# kb

id: catalog-of-articles-in-probability-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalog_of_articles_in_probability_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Catalog of articles in probability theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalog_of_articles_in_probability_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:06.672877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalog-of-articles-in-probability-theory-20260505-0
summary:
This page lists articles related to probability theory. In particular, it lists many articles corresponding to specific probability distributions. Such articles are marked here by a code of the form (X:Y), which refers to number of random variables involved and the type of the distribution. For example (2:DC) indicates a distribution with two random variables, discrete or continuous. Other codes are just abbreviations for topics. The list of codes can be found in the table of contents. == Core probability: selected topics == Probability theory === Basic notions (bsc) === === Instructive examples (paradoxes) (iex) === === Moments (mnt) === === Inequalities (inq) === === Markov chains, processes, fields, networks (Mar) === === Gaussian random variables, vectors, functions (Gau) === === Conditioning (cnd) === === Specific distributions (spd) === === Empirical measure (emm) === === Limit theorems (lmt) === === Large deviations (lrd) === === Random graphs (rgr) === === Random matrices (rmt) === === Stochastic calculus (scl) === === Malliavin calculus (Mal) === === Random dynamical systems (rds) === Random dynamical system / scl Absorbing set Base flow Pullback attractor === Analytic aspects (including measure theoretic) (anl) === == Core probability: other articles, by number and type of random


id: list-of-analyses-of-categorical-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_analyses_of_categorical_data-0.md
category: reference
title: List of analyses of categorical data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_analyses_of_categorical_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:07.812186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-analyses-of-categorical-data-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of statistical procedures which can be used for the analysis of categorical data, also known as data on the nominal scale and as categorical variables. == General tests == Bowker's test of symmetry Categorical distribution, general model Chi-squared test Cochran–Armitage test for trend Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics Correspondence analysis Cronbach's alpha Diagnostic odds ratio G-test Generalized estimating equations Generalized linear models Krichevsky–Trofimov estimator Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 Linear discriminant analysis Multinomial distribution Multinomial logit Multinomial probit Multiple correspondence analysis Odds ratio Poisson regression Powered partial least squares discriminant analysis Qualitative variation Randomization test for goodness of fit Relative risk Stratified analysis Tetrachoric correlation Uncertainty coefficient Wald test == Binomial data == Bernstein inequalities (probability theory) Binomial regression Binomial proportion confidence interval Chebyshev's inequality Chernoff bound Gauss's inequality Markov's inequality Rule of succession Rule of three (medicine) Vysochanskiï–Petunin inequality == 2 × 2 tables == Chi-squared test Diagnostic odds ratio Fisher's exact test G-test Odds ratio Relative risk McNemar's test Yates's correction for continuity == Measures of association == Aickin's α Andres and Marzo's delta Bangdiwala's B Bennett, Alpert, and Goldstein’s S Brennan and Prediger's κ Coefficient of colligation - Yule's Y Coefficient of consistency Coefficient of raw agreement Conger's


id: comparison-of-gaussian-process-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Gaussian_process_software-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of Gaussian process software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Gaussian_process_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:08.937625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-gaussian-process-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a comparison of statistical analysis software that allows doing inference with Gaussian processes often using approximations. This article is written from the point of view of Bayesian statistics, which may use a terminology different from the one commonly used in kriging. The next section should clarify the mathematical/computational meaning of the information provided in the table independently of contextual terminology. == Description of columns == This section details the meaning of the columns in the table below. === Solvers === These columns are about the algorithms used to solve the linear system defined by the prior covariance matrix, i.e., the matrix built by evaluating the kernel. Exact: whether generic exact algorithms are implemented. These algorithms are usually appropriate only up to some thousands of datapoints. Specialized: whether specialized exact algorithms for specific classes of problems are implemented. Supported specialized algorithms may be indicated as: Kronecker: algorithms for separable kernels on grid data. Toeplitz: algorithms for stationary kernels on uniformly spaced data. Semisep.: algorithms for semiseparable covariance matrices. Sparse: algorithms optimized for sparse covariance matrices. Block: algorithms optimized for block diagonal covariance matrices. Markov: algorithms for kernels which represent (or can be formulated as) a Markov process. Approximate: whether


id: comparison-of-statistical-packages-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_statistical_packages-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of statistical packages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_statistical_packages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:10.068725+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-statistical-packages-20260505-0
summary:
The following tables compare general and technical information for many statistical analysis software packages. == General information == == Operating system support == == ANOVA == Support for various ANOVA methods == Regression == Support for various regression methods. == Time series analysis == Support for various time series analysis methods. == Charts and diagrams == Support for various statistical charts and diagrams. == Other abilities == == See also == Comparison of computer algebra systems Comparison of deep learning software Comparison of survey software Comparison of Gaussian process software List of scientific journals in statistics List of statistical packages == Footnotes == == References == == Further reading == McCullough, B. D. (1999). "Econometric software reliability: EViews, LIMDEP, Shazam, and TSP". Journal of Applied Econometrics. 14 (2): 191–202. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199903/04)14:2<191::AID-JAE524>3.0.CO;2-K. McCullough, B. D.; Vinod, H. D. (1999). "The Numerical Reliability of Econometric Software". Journal of Economic Literature. 37 (2): 633–665. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.136.9939. doi:10.1257/jel.37.2.633. JSTOR 2565215. Ooms, Marius (2009). "Trends in Applied Econometrics Software Development 1985–2008: An Analysis of Journal of Applied Econometrics Research Articles, Software Reviews, Data and Code". Palgrave Handbook of Econometrics. Vol. 2: Applied Econometrics. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1321–1348. ISBN 978-1-4039-1800-0. Renfro, Charles G. (2004). Computational Econometrics: Its


id: economic-statistics-of-singapore-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_statistics_of_Singapore-0.md
category: reference
title: Economic statistics of Singapore
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_statistics_of_Singapore
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:11.247180+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economic-statistics-of-singapore-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains economic statistics of the country Singapore. The GDP, GDP Per Capita, GNI Per Capita, Total Trade, Total Imports, Total Exports, Foreign Reserves, Current Account Balance, Average Exchange Rate, Operating Revenue and Total Expenditure are mentioned in the table below for years 1965 through 2018. == 1965 to 2014 == == 2014 to 2018 == == See also == Economy of Singapore == References ==


