French word that is believed to have been first used in 1540. Although geographers are historically known as people who make maps, map making is actually the field of study of cartography, a subset of geography. Geographers do not study only the details of the natural environment or human society, but they also study the reciprocal relationship between these two. For example, they study how the natural environment contributes to human society and how human society affects the natural environment. In particular, physical geographers study the natural environment while human geographers study human society and culture. Some geographers are practitioners of GIS (geographic information system) and are often employed by local, state, and federal government agencies as well as in the private sector by environmental and engineering firms. The paintings by Johannes Vermeer titled The Geographer and The Astronomer are both


id: geologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:45.660060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologist-20260505-0
summary:
A geologist is a scientist who studies the structure, composition, and history of Earth. Geologists incorporate techniques from physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, and geography to perform research in the field and the laboratory. Geologists work in the energy and mining sectors to exploit natural resources. They monitor environmental hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis and landslides. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions. == History == James Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he showed a paper titled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for sediments to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795 (Vol. 1, Vol. 2). Followers of Hutton were known as Plutonists because they believed that some rocks were formed by vulcanism, which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes, as opposed to the Neptunists, led by Abraham Werner, who believed that all rocks had


id: geologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist-1.md
category: reference
title: Geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:45.660060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologist-20260505-0
summary:
Economic geology: the study of ore genesis, and the mechanisms of ore creation, geostatistics. Engineering geology: application of the geologic sciences to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geologic factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and adequately provided for; Geophysics: the applied branch deals with the application of physical methods such as gravity, seismicity, electricity, magnetic properties to study the earth. Geochemistry: the applied branch deals with the study of the chemical makeup and behaviour of rocks, and the study of the behaviour of their minerals. Geochronology: the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events (notably, meteorite impacts). Geomorphology: the study of landforms and the processes that create them. Hydrogeology: the study of the origin, occurrence and movement of groundwater water in a subsurface geological system. Igneous petrology: the study of igneous processes such as igneous differentiation, fractional crystallization, intrusive and volcanological phenomena. Isotope geology: the case of the isotopic composition of rocks to determine the processes of rock and planetary formation. Metamorphic petrology: the study of the effects of metamorphism on minerals and rocks. Marine


id: geoprofessions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-0.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
"Geoprofessions" is a term coined by the Geoprofessional Business Association to connote various technical disciplines that involve engineering, earth and environmental services applied to below-ground ("subsurface"), ground-surface, and ground-surface-connected conditions, structures, or formations. The principal disciplines include, as major categories: geomatics engineering geotechnical engineering; geology and engineering geology; geological engineering; geophysics; geophysical engineering; environmental science and environmental engineering; construction-materials engineering and testing; and other geoprofessional services. Each discipline involves specialties, many of which are recognized through professional designations that governments and societies or associations confer based upon a person's education, training, experience, and educational accomplishments. In the United States, engineers must be licensed in the state or territory where they practice engineering. Most states license geologists and several license environmental "site professionals." Several states license engineering geologists and recognize geotechnical engineering through a geotechnical-engineering titling act. == Geotechnical-engineering specialties == Although geotechnical engineering is applied for a variety of purposes, it is essential to foundation design. As such, geotechnical engineering is applicable to every existing or new structure on the planet; every building and every highway, bridge, tunnel, harbor, airport, water line, reservoir, or other public work. Commonly, the geotechnical-engineering service comprises a study of subsurface conditions using various sampling,


id: geoprofessions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-1.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
Engineering geologist. (a) Elements of the engineering geologist specialty. The practice of engineering geology involves the interpretation, evaluation, analysis, and application of geological information and data to civil works. Geotechnical soil and rock units are designated, characterized, and classified, using standard engineering soil and rock classification systems. Relationships are interpreted between landform development, current and past geologic processes, ground and surface water, and the strength characteristics of soil and rock. Processes evaluated include both surficial processes (for example, slope, fluvial, and coastal processes), and deep-seated processes (for example, volcanic activity and seismicity). Geotechnical zones or domains are designated based on soil and rocked geological strength characteristics, common landforms, related geologic processes, or other pertinent factors. Proposed developmental modifications are evaluated and, where appropriate, analyzed to predict potential or likely changes in types and rates of surficial geologic processes. Proposed modifications may include such things as vegetation removal, using various types of earth materials in construction, applying loads to shallow or deep foundations, constructing cut or fill slopes and other grading, and modifying ground and surface water flow. The effects of surficial and deep-seated geologic processes are evaluated and analyzed to predict their potential effect on public health, public safety, land


id: geoprofessions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-2.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental science and environmental engineering are the geoprofessions commonly associated with the identification, remediation, and prevention of environmental contamination. These services range from phase-one and phase-two environmental site-assessments – research designed to assess the likelihood that a property is contaminated and subsurface exploration conducted to identify the nature and extent of contamination, respectively – up through the design of processes and systems to remediate contaminated sites for the protection of human health and the environment. Environmental geology is one of the principal geoprofessions engaged in assessing and remediating contaminated sites. Environmental geologists help identify the subsurface stratigraphy in which contaminants are located and through which they migrate. Environmental chemistry is the geoprofession that encompasses the study of chemical compounds in the soil. These compounds are categorized as pollutants or contaminants when introduced into the environment by human factors (e.g., waste, mining processes, radioactive release) and are not of natural origin. Environmental chemistry assesses interactions or these compounds with soil, rock, and water to determine their fate and transport, the techniques to measure the levels of contaminants in the environment, and technologies to destroy or reduce the toxicity of contaminants in wastes or compounds that have been released to the environment.


id: geoprofessions-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-3.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
== Construction-materials engineering and testing (CoMET) == Construction-materials engineering and testing (CoMET) comprises an array of licensed-engineer-directed professional services applied principally for purposes of construction quality assurance and quality control. CoMET services commonly are provided as a separate discipline by firms that also practice geotechnical engineering, possibly among other geoprofessional disciplines. The geoprofessional-service industry has evolved in this manner because geotechnical engineering employs the observational method. Karl von Terzaghi and Ralph B. Peck – the creators of modern geotechnical engineering – used the observational method and multiple working hypotheses to expedite and economize the subsurface-exploration process, by using sampling and testing to form a judgment about subsurface conditions, and then observing excavated conditions and materials to confirm or modify those judgments and related recommendations, and then finalize them. To economize still further, geoprofessionals educated and trained paraprofessionals to represent them on site (hence the term "field representative"), especially to apply their judgment (much as a geotechnical engineer would) in comparing observed conditions with those the geotechnical engineer believed would exist. Over time, geotechnical engineers expanded their CoMET services by providing the additional education and training their field representatives needed to evaluate constructors' attainment of conditions commonly specified by geoprofessionals; e.g.,


id: geoprofessions-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-4.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
Many of the CoMET services performed for construction projects are performed for environmental projects as well, but requirements tend to be less rigid because they involve fewer licensing and related requirements. For example, individuals may perform federally mandated all-appropriate inquiries – typically a phase-one environmental site assessment – without a license of any kind.


id: geoprofessions-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-5.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
== Other geoprofessional services == To the extent that archeology and paleontology require systematic subsurface excavation to recover artifacts, they, too, are considered geoprofessions. Many geoprofessional-services firms offer these services to those of their clients that need to satisfy federal and/or state regulations that require paleontological and/or archeological inquiry before site development or redevelopment activities can proceed. == See also == List of geology journals List of mining journals == References == Bates and Jackson. (1980) Glossary of Geology. 2nd ed., American Geological Institute. ISBN 0-913312-15-0. Bowles, J. (1988) Foundation Analysis and Design. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-07-006776-7. Burger, H. Robert, Sheehan, Anne F., and Jones, Craig H. (2006) Introduction to Applied Geophysics : Exploring the Shallow Subsurface. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-92637-0. Cedergren, Harry R. (1977) Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-14179-8. Chen, W-F and Scawthorn, C. (2003) Earthquake Engineering Handbook. CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-0068-1 Das, Braja M. (2006) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. England: THOMSON LEARNING (KY). ISBN 0-534-55144-0. Fang, H.-Y. and Daniels, J. (2005) Introductory Geotechnical Engineering: an Environmental Perspective. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-30402-4. Faure, Gunter. (1998) Principles and Applications of Geochemistry: a Comprehensive Textbook for Geology Students. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN


id: government-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Government scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:57.823899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: government-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A government scientist is a scientist employed by a country's government, either in a research-driven job (for example J. Robert Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project), or for another role that requires scientific training and methods. In some countries other terms, such as Technical officers, is also used for scientists. == Australia == In Australia, most government scientists are employed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. A Chief Scientist is appointed to advise the government through the Office of the Chief Scientist. == Singapore == In Singapore, government scientists are classified according to the Departmental Titles (Alteration) (Amendment) Act 1996, which amended the Departmental Titles (Alteration) Ordinance of 1950. == United Kingdom == In the United Kingdom, government scientists are part of the Scientific Civil Service. However, that was not always the case. Before the Second World War, government scientists were recruited and employed by the Civil Service on an ad hoc basis, with grades, job titles, and organizations that varied between departments. In 1930, the Carpenter Committee was appointed to investigate the organization of civil service scientific and technical staff, and its report proposed a reorganization that covered the entire Service. This report was endorsed by the Tomlin


id: healthcare-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Healthcare scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:59.129604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: healthcare-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A healthcare scientist (HCS), or medical scientist, is a scientist working in any of a number of health related disciplines. Healthcare scientists may work directly for health service providers, or in academia or industry. Healthcare scientists typically refers to those contributing directly to clinical services, and not scientists working solely in health related research and development. == Disciplines == Boundaries between healthcare science and other related fields are not strictly defined. There are more than 50 different specialisms. Healthcare scientists work in clinical bioinformatics, life sciences, physical sciences and physiological sciences. A non-exhaustive list of healthcare science roles is below. Medical physicist Biomedical scientist Audiologist Clinical cytogeneticist Clinical embryologist Neurophysiological scientist Vascular scientist Cardiac scientist == Organization == Regulation and organization of healthcare scientists varies significantly from country to country, and from discipline to discipline. === Europe === ==== United Kingdom ==== There are over 50,000 healthcare scientists working in the NHS. Biomedical Scientist and Clinical scientist are a protected title in the United Kingdom, requiring state registration. The Health and Care Professions Council holds the register and regulates the profession. The main routes to registration and training are through courses run by the Institute of Biomedical Science or the


id: laboratory-manager-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_manager-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory manager
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_manager
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:01.555582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-manager-20260505-0
summary:
A laboratory manager (alternatively laboratory supervisor) is an individual who supervises personnel and operations in a laboratory environment; the position is senior to that of a laboratory technician or laboratory technologist, and is considered a middle-management occupation. == Nature of work == While the duties of laboratory managers depend on their particular field or industry, they generally direct or coordinate scientific research and related activities such as quality control, along with ensuring laboratories have the necessary equipment and materials to sustain operations. Depending on the size of the company or academic institution, the scope of a manager's responsibilities also varies. At a senior level, a laboratory manager may be an administrator primarily responsible for budgets, hiring and supervising scientific and technical personnel, and working with senior management to develop goals and strategies for the organization. Laboratory managers or supervisors at this level may be responsible for managing large teams. Some laboratory managers are current or former scientists who are sometimes called "working managers," and who participate in conducting research in addition to administrative duties, mentoring students, and assisting other researchers. Managers in this category are commonly known as staff scientists. Chemistry laboratory managers may also be chemical hygiene officers responsible


id: laboratory-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:02.821136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-technician-20260505-0
summary:
A laboratory technician or (informally) lab tech is a person who works in a laboratory performing analytical or experimental procedures, maintaining laboratory equipment. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first use of the term laboratory technician was in 1896:It [sc. a therapeutic property] is now totally abandoned by the advanced laboratory technicians.The term is now widely accepted. Laboratory technicians are found in a wide range of scientific fields, including forensic science, pathology, chemistry, biomedical science and physics. Laboratory technicians may hold a range of formal academic qualifications, such as associate degrees, often obtained through vocational education. They are usually supervised by laboratory managers. == References ==


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A medical laboratory scientist (MLS), clinical laboratory scientist (CLS), or medical technologist (MT) is a licensed healthcare professional who performs diagnostic testing of body fluids, examples: blood, urine, sputum and other body tissue. The medical technologist is tasked with releasing the patient's results to aid in further treatment. The scope of a medical laboratory scientist's work begins with the receipt of patient or client specimens, and finishes with the delivery of test results to physicians and other healthcare providers. The utility of clinical diagnostic testing relies squarely on the validity of test methodology. To this end, much of the work done by medical laboratory scientists involves ensuring specimen quality, interpreting test results, data-logging, testing control products, performing calibration, maintenance, validation, and troubleshooting of instrumentation as well as performing statistical analyses to verify the accuracy and repeatability of testing. Medical laboratory scientists may also assist healthcare providers with test selection and specimen collection and are responsible for prompt verbal delivery of critical lab results. Medical laboratory scientists in healthcare settings also play an important role in clinical diagnosis; some estimates suggest that up to 70% of medical decisions are based on laboratory test results and MLS contributions affect 95% of a


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
== Specialty areas == Many medical laboratory scientists are generalists, skilled in most areas of the clinical laboratory. However, some are specialists, qualified by unique undergraduate education or additional training to perform more complex analyses than usual within a specific field. Specialties include clinical biochemistry, hematology, coagulation, microbiology, bacteriology, toxicology, virology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, immunohematology (blood bank), histopathology, histocompatibility, cytopathology, genetics, cytogenetics, electron microscopy, and IVF labs. Medical technologists specialty may use additional credentials, such as "SBB" (specialist in blood banking), "SM" (Ssecialist in microbiology), "SC" (specialist in chemistry), or "SH" (specialist in hematology) from the American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP). These additional notations may be appended to the base credential, for example, "MLS (ASCP), SBB (ASCP)". Additional information can be found in the ASCP Procedures for Examination & Certification. Andrology laboratory scientist, embryology laboratory scientist, and molecular diagnostics technologist certifications are provided by the American Association of Bioanalysts; those with the certifications are classified as ALS (AAB), ELS (AAB), and MDxT (AAB), respectively. Certified histocompatibility associate, certified histocompatibility technologist, certified histocompatibility specialist, and diplomate of the ABHI are titles granted by the American Board of Hisocompatibility and Immunogenetics after meeting education and experience requirements and passing the required