id: economic-statistics-of-the-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_statistics_of_the_United_States-0.md
category: reference
title: Economic statistics of the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_statistics_of_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:12.357362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economic-statistics-of-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains economic statistics for the United States dating back to 1929. Included are relevant statistics about GDP, personal income, household wealth, international trade, government finance, labor, industry and agriculture. == Main indicators == The following table shows the development of the different important indicators of the US economy over time, including nominal and real GDP. Green and red arrows in the table are showing decreasing/increasing values or positive/negative values. Inflation over 2% is shown in red. == Government financial indicators == The following table shows the development of the different important indicators of the US Government, including government debt and the budget balance. Green and red arrows in the table are showing decreasing/increasing values or positive/negative values == External transaction statistics == The following table shows the development of the different important indicators of external economic transactions, including international trade. Green and red arrows in the table are showing decreasing/increasing values or positive/negative values == Private sector business statistics == The following table shows the development of the different important indicators of the private sector, including corporate profits, bankruptcies and domestic net investment. Green and red arrows in the table are showing decreasing/increasing values or positive/negative values ==


id: list-of-fellows-of-the-american-statistical-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_American_Statistical_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fellows of the American Statistical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_American_Statistical_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:13.460533+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fellows-of-the-american-statistical-association-20260505-0
summary:
Like many other academic professional societies, the American Statistical Association (ASA) uses the title of Fellow of the American Statistical Association as its highest honorary grade of membership. The designation of ASA Fellow has been a significant honor for nearly 100 years. The number of new fellows per year is limited to one third of one percent of the membership of the ASA. To be selected, nominees must have an established reputation and have made outstanding contributions to statistical science. People named as Fellows are listed below. == Fellows == === 1914 === === 1916 === === 1917 === === 1918 === === 1920 === === 1921 === === 1922 === === 1923 === === 1924 === === 1926 === === 1927 === === 1928 === === 1930 === === 1931 === === 1932 === === 1933 === === 1934 === === 1935 === === 1936 === === 1937 === === 1939 === === 1940 === === 1941 === === 1942 === === 1943 === === 1944 === === 1945 === === 1946 === === 1947 === === 1948 === === 1949 === === 1950 === === 1951 === === 1952 === === 1953 === === 1954 === === 1955


id: list-of-fields-of-application-of-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fields_of_application_of_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fields of application of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fields_of_application_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:14.624996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fields-of-application-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Statistics is the mathematical science involving the collection, analysis and interpretation of data. A number of specialties have evolved to apply statistical and methods to various disciplines. Certain topics have "statistical" in their name but relate to manipulations of probability distributions rather than to statistical analysis. Actuarial science is the discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries. Astrostatistics is the discipline that applies statistical analysis to the understanding of astronomical data. Biostatistics is a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena and observations by means of statistical analysis, and includes medical statistics. Business analytics is a rapidly developing business process that applies statistical methods to data sets (often very large) to develop new insights and understanding of business performance & opportunities Chemometrics is the science of relating measurements made on a chemical system or process to the state of the system via application of mathematical or statistical methods. Demography is the statistical study of all populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population, that is, one that changes over time or space. Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical


id: founders-of-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founders_of_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Founders of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founders_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:15.775338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: founders-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Statistics is the theory and application of mathematics to the scientific method including hypothesis generation, experimental design, sampling, data collection, data summarization, estimation, prediction and inference from those results to the population from which the experimental sample was drawn. Statisticians are skilled people who thus apply statistical methods. Hundreds of statisticians are notable. This article lists statisticians who have been especially instrumental in the development of theoretical and applied statistics. == Founders of departments of statistics == The role of a department of statistics is discussed in a 1949 article by Harold Hotelling, which helped to spur the creation of many departments of statistics. == See also == List of statisticians History of statistics Timeline of probability and statistics List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field == References == == External links == "Statisticians in History". American Statistical Association. 30 November 2016. "Life and Work of Statisticians". Department of Mathematics, University of York. "Portraits of Statisticians". Department of Mathematics, University of York. John Aldrich. "Figures from the History of Probability and Statistics". University of Southampton. Lawrence H. Riddle. "Biographies of Women Mathematicians". Agnes Scott College. StatProb – peer-reviewed encyclopedia sponsored by statistics and probability societies


id: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:16.979723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of statistics and probability is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in the mathematical sciences of statistics and probability, their sub-disciplines, and related fields. For additional related terms, see Glossary of mathematics and Glossary of experimental design. == A == admissible decision rule algebra of random variables alternative hypothesis analysis of variance atomic event Another name for elementary event. == B == bar chart Bayes' theorem Bayes estimator Bayes factor Bayesian inference bias 1. Any feature of a sample that is not representative of the larger population. 2. The difference between the expected value of an estimator and the true value. binary data Data that can take only two values, usually represented by the binary digits 0 and 1. binomial distribution bivariate analysis A type of quantitative statistical analysis in which exactly two variables are analyzed, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them. Contrast multivariate analysis. blocking In experimental design, the arranging of experimental units in groups ("blocks") that are similar to one another. Blocking is often used to manage the problem of pseudoreplication. Box–Jenkins method box plot == C == causal study A statistical study in which the objective is to


id: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:16.979723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
data point A typed measurement — it can be a Boolean value, a real number, a vector (in which case it is also called a data vector), etc. decision rule decision theory degrees of freedom density estimation dependence dependent variable descriptive statistics design of experiments deviation discrete variable dot plot double counting == E == elementary event An event which contains only a single outcome in the sample space; in a set of possibilities, a possibility that can occur in precisely one way. For example, when pulling a card from a standard deck of playing cards, 'pulling the jack of spades' is an elementary event (because there is only one jack of spades in the entire deck), while 'pulling a king or an ace' is not (because there are a combined four kings and four aces in the deck). estimation theory The branch of statistics concerned with estimating the values of parameters based on measured empirical data with a random component. The parameters describe an underlying physical setting in such a way that their values affect the distribution of the measured data; an estimator attempts to use the measurements to approximate the unknown parameters. estimator A function of the known


id: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:16.979723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
marginal probability The probability of a given event, ignoring any information about other events. The marginal probability of A is written P(A). Contrast conditional probability. Markov chain Monte Carlo mathematical statistics maximum likelihood estimation mean 1. The expected value of a random variable. 2. The arithmetic mean, i.e. the mathematical average of a set of numerical values, calculated by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values. median median absolute deviation mode moving average Also moving mean and rolling mean. A series of mathematical averages or means of different subsets of a larger data set, usually computed so as to understand trends in the data set over time. multimodal distribution multivariate analysis multivariate kernel density estimation multivariate random variable A vector whose components are random variables on the same probability space. mutual exclusivity mutual independence A collection of events is said to be mutually independent if for any subset of the collection, the joint probability of all events occurring is equal to the product of the joint probabilities of the individual events. Think of the result of a series of coin-flips. This is a stronger condition than pairwise independence. == N == nonparametric regression nonparametric statistics non-sampling