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pakistan === In Pakistan, the National Institute of Health (NIH) in Islamabad is the pioneer in laboratory sciences. The College of Medical Lab Technology (CMLT) of the NIH offers a two-year F.Sc degree in Medical Lab Technology (MLT). The previous two-year B.Sc. in MLT was discontinued and replaced by the four-year Bachelor Program in Medical Lab Sciences (MLS). The University of Health Sciences in Lahore also offers a four-year Bachelor program in MLS through approved colleges. The University of Lahore, University of Faisalabad, University of Sargodha, and Superior University in Lahore all offer a five-year Doctor of Medical Lab Sciences (DMLS) Program. Eligibility criteria for the four-year B.Sc. in MLS and the five-year Doctor of Medical Lab Sciences (DMLS) is the F.Sc. Pre-Medical. === United States === In the United States, a medical laboratory scientist (MLS), medical technologist (MT), or a clinical laboratory scientist (CLS) typically earns a bachelor's degree in medical laboratory science, clinical laboratory science, or medical technology. Other routes include attaining a degree in biomedical science or in a life / biological science (biology, biochemistry, microbiology, etc.). Both routes typically requires the MLS/MT/CLS to obtain certification from a national certifying board (AAB, AMT, or ASCP) as


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-3.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom (UK) there are two varieties of registered healthcare scientist in hospitals - Clinical Scientists and Biomedical Scientists (BMS). There is a strict and formal post graduate training programme for both careers followed by statutory registration for each with the Health & Care Professions Council UK (HCPC), for the safety and assurance of the customers - the patients. They are two similar but distinct careers with parallel but different training paths and different entry requirements. The role of Clinical Scientists is to improve the health and well-being of patients and the public by practising alongside doctors, nurses, and other health and social care professionals in the delivery of healthcare. Their aim is to provide expert scientific and clinical advice to clinician colleagues, to aid in the diagnosis, treatment and management of patient care. Examples of the type of work they undertake include: Advising, diagnosing, interpreting, and treating patients Advising health and social care professionals in the diagnosis and treatment of patients Researching the science, technology, and practise used in healthcare to innovate and improve services Designing, building, and operating technology for diagnosing and treating patients Ensuring the safety and reliability of tests and


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-4.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === There are currently three major certification agencies in the United States of America for clinical laboratory scientists. They are the American Association of Bioanalysts (AAB), the American Medical Technologists (AMT), and the American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP). Clinical Laboratory Science programs have the option to be accredited by the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Science (NAACLS). NAACLS accreditation allows students to sit for their certification at the completion of their program in addition to being a stamp of program quality. All the three national accrediting agencies will certify scientists in the clinical laboratory as generalist (chemistry, hematology, immunology, immunohematology/blood bank, and microbiology). The American Association of Bioanalysts and the American Medical Technologists certifications continue to use the traditional designation medical technologist (MT), while the American Society for Clinical Pathology has adopted the designation of medical laboratory scientist (MLS). Regardless of terminology, these highly qualified individuals serve as scientists in the clinical laboratory. Two other organizations have previously provided proficiency examinations to clinical laboratory scientists: the US Department of Health and Human Services, and the National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel (NCA). The NCA was absorbed by the American Society for Clinical Pathology in 2009


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-5.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Master of Science, Master of Business Administration, Master of Health Administration, Doctor of medical laboratory science for specialization, education and management roles. Doctor of Philosophy for management and directorship roles in the clinical laboratory as well as for academic research and professorship. Doctors of Philosophy holding a degree in a biological science, and who are board certified by a CLIA-approved entity, are qualified as a medical laboratory director. Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of clinical laboratory Science - this is the position that qualifies an individual to oversee or direct almost all types of clinical laboratories. Under U.S. CLIA laws, a requirement of at least year of clinical laboratory experience (any MD) or pathology residency must be met. In the United Kingdom the Modernising Scientific Careers (MSC) programme sets out for the first time a comprehensive training and career framework for the whole healthcare science workforce inclusive of the more than 50 different scientific professional specialisms. In its conception it aimed to provide a coherent framework that was accessible, affordable and designed specifically to both capture scientific and technological advances and to provide improved outcomes for patients, the service and professionals. A key aspect of the framework from the start


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-6.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
== Labor shortage == Medical facilities throughout the United States have gradually been experiencing a shortage in medical laboratory science professionals. The current projectory of medical laboratory personnel through 2030 is insufficient to serve medical services effectively. Reasons for the shortage include current professionals retiring, a modern increase in medical laboratory scientist and technician demand, changes in the practice caused by new technological advances (which need training to learn to use), and vacancy and retirement rates being greater than the number of graduates from medical laboratory programs. Lack of funding, low salaries, lack of a developed career ladder, and a lack of clear job requirements has made recruitment and the hiring process difficult. Newer recruiting attempts have increased the number of graduated professionals in the last five years, but not enough to meet the growing demand. Some clinical organizations suggest that professional-development programs for the allied health fields should be improved to cultivate interest in younger professionals and students. The Institute of Medicine is actively working on re-viewing policy reforms and new plans and recommendations to increase medical professional turnout among younger people. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the medical laboratory shortage in the medical field. Organizations such as the American


id: meteorologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Meteorologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:05.372158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meteorologist-20260505-0
summary:
A meteorologist is a scientist who studies and works in the field of meteorology aiming to understand or predict Earth's atmospheric phenomena including the weather. Those who study meteorological phenomena are meteorologists in research, while those using mathematical models and knowledge to prepare daily weather forecasts are called weather forecasters or operational meteorologists. Meteorologists work in government agencies, private consulting and research services, industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and television stations, and in education. They are not to be confused with weather presenters, who present the weather forecast in the media and range in training from journalists having just minimal training in meteorology to full-fledged meteorologists. == Description == Meteorologists study the Earth's atmosphere and its interactions with the Earth's surface, the oceans and the biosphere. Their knowledge of applied mathematics and physics allows them to understand the full range of atmospheric phenomena, from snowflake formation to the Earth's general climate. Research meteorologists are specialized in areas like: Climatology to estimate the various components of the climate and their variability to determine, for example, the wind potential of a given region or global warming. Air quality where they are interested in the phenomena of transport, transformation and dispersion of atmospheric pollutants


id: microbiologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Microbiologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:06.614260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microbiologist-20260505-0
summary:
A microbiologist (from Greek μῑκρος) is a scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes. This includes study of the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites and their vectors. Most microbiologists work in offices and/or research facilities, both in private biotechnology companies and in academia. Most microbiologists specialize in a given topic within microbiology such as bacteriology, parasitology, virology, or immunology. == Duties == Microbiologists generally work in some way to increase scientific knowledge or to utilise that knowledge in a way that improves outcomes in medicine or some industry. For many microbiologists, this work includes planning and conducting experimental research projects in some kind of laboratory setting. Others may have a more administrative role, supervising scientists and evaluating their results. Microbiologists working in the medical field, such as clinical microbiologists, may see patients or patient samples and do various tests to detect disease-causing organisms. For microbiologists working in academia, duties include performing research in an academic laboratory, writing grant proposals to fund research, as well as some amount of teaching and designing courses. Microbiologists in industry roles may have similar duties except research is performed in industrial labs


id: neuroscientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:07.915738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscientist-20260505-0
summary:
A neuroscientist (or neurobiologist) is a scientist specializing in neuroscience that deals with the anatomy and function of neurons, neural circuits, and glia, and their behavioral, biological, and psychological roles in health and disease. Neuroscientists generally work as researchers within a college, university, government agency, or private industry setting. In research-oriented careers, neuroscientists design and conduct scientific experiments on the nervous system and its functions. They can engage in basic or applied research. Basic research seeks to expand current understanding of the nervous system, whereas applied research seeks to address a specific problem, such as developing a treatment for a neurological disorder. Neuroscientists have numerous career opportunities outside of academic research, including careers in industry, science writing, government program management, science advocacy, and education. A neuroscientist commonly holds a doctorate in a medical science. == Job overview == === Job description === Neuroscientists focus primarily on the study and research of the nervous system. The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord and nerve cells. Studies of the nervous system may focus on the cellular level, as in studies of the ion channels, or instead may focus on a systemic level as in behavioural or cognitive studies. A


id: neuroscientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:07.915738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medieval European beliefs and Andreas Vesalius === Medieval beliefs generally held true the proposals of Galen, including the attribution of mental processes to specific ventricles in the brain. Functions of regions of the brain were defined based on their texture and composition: memory function was attributed to the posterior ventricle, a harder region of the brain and thus a good place for memory storage. Andreas Vesalius redirected the study of neuroscience away from the anatomical focus; he considered the attribution of functions based on location to be crude. Pushing away from the superficial proposals made by Galen and medieval beliefs, Vesalius did not believe that studying anatomy would lead to any significant advances in the understanding of thinking and the brain. == Current and developing research topics == Research in neuroscience is expanding and becoming increasingly interdisciplinary. Many current research projects involve the integration of computer programs in mapping the human nervous system. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) sponsored Human Connectome Project, launched in 2009, hopes to establish a highly detailed map of the human nervous system and its millions of connections. Detailed neural mapping could lead the way for advances in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological


id: neuroscientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:07.915738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscientist-20260505-0
summary:
Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1906) for the development of the silver staining method, revealing what would later be determined as individual neurons. Cajal's interpretations of the images produced by Golgi's staining technique led to the adoption of the neuron doctrine. Charles Sherrington and Edgar Adrian (1932) for their discoveries of the general function of neurons, including excitatory and inhibitory signals, and the all-or-nothing response of nerve fibers. Sir Henry Dale and Otto Loewi (1936) for the discovery of neurotransmitters and identification of acetylcholine. Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser (1944) for discoveries illustrating the varied timing exhibited by single nerve fibers. Walter Rudolf Hess and António Caetano Egas Moniz (1949) for discovery of the functional organization of the midbrain and for the controversial therapeutic value of leucotomy respectively. Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and Sir John Eccles (1963) for discovering the ionic basis of the action potential and macroscopic currents through their use of the squid giant axon. Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler and Julius Axelrod (1970) for the discovery of the mechanisms responsible for neurotransmitter storage, release, and inactivation. Their work included the discovery of the synaptic vesicle and quantal neurotransmitter release. Roger Guillemin and Andrew V.


id: petroleum-geologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_geologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Petroleum geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:10.355704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: petroleum-geologist-20260505-0
summary:
A petroleum geologist is an earth scientist who works in the field of petroleum geology, which involves all aspects of the discovery and production of oil and gas. Petroleum geologists are usually linked to the actual discovery of oil and gas and the identification of possible new oil deposits or gas fields. It can be a very labor-intensive task involving several different fields of science and elaborate equipment. Petroleum geologists look at the structural and sedimentary aspects of the stratum/strata to identify possible oil traps or tight shale plays. == Profile == Petroleum geologists make the decision of where to drill for petroleum. This is done by locating prospects within a sedimentary basin. Petroleum geologists determine a prospect's viability looking at seven main aspects in conventional petroleum geology: Source: the presence of an organic-rich source rock capable of generating hydrocarbons during deep burial. Reservoir: the usually porous rock and permeable unit that collects the hydrocarbons expelled from the source rock and holds them inside a trap. Seal: the rock unit that inhibits the oil or gas from escaping from a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rock. Trap: structural or stratigraphic feature that captures migrating hydrocarbons into an economically producible accumulation. Timing: geologic events


id: physician-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician-scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Physician-scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician-scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:11.669918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physician-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A physician-scientist (in North American English) or clinician-scientist (in British English and Australian English) is a physician who divides their professional time between direct clinical practice with patients and scientific research. Physician-scientists traditionally hold both a medical degree and a Doctor of Philosophy, also known as an MD-PhD or DO-PhD. Compared to other clinicians, physician-scientists invest significant time and professional effort in scientific research, with ratios of research to clinical time ranging from 50/50 to 80/20. Physician-scientists are often employed by academic or research institutions where they drive innovation across a wide range of medical specialties and may also use their extensive training to focus their clinical practices on specialized patient populations, such as those with rare genetic diseases or cancers. Although they are a minority of both practicing physicians and active research scientists, physician-scientists are often cited as playing a critical role in translational medicine and clinical research by adapting biomedical research findings to health care applications. Over time, the term physician scientist has expanded to holders of other clinical degrees—such as nurses, dentists, and veterinarians—who are also included by the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) in its studies of the physician-scientist workforce (PSW). == History ==


id: physicist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist-0.md
category: reference
title: Physicist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:12.869917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physicist-20260505-0
summary:
A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe. Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. They work across a wide range of research fields, spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic and particle physics, through biological physics, to cosmological length scales encompassing the universe as a whole. The field generally includes two types of physicists: experimental physicists who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and theoretical physicists who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics). == History == The study and practice of physics is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers, the Greek philosophers of


id: physicist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist-1.md
category: reference
title: Physicist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:12.869917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physicist-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === Chartered Physicist (CPhys) is a chartered status and a professional qualification awarded by the Institute of Physics. It is denoted by the postnominals "CPhys". Achieving chartered status in any profession denotes to the wider community a high level of specialised subject knowledge and professional competence. According to the Institute of Physics, holders of the award of the Chartered Physicist (CPhys) demonstrate the "highest standards of professionalism, up-to-date expertise, quality and safety" along with "the capacity to undertake independent practice and exercise leadership" as well as "commitment to keep pace with advancing knowledge and with the increasing expectations and requirements for which any profession must take responsibility". Chartered Physicist is considered to be equal in status to Chartered Engineer, which the IoP also awards as a member of the Engineering Council UK, and other chartered statuses in the UK. It is also considered a "regulated profession" under the European professional qualification directives. === Canada === The Canadian Association of Physicists can appoint an official designation called Professional Physicist (P. Phys.), similar to the designation of Professional Engineer (P. Eng.). This designation was unveiled at the CAP congress in 1999 and already more than 200 people carry this