id: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:16.979723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
regression analysis A data analysis or statistical model that employs a set of statistical methods which estimate the relationships between a dependent variable and one or more error-free independent variables. The most common example of such a model is a linear regression, in which the equation of a line that most closely fits a set of data points according to a specific mathematical criterion is calculated and plotted on a graph of the data points; other forms of regression use related methods to estimate alternative parameters or to estimate conditional expectations from various non-linear models. repeated measures design response variable Any variable whose value is or is expected to be affected by an experimental treatment, or by changes in one or more other variables; e.g. cholesterol levels after following a particular diet for six months. Response variables are those that change or respond to some phenomenon under study. The term is often used interchangeably with dependent variable. restricted randomization robust statistics round-off error == S == sample That part of a population which is actually observed or measured. sample covariance sample mean The arithmetic mean of a sample of values drawn from a population, commonly denoted by x ¯ {\displaystyle


id: list-of-graphical-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_graphical_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of graphical methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_graphical_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:18.172517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-graphical-methods-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of graphical methods with a mathematical basis. Included are diagram techniques, chart techniques, plot techniques, and other forms of visualization. There is also a list of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics. == Simple displays == Area chart Bar chart Histogram Variable-width bar chart Box plot Dispersion fan diagram Graph of a function Logarithmic graph paper Heatmap Line chart Pie chart Variable-radius pie chart Plotting Radar chart Scatterplot Sparkline Spiral graphic Stemplot Stripe graphic Tape diagram == Set theory == Venn diagram Karnaugh diagram == Descriptive geometry == Isometric projection Orthographic projection Perspective (graphical) == Engineering drawing == Technical drawing Graphical projection Mohr's circle Pantograph Circuit diagram Smith chart Sankey diagram == Systems analysis == Binary decision diagram Control-flow graph Functional flow block diagram Information flow diagram IDEF N2 chart Sankey diagram State diagram System context diagram Data-flow diagram == Cartography == Map projection Orthographic projection (cartography) Robinson projection Stereographic projection Dymaxion map Topographic map Craig retroazimuthal projection Hammer retroazimuthal projection == Biological sciences == Cladogram Punnett square Systems Biology Graphical Notation == Physical sciences == Free body diagram Greninger chart Phase diagram Wavenumber-frequency diagram Bode plot Nyquist plot Dalitz plot Feynman diagram Carnot Plot ==


id: heights-distribution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heights_distribution-0.md
category: reference
title: Heights distribution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heights_distribution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:19.540365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heights-distribution-20260505-0
summary:
Below is a table which reports the average adult human height by country or geographical region. With regard to the table, original studies and sources should be consulted for details on methodology and the exact populations measured, surveyed, or considered. == Individual surveys and studies == === Accuracy === As with any statistical data, the accuracy of the findings may be challenged. In this case, for the following reasons: Some studies may allow subjects to self-report values. Generally speaking, self-reported height tends to be taller than measured height, although the overestimation of height depends on the reporting subject's height, age, gender and region. Test subjects may have been invited instead of random sampling, resulting in sampling bias. Some countries may have significant height gaps between different regions. For instance, one survey shows there is 10.8 centimetres (4.3 in) difference in mean height between the tallest state and the shortest state in Germany. Under such circumstances, the mean height may not represent the total population unless sample subjects are appropriately taken from all regions with using weighted average of the different regional groups. Different social groups can show different mean height. According to a study in France, executives and professionals are


id: list-of-information-graphics-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_information_graphics_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of information graphics software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_information_graphics_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:20.652156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-information-graphics-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable software to create any kind of information graphics: either includes the ability to create one or more infographics from a provided data set either it is provided specifically for information visualization == Vector graphics == Vector graphics software can be used for manual graphing or for editing the output of another program; see: Category:Vector graphics editors Comparison of vector graphics editors Some online editors using vector graphics for specific needs exist. These creative interfaces work well together with data visualization tools like the ones above. == See also == Category:Diagramming software List of graphical methods PGF/TikZ – Graphics languages == References ==


id: list-of-probability-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of probability journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:21.783649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of peer-reviewed scientific journals published in the field of probability. Advances in Applied Probability ALEA - Latin American Journal of Probability and Mathematical Statistics Annales de l’Institut Henri Poincaré Annals of Applied Probability Annals of Probability Bernoulli Brazilian Journal of Probability and Statistics Combinatorics, Probability and Computing Communications on Stochastic Analysis Electronic Communications in Probability Electronic Journal of Probability ESAIM: Probability and Statistics Finance and Stochastics Journal of Applied Probability Journal of Theoretical Probability Markov Processes and Related Fields Methodology and Computing in Applied Probability Modern Stochastics: Theory and Applications Probability and Mathematical Statistics Probability in the Engineering and Informational Sciences Probability Surveys Probability Theory and Related Fields Queueing Systems Random Matrices: Theory and Applications Random Operators and Stochastic Equations Random Structures & Algorithms Stochastics: An International Journal of Probability and Stochastic Processes Statistics & Probability Letters Stochastic Analysis and Applications Stochastics and Dynamics Stochastic Models Stochastic Processes and their Applications Stochastic Systems Theory of Probability and Its Applications Theory of Probability and Mathematical Statistics Theory of Stochastic Processes == See also == List of scientific journals List of statistics journals List of mathematics journals


id: list-of-statistics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statistics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:23.003486+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific journals published in the field of statistics. == Introductory and outreach == The American Statistician Significance == General theory and methodology == Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics Annals of Statistics AStA Wirtschafts- und Sozialstatistisches Archiv Biometrika The Canadian Journal of Statistics Communications in Statistics International Statistical Review Journal of the American Statistical Association Journal of Multivariate Analysis Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Probability and Mathematical Statistics Sankhyā: The Indian Journal of Statistics Scandinavian Journal of Statistics Statistica Neerlandica Statistica Sinica Statistical Science Stochastic Processes and their Applications == Applications == The Annals of Applied Statistics Journal of Applied Statistics The Journal of Risk Model Validation Journal of Statistical Software Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series C: Applied Statistics Statistical Modelling Statistics and its Interface The R Journal Stata Journal == Statistics education == Journal of Statistics and Data Science Education == Specialized journals in various areas of statistics == === Biostatistics === Biometrical Journal Biometrics Biometrika Biostatistics The International Journal of Biostatistics Pharmaceutical Statistics Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology Statistical Methods in Medical Research Statistics in Medicine (journal) === Computational statistics === Communications in Statistics - Simulation and