id: principal-investigator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_investigator-0.md
category: reference
title: Principal investigator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_investigator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:16.466887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: principal-investigator-20260505-0
summary:
In many countries, the term principal investigator (PI) refers to the holder of an independent grant and the lead researcher for the grant project, usually in the sciences, such as a laboratory study or a clinical trial. The phrase is also often used as a synonym for "head of the laboratory" or "research group leader". While the expression is common in the sciences, it is used widely for the person or persons who make final decisions and supervise funding and expenditures on a given research project. A co-investigator (Co-I) assists the principal investigator in the management and leadership of the research project. There may be a number of co-investigators supporting a PI. == Federal funding == In the context of United States federal funding from agencies such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH) or the National Science Foundation (NSF), the PI is the person who takes direct responsibility for completion of a funded project, directing the research and reporting directly to the funding agency. For small projects (which might involve 1–5 people) the PI is typically the person who conceived the investigation, but for larger projects the PI may be selected by a team to obtain the best strategic


id: school-science-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_science_technician-0.md
category: reference
title: School science technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_science_technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:17.612001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: school-science-technician-20260505-0
summary:
In schools, the science technician is the person who prepares the practical equipment and makes up the solutions used in school science labs. The role also includes instructing and assisting teachers with practical skills, including class demonstrations, for advanced techniques across all disciplines. Many are very well qualified and have degrees, such as a Bachelor's degree (B.A. or B.Sc), Master's degree (M.Sc.) or even a Doctorate (Dr) and/or other professional qualifications such as the HNC, HND and NVQ. Their main duties include: Care of living organisms Making up solutions School science experiments and demonstrations Inventory Budget and Accounts Repairing and constructing laboratory equipment In December 2002 CLEAPSS commissioned a survey into the Specific Job roles of Science Technicians. The pdf Document G228 - Technicians and their jobs which can be freely downloaded was released and later updated in 2009. The guide was written to help promote a professional technician service in schools and colleges. == See also == Science education == References == == External links == CLEAPSS - The School Science Advisory Service providing practical advice & help on safety in Science ASE - Professional Organisation for Teachers and Technicians


id: science-attach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_attaché-0.md
category: reference
title: Science attaché
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_attaché
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:18.826155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-attach-20260505-0
summary:
A science attaché (also known as a scientific attaché or a technical attaché) is a member of a diplomatic mission, usually an embassy. A science attaché traditionally had three primary functions: advise the ambassador on scientific and technical matters, report on scientific and technological events, and represent their country in scientific and technical matters to foreign scientific and technical academies; to industry; to intergovernmental organizations and agencies; and to international non-governmental organizations. In 1998, the National Academy of Sciences called for the appointment of more science-savvy diplomats to the State Department to improve the quality of the scientific advice available to foreign policymakers. The panel also emphasized the need to encourage general foreign service staff to acquire scientific skills. Science attachés could help scientists understand the host nation's science culture and practices. Formerly, being appointed science attaché was viewed as the "kiss of death" for advancement within the foreign service. Though the perception may change from scientific issues such as global warming, global infectious diseases, and bioterrorism to foreign policymaking and diplomacy. == Historical functions == The role of science attachés of the United States was first outlined in 1950 in a report entitled Science and Foreign Relations, issued by


id: science-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Science technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:20.201458+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technician-20260505-0
summary:
Science technician is a profession involving working as a member of support staff in any science disciplines. The Science Council defines a technician as “a person who is skilled in the use of particular techniques and procedures to solve practical problems, often in ways that require considerable ingenuity and creativity. Technicians typically work with complex instruments and equipment, and require specialised training, as well as considerable practical experience, in order to do their job effectively”. Science technicians are frequently based in laboratories, but they also perform roles in workshops, studios, the field, or in any location where scientific work is being carried out. As a group, science technicians have been referred to as "Invisible"; members of the scientific workforce whose role in the process for forming new scientific knowledge has been poorly acknowledged and insufficiently studied. However, more recently their role has been studied in some detail. == Profession == Professional training for science technicians varies between countries. In Germany, where science technicians are a subset of the "technical assistant" class of professions, state-certified technician training is a vocational training that lasts between two and three years. It allows specializations in, for instance, physics, chemistry, pharmacy, medicine and computer science,


id: scientific-glassblowing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_glassblowing-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific glassblowing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_glassblowing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:21.548872+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-glassblowing-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific glassblowing is a specialty field of lampworking used in industry, science, art and design used in research and production. Scientific glassblowing has been used in chemical, pharmaceutical, electronic and physics research including Galileo's thermometer, Thomas Edison's light bulb, and vacuum tubes used in early radio, TV and computers. More recently, the field has helped advance fiber optics, lasers, atomic and subatomic particle research, advanced communications development and semiconductors. The field combined hand skills using lathes and torches with modern computer assisted furnaces, diamond grinding and lapping machines, lasers and ultra-sonic mills. == Scientific glassblowing schools == === Degree programs === Salem Community College in Carney's Point, New Jersey offers the only degree program in the United States, an Associate in Applied Science, with a focus on the construction of scientific glass apparatus. Students come from throughout the United States and from around the world to develop this specialized skill at Salem Community College. Alfred University offers a masters program in glass science and a PhD with a blend of theoretical and applied studies similar to degree programs in materials science and engineering. === Universities offering courses === The following is the list of recognized universities that provide courses in


id: technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:22.702446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technician-20260505-0
summary:
A technician is a worker in a field of technology who is proficient in the relevant skill and technique, with a relatively practical understanding of the theoretical principles. == Specialisation == The term technician covers many different specialisations. These include: Work safety technician Systems technician Sciences technician Data systems technician Data processing technician Information systems technician Cryptologic technician Sonar technician Engineering technician Laboratory technician Digital imaging technician Machinery Technician Machines technician Electricity technician Electronics technician Computer repair technician Automation technician Pharmacy technician Nail technician Theatrical technician Emergency Medical Technician == Campaigns == In the UK, a shortage of skilled technicians in the science, engineering and technology sectors has led to various campaigns to encourage more people to become technicians and to promote the role of technician. == See also == Career and Technical Education History of technology Technical education Grey-collar worker == References == == External links == Media related to Technicians at Wikimedia Commons


id: volcanologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Volcanologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:24.004233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: volcanologist-20260505-0
summary:
A volcanologist, or volcano scientist, is a geologist who focuses on understanding the formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, sometimes active ones, to observe and monitor volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of inquiry in recent times is the prediction of eruptions to alleviate the impact on surrounding populations and monitor natural hazards associated with volcanic activity. Geologists who research volcanic materials that make up the solid Earth are referred to as igneous petrologists. == Etymology == The word volcanologist (or vulcanologist) is derived from the English volcanology (volcano + -logy), which was derived from the French volcanologie (or vulcanologie), which was further derived from the French word volcan (volcano), which was even further derived from Vulcanus, the Latin name of the Roman god of fire and metalworking. The Latin word is of Etruscan origin, but unknown meaning. == Job overview == === Job Description === Volcanologists research many aspects of volcanic processes to better understand planetary formation or to monitor current and future volcanic eruptions in order to protect citizens living in volcanic hazard zones. Volcanologists work at universities, museums or other


id: open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:25.714031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
Open science (also known as open research) is the movement to make scientific research, including publications, data, physical samples, software, and models, transparent and accessible to all levels of society through collaborative networks. This encompasses practices such as publishing open research, campaigning for open access, encouraging scientists to practice open-notebook science (such as openly sharing data and code), broader dissemination and public engagement in science, and generally making it easier to publish, access, and communicate scientific knowledge. Usage of the term varies substantially across disciplines, with a notable prevalence in the STEM disciplines. The term 'open research' has gained currency as a broader alternative to 'open science,' encompassing the humanities and arts alongside traditional scientific disciplines. The primary focus connecting all disciplines is the widespread uptake of new technologies and tools, and the underlying ecology of the production, dissemination and reception of knowledge from a research-based point-of-view. The term 'open scholarship' has also been proposed to include research from the arts and humanities as well as the different roles and practices that researchers perform as educators and communicators. Open science can be seen as continuing, rather than revolutionizing, practices that began in the 17th century with the academic journal, which


id: open-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:25.714031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
Peer review is widely acknowledged as time-consuming. Citation impact, attributed to the authors, correlates more closely with journal circulation than with article quality. Open Science–aligned publishing formats rarely conform to traditional journal structures that calculate impact factors. Hence, this school argues that there are faster impact measurement technologies that can account for a range of publication types as well as social media web coverage of a scientific contribution to arrive at a complete evaluation of how impactful the science contribution was. The gist of the argument for this school is that hidden uses like reading, bookmarking, sharing, discussing and rating are traceable activities, and these traces can and should be used to develop a newer measure of scientific impact. The umbrella jargon for this new type of impact measurements is called altmetrics, coined in a 2011 article by Priem et al., (2011). Markedly, the authors discuss evidence that altmetrics differ from traditional webometrics which are slow and unstructured. Altmetrics are proposed to rely upon a greater set of measures that account for tweets, blogs, discussions, and bookmarks. Scholars propose that altmetrics should capture the entire research lifecycle, including collaboration patterns, to produce comprehensive impact measures. However, the authors are explicit


id: open-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:25.714031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Before journals === Before the advent of scientific journals, scientists had little to gain and much to lose by publicizing scientific discoveries. Many scientists, including Galileo, Kepler, Isaac Newton, Christiaan Huygens, and Robert Hooke, made claim to their discoveries by describing them in papers coded in anagrams or cyphers and then distributing the coded text. Their intent was to develop their discovery into something off which they could profit, then reveal their discovery to prove ownership when they were prepared to make a claim on it. The system of not publicizing discoveries caused problems because discoveries were not shared quickly and because it sometimes was difficult for the discoverer to prove priority. Newton and Gottfried Leibniz both claimed priority in discovering calculus. Newton said that he wrote about calculus in the 1660s and 1670s, but did not publish until 1693. Leibniz published "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis", a treatise on calculus, in 1684. Debates over priority are inherent in systems where science is not published openly, and this was problematic for scientists who wanted to benefit from priority. Under aristocratic patronage, scientists received funding to develop useful innovations or provide entertainment, creating pressure to satisfy patrons' desires and


id: open-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:25.714031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet and the free access to scientific documents === The open science movement, as presented in activist and institutional discourses at the beginning of the 21st century, refers to different ways of opening up science, especially in the Internet age. Its first pillar is free access to scientific publications. This issue entered the political landscape when the Budapest Open Access Initiative was released February 14, 2002, following a conference organized by the Open Society Institute (now Open Society Foundations) on December 1–2, 2001. The resulting declaration calls for the use of digital tools such as open archives and open access journals, free of charge for the reader. The idea of open access to scientific publications quickly became inseparable from the question of free licenses to guarantee the right to disseminate and possibly modify shared documents, such as the Creative Commons licenses, created in 2002. In 2011, a new text from the Budapest Open Initiative explicitly refers to the relevance of the CC-BY license to guarantee free dissemination and not only free access to a scientific document. Beyond publications, the open access principle has expanded to include research data — the empirical foundation of scientific studies across disciplines, as mentioned


id: open-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:25.714031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Open Science and Research Assessment == A central aspect of the Open Science movement is the reform of research assessment. Initiatives such as the Coalition for Advancing Research Assessment (CoARA) (launched in 2022) and the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA) advocate moving away from traditional quantitative metrics like the Journal Impact Factor (JIF) and the h-Index, as these often exhibit biases and neglect qualitative aspects. Instead, alternative metrics and indicators, such as altmetrics and Open Science indicators, are to be given greater consideration. Open Science indicators include metrics such as the number of open access publications, data management plans, preprints, FAIR-licensed data, and open peer review reports. These approaches aim to promote the transparency and reusability of scientific outcomes, thereby enabling a fairer and more comprehensive evaluation of scientific achievements.While Open Science aims to enhance transparency, accessibility, and collaboration, the introduction of numerous new metrics to measure openness has led to unintended consequences. These metrics often rely on quantitative indicators, which conflict with the holistic and qualitative approaches advocated by initiatives such as CoARA and DORA. The core issue is that these metrics are designed not only to measure but also to influence researchers' behavior. This can


id: open-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:25.714031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disadvantages === Arguments against open science tend to focus on the advantages of data ownership and concerns about the misuse of data, but see. Other concerns around data misuse involve privacy and safety risks that arise from ecological data on protected animal populations or sensitive data on human specimens that could potentially be re-identified and lead to hard and stigma for certain populations. Potential misuse Allowing open access can bring documented cases of misuse, and such misuse can take various forms from accidental errors to intentional forms of misuse like misrepresenting data in order to manipulate or deceive. In 2011, Dutch researchers announced their intention to publish a research paper in the journal Science describing the creation of a strain of H5N1 influenza which can be easily passed between ferrets, the mammals which most closely mimic the human response to the flu. The announcement triggered a controversy in both political and scientific circles about the ethical implications of publishing scientific data which could be used to create biological weapons. These events are examples of how science data could potentially be misused. It has been argued that constraining the dissemination of dual-use knowledge can in certain cases be justified because,


id: open-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:25.714031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Open-science projects === Different projects conduct, advocate, develop tools for, or fund open science. The Allen Institute for Brain Science conducts numerous open science projects while the Center for Open Science has projects to conduct, advocate, and create tools for open science. Other workgroups have been created in different fields, such as the Decision Analysis in R for Technologies in Health (DARTH) workgroup], which is a multi-institutional, multi-university collaborative effort by researchers who have a common goal to develop transparent and open-source solutions to decision analysis in health. Organizations have extremely diverse sizes and structures. The Open Knowledge Foundation (OKF) is a global organization sharing large data catalogs, running face to face conferences, and supporting open source software projects. In contrast, Blue Obelisk is an informal group of chemists and associated cheminformatics projects. The tableau of organizations is dynamic with some organizations becoming defunct, e.g., Science Commons, and new organizations trying to grow, e.g., the Self-Journal of Science. Common organizing forces include the knowledge domain, type of service provided, and even geography, e.g., OCSDNet's concentration on the developing world. The Allen Brain Atlas maps gene expression in human and mouse brains; the Encyclopedia of Life documents all the terrestrial


id: open-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:25.714031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
F1000Research provides open publishing and open peer review for the life sciences. The Open Library of Humanities is a non-profit open access publisher for the humanities and social sciences. The Journals Library of the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) publishes all relevant documents and data from the onset of research projects, updating them alongside the progress of the study. Journal support for open-science does not conflict with preprint servers: figshare archives and shares images, readings, and other data; and Open Science Framework preprints, arXiv, and HAL Archives Ouvertes provide electronic preprints across many fields. === Software === A variety of computer resources support open science. These include software like the Open Science Framework from the Center for Open Science to manage project information, data archiving and team coordination; distributed computing services like Ibercivis to use unused CPU time for computationally intensive tasks; and services like Experiment.com to provide crowdsourced funding for research projects. Blockchain platforms for open science have been proposed. The first such platform is the Open Science Organization, which aims to solve urgent problems with fragmentation of the scientific ecosystem and difficulties of producing validated, quality science. Among the initiatives of Open Science Organization include


id: academic-spring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Spring-0.md
category: reference
title: Academic Spring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Spring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:27.019255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-spring-20260505-0
summary:
The Academic Spring was the designation, inspired by the Arab Spring, used for a short time in 2012 to indicate movements by academics, researchers, and scholars opposing the restrictive copyright and circulation of traditional academic journals and promoting free access online instead. == History == There have been previous attempts to increase the availability of free and up-to-date scientific research. In 2004, there were reports in British media of a "revolution in academic publishing" which would make research freely available online but many scientists continued to publish their work in the traditional big name journals like Nature. The barriers to free access for recent scientific research became a hot topic in 2012, after a blog post by mathematician Timothy Gowers went viral in January. According to the Financial Times, the movement was named by Dennis Johnson of Melville House Publishing, though scientist Mike Taylor has suggested the name came from The Economist. === Research Works Act === In December 2011 the Research Works Act was proposed in the US Congress to restrict open access to research funded by the US federal government. This followed other similar proposed measures such as the Fair Copyright in Research Works Act. These attempts to


id: academic-torrents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Torrents-0.md
category: reference
title: Academic Torrents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Torrents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:28.240761+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-torrents-20260505-0
summary:
Academic Torrents is a website which enables the sharing of research data using the BitTorrent protocol. The site was founded in November 2013, and is a project of the Institute for Reproducible Research (a 501(c)3 U.S. non-profit corporation). The project is said to be similar to LOCKSS but with a focus on "offering researchers the opportunity to distribute the hosting of their papers and datasets to authors and readers, providing easy access to scholarly works and simultaneously backing them up on computers around the world." == Notable datasets == === Developing Human Connectome Project === The developing Human Connectome Project related to the Human Connectome Project uses the platform. "Researchers from three leading British institutions are using BitTorrent to share over 150 GB of unique high-resolution brain scans of unborn babies with colleagues worldwide... The researchers opted to go for the Academic Torrents tracker, which specializes in sharing research data" === CrossRef metadata === The site hosts public metadata releases from Crossref which contain over 120+ million metadata records for scholarly work, each with a DOI. This was done so to allow the community to work with the entire database programmatically instead of using their API. "The sheer number of


id: africarxiv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AfricArXiv-0.md
category: reference
title: AfricArXiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AfricArXiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:29.489369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: africarxiv-20260505-0
summary:
AfricArXiv is an open-access repository for preprints of academic publications which are either about Africa or by African scientists. The platform was established in 2018. It was established to make preprint servers more available in various fields and regions. Its establishment happen during trends to provide more digital services to support science in Africa. From its founding the platform welcomed publications in any African language. In July 2020 the platform began hosting audio and video files. The Center for Open Science hosts the platform. The cost of operating the servers is significant and that organization takes a fee to cover its costs. Preprints can be submitted to AfricArXiv via ScienceOpen. Users need to have a verified ORCID digital identifier and should include in their manuscripts a short summary translation in a traditional African language. After a member of the AfricArXiv team has checked the submission for formal criteria and approved the manuscript, it will be posted with a Crossref DOI and CC BY 4.0 attribution license. == See also == List of preprint repositories == References == == Further consideration == Ahinon, Justin Sègbédji; Arafat, Hisham; Ahmad, Umar; Achampong, Joyce; Aldirdiri, Osman; Ayodele, Obasegun Tekena; Okelo, Luke; Bezuidenhout, Louise; Cary,


id: allen-brain-atlas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas-0.md
category: reference
title: Allen Brain Atlas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:30.624975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allen-brain-atlas-20260505-0
summary:
The Allen Mouse and Human Brain Atlases are projects within the Allen Institute for Brain Science which seek to combine genomics with neuroanatomy by creating gene expression maps for the mouse and human brain. They were initiated in September 2003 with a $100 million donation from Paul G. Allen and the first atlas went public in September 2006. As of May 2012, seven brain atlases have been published: Mouse Brain Atlas, Human Brain Atlas, Developing Mouse Brain Atlas, Developing Human Brain Atlas, Mouse Connectivity Atlas, Non-Human Primate Atlas, and Mouse Spinal Cord Atlas. There are also three related projects with data banks: Glioblastoma, Mouse Diversity, and Sleep. It is the hope of the Allen Institute that their findings will help advance various fields of science, especially those surrounding the understanding of neurobiological diseases. The atlases are free and available for public use online. == History == In 2001, Paul Allen gathered a group of scientists, including James Watson and Steven Pinker, to discuss the future of neuroscience and what could be done to enhance neuroscience research (Jones 2009). During these meetings David Anderson from the California Institute of Technology proposed the idea that a three-dimensional atlas of gene expression in


id: allen-brain-atlas-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas-1.md
category: reference
title: Allen Brain Atlas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:30.624975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allen-brain-atlas-20260505-0
summary:
== Brain explorer == The Allen Brain Atlas website contains a downloadable 3-D interactive Brain explorer. The explorer is essentially a search engine for locations of gene expression; this is particularly useful in finding regions that express similar genes. Users can delineate networks and pathways using this application by connecting regions that co-express a certain gene. The explorer uses a multicolor scale and contains multiple planes of the brain that let viewers see differences in density and expression level. The images are a composite of many averaged samples so it is useful when comparing to individuals with abnormally low gene expression. == Atlases == === Mouse Brain === The Allen Mouse Brain Atlas is a comprehensive genome-wide map of the adult mouse brain that reveals where each gene is expressed. The mouse brain atlas was the original project of the Allen Brain Atlas and was finished in 2006. The purpose of the atlas is to aid in the development of neuroscience research. The hope of the project is that it will allow scientists to gain a better understanding of brain diseases and disorders such as autism and depression. === Human Brain === The Allen Human Brain Atlas was made public


id: allen-institute-for-brain-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Allen Institute for Brain Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:31.866751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allen-institute-for-brain-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Allen Institute for Brain Science is a division of the Allen Institute, based in Seattle, Washington, that focuses on bioscience research. Founded in 2003, it is dedicated to accelerating the understanding of how the human brain works. With the intent of catalyzing brain research in different areas, the Allen Institute provides free data and tools to scientists. Started with $100 million in seed money from Microsoft co-founder and philanthropist Paul Allen in 2003, the institute tackles projects at the leading edge of science—far-reaching projects at the intersection of biology and technology. The resulting data create free, publicly available resources that fuel discovery for countless researchers. Hongkui Zeng is the current director of the institute. == History and funding == The Allen Institute for Brain Science is a scientific division of the Allen Institute, a nonprofit research organization that also includes the Allen Institute for Cell Science, launched in 2014. The Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group was launched in 2016 while the Allen Institute for Immunology was launched in 2018. All four divisions of the Allen Institute are housed in the same building in Seattle's South Lake Union neighborhood. The institute employs a business model that combines the operational agility


id: allen-institute-for-brain-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Allen Institute for Brain Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:31.866751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allen-institute-for-brain-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Allen Brain Observatory === The Allen Brain Observatory was launched in 2016 to capture cellular-level activity of neurons in the mouse visual cortex. Experiments through the observatory use visual or electrical readouts of neural activity as animals see visual stimuli, ranging from natural images to black and white grid lines to a clip from the Orson Welles film noir, Touch of Evil. In 2018, the institute opened the observatory for research projects proposed by scientists from the broader community through a program called OpenScope, which was modeled after large-scale shared physics observatories such as the Hubble Space Telescope. === Other online resources === In addition to the atlas resources, the Allen Institute has generated several other online research tools, including: The Ivy Glioblastoma Atlas Project (Ivy GAP), a platform for exploring the anatomic and genetic basis of glioblastoma at the cellular and molecular levels. The BrainSpan Atlas of the Developing Human Brain, a resource for studying human brain development developed by a consortium of scientific partners and funded by awards from the National Institutes of Health. == Awards == Forbes – 30 Under 30 Rising Stars Transforming Science and Health to Allen Institute scientist Adrian Cheng (2012) Cajal Club


id: amsterdam-call-for-action-on-open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Call_for_Action_on_Open_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Amsterdam Call for Action on Open Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Call_for_Action_on_Open_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:34.425599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amsterdam-call-for-action-on-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Amsterdam Call for Action on Open Science is a document that advocates for "full open access for all scientific publications", and endorses an environment where "data sharing and stewardship is the default approach for all publicly funded research". == History == The Amsterdam Call for Action on Open Science was first produced as a draft at an Open Science meeting that was organized by the Dutch Presidency of the Council of the European Union on April 4 and 5, 2016, in Amsterdam. The draft presented to meeting participants in the morning of the 5th had twelve actions. These were commented on by participants, split up in various parallel sessions, and refined during the afternoon. The edits were not completed during the meeting and unlike the meeting schedule suggested, the Call text was not released on the 5th. Nevertheless, the draft was symbolically presented to Sander Dekker and the Dutch Presidency. On April 6, the updated version was released for public commenting on a wiki. In a mail which participants received it was stated that comments could be placed until 14 April. The finalised Call for Action was input to the Competitiveness Council on 27 May, led by the Dutch


id: arxiv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv-0.md
category: reference
title: ArXiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:35.617982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arxiv-20260505-0
summary:
arXiv (pronounced as "archive"—the X represents the Greek letter chi ⟨χ⟩) is an open-access repository of electronic preprints and postprints (known as e-prints) approved for posting after moderation, but not peer reviewed. It consists of scientific papers in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, electrical engineering, computer science, quantitative biology, statistics, mathematical finance, and economics, which can be accessed online. In many fields of mathematics and physics, almost all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository before publication in a peer-reviewed journal. Some publishers also grant permission for authors to archive the peer-reviewed postprint. Begun on August 14, 1991, arxiv.org passed the half-million-article milestone on October 3, 2008. By the end of 2014, it had surpassed one million articles, and it reached two million by the end of 2021. As of November 2024, the submission rate is about 24,000 articles per month. == History == arXiv was made possible by the compact TeX file format, which allowed scientific papers to be easily transmitted over the Internet and rendered client-side. Around 1990, Joanne Cohn began emailing physics preprints to colleagues as TeX files, but the number of papers being sent soon filled mailboxes to capacity. Paul Ginsparg recognized the need


id: arxiv-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv-1.md
category: reference
title: ArXiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:35.617982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arxiv-20260505-0
summary:
== Moderation process and endorsement == Although arXiv is not peer reviewed, a collection of moderators for each area review the submissions; they may recategorize any that are deemed off-topic, or reject submissions that are not scientific papers, or sometimes for undisclosed reasons. The lists of moderators for many sections of arXiv are publicly available, but moderators for most of the physics sections remain unlisted. In addition to human moderators, all submissions are checked via an automated quality control process, ensuring a baseline standard of professionalism. Additionally, an "endorsement" system was introduced in 2004 as part of an effort to ensure content is relevant and of interest to current research in the specified disciplines. Under the system, for categories that use it, an author must be endorsed by an established arXiv author before being allowed to submit papers to those categories. Endorsers are not asked to review the paper for errors but to check whether the paper is appropriate for the intended subject area. New authors from recognized academic institutions generally receive automatic endorsement, which in practice means that they do not need to deal with the endorsement system at all. However, the endorsement system has attracted criticism for allegedly


id: berkeley-initiative-for-transparency-in-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Initiative_for_Transparency_in_the_Social_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Initiative_for_Transparency_in_the_Social_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:36.831505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: berkeley-initiative-for-transparency-in-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences, abbreviated BITSS, is an academic initiative dedicated to advancing transparency, reproducibility, and openness in social science research. It was established in 2012 by the University of California, Berkeley's Center for Effective Global Action. It has worked with the Center for Open Science to define and promote a set of best practices for social scientists to maximize transparency in their research. BITSS has also worked to promote registered reports, supporting journals like the Journal of Development Economics in taking up the review track. In 2015, BITSS began awarding the annual Leamer-Rosenthal Prizes for Open Social Science to honor outstanding achievements and emerging leaders in promoting transparency in social science. Through its Catalyst program, the initiative also supports and empowers over 150 graduate students, faculty, librarians, and early career researchers to advance open science all over the world. Their annual Research Transparency and Reproducibility Training (RT2) provides an overview of and hands-on practice with tools and practices for transparent and reproducible social science research. Their Massive Open Online Course "Transparent and Open Social Science Research,” based on a UC Berkeley course taught by Edward Miguel, is available on the FutureLearn platform. In 2019,


id: bgee-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bgee-0.md
category: reference
title: Bgee
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bgee
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:38.088134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bgee-20260505-0
summary:
Bgee is a database maintained by the SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics and the University of Lausanne for retrieval and comparison of gene expression patterns from RNA-Seq, scRNA-Seq, Microarray, In situ hybridization and EST studies, across multiple animal species. Bgee provides an intuitive answer to the question where is a gene expressed? and supports research in cancer and agriculture, as well as evolutionary biology. Bgee is based exclusively on curated, healthy wild-type, expression data (i.e., no gene knock-out, no treatment, no disease), to provide a comparable reference of healthy wild-type gene expression. Bgee produces calls of presence/absence of expression, and of differential over-/under-expression, integrated along with information of gene orthology, and of homology between organs. This allows comparisons of expression patterns between species. Bgee allows searches by gene, organ / tissue / cell type and developmental stage. Bgee is a part of Global Core Biodata Resources (GCBRs) and ELIXIR Core Data Resources representing "critical components for ensuring the reproducibility and integrity of life sciences research." Bgee is also an ELIXIR Recommended Interoperability Resources that facilitate the FAIR-supporting activities in scientific research. == References == == Further reading == == External links == "Bgee is a new ELIXIR Recommended Interoperability Resources".