id: list-of-guidances-for-statistics-in-regulatory-affairs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Guidances_for_Statistics_in_Regulatory_Affairs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Guidances for Statistics in Regulatory Affairs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Guidances_for_Statistics_in_Regulatory_Affairs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:24.198231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-guidances-for-statistics-in-regulatory-affairs-20260505-0
summary:
This List of Guidances for Statistics in Regulatory Affairs presents a source of references for statistical guidance documents and related articles that are relevant to regulatory affairs for those statisticians that work on clinical studies. == Abbreviations == EMA = European Medicines Agency EU-HTA = European Commission Health Technology Assessment FDA = U.S. Food and Drug Administration ICH = International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use IQWiG = Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care UK-NICE = National Institute for Health and Care Excellence == Drugs == == Medical Devices == == Health Technology Assessment (HTA) == == See also == Guidances for statistics in regulatory affairs Clinical trials Medical statistics Epidemiological method Epidemiology Medicine == References == == External links == ICH Efficacy Guidelines European Medicines Agency's (EMA) scientific guidelines on biostatistics Archived 2016-06-21 at the Wayback Machine FDA Regulatory Information - Guidances


id: list-of-statistical-tests-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_tests-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statistical tests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_tests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:25.381553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistical-tests-20260505-0
summary:
Statistical tests are used to test the fit between a hypothesis and the data. Choosing the right statistical test is not a trivial task. The choice of the test depends on many properties of the research question. The vast majority of studies can be addressed by 30 of the 100 or so statistical tests in use. == Explanation of properties == Scaling of data: One of the properties of the tests is the scale of the data, which can be interval-based, ordinal or nominal. Nominal scale is also known as categorical. Interval scale is also known as numerical. When categorical data has only two possibilities, it is called binary or dichotomous. Assumptions, parametric and non-parametric: There are two groups of statistical tests, parametric and non-parametric. The choice between these two groups needs to be justified. Parametric tests assume that the data follow a particular distribution, typically a normal distribution, while non-parametric tests make no assumptions about the distribution. Non-parametric tests have the advantage of being more resistant to misbehaviour of the data, such as outliers. They also have the disadvantage of being less certain in the statistical estimate. Type of data: Statistical tests use different types of data. Some tests


id: lukacs-distinguished-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukacs_Distinguished_Professor-0.md
category: reference
title: Lukacs Distinguished Professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukacs_Distinguished_Professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:26.498685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lukacs-distinguished-professor-20260505-0
summary:
The Lukacs Distinguished Professor chair was established in 1989 by the Department of Mathematics and Statistics at Bowling Green State University in honor of Eugene Lukacs, who came to Bowling Green with his colleagues Radha Laha and Vijay Rohatgi in 1972 to establish the doctoral program in statistics. Eugene Lukacs was Bowling Green's first Distinguished University Professor. Each year an outstanding senior researcher in probability or statistics is invited to serve as the Eugene Lukacs Distinguished Visiting Professor during the academic year or a semester. The Lukacs Professors are invited based on their distinguished record of research in the application or theory of probability or statistics. The Lukacs professor typically collaborates with current faculty on research, participates in seminars and colloquia, and typically gives a graduate course or presents a series of related seminars. Lukacs Professors have organized Lukacs Symposia on a variety of topics in probability and statistics. == Lukacs Distinguished Visiting Professors == == See also == List of statisticians History of statistics == References == == External links == Statistics for the 21st Century, 1998 Lukacs Symposium, organized by C. R. Rao. Frontiers of Environmental and Ecological Statistics for the 21st Century: Synergistic Challenges, Opportunities and Directions


id: list-of-mathematical-probabilists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_probabilists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical probabilists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_probabilists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:27.704385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-probabilists-20260505-0
summary:
See probabilism for the followers of such a theory in theology or philosophy. This list contains only probabilists in the sense of mathematicians specializing in probability theory. David Aldous (born 1952) Siva Athreya (born 1971) Thomas Bayes (1702–1761) - British mathematician and Presbyterian minister, known for Bayes' theorem Gerard Ben-Arous (born 1957) Itai Benjamini Jakob Bernoulli (1654–1705) - Switzerland, known for Bernoulli trials Jean Bertoin (born 1961) Joseph Louis François Bertrand (1822–1900) Patrick Billingsley (1925–2011) Robert Blumenthal (1931–2012) Erwin Bolthausen (born 1945) Carlo Emilio Bonferroni (1892–1960) Émile Borel (1871–1956) Sourav Chatterjee (born 1979) Kai Lai Chung (1917–2009) Erhan Çınlar (born 1941) Harald Cramér (1893–1985) Miklós Csörgő (born 1932) Sándor Csörgő (1947–2008) Amir Dembo (born 1958) Persi Diaconis (born 1945) Catherine Doléans-Dade (1942–2004) Joseph Leo Doob (1910–2004) Lester Dubins (1920–2010) Richard M. Dudley (1938–2020) Hugo Duminil-Copin (born 1985) Eugene Dynkin (1924–2014) Robert J. Elliott (born 1940) Paul Erdős (1913–1996) Alison Etheridge (born 1964) Steve Evans (born 1960) William Feller (1906–1970) Bruno de Finetti (1906–1985) Hans Föllmer (born 1941) Iosif Gikhman (1918–1985) Igor Girsanov (1934–1967) Boris Gnedenko (1912–1995) Geoffrey Grimmett (born 1950) Alice Guionnet (born 1969) Ian Hacking (1936–2023) Paul Halmos (1916–2006) Joseph Halpern (born 1953) David Heath (c.1943–2011) Wassily Hoeffding (1914–1991)


id: list-of-presidents-of-the-american-statistical-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_American_Statistical_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: List of presidents of the American Statistical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_American_Statistical_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:28.905060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-presidents-of-the-american-statistical-association-20260505-0
summary:
The president of the American Statistical Association is the head of the American Statistical Association (ASA). According to the association's bylaws, the president is an officer, and a member of the board of directors and of the executive committee. Elections for the position are held annually, in which all full members are eligible to vote. The term in office is typically three years, as president-elect and past president are also official positions. == List of presidents == === 19th century === === 20th century === === 21st century === == References == == External links == Bylaws and constitution ASA Presidential Papers