id: binder-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Binder Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:39.320312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: binder-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Binder Project is a software project to package and share interactive, reproducible environments. A Binder or "Binder-ready repository" is a code repository that contains both code and content to run, and configuration files for the environment needed to run it. Since 2017, when the Binder Project was merged into the JupyterHub project, the development communities share many people in common. A common use of Binder is for sharing a Jupyter notebook in a way that the recipient can immediately execute in a browser. The Binder project maintains core libraries and documentation for running Binder services, which make those projects available, as well as BinderHub, a tool for deploying such services via common cloud computing environments. A public BinderHub portal is hosted by the community at mybinder.org. == BinderHub == A BinderHub lets you launch a publicly executable version of a Binder repository. Given a URL to a repository, it generates a new URL that anyone can visit in a browser to interact with a running version of the code in that repository. The public BinderHub, mybinder.org, load-balances Binder instances across a federation of contributing institutions, each of which is running its own BinderHub instance. == See also == Project


id: bioinformatics-research-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics_Research_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Bioinformatics Research Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics_Research_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:40.463374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bioinformatics-research-network-20260505-0
summary:
Bioinformatics Research Network (BRN) is a non-profit open-science research-based organization aiming to provide volunteer opportunities and bioinformatics research training that is free and open to everyone. It is a community-driven 501(c)(3) non-profit organization that aims to establish a worldwide network that is open to anyone interested in bioinformatics irrespective of academic background and to provide bioinformatics training, mentorship and the opportunity to collaborate on exciting research projects. == Training and projects == BRN provides free training workshops through its partner group Bioinformatics Interest Group. BIG is a student club of The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio established to promote the development of student bioinformaticians and encourage the growth of bioinformatics skills in the community. BRN is open to academic labs to host projects for open collaboration. These projects are then available for everyone to contribute. To work on a project, a volunteer has to complete the required skill assessments for the specific project and apply to the respected team. The decision to allow the volunteer to work depends on the team of the respective project. == Publication == BRN has published its projects in BioRxiv and in peer-reviewed journals. == References == == External links ==


id: blue-obelisk-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Obelisk-0.md
category: reference
title: Blue Obelisk
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Obelisk
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:41.807038+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blue-obelisk-20260505-0
summary:
Blue Obelisk is an informal group of chemists who promote open data, open source, and open standards; it was initiated by Peter Murray-Rust and others in 2005. Multiple open source cheminformatics projects associate themselves with the Blue Obelisk, among which, in alphabetical order, Avogadro, Bioclipse, cclib, Chemistry Development Kit, GaussSum, JChemPaint, JOELib, Kalzium, Openbabel, OpenSMILES, and UsefulChem. The project has handed out personal awards for achievements in promoting Open Data, Open Source and Open Standards. Among those who received a Blue Obelisk Award are: Christoph Steinbeck (2006) Geoff Hutchinson (2006) Bob Hanson (2006), Egon Willighagen (2007) Jean-Claude Bradley (2007) Ola Spjuth (2007) Noel O'Boyle (2010) Rajarshi Guha (2010) Cameron Neylon (2010) Alex Wade (2010) Nina Jeliazkova (2010) Henry Rzepa (2011) Dan Zaharevitz (2011) Sam Adams (2011) Jens Thomas (2011) Marcus Hanwell (2011) Roger Sayle (2011) the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (2012) Saulius Gražulis (2014) Antony Williams (2014) Daniel Lowe (2014) Andrew Lang (2014) Matthew H. Todd (2014) Greg Landrum (2016) Mark Forster (2016) John Mayfield (2017) == See also == Cheminformatics == References == == External links == Official website Twitter account


id: jean-claude-bradley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Claude_Bradley-0.md
category: reference
title: Jean-Claude Bradley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Claude_Bradley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:43.088187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jean-claude-bradley-20260505-0
summary:
Jean-Claude Bradley was a chemist who actively promoted Open Science in chemistry, including at the White House, for which he was awarded the Blue Obelisk award in 2007. He coined the term "Open Notebook science". He died in May 2014. A memorial symposium was held July 14, 2014 at Cambridge University, UK. One outcome of his Open Notebook work is the collection of physicochemical properties of organic compounds he was studying. All of this data he made available as Open data under the CCZero license. For example, in 2009 Bradley et al. published their work on making solubility data of organic compounds available as Open data. Later, the melting point data set he collaborated on with Andrew Lang and Antony Williams was published with Figshare. Both data sets were also made available as books via the Lulu.com self-publishing platform. He blogged extensively and contributed to at least 25 individual blogs. In an interview in 2008 with Bora Zivkovic titled "Doing Science Publicly", he spoke of his work and online presence. In 2010, he gave an extensive interview about the impact of Open Notebook science with Richard Poynder. == References == == External links == Jean-Claude Bradley's Google Scholar Citations Page


id: center-for-open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Open_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Center for Open Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Open_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:44.226264+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-for-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Open Science is a non-profit technology organization based in Charlottesville, Virginia with a mission to "increase the openness, integrity, and reproducibility of scientific research." Brian Nosek and Jeffrey Spies founded the organization in January 2013, funded mainly by the Laura and John Arnold Foundation and others. The organization began with work in reproducibility of psychology research, with the large-scale initiative Reproducibility Project: Psychology. A second reproducibility project for cancer biology research has also been started through a partnership with Science Exchange. In March 2017, the Center published a detailed strategic plan. Brian Nosek posted a letter outlining the history of the Center and future directions. In 2020, the Center received a grant from Fast Grants to promote the publication of COVID-19 research on the platform. In 2021, the Center for Open Science was honored with the Einstein Foundation Award for Promoting Quality in Research in the institutional category for their contribution to fostering research integrity and to improving transparency and accessibility. == Open Science Framework == === Reproducibility project === The Open Science Framework (OSF) is an open source software project that facilitates open collaboration in science research. The framework was initially used to work on a


id: consortia-advancing-standards-in-research-administration-information-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Consortia Advancing Standards in Research Administration Information
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consortia_Advancing_Standards_in_Research_Administration_Information
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:46.970967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consortia-advancing-standards-in-research-administration-information-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consortia_Advancing_Standards_in_Research_Administration_Information-0.md

summary:
The Consortia Advancing Standards in Research Administration Information (CASRAI), also known as CASRAI, is an active international non-profit organization that focuses on reducing administrative burdens and improving reporting outcomes in research through standardization of information management. The organization is currently operated by a committee of The Health Initiative, a 501(c)(3) organization, with administrative operations coordinated through Hospital.org.uk and Pango.Network. Its members include universities, colleges, teaching hospitals, and other research institutions worldwide. While maintaining its presence in Fairfax, Virginia, United States, the organization has expanded its operations internationally with partial sponsorship from the University of Oxford and University of Edinburgh. == Overview == CASRAI develops and maintains standard information agreements, which define the necessary data elements for key business processes in the research lifecycle and provide definitions for related terms. These standardized infrastructures developed by CASRAI can be integrated into local software systems and processes to facilitate consistent and comparable sharing of research information across the lifecycle. The standards are available in an online dictionary, facilitating the exchange of information in consistent formats, such as CERIF-XML. As of 2025, CASRAI hosts over 200 million DOIs and provides researchers with the capability to claim their contributions using the Credit taxonomy system. These


id: the-cost-of-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cost_of_Knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: The Cost of Knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cost_of_Knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:48.132696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-cost-of-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The Cost of Knowledge is a protest by academics against the business practices of academic journal publisher Elsevier. Among the reasons for the protests were a call for lower prices for journals and to promote increased open access to information. The main work of the project was to ask researchers to sign a statement committing not to support Elsevier journals by publishing, performing peer review, or providing editorial services for these journals. == History == Before the advent of the Internet, it was difficult for scholars to distribute articles giving their research results. Historically, publishers performed services including proofreading, typesetting, copyediting, printing, and worldwide distribution. In more recent times, all researchers became expected to give the publishers digital copies of their work which needed no further processing – in other words, the modern academic is expected to do, often for free, duties traditionally assigned to the publisher, and for which, traditionally, the publisher is paid in exchange. For digital distribution, printing is unnecessary, copying is (almost) free, and worldwide distribution happens online instantly. Internet technology, and with it the aforementioned significant decrease in overhead costs, enabled the four major scientific publishers – Elsevier, Springer, Wiley, and Informa – to cut


id: the-cost-of-knowledge-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cost_of_Knowledge-1.md
category: reference
title: The Cost of Knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cost_of_Knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:48.132696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-cost-of-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
=== Impact and reception === In February 2012, analysts of the Exane Paribas bank reported a financial impact on Elsevier with the company's stock prices falling due to the boycott. Dennis Snower criticised the monopoly of scientific publishers, but said at the same time that he did not support the boycott even though he himself is the editor-in-chief of an open-access journal on economics. He thinks that more competition among the various journals should instead be encouraged. The Senate of the University of Kansas has been reported to consider joining the boycott of Elsevier. In allusion to the revolutions of the Arab Spring, the German Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung daily newspaper called the movement the "Academic Spring" (German: Akademischer Frühling). When the British Wellcome Trust made a commitment to open up science, The Guardian similarly called this the "Academic Spring". After the Wellcome Trust announcement, The Cost of Knowledge campaign was recognized by that newspaper as the start of something new. A 2016 study evaluating the boycott stated that in the past four years 38% of signatories had abandoned their "won't publish in an Elsevier outlet" commitment and that only around 5000 researchers were still clearly boycotting Elsevier by publishing elsewhere.


id: covid-moonshot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Moonshot-0.md
category: reference
title: COVID Moonshot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Moonshot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:49.398528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-moonshot-20260505-0
summary:
The COVID Moonshot is a collaborative open-science project started in March 2020 with the goal of developing an un-patented oral antiviral drug to treat SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing COVID-19. COVID Moonshot researchers are targeting the proteins needed to form functioning new viral proteins. They are particularly interested in proteases such as 3C-like protease (Mpro), a coronavirus nonstructural protein that mediates the breaking and replication of proteins. COVID Moonshot may be the first open-science community effort for the development of an antiviral drug. Hundreds of scientists around the world, from academic and industrial organizations, have shared their expertise, resources, data, and results to more rapidly identify, screen, and test candidate compounds for the treatment of COVID-19. == Project history == Development of antiviral drugs is a complicated and time-consuming multistage process. The public sharing of information in the early stages of genome identification and protein structure identification has accelerated the process of searching for COVID-19 treatments and established a basis for the COVID Moonshot initiative. === Genome identification === On January 3, 2020, Chinese virologist Yong-Zhen Zhang of Fudan University and the Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center received a test sample from Wuhan, China, where patients had a pneumonia-like illness. By


id: covid-moonshot-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Moonshot-1.md
category: reference
title: COVID Moonshot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID_Moonshot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:49.398528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-moonshot-20260505-0
summary:
The design submissions were stored in Collaborative Drug Discovery's CDD Vault, a database used for large-scale management of chemical structures, experimental protocols and experimental results. Alpha Lee and Matt Robinson brought computational expertise from PostEra to the project. PostEra used techniques from artificial intelligence and machine learning to develop analysis tools for computational drug discovery, chemical synthesis and biochemical assays. When COVID Moonshot's appeal resulted in not hundreds but thousands of responses, they built a platform capable of triaging large numbers of compounds and designing routes for their synthetic formation. Supercomputer access was provided through the COVID-19 High Performance Computing (HPC) Consortium, accelerating the speed at which designs could be examined and compared. The distributed supercomputing initiative Folding@home has carried out multiple sprints to model novel protein structures and target desirable structures as a part of COVID Moonshot. Many of the criteria for selecting drug candidates were determined by the group's goals. An ideal drug candidate would be effective in treating COVID-19. It also would be easily and cheaply made, so that as many countries and companies as possible could produce and distribute it. The ingredients to make it should be easy to obtain, and the processes involved should be


id: creative-commons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons-0.md
category: reference
title: Creative Commons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:50.632103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creative-commons-20260505-0
summary:
Creative Commons (CC) is an American nonprofit organization and international network devoted to educational access and expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright licenses, known as Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public, to allow authors of creative works to communicate which rights they reserve and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. Content owners still maintain their copyright, but Creative Commons licenses give standard releases that replace the individual negotiations for specific rights between copyright owner (licensor) and licensee, that are necessary under an "all rights reserved" copyright management. As of 2019, there were "nearly 2 billion" works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses. Wikipedia and its sister projects use one of these licenses. According to a 2017 report, Flickr alone hosted over 415 million cc-licensed photos, along with around 49 million works in YouTube, 40 million works in DeviantArt and 37 million works in Wikimedia Commons. The licenses are also used by Stack Exchange, MDN, Internet Archive, Khan Academy, LibreTexts, OpenStax, MIT OpenCourseWare, WikiHow, TED, OpenStreetMap, GeoGebra, Doubtnut, Fandom, Arduino, ccmixter.org, and Ninjam, among others,


id: creative-commons-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons-1.md
category: reference
title: Creative Commons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:50.632103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creative-commons-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bassel Khartabil === Bassel Khartabil was a Palestinian Syrian open source software developer who served as a project lead and public affiliate for Creative Commons Syria. On March 15, 2012, he was detained by the Syrian government in Damascus at Adra Prison for no crime. On October 17, 2015, the Creative Commons Board of Directors passed a resolution calling for Bassel Khartabil's release. In 2017, Bassel's wife received confirmation that Bassel had been killed shortly after she lost contact with him in 2015. == Evolution of CC licenses == All current CC licenses (except the CC0 Public Domain Dedication tool) require attribution (attributing the authors of the original creative works), which can be inconvenient for works based on multiple other works. Critics feared that Creative Commons could erode the copyright system over time, or allow "some of our most precious resources – the creativity of individuals – to be simply tossed into the commons to be exploited by whomever has spare time and a magic marker." Critics also worried that the lack of rewards for content producers would dissuade artists from publishing their work, and questioned whether Creative Commons would enable the commons that it aimed to create. Creative


id: creative-commons-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons-2.md
category: reference
title: Creative Commons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:50.632103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creative-commons-20260505-0
summary:
Various commentators have reported confusion in understanding what "noncommercial" use means. Creative Commons issued a report in 2009, "Defining noncommercial", which presented research and various perspectives. The report claimed that noncommercial to many people means "no exchange of money or any commerce". Beyond that simple statement, many people disagree on whether noncommercial use permits publishing on websites supported with advertising, sharing noncommercial media through nonprofit publishing for a fee, and many other practices in contemporary media distribution. Creative Commons has not sought to resolve the confusion, in part because of high consumer demand for the noncommercial license as is with its ambiguity. === Personality rights === In 2007, Virgin Mobile Australia launched a bus stop advertising campaign which promoted its mobile phone text messaging service using the work of amateur photographers who uploaded their work to the photo-sharing site Flickr using a Creative Commons by Attribution license. Users licensing their images this way freed their work for use by any other entity, as long as the original creator was attributed credit, without any other compensation being required. Virgin upheld this single restriction by printing a URL, leading to the photographer's Flickr page, on each of their ads. However, one picture


id: creative-commons-india-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons_India-0.md
category: reference
title: Creative Commons India
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons_India
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:51.894516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creative-commons-india-20260505-0
summary:
Creative Commons India Chapter is the country-level Chapter of Creative Commons in India. It organises online and offline events on various aspects related to open content, Open Educational Resources, Creative Commons licensed publishing and the use of Open Access textbooks in schools. == History == CC India Chapter was set up under its current team on September 1, 2018. Its Chapter Lead is Savithri Singh. Subhashish Panigrahi is representative to the Global Network Council. Earlier, the India Chapter was relaunched in 2013. It was originally launched in India in 2007, and by 2013, the Creative Commons had been tailor-made for India law. Wikimedia India, the Acharya Narendra Dev College, and the Centre for Internet and Society (India) were the key organisations were the key part of the Chapter with a focus respectively on outreach, open educational research, and legal support. The CC India network was initially housed at IIT Bombay. Its goals have included "raising awareness on licenses and open education resources, connecting with photography communities, content donation and participating in affiliate network." == Initiatives == Among the initiatives taken up in India on the Creative Commons front are: In 2019, the Indian State of Odisha (earlier Orissa), announced that


id: data-collaboratives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collaboratives-0.md
category: reference
title: Data collaboratives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collaboratives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:53.027907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-collaboratives-20260505-0
summary:
Data collaboratives (sometimes called "corporate data philanthropy") are a form of collaboration in which participants from different sectors—including private companies, research institutions, and government agencies—can exchange data and data expertise to help solve public problems. == Types == Data collaboratives can take many forms. They can be organized as: Public Interfaces: Private firms publish select data assets to be public for use by external parties. Firms typically present this information as Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) or data platforms. Trusted Intermediary: Private sector firms share data with partners from public, civil society actors, and academia. Data can be brokered by third parties, who provide valuable data under fixed terms and time limits to non-private organizations. It can also be run through third-party analytics, which shares data with data stewards to run analysis and share those findings with external actors, providing the outcomes of the data without exposing the sensitive information. Data Pooling: Multi-sectoral stakeholders join "data pools" to share data resources. Public data pools allow partners to openly access and independently use the data, while private data pools limit access and contribution to the information. Research and Analysis Partnership: Organizations share data and "proprietary data assets" with public and academic institutions


id: data-collaboratives-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collaboratives-1.md
category: reference
title: Data collaboratives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collaboratives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:53.027907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-collaboratives-20260505-0
summary:
AI4BetterHearts: A global data cooperative established by the Novartis Foundation and Microsoft to improve cardiovascular health with the aim of using AI and data analytics to tackle heart disease. The Chicago Data Collaborative: An effort by newsrooms, academics, and non-profit organizations to source data from public agencies, organize and document the data, and link it for a better and comprehensive understanding of the criminal justice system. The Counter Trafficking Data Collaborative: A data collaborative working to curb human trafficking through data contributed by various countries and is maintained by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and Polaris. CubeIQ: An offline intelligence and measurement company helping marketers understand the true impact of their cross-channel advertising in the offline world. Their "Data For Good" program provides access to anonymous, privacy-compliant location data for academic research and humanitarian initiatives related to human mobility. Data Collaborative for Justice: A project at the John Jay College that leverages community data to research the operations of the criminal justice system and create informed and transparent frameworks for criminal justice reform. The Health Data Collaborative: A multi-agency, multilateral effort active in five African countries that provides a collaborative platform to leverage technical and financial resources at all


id: data-publishing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_publishing-0.md
category: reference
title: Data publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:54.244819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
Data publishing (also data publication) is the act of releasing research data in published form for use by others. It is a practice consisting in preparing certain data or data set(s) for public use thus to make them available to everyone to use as they wish. This practice is an integral part of the open science movement. There is a large and multidisciplinary consensus on the benefits resulting from this practice. The main goal is to elevate data to be first class research outputs. There are a number of initiatives underway as well as points of consensus and issues still in contention. There are several distinct ways to make research data available, including: publishing data as supplemental material associated with a research article, typically with the data files hosted by the publisher of the article hosting data on a publicly available website, with files available for download hosting data in a repository that has been developed to support data publication, e.g. figshare, Dryad, Dataverse, Zenodo. A large number of general and specialty (such as by research topic) data repositories exist. For example, the UK Data Service enables users to deposit data collections and re-share these for research purposes. publishing a


id: dataverse-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dataverse-0.md
category: reference
title: Dataverse
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dataverse
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:56.764149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dataverse-20260505-0
summary:
The Dataverse is an open source web application to share, preserve, cite, explore and analyze research data. Researchers, data authors, publishers, data distributors, and affiliated institutions all receive appropriate credit via a data citation with a persistent identifier (e.g., DOI, or handle). A Dataverse repository hosts multiple dataverses. Each dataverse contains dataset(s) or other dataverses, and each dataset contains descriptive metadata and data files (including documentation and code that accompany the data). In 2019, Dataverse won the Duke's Choice Award for university and higher education. == Background == The Dataverse Project is housed and developed by the Dataverse Team at the Institute for Quantitative Social Science (IQSS) at Harvard University. Coding of the Dataverse (previously known as Dataverse Network) software began in 2006 under the leadership of Mercè Crosas and Gary King. The earlier Virtual Data Center (VDC) project, which spanned 1999-2006, was organized by Micah Altman, Gary King, and Sidney Verba as a collaboration between the Harvard-MIT Data Center (now part of IQSS) and the Harvard University Library. Precursors to the VDC date to 1987, comprising such entities as a stand-alone software guide to local data, preweb software, and tools to transfer cataloging information by FTP to other sites


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
The economics of open science describe the economic aspects of making a wide range of scientific outputs (e.g., publications, data, software) to all levels of society. Open science involves a plurality of economic models and goods. Historically, academic journals and other academic institutions, such as learned societies, have favored a knowledge club or a toll access model: publications are managed as a community service for the selected benefit of academic readers and authors. During the second half of the 20th century, the "big 5" largest publishers (Elsevier, Springer, Wiley, Taylor & Francis, and the American Chemical Society) have partly absorbed or outcompeted non-profits structure and applied an industrial approach to scholarly publishing. The development of the web shifted the focus of scholarly communication from publication to a large variety of outputs (data, software, metrics). It also challenged the values and the organization of existing actors with the development of an international initiatives in favor of open access and open science. While initially distanced by new competitors, the main commercial publishers have started to flip to author-pay models after 2000, funded through article processing charges and the negotiation of transformative deals. Actors like Elsevier or Wiley have diversified their activities from


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Open science club === The economic theory of club goods was originally developed in the 1965 by James Buchanan to complement the distinction between private and public goods. While clubs are private organizations they also manage the allocation of the resources between the individual members, in a similar manner to a public service. Membership criteria are a fundamental feature of clubs and affect their efficiency: "The central question in a theory of clubs is that of determining the membership margin, so to speak, the size of the most desirable cost and consumption sharing arrangement." ==== Definitions of knowledge club ==== Before the Second World War, academic publishing was mostly characterized by a wide range of community-driven scholarly structures with little concerns for profitability. They relied on informal community norms rather than commercial regulations. Theses structures have been described as knowledge clubs: "until the second part of the twentieth century, most journals could be assimilated to a club model". While managed by a community and publicly available, knowledge club are demic and mostly used to the benefit of their members. As a defining feature of the club model, scientific authors are not paid for their publications: "ever since the first


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Knowledge club and open science ==== The OA Diamond Study states that non-commercial journals in open access "maintain a secular tradition of "club" journals, set up for the uses and interests of a specific closed community of knowledge." While access to read is no longer a material condition for membership, non-commercial journals are still largely managed for the benefits of a community. They are "still strongly embedded in institutional environments (from a legal and governance perspective)." Club journals have gained a new relevance with the development of electronic publishing and played a fundamental role in the early development of online open science in the early 1990s. Pioneers of open access electronic publishings were non-commercial and community-driven initiatives that built up on a trend of grassroot publishing innovation in the social sciences and the humanities: "In the late '80s and early '90s, a host of new journal titles launched on listservs and (later) the Web. Journals such as Postmodern Cultures, Surfaces, the Bryn Mawr Classical Review and the Public-Access Computer Systems Review were all managed by scholars and library workers rather than publishing professionals." The development of the web and free editing tools for scientific publications like Open Journal System


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
The small society presses, struggling to cope with growing scale, were supported and then largely supplanted by the 'Big 5' commercial presses: Elsevier (which acquired Pergamon in 1991), Wiley, Springer, Taylor & Francis and Sage. These newly-empowered players brought an industrial approach to the publication and dissemination process, for the first time realising the benefits that these specialised capital and skills could provide by operating at a scale that was unprecedented to that date. As it became a private good, the scientific journal was also transformed into an industrial product, with an increased standardization of publishing norms, peer-review process or copyrights. In contrast smaller scientific publishers participate to a more typical publishing market, with a persistent competition. Four out of the five most costly journals "are published by big five publishers". With the conversion to electronic journals, scientific publishing became a hybrid market: along with individual subscriptions, leading publishers introduced big deals or pluri-annual licenses to large bundle of journal titles. Big deals were typically negotiated with national networks of research libraries and academic institutions. Big deals proved advantageous to publishers as well as they limited the "administrative costs" of managing a large number of contracts between journals and buyers.


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== From readers to authors: hybrid and full open access ==== The early developments of Open science and the open sharing of scientific publication on the web was at first a challenge for leading commercial publishers: the executive board of Elsevier "had failed to grasp the significance of electronic publishing altogether, and therefore the deadly danger that it posed—the danger, namely, that scientists would be able to manage without the journal". Initial experiments of scientific journals were mostly led by non-commercial initiatives. Commercially viable open access journals have appeared in the late 1990s, under the leadership of new competitors such as the Public Library of Science (PLOS), MDPI or Hindawi. They relies generally on the author-pay model: the journal provides an editorial service to the author of a publication and charge an article-processing charge to cover the editing costs. This practice is anterior to open access, as subscription-based journals held by scientific societies occasionally charged for additional services (such as photographies in color). For Peter Suber, this economic model is similar to broadcast television: "If advertisers can pay all the costs of production, then a TV studio can broadcast a show without charging viewers. In the case of scholarly research


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
the largest supplier of academic journals is also in charge of evaluating and validating research quality and impact (e.g., Pure, Plum Analytics, Sci Val), identifying academic experts for potential employers (e.g., Expert Lookup5), managing the research networking platforms through which to collaborate (e.g., SSRN, Hivebench, Mendeley), managing the tools through which to find funding (e.g., Plum X, Mendeley, Sci Val), and controlling the platforms through which to analyze and store researchers' data (e.g., Hivebench, Mendeley). Since it has expanded beyond publishing, the vertical integration of privately owned infrastructures has become extensively integrated to daily research activities: "the privatised control of scholarly infrastructures is especially noticeable in the context of 'vertical integration' that publishers such as Elsevier and SpringerNature are seeking by controlling all aspects of the research lifecycle, from submission to publication and beyond". In contrast with publication, which was an outsourced business separated from institutional and community activities, the new services developed by large publishers are embedded in the infrastructure of universities and create potentially stronger dependency links: "Pure embeds Elsevier within the university workflow process through its abilities to manage research at the university level, including the provision of a dashboard to facilitate decision making by university research