id: list-of-presidents-of-the-institute-of-mathematical-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Institute_of_Mathematical_Statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of presidents of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Institute_of_Mathematical_Statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:30.038823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-presidents-of-the-institute-of-mathematical-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The president of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics is the highest officer of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS), and, together with the president-elect and past president, sets the directions for IMS during his or her term of office. == Duties == According to the IMS Handbook for Officers, Editors, Council Members and Committee Chairs (2003), the president makes appointments to IMS committee vacancies, represents the Society to other organizations such as the Committee of Presidents of Statistical Societies (COPSS) and the Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences (CBMS). In addition, the president is an ex officio member of the corporation of the National Institute for Statistical Sciences (NISS), and is responsible for appointing another member of the corporation and a member of the NISS Board of Trustees. == List of presidents == === 20th century === === 21st century === == External links == Past Executive Committee Members == References == IMS Handbook for Officers, Editors, Council Members and Committee Chairs


id: list-of-presidents-of-the-royal-statistical-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Statistical_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: List of presidents of the Royal Statistical Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Statistical_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:31.216046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-presidents-of-the-royal-statistical-society-20260505-0
summary:
The president of the Royal Statistical Society is the head of the Royal Statistical Society (RSS), elected biennially by the Fellows of the Society. The time-period between elections has varied in the past. The president oversees the running of the Society and chairs its council meetings. The president gives a presidential address at some point in their tenure, which is published in the longest running journal of the society, Series A, setting out personal views on the future of discipline and the role of the society. In recent years, almost all presidents have been nominated following many years' service to the Society, although some have been nominated to mark their eminence in society generally, such as Harold Wilson. Nominations for president are received by the society's Nominating Committee. The committee recommends at least one fellow to Council who, at a meeting, agree a preferred candidate or candidates. If only one preferred candidate is selected, the Fellowship are given four weeks to offer an alternate candidate. There has only been one contested election in the Society's history, in 1977. Many fellows objected to the nomination by the Council of Campbell Adamson because he was not a statistician, was said to have


id: list-of-presidents-of-the-statistical-society-of-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Statistical_Society_of_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: List of presidents of the Statistical Society of Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Statistical_Society_of_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:32.436217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-presidents-of-the-statistical-society-of-canada-20260505-0
summary:
The President of the Statistical Society of Canada is the highest officer of the Statistical Society of Canada (SSC). == List of presidents == === 20th Century === 1972–1974 Norm Shklov 1974–1975 Pierre Robillard 1975–1976 Charles S. Carter 1976–1978 David F. Bray 1979 Donald G. Watts 1980 Urs R. Maag 1981 Ivan P. Fellegi 1982 Charles Dunnett 1983 Michael A. Stephens 1984 James G. Kalbfleisch 1985 David F. Andrews 1986–1987 Martin B. Wilk 1987–1988 James V. Zidek 1988–1989 Robert Cléroux 1989–1990 Geoffrey J.C. Hole 1990–1991 Peter D.M. Macdonald 1991–1992 Agnes M. Herzberg 1992–1993 Christopher A. Field 1993–1994 Jerald F. Lawless 1994–1995 R. James Tomkins 1995–1996 Marc Moore 1996–1997 Richard A. Lockhart 1997–1998 Jane F. Gentleman 1998–1999 David R. Bellhouse 1999–2000 John D. (Jack) Kalbfleisch === 21st Century === 2000–2001 Louis-Paul Rivest 2001–2002 David R. Brillinger 2002–2003 James O. Ramsay 2003–2004 Mary E. Thompson 2004–2005 Nancy M. Reid 2005–2006 David A. Binder 2006–2007 Charmaine Dean 2007–2008 Christian Genest 2008–2009 Román Viveros-Aguilera 2009–2010 Bovas Abraham 2010–2011 Donald L. McLeish 2011–2012 John F. Brewster 2012–2013 Christian Léger 2013–2014 Michael J. Evans 2014–2015 A. John Petkau 2015–2016 O. Brian Allen 2016–2017 Jack Gambino 2017–2018 Hugh Chipman 2018–2019 Robert Platt 2019–2020 Bruce Smith 2020–2021 Wendy


id: list-of-probability-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of probability topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:33.632091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of probability topics. It overlaps with the (alphabetical) list of statistical topics. There are also the outline of probability and catalog of articles in probability theory. For distributions, see List of probability distributions. For journals, see list of probability journals. For contributors to the field, see list of mathematical probabilists and list of statisticians. == General aspects == Probability Randomness, Pseudorandomness, Quasirandomness Randomization, hardware random number generator Random number generation Random sequence Uncertainty Statistical dispersion Observational error Equiprobable Equipossible Average Probability interpretations Markovian Statistical regularity Central tendency Bean machine Relative frequency Frequency probability Maximum likelihood Bayesian probability Principle of indifference Credal set Cox's theorem Principle of maximum entropy Information entropy Urn problems Extractor Free probability Exotic probability Schrödinger method Empirical measure Glivenko–Cantelli theorem Zero–one law Kolmogorov's zero–one law Hewitt–Savage zero–one law Law of truly large numbers Littlewood's law Infinite monkey theorem Littlewood–Offord problem Inclusion–exclusion principle Impossible event Information geometry Talagrand's concentration inequality == Foundations of probability theory == Probability theory Probability space Sample space Standard probability space Random element Random compact set Dynkin system Probability axioms Normalizing constant Event (probability theory) Complementary event Elementary event Mutually exclusive Boole's inequality Probability density function Cumulative distribution function Law


id: outline-of-probability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_probability-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of probability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_probability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:34.801336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-probability-20260505-0
summary:
Probability is a measure of the likeliness that an event will occur. Probability is used to quantify an attitude of mind towards some proposition whose truth is not certain. The proposition of interest is usually of the form "A specific event will occur." The attitude of mind is of the form "How certain is it that the event will occur?" The certainty that is adopted can be described in terms of a numerical measure, and this number, between 0 and 1 (where 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty) is called the probability. Probability theory is used extensively in statistics, mathematics, science and philosophy to draw conclusions about the likelihood of potential events and the underlying mechanics of complex systems. == Introduction == Probability and randomness. == Basic probability == (Related topics: set theory, simple theorems in the algebra of sets) === Events === Events in probability theory Elementary events, sample spaces, Venn diagrams Mutual exclusivity === Elementary probability === The axioms of probability Boole's inequality === Meaning of probability === Probability interpretations Bayesian probability Frequency probability === Calculating with probabilities === Conditional probability The law of total probability Bayes' theorem === Independence === Independence (probability theory) == Probability theory


id: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:36.046814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
Many probability distributions that are important in theory or applications have been given specific names. == Discrete distributions == === With finite support === The Bernoulli distribution, which takes value 1 with probability p and value 0 with probability q = 1 − p. The Rademacher distribution, which takes value 1 with probability 1/2 and value −1 with probability 1/2. The binomial distribution, which describes the number of successes in a series of independent Yes/No experiments all with the same probability of success. The beta-binomial distribution, which describes the number of successes in a series of independent Yes/No experiments with heterogeneity in the success probability. The degenerate distribution at x0, where X is certain to take the value x0. This does not look random, but it satisfies the definition of random variable. This is useful because it puts deterministic variables and random variables in the same formalism. The discrete uniform distribution, where all elements of a finite set are equally likely. This is the theoretical distribution model for a balanced coin, an unbiased die, a casino roulette, or the first card of a well-shuffled deck. The hypergeometric distribution, which describes the number of successes in the first m of a


id: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:36.046814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Supported on a bounded interval === The Beta distribution on [0,1], a family of two-parameter distributions with one mode, of which the uniform distribution is a special case, and which is useful in estimating success probabilities. The four-parameter Beta distribution, a straight-forward generalization of the Beta distribution to arbitrary bounded intervals [ a , b ] {\displaystyle [a,b]} . The arcsine distribution on [a,b], which is a special case of the Beta distribution if α = β = 1/2, a = 0, and b = 1. The PERT distribution is a special case of the four-parameter beta distribution. The uniform distribution or rectangular distribution on [a,b], where all points in a finite interval are equally likely, is a special case of the four-parameter Beta distribution. The Irwin–Hall distribution is the distribution of the sum of n independent random variables, each of which having the uniform distribution on [0,1]. The Bates distribution is the distribution of the mean of n independent random variables, each of which having the uniform distribution on [0,1]. The logit-normal distribution on (0,1). The Dirac delta function, although not strictly a probability distribution, is a limiting form of many continuous probability functions. It represents a discrete


id: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions-2.md
category: reference
title: List of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:36.046814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Supported on the whole real line === The Behrens–Fisher distribution, which arises in the Behrens–Fisher problem. The Cauchy distribution, an example of a distribution which does not have an expected value or a variance. In physics it is usually called a Lorentzian profile, and is associated with many processes, including resonance energy distribution, impact and natural spectral line broadening and quadratic stark line broadening. The centralized inverse-Fano distribution, which is the distribution representing the ratio of independent normal and gamma-difference random variables. Chernoff's distribution The exponentially modified Gaussian distribution, a convolution of a normal distribution with an exponential distribution, and the Gaussian minus exponential distribution, a convolution of a normal distribution with the negative of an exponential distribution. The expectile distribution, which nests the Gaussian distribution in the symmetric case. The Fisher–Tippett, extreme value, or log-Weibull distribution Fisher's z-distribution The skewed generalized t distribution The gamma-difference distribution, which is the distribution of the difference of independent gamma random variables. The generalized logistic distribution The generalized normal distribution The geometric stable distribution The Gumbel distribution The Holtsmark distribution, an example of a distribution that has a finite expected value but infinite variance. The hyperbolic distribution The hyperbolic secant distribution The


id: list-of-convolutions-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convolutions_of_probability_distributions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of convolutions of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convolutions_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:37.331297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-convolutions-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
In probability theory, the probability distribution of the sum of two or more independent random variables is the convolution of their individual distributions. The term is motivated by the fact that the probability mass function or probability density function of a sum of independent random variables is the convolution of their corresponding probability mass functions or probability density functions respectively. Many well known distributions have simple convolutions. The following is a list of these convolutions. Each statement is of the form ∑ i = 1 n X i ∼ Y {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}X_{i}\sim Y} where X 1 , X 2 , … , X n {\displaystyle X_{1},X_{2},\dots ,X_{n}} are independent random variables, and Y {\displaystyle Y} is the distribution that results from the convolution of X 1 , X 2 , … , X n {\displaystyle X_{1},X_{2},\dots ,X_{n}} . In place of X i {\displaystyle X_{i}} and Y {\displaystyle Y} the names of the corresponding distributions and their parameters have been indicated. == Discrete distributions == ∑ i = 1 n B e r n o u l l i ( p ) ∼ B i n o m i a l ( n , p ) 0 < p


id: list-of-convolutions-of-probability-distributions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convolutions_of_probability_distributions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of convolutions of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convolutions_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:37.331297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-convolutions-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
∑ i = 1 n VarianceGamma ⁡ ( μ i , α , β , λ i ) ∼ VarianceGamma ⁡ ( ∑ i = 1 n μ i , α , β , ∑ i = 1 n λ i ) − ∞ < μ i < ∞ λ i > 0 α 2 − β 2 > 0 {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}\operatorname {VarianceGamma} (\mu _{i},\alpha ,\beta ,\lambda _{i})\sim \operatorname {VarianceGamma} \left(\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mu _{i},\alpha ,\beta ,\sum _{i=1}^{n}\lambda _{i}\right)\qquad -\infty <\mu _{i}<\infty \quad \lambda _{i}>0\quad {\sqrt {\alpha ^{2}-\beta ^{2}}}>0} ∑ i = 1 n Exponential ⁡ ( θ ) ∼ Erlang ⁡ ( n , θ ) θ > 0 n = 1 , 2 , … {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}\operatorname {Exponential} (\theta )\sim \operatorname {Erlang} (n,\theta )\qquad \theta >0\quad n=1,2,\dots } ∑ i = 1 n Exponential ⁡ ( λ i ) ∼ Hypoexponential ⁡ ( λ 1 , … , λ n ) λ i > 0 {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}\operatorname {Exponential} (\lambda _{i})\sim \operatorname {Hypoexponential} (\lambda _{1},\dots ,\lambda _{n})\qquad \lambda _{i}>0} ∑ i = 1 n χ 2 ( r i ) ∼ χ 2 ( ∑ i = 1 n r i ) r i = 1 , 2