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== The emergence of digital knowledge commons ==== Until the 1990s open knowledge was not considered as a commons in economic theory but as a "classic example of a pure public good, a good available to all and where one person's use does not subtract from another's use". For Elinor Ostrom and Charlotte Hess, this framework is no longer viable as the principle of non-excludability has been significantly weakened: "new technologies can enable the capture of what were once free and open public goods (...) Knowledge, which can seem so ubiquitous in digital form, is, in reality, more vulnerable than ever before" In a scientific context, examples of new enclosures of public goods may include all the surveillance data systems put in place by Elsevier, Springer or Academic social networks that capturate activities such as social interactions, reference collections. The uncontrolled development of the early web highlighted the need for common management of knowledge resources: "People started to notice behaviors and conditions on the web — congestion, free riding, conflict, overuse, and pollution — that had long been identified with other types of commons." The open access of the 1990s and early 2000s movement aimed to ensure that science will


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Consolidation of the common ecosystem (2015-) ==== Since 2015, open science infrastructures, platforms and journals have converged to the creation of digital academic commons. While they were initially conceived either as a public good (a "grid" that ensure the distribution of a non-excludable resource) or a club good (with a limited range beyond a specific communities), open science infrastructures have been increasingly structured around a shared ecosystem of services and standards has emerged through the network of dependencies from one infrastructure to another. Open science infrastructures face similar issues met by other open institutions such as open data repositories or large scale collaborative project such as Wikipedia: "When we study contemporary knowledge infrastructures we find values of openness often embedded there, but translating the values of openness into the design of infrastructures and the practices of infrastructuring is a complex and contingent process". The conceptual definition of open science infrastructures has been largely influenced by the analysis of Elinor Ostrom on the commons and more specifically on the knowledge commons. In accordance with Ostrom, Cameron Neylon understates that open infrastructures are not only a public good characterized by the management of a pool of common resources but also by


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Editorial work and evaluation === Editorial work and the management of peer review remain the core activity of academic journals and their most identified contribution and service rendered to scientific communities. It is the main expenses of the non-commercial journals surveyed by the OA Diamond Study: "the five main expenses/payables of the journal are editing (531), copy-editing (463), technical and software support (393), typesetting (384), and design (336)". Translation is a frequently quoted added cost, that may have been incentivicized by open science as the potential audience of local non-academic readers create incentives to maintain a multilingual website. Even before their conversion to electronic publishing, non-for-profits journals have maintained an affordable price, due to a nearly exclusive focus on editorial services: "in 2013, the mean price per article in for-profit journals was 3.2 times higher than in non-for-profit journals, and that the corresponding ratio for the median price per article was even 4.33:1". With Internet publication, costs can be significantly lower, due to additional cuts in transaction and labor costs, use of share platforms and infrastructure or reliance on voluntary work: "over 60% of journals reported annual costs in the previous year under $/€10,000, including in-kind contributions." In contrast


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Commercial services and prestige === The overall price per article of commercial publishers is consistently higher than in the non-commercial sectors. This discrepancy has been partly accounted by the maintenance of several services necessary to run a business activity (pricing, transaction management, marketing...), that non-commercial structure can drop entirely with little impact. Leading commercial journals claim to be more selective in regard to article submissions, which has the effect of creating a more complex and time-consuming acceptation workflow: "The more effort a publisher invests in each paper, and the more articles a journal rejects after peer review, the more costly is each accepted article to publish [although] the key question is whether the extra effort adds useful value". Besides, "costs vary widely in this sector". Without any transformation of the editorial workflow or efficiency gain a standard well-established subscription journal could "charge about $3,700 per paper to cover costs". Yet, in a publisher like Nature, the costs would be "at £20,000–30,000 ($30,000–40,000) per paper". In the higher end of the commercial spectrum, cost per articles are more likely to embed services that are not directly related to publishing : "One possible reason for such variation between journals and publishers


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transaction costs === In a market economy, the diffusion of private goods is usually assorted with transactions costs. Theses costs cover all the services required to manage the commoditization of a product, both from the side of the producer as from the side of a consumer. In a wider sense, it encompasses all the work and time allocated all the stakeholders of the transactions to perform it, such as benchmarks, negotiations or contractualizations. Savings on transaction costs are frequently quoted as a significant advantage of non-excludable resource system (common good, public good) over private markets. Since access to the resource is weakly restrained and conditioned by unformal rules, its allocation is less costly overall: "a community could (...) produce better quality outcomes at lower economic costs, because of lower transaction costs, than alternative institutional systems involving private property" According to a 2017 OECD report, market allocation of open knowledge outputs is not sufficiently efficient: as the price of a public good converges to zero, any attempt at setting up a price will result in excessive exclusion and reduced collective benefits. The market may not be the best mechanism for the allocation of a public good, as any price above


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Access costs === Access to pre-existent research outputs such as publications, datasets or code is a major condition of research. The subscription model used to rely on the assumptions that researchers only need to access a few specialized publications. In practice, research is more unpredictible and frequently rely crossing methods and observations from different fields or even different disciplines. In 2011, a survey of JISC showed that 68% of UK researchers felt they did have a sufficiently wide access to journal and conference papers. Non-academic professional audiences experience difficulties in accessing directly relevant research: "a quarter of those in industry/commerce described their current level of access as fairly/very difficult" as "the main barrier was unwillingness to pay". A survey of business use of research in Denmark highlighted a large range of strategies to avoid the high cost of pay-per-view, especially through collaboration with academics that have institutional access. The impact of open access is amplified by the high degree of internationalization of research: "83% of the economic return on cancer research is drawn from research from non-UK sources" which are less likely to be accessible in a subscription-based model. Beyond the extended coverage, Open science can enhance the efficiency


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-12.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research efficiency === Impacts of open science on research efficiency stem from the benefits of enhanced access to previous work. Due to the complexity of bibliography search, closed subscription system "can lead to high levels of duplication—that is, where separate teams work on the same thing unbeknownst to each other." The issue is not limited to academic research, but affect industrial R&D as well: "an analysis of pharmaceutical patents by 18 large companies showed that 86% of target compounds were investigated by two or more companies" Non-publication of data or intermediary results can also have cascading effects on the overall quality of research. Meta-analysis rely on the reproductibility of pre-existent observations and experiments to identify the scientific consensus on a specific topic or field of research. They can be affected by statistical errors and bias, as well as the pre-selection of statistically significant results. Extensive opening of final and intermediary data sources makes it easier to spot potential mistakes. Text and data mining projects have more recently become a major focus of studies on potential gain of research efficiency. In contrast with the standard procedures of state of the art, text mining projects process very large corpus and are


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-13.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Economic and social development === The potential economic impact for open science research outputs is significant. Innovation commons are a major, although overlooked, source of economic growth: "The innovation commons is the true origin of innovation. It is the source from which the subsequent markers of innovation emerge — the entrepreneurial actors, the innovating firms, the new markets, and so on." Recent developments like the growth of data analytics services across a large variety of economic sectors have created further needs for research data: "There are many other values (...) that are promoted through the longterm stewardship and open availability of research data. The rapidly expanding area of artificial intelligence (AI) relies to a great extent on saved data." In 2019, the combined data market of the 27 countries of the European Union and the United Kingdom was estimated at 400 billion euros and had a sustained growth of 7.6% per year. although no estimation was given of the specific value of research data, research institutions were identified as important stakeholders in the emerging ecosystem of "data commons". In 2011, a JISC report estimated that there was 1.8 million knowledge workers in the United Kingdom working in R&D, IT,


id: economics-of-open-science-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science-14.md
category: reference
title: Economics of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:58.091431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Economic regulation of open science == Economic regulation of scientific publishing has long be stuck in a "collective action dilemma", due to the lack of coordinations between all stakeholders: "To truly reduce their costs, librarians would have to build a shared online collection of scholarly resources jointly managed by the academic community as a whole, but individual academic institutions lack the private incentives necessary to invest in a shared collection." Although it was initially expected by some economists, that the academic publishing markets would be structurally disrupted by new open access competitors, change was mostly driven by scientific communities, scientific institutions and, lately, coordinations of funders. In the 2000s, forms of regulation appear at a local scale to solve obvious market failure in the management of open science outuput. Development of research data repositories has been sustained by the implementation of "government or funder mandates for open data that require the producers of data to make them openly accessible". Mandates have been less easily expanded to other scientific outputs such as publications, that could not be covered by open data programs and were already invested by large commercial structures. In the great recession, scientific institutions and libraries had to


id: aled-edwards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aled_Edwards-0.md
category: reference
title: Aled Edwards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aled_Edwards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:59.388204+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aled-edwards-20260505-0
summary:
Aled Morgan Edwards (born June 1, 1962) is the founder and Chief Executive of the Structural Genomics Consortium, a charitable public-private partnership. He is Professor of Medical Genetics and Medical Biophysics at the University of Toronto, Visiting Professor of Chemical Biology at the University of Oxford, and adjunct professor at McGill University. == Early life == Born in Holyhead, Wales, Edwards moved to Canada in 1965 with his parents Undeg and Iwan Edwards, a choral conductor who was awarded the Order of Canada in 1995 for his contributions to Canadian music. == Education == Edwards earned his bachelor's degree (1983) and his Ph.D. (1988) in biochemistry from McGill University supervised by Peter Braun. He carried out post-doctoral studies at Stanford University in the laboratory of Roger Kornberg, where he first crystallized RNA polymerase II, a structure for which Kornberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2006. == Research contributions == From 1992 to 1997, while a professor at McMaster University, Edwards became interested in developing structural biology methods and was among the first to use mass spectrometry to identify regions of proteins prone to crystallization. He used this technique to facilitate the crystallography of key proteins involved in


id: european-open-science-cloud-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Open_Science_Cloud-0.md
category: reference
title: European Open Science Cloud
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Open_Science_Cloud
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:00.674939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-open-science-cloud-20260505-0
summary:
The European Open Science Cloud (EOSC) is a European Commission initiative aiming at developing an infrastructure providing its users with services promoting open science practices. Besides being open science oriented, the envisaged infrastructure is built by aggregating services provided by several providers following a System of systems approach. Its goal is to establish a federation of infrastructures facilitating effortless access to interoperable research assets and enhanced services spanning geographical boundaries and diverse academic fields. The initiative started in 2015 with the plan that its organizers finish it by 2020. A European Union committee on research endorsed a plan for the cloud's development in May 2018. The European Open Science Cloud officially launched in November 2018, starting to provide access to services via their EOSC Portal. Public meetings about the project have emphasized the ideological motivations for promoting open science. == EOSC Governance == The development of EOSC is governed by three bodies: An executive board tasked to ensure implementation and accountability; a Governance board, working as an institutional group gathering representatives from the Member States and Associated Countries and from the Commission to ensure effective supervision of the EOSC implementation; and a Stakeholder Forum working as the community actively contributing


id: expression-atlas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_Atlas-0.md
category: reference
title: Expression Atlas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_Atlas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:01.863682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expression-atlas-20260505-0
summary:
The Expression Atlas is a database maintained by the European Bioinformatics Institute that provides information on gene expression patterns from RNA-Seq and Microarray studies, and protein expression from Proteomics studies. The Expression Atlas allows searches by gene, splice variant, protein attribute, disease, treatment or organism part (cell types/tissues). Individual genes or gene sets can be searched for. All datasets in Expression Atlas have its metadata manually curated and its data analysed through standardised analysis pipelines. There are two components to the Expression Atlas, the Baseline Atlas and the Differential Atlas: == Baseline Atlas == The Baseline Atlas provides information about which gene products are present (and at what abundance) under "normal" conditions. This component of the Expression Atlas consists of RNA-seq experiments from ArrayExpress repositories. It aims to answer questions such as: Which genes are specifically expressed in kidney? What is the expression pattern for gene SAA4 in normal tissues? == Differential Atlas == The Differential Atlas allows users to identify genes that are up- or down-regulated in different experimental conditions. == See also == Human Protein Atlas The Cancer Genome Atlas == References == == Further reading == == External links == "About Expression Atlas". European Molecular Biology Laboratory


id: fair-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAIR_data-0.md
category: reference
title: FAIR data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAIR_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:03.114679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fair-data-20260505-0
summary:
FAIR data is data which meets the 2016 FAIR principles of findability, accessibility, interoperability, and reusability (FAIR). The FAIR principles emphasize machine-actionability (i.e., the capacity of computational systems to find, access, interoperate, and reuse data with none or minimal human intervention) because humans increasingly rely on computational support to deal with data as a result of the increase in the volume, complexity, and rate of production of data. The abbreviation FAIR/O data is sometimes used to indicate that the dataset or database in question complies with the FAIR principles and also carries an explicit data‑capable open license. == FAIR principles published by GO FAIR == Findable The first step in (re)using data is to find them. Metadata and data should be easy to find for both humans and computers. Machine-readable metadata are essential for automatic discovery of datasets and services, so this is an essential component of the FAIRification process. F1. (Meta)data are assigned a globally unique and persistent identifier F2. Data are described with rich metadata (defined by R1 below) F3. Metadata clearly and explicitly include the identifier of the data they describe F4. (Meta)data are registered or indexed in a searchable resource Accessible Once the user finds the


id: figshare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figshare-0.md
category: reference
title: Figshare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figshare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:04.405239+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: figshare-20260505-0
summary:
Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data. Figshare is one of a number of portfolio businesses supported by Digital Science, a subsidiary of Springer Nature. == History == Figshare was launched in January 2011 by Mark Hahnel and has been supported by Digital Science since a January 2012 relaunch. Hahnel first developed the platform as a personal custom solution for the organization and publication of diverse research products generated in support of his PhD in stem cell biology. In January 2013, Figshare announced a partnership with PLOS to integrate Figshare data hosting, access, and visualization with their associated PLOS articles. In September 2013, the service launched a hosted institutional repository service. In December 2013, they announced integration with ImpactStory to support the collection of altmetrics. Figshare also hosts the Reproducibility Collection as a founding member of The Reproducibility Initiative, which acts as an independent and blinded validator for replication of submitted data. Figshare releases 'The State of Open Data' each year to assess the changing academic landscape