id: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:38.489811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of publications in statistics, organized by field. Some reasons why a particular publication might be regarded as important: Topic creator – A publication that created a new topic Breakthrough – A publication that changed scientific knowledge significantly Influence – A publication which has significantly influenced the world or has had a massive impact on the teaching of statistics. == Probability == Théorie analytique des probabilités Author: Pierre-Simon Laplace Publication data: 1820 (3rd ed.) Online version: Internet Archive; CNRS, with more accurate character recognition; Gallica-Math, complete PDF and PDFs by section Description: Introduced the Laplace transform, exponential families, and conjugate priors in Bayesian statistics. Pioneering asymptotic statistics, proved an early version of the Bernstein–von Mises theorem on the irrelevance of the (regular) prior distribution on the limiting posterior distribution, highlighting the asymptotic role of the Fisher information. Studies the influence of median and skewness in regression analysis. Inspired the field of robust regression, proposed the Laplace distribution and was the first to provide alternatives to Carl Friedrich Gauss's work on statistics. Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence == Mathematical statistics == Mathematical Methods of Statistics Author: Harald Cramér Publication data: Princeton Mathematical Series, vol. 9. Princeton University Press,


id: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:38.489811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Authors: George E.P. Box and Gwilym M. Jenkins Publication data: Holden-Day, 1970 Description: Systematic approach to ARIMA and ARMAX modelling Importance: This book introduces ARIMA and associated input-output models, studies how to fit them and develops a methodology for time series forecasting and control. It has changed econometrics, process control and forecasting. == Applied statistics == Statistical Methods for Research Workers Author: R.A. Fisher Publication data: Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1925 (1st edition); London: Macmillan, 1970 (15th edition) Online version: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fisher/Methods/ Description: The original manual for researchers, especially biologists, on how to statistically evaluate numerical data. Importance: Hugely influential text by the father of modern statistics that remained in print for more than 50 years. Responsible for the widespread use of tests of statistical significance. Statistical Methods Author: George W. Snedecor Publication data: 1937, Collegiate Press Description: One of the first comprehensive texts on statistical methods. Reissued as Statistical Methods Applied to Experiments in Agriculture and Biology in 1940 and then again as Statistical Methods with Cochran, WG in 1967. A classic text. Importance: Influence Principles and Procedures of Statistics with Special Reference to the Biological Sciences. Authors: Steel, R.G.D, and Torrie, J. H. Publication data: McGraw Hill (1960) 481


id: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:38.489811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Author: Charles Sanders Peirce and Joseph Jastrow Publication data: Peirce, Charles Sanders; Jastrow, Joseph (1885). "On Small Differences in Sensation". Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. 3: 73–83. Online version: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm Description: Peirce and Jastrow use logistic regression to estimate subjective probabilities of subjects's judgments of the heavier of two measurements, following a randomized controlled repeated measures design. Importance: The first randomized experiment, which also used blinding; it seems also to have been the first experiment for estimating subjective probabilities. The Design of Experiments Author: Fisher, RA Publication data: 1935, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh Description: The first textbook on experimental design Importance: Influence The Design and Analysis of Experiments Author: Oscar Kempthorne Publication data: 1950, John Wiley & Sons, New York (Reprinted with corrections in 1979 by Robert E. Krieger) Description: Early exposition of the general linear model using matrix algebra (following lecture notes of George W. Brown). Bases inference on the randomization distribution objectively defined by the experimental protocol, rather than a so-called "statistical model" expressing the subjective beliefs of a statistician: The normal model is regarded as a convenient approximation to the randomization-distribution, whose quality is assessed by theorems about moments and simulation experiments. Importance: The first


id: list-of-schools-for-quantitative-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_for_quantitative_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of schools for quantitative psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_for_quantitative_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:39.635041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schools-for-quantitative-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
This is a nonexhaustive list of schools that offer degrees in quantitative psychology or related fields such as psychometrics or research methodology. Programs are typically offered in departments of psychology, educational psychology, or human development. Various organizations, including the American Psychological Association's Division 5, the Canadian Psychological Association, the National Council for Measurement in Education, and the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychology have compiled lists of programs. == Graduate degree programs == === Structure === Records are listed alphabetically by university in descending order. Within a given university, records are sorted by degree (doctorate, then master's). Inclusion criteria are described on the talk page. University section University – The university listed is the primary institution/organization which grants the degree. The link provided links to the Wikipedia page for the university. Department – The department listed is the primary department which grants the degree. The link provided links to the department's website. Program section Terminal degree – This is the final degree granted to the student within that degree track. Many doctoral programs in the US have joint MA/Ph.D programs. Those degrees are listed within the same record under the final degree granted (e.g., Doctorate of Philosophy). The link provided directs


id: outline-of-regression-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_regression_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of regression analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_regression_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:40.870622+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-regression-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to regression analysis: Regression analysis – use of statistical techniques for learning about the relationship between one or more dependent variables (Y) and one or more independent variables (X). == Overview articles == Regression analysis Linear regression == Non-statistical articles related to regression == Least squares Linear least squares (mathematics) Non-linear least squares Least absolute deviations Curve fitting Smoothing Cross-sectional study == Basic statistical ideas related to regression == Conditional expectation Correlation Correlation coefficient Mean square error Residual sum of squares Explained sum of squares Total sum of squares == Visualization == Scatterplot == Linear regression based on least squares == General linear model Ordinary least squares Generalized least squares Simple linear regression Trend estimation Ridge regression Polynomial regression Segmented regression Nonlinear regression == Generalized linear models == Generalized linear models Logistic regression Multinomial logit Ordered logit Probit model Multinomial probit Ordered probit Poisson regression Maximum likelihood Cochrane–Orcutt estimation == Computation == Numerical methods for linear least squares == Inference for regression models == F-test t-test Lack-of-fit sum of squares Confidence band Coefficient of determination Multiple correlation Scheffé's method == Challenges to regression modeling == Autocorrelation Cointegration Multicollinearity