id: global-urban-evolution-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Urban_Evolution_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Urban Evolution Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Urban_Evolution_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:06.675486+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-urban-evolution-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Urban Evolution Project is an international collaborative project which was started by Marc T. J. Johnson at the Centre for Urban Environments of the University of Toronto Mississauga (UTM). It includes partners from at least 5 continents, 26 countries, and 160 cities. As a field study of evolution, and as a global study of the effects of urbanization on evolution, its scale is unprecedented. It has been described as "the best replicated test of parallel evolution, on the largest scale ever attempted". The project uses white clover as a model organism for studying global urbanization and urban evolution. White clover was chosen because it already grew in most cities worldwide. It examines the plant's production of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in urban and more rural environments ("urban-rural clines"). Hydrogen cyanide deters herbivores and increases clover's tolerance for water stress. The project has demonstrated that urban environments are altering the ways in which plants evolve locally, and that similar changes are occurring globally, a demonstration of parallel evolution. It enables researchers to better understand the nature of urban environments, the adaptive capacity of species, and their ability to deal with rapid global environmental changes. == Project history == In 2018,


id: harking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HARKing-0.md
category: reference
title: HARKing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HARKing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:07.982349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harking-20260505-0
summary:
HARKing (hypothesizing after the results are known) is an acronym coined by social psychologist Norbert Kerr that refers to the questionable research practice of "presenting a post hoc hypothesis in the introduction of a research report as if it were an a priori hypothesis". Hence, a key characteristic of HARKing is that post hoc hypothesizing is falsely portrayed as a priori hypothesizing. HARKing may occur when a researcher tests an a priori hypothesis but then omits that hypothesis from their research report after they find out the results of their test. Post hoc analysis or post hoc theorizing then may lead to a post hoc hypothesis. == Types == Several types of HARKing have been distinguished, including: THARKing Transparently hypothesizing after the results are known, rather than the secretive, undisclosed, HARKing that was first proposed by Kerr. In this case, researchers openly declare that they developed their hypotheses after they observed their research results. CHARKing (or Pure HARKing) CHARKing or "pure HARKing" refers to the practice of constructing new hypotheses after the results are known and presenting them as a priori hypotheses. CHARKing is often regarded as the prototypical form of HARKing. RHARKing RHARKing refers to retrieving old hypotheses from


id: initiative-for-open-citations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiative_for_Open_Citations-0.md
category: reference
title: Initiative for Open Citations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiative_for_Open_Citations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:09.275513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: initiative-for-open-citations-20260505-0
summary:
The Initiative for Open Citations (I4OC) is a project launched publicly in April 2017, that describes itself as: "a collaboration between scholarly publishers, researchers, and other interested parties to promote the unrestricted availability of scholarly citation data and to make these data available." It is intended to facilitate improved citation analysis. == Methodology == The citations are stored in Crossref and are made available through the Crossref REST API. They are also available from the OpenCitations Corpus, a database that harvests citation data from Crossref and other sources. The data are considered by those involved in the Initiative to be in the public domain, and so a CC0 licence is used. The stated benefits of this approach are: 1. discoverability of published content; 2. the building of new services, and 3. creation of a public citation graph to explore connections between knowledge fields. The Royal Society of Chemistry earmarked the I4OC as a feature of excellence in publishing, and IOP Publishing participates to implement their commitment to the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment. == Launch == The initiative was established in response to a paper on citations in Wikidata, Citations needed for the sum of all human knowledge: Wikidata


id: international-hapmap-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_HapMap_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: International HapMap Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_HapMap_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:10.444935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-hapmap-project-20260505-0
summary:
The International HapMap Project is an organization that aimed to develop a haplotype map (HapMap) of the human genome, to describe the common patterns of human genetic variation. HapMap is used to find genetic variants affecting health, disease and responses to drugs and environmental factors. The information produced by the project is made freely available for research. The International HapMap Project is a collaboration among researchers at academic centers, non-profit biomedical research groups and private companies in Canada, China (including Hong Kong), Japan, Nigeria, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It officially started with a meeting on October 27 to 29, 2002, and was expected to take about three years. It comprises three phases; the complete data obtained in Phase I were published on 27 October 2005. The analysis of the Phase II dataset was published in October 2007. The Phase III dataset was released in spring 2009 and the publication presenting the final results published in September 2010. == Background == Unlike with the rarer Mendelian diseases, combinations of different genes and the environment play a role in the development and progression of common diseases (such as diabetes, cancer, heart disease, stroke, depression, and asthma), or in the


id: international-hapmap-project-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_HapMap_Project-1.md
category: reference
title: International HapMap Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_HapMap_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:10.444935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-hapmap-project-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific strategy == It was expensive in the 1990s to sequence patients' whole genomes. So the National Institutes of Health embraced the idea for a "shortcut", which was to look just at sites on the genome where many people have a variant DNA unit. The theory behind the shortcut was that, since the major diseases are common, so too would be the genetic variants that caused them. Natural selection keeps the human genome free of variants that damage health before children are grown, the theory held, but fails against variants that strike later in life, allowing them to become quite common (In 2002 the National Institutes of Health started a $138 million project called the HapMap to catalog the common variants in European, East Asian and African genomes). For the Phase I, one common SNP was genotyped every 5,000 bases. Overall, more than one million SNPs were genotyped. The genotyping was carried out by 10 centres using five different genotyping technologies. Genotyping quality was assessed by using duplicate or related samples and by having periodic quality checks where centres had to genotype common sets of SNPs. The Canadian team was led by Thomas J. Hudson at McGill University in


id: journal-article-tag-suite-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_Article_Tag_Suite-0.md
category: reference
title: Journal Article Tag Suite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_Article_Tag_Suite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:11.719388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-article-tag-suite-20260505-0
summary:
The Journal Article Tag Suite (JATS) is format used to describe scientific literature published online. It is a technical standard developed by the National Information Standards Organization (NISO) and approved by the American National Standards Institute with the code Z39.96-2012. The NISO project was a continuation of the work done by NLM/NCBI, and popularized by the NLM's PubMed Central as a de facto standard for archiving and interchange of scientific open-access journals and its contents with XML. With the NISO standardization the NLM initiative has gained a wider reach, and several other repositories, such as SciELO and Redalyc, adopted the XML formatting for scientific articles. The JATS provides a set of XML elements and attributes for describing the textual and graphical content of journal articles as well as some non-article material such as letters, editorials, and book and product reviews. JATS allows for descriptions of the full article content or just the article header metadata; and allows other kinds of contents, including research and non-research articles, letters, editorials, and book and product reviews. == History == Since its introduction, NCBI's NLM Archiving and Interchange DTD suite has become the de facto standard for journal article markup in scholarly publishing. With


id: journal-article-tag-suite-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_Article_Tag_Suite-1.md
category: reference
title: Journal Article Tag Suite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_Article_Tag_Suite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:11.719388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-article-tag-suite-20260505-0
summary:
The DOCTYPE header is optional, a legacy from SGML and DTD-oriented validators. The dtd-version attribute can be used even without a DTD header. The root element article is common for any version of JATS or "JATS family", as NLM DTDs. The rules for front, body and back tags validation, depends on the JATS version, but all versions have similar structure, with good compatibility in a range of years. The evolution of the schema preserves an overall stability. Less common, "only front", "only front and back" variations are also used for other finalities than full-content representation. The general article composition (as an DTD-content expression) is (front, body?, back?, floats-group?, (sub-article* | response*)) == Tools == There are a variety of tools for create, edit, convert and transform JATS. They range from simple forms to complete conversion automation: === Conversion to JATS === Take as input a scientific document, and, with some human support, produce a JATS output. OpenOffice (LibreOffice) and MS Word documents to JATS: Typeset: provides automated set of converters for MS-Word to JATS XML. OxGarage: can convert documents from various formats into "National Library of Medicine (NLM) DTD 3.0". meTypeset: meTypeset "is a fork of the OxGarage stack" "to


id: metanetx-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetaNetX-0.md
category: reference
title: MetaNetX
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetaNetX
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:13.053336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metanetx-20260505-0
summary:
MetaNetX is a database maintained by the SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics for the automated model construction, and the genome annotation for large-scale metabolic networks. MetaNetX provides a number of tools to access, analyse and manipulate metabolic networks. MetaNetX provides a bunch of pre-mapped metabolic models. To ease model comparison, MetaNetX has developed a resource to unify metabolites and biochemical reactions in the context of metabolic models. This unified namespace is called MetaNetX/MNXref. MNXref reconciles chemical compounds by structural similarity and biochemical reaction context. Then reconciles biochemical reactions on the basis of the chemical compound reconciliation in an iterative way. Each reconciled group of chemical compounds, biochemical reactions and cellular compartments is a bag of similar items. MNXref sets a referent for each group. MetaNetX allows search in MNXref by chemical compounds, biochemical reactions and cellular compartments. Currently, MetaNetX/MNXref reconciles those resources: BiGG ChEBI enviPath HMDB GO KEGG LipidMaps MetaCyc Reactome Rhea SABIO-RK SwissLipids The SEED VMH == References ==


id: mixed-signals-preprocessing-psychophysiological-data-in-brain-vision-analyzer-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Mixed Signals: Preprocessing Psychophysiological Data in Brain Vision Analyzer
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:14.245514+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mixed-signals-preprocessing-psychophysiological-data-in-brain-vision-analyzer-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_Signals:_Preprocessing_Psychophysiological_Data_in_Brain_Vision_Analyzer-0.md

summary:
Mixed Signals: Preprocessing Psychophysiological Data in Brain Vision Analyzer is a psychophysiology manual for experimental psychologists. Originally compiled by Paul Pfaff at the Experimental Psychopathology and Clinical Psychology lab at Utrecht University, the updated edition of the manual was printed in 2025. The manual covers the preprocessing of a wide range of psychophysiological data types common in experimental psychology. Specific sections are dedicated to skin conductance response, facial electromyography (EMG), startle EMG, smiling/frowning EMG, and postural sway. Preprocessing steps outlined include baseline correction, filtering, artifact rejection, and signal standardization. Recommendations are provided based on reviews of the latest literature in the field. The publication is part of ongoing open science initiatives in psychology to standardize research procedures in the aftermath of the replication crisis and has received positive reviews. == Further reading == Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of psychophysiology. Cambridge University Press. Brain Vision Analyzer User Manual Version 1.05 accessible at: https://www.linguistik.hu-berlin.de/de/institut/professuren/psycholinguistik/psyling/archiv/files/ekp/Analyzer.pdf/@@download/file/Analyzer.pdf == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_Signals:_Preprocessing_Psychophysiological_Data_in_Brain_Vision_Analyzer


id: peter-murray-rust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Murray-Rust-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter Murray-Rust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Murray-Rust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:15.433003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-murray-rust-20260505-0
summary:
Peter Murray-Rust is a chemist currently working at the University of Cambridge. As well as his work in chemistry, Murray-Rust is also known for his support of open access and open data. == Education == He was educated at Bootham School, a private school in York, and at Balliol College, Oxford. After obtaining a Doctor of Philosophy with a thesis entitled A structural investigation of some compounds showing charge-transfer properties, he became lecturer in chemistry at the (new) University of Stirling and was first warden of Andrew Stewart Hall of Residence. In 1982, he moved to Glaxo Group Research at Greenford to head Molecular Graphics, Computational Chemistry and later protein structure determination. He was Professor of Pharmacy in the University of Nottingham from 1996 to 2000, setting up the Virtual School of Molecular Sciences. He is now Reader Emeritus in Molecular Informatics at the University of Cambridge and Senior Research Fellow Emeritus at Churchill College, Cambridge. == Research == His research interests have involved the automated analysis of data in scientific publications, creation of virtual communities, e.g. The Virtual School of Natural Sciences in the Globewide Network Academy, and the Semantic Web. With Henry Rzepa, he has extended this to


id: open-energy-modelling-initiative-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Energy_Modelling_Initiative-0.md
category: reference
title: Open Energy Modelling Initiative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Energy_Modelling_Initiative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:16.690999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-modelling-initiative-20260505-0
summary:
The Open Energy Modelling Initiative (openmod) is a grassroots community of energy system modellers from universities and research institutes across Europe and elsewhere. The initiative promotes the use of open-source software and open data in energy modelling for research and policy advice. The Open Energy Modelling Initiative documents a variety of open-source energy models and addresses practical and conceptual issues regarding their development and application. The initiative runs an email list, an internet forum, and a wiki and hosts occasional academic workshops. A statement of aims is available. == Context == The application of open-source development to energy modelling dates back to around 2003. This section provides some background for the growing interest in open methods. === Growth in open energy modelling === Just two active open energy modelling projects were cited in a 2011 paper: OSeMOSYS and TEMOA. Balmorel was also public at that time, having been made available on a website in 2001. As of October 2021, the Open Energy Platform lists 17 open energy frameworks and about 50 open energy models. === Academic literature === This 2012 paper presents the case for using "open, publicly accessible software and data as well as crowdsourcing techniques to develop robust


id: open-energy-modelling-initiative-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Energy_Modelling_Initiative-1.md
category: reference
title: Open Energy Modelling Initiative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Energy_Modelling_Initiative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:16.690999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-modelling-initiative-20260505-0
summary:
=== Public policy support === In May 2016, the European Union announced that "all scientific articles in Europe must be freely accessible as of 2020". This is a step in the right direction, but the new policy makes no mention of open software and its importance to the scientific process. In August 2016, the United States government announced a new federal source code policy which mandates that at least 20% of custom source code developed by or for any agency of the federal government be released as open-source software (OSS). The US Department of Energy (DOE) is participating in the program. The project is hosted on a dedicated website and subject to a three-year pilot. Open-source campaigners are using the initiative to advocate that European governments adopt similar practices. In 2017 the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE) issued a position paper calling for free software and open standards to be central to European science funding, including the flagship EU program Horizon 2020. The position paper focuses on open data and open data processing and the question of open modelling is not traversed per se. === Adoption by regulators and industry generally === A trend evident by 2023 is the adoption