id: list-of-statistical-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statistical software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:42.042794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistical-software-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of statistical software. == Open-source == ADaMSoft – a generalized statistical software with data mining algorithms and methods for data management ADMB – a software suite for non-linear statistical modeling based on C++ which uses automatic differentiation Chronux – for neurobiological time series data DAP – free replacement for SAS Environment for DeveLoping KDD-Applications Supported by Index-Structures (ELKI) a software framework for developing data mining algorithms in Java Epi Info – statistical software for epidemiology developed by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Apache 2 licensed Fityk – nonlinear regression software (GUI and command line) GNU Octave – programming language very similar to MATLAB with statistical features gretl – gnu regression, econometrics and time-series library intrinsic Noise Analyzer (iNA) – For analyzing intrinsic fluctuations in biochemical systems jamovi – A free GUI and library for R JASP – A free software alternative to IBM SPSS Statistics with additional option for Bayesian methods JMulTi – For econometric analysis, specialised in univariate and multivariate time series analysis Just another Gibbs sampler (JAGS) – a program for analyzing Bayesian hierarchical models using Markov chain Monte Carlo developed by Martyn Plummer. It is similar to WinBUGS KNIME –


id: list-of-statistical-software-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_software-1.md
category: reference
title: List of statistical software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:42.042794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistical-software-20260505-0
summary:
== Proprietary == Alteryx – analytics platform with drag and drop statistical models; R and Python integration Analytica – visual analytics and statistics package Angoss – products KnowledgeSEEKER and KnowledgeSTUDIO incorporate several data mining algorithms ASReml – for restricted maximum likelihood analyses BMDP – general statistics package DataGraph – online statistical software DB Lytix – 800+ in-database models EViews – for econometric analysis FAME (database) – a system for managing time-series databases GAUSS – programming language for statistics Genedata – software for integration and interpretation of experimental data in the life science R&D GenStat – general statistics package GLIM – early package for fitting generalized linear models GraphPad InStat – very simple with much guidance and explanations GraphPad Prism – biostatistics and nonlinear regression with clear explanations Igor Pro - programming language with statistical features and numerical analysis IMSL Numerical Libraries – software library with statistical algorithms JMP – visual analysis and statistics package LIMDEP – comprehensive statistics and econometrics package LISREL – statistics package used in structural equation modeling Maple – programming language with statistical features Mathematica – a software package with statistical particularly ŋ features MATLAB – programming language with statistical features MedCalc – for biomedical sciences Microfit


id: list-of-national-and-international-statistical-services-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_and_international_statistical_services-0.md
category: reference
title: List of national and international statistical services
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_and_international_statistical_services
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:43.166964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-national-and-international-statistical-services-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of national and international statistical services. == Central national statistical services == Nearly every country in the world has set a central public sector unit entirely devoted to the production, harmonisation and dissemination of official statistics that the public sector and the national community need to run, monitor and evaluate their operations and policies. This central statistical organisation does not produce every official statistic as other public sector organisations, like the national central bank or ministries in charge of agriculture, education or health, may be charged with producing and disseminating sector policy oriented statistical data. The statistical legislation and regulation generally attribute responsibilities and authorities according to statistical domains or functions in addition to those of the central unit. The table below lists these central statistical organisations by country. The United States has no central producing unit, but several units (also listed below) have been given responsibility over various federal statistics domains (see also: Federal Statistical System of the United States). === Africa === === Americas === === Asia === === Europe === (Institutions from countries marked with * are members of Eurostat's European Statistical System (ESS).) === Oceania === == Autonomous statistical services at


id: list-of-statisticians-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statisticians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:44.303512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statisticians-20260505-0
summary:
This list of statisticians lists people who have made notable contributions to the theories or application of statistics, or to the related fields of probability or machine learning. It includes the founders of statistics and others. It includes some 17th- and 18th-century mathematicians and polymaths whose work is regarded as influential in shaping the later discipline of statistics. Also included are various actuaries, economists, and demographers known for providing leadership in applying statistics to their fields. == A == Aalen, Odd Olai Abbey, Helen (1915–2001) Abbott, Edith (1876–1957) Abelson, Robert P. (1928–2005) Abramovitz, Moses (1912–2000) Achenwall, Gottfried (1719–1772) Adelstein, Abraham Manie (1916–1992) Adkins, Dorothy (1912–1975) Ahsan, Riaz (1951–2008) Ahtime, Laura Aitchison, Beatrice (1908–1997) Aitchison, John (1926–2016) Aitken, Alexander (1895–1967) Akaike, Hirotsugu (1927–2009) Aliaga, Martha (1937–2011) Allan, Betty (1905–1952) Allen, R. G. D. (1906–1983) Allison, David B. Altman, Doug (1948–2018) Altman, Naomi Amemiya, Takeshi (1935–2026) Anderson, Oskar (1887–1960) Anderson, Theodore Wilbur Anderson-Cook, Christine (1966–) de Andrade, Mariza Anscombe, Francis (1918–2001) Anselin, Luc Antonovska, Svetlana (1952–2016) Armitage, Peter (1924–2024) Armstrong, Margaret Arrow, Kenneth Ash, Arlene Ashby, Deborah (1959–) Asher, Jana Ashley-Cooper, Anthony Austin, Oscar Phelps Ayres, Leonard Porter == B == Backer, Julie E. (1890–1977) Bahadur, Raghu Raj (1924–1997) Bahn, Anita K.


id: list-of-statisticians-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians-1.md
category: reference
title: List of statisticians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:44.303512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statisticians-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fabri, Johann Ernst Fallati, Johannes Fan, Jianqing Farr, William (1807–1883) Farrer, Thomas Fechner, Gustav (1801–1887) Federer, Walter T. (1915-2008) Fellegi, Ivan (1935–) Feller, William Fernique, Xavier Fienberg, Stephen Finetti, Bruno de (1906–1985) Finlaison, John Finney, D. J. (1917–2018) Fisher, Irving (1867–1947) Fisher, Sir Ronald A. (1890–1962) Fitz-Gibbon, Carol (1938–2017) Fix, Evelyn (1904–1965) Fleetwood, William (1656–1723) Fleiss, Joseph L. (1937–2003) Flournoy, Nancy (1947–) Flux, A. William Foot, David Fowler, Henry Fox, John (1945–) Frankel, Lester Franscini, Stefano Freedman, David A. Freedman, Ronald Friedman, Milton Frigessi, Arnoldo di Rattalma (1959–) Frühwirth-Schnatter, Sylvia (1959–) Fu, Rongwei Fuentes, Montserrat Furlong, Cathy == G == Gage, Linda Gain, Anil Kumar (1919–1978) Gallant, A. Ronald Gallup, George (1901–1984) Galton, Francis (1822–1911) Gantert, Nina Gardner, Martha M. Garfield, Joan Gauquelin, Michel Gauss, Johann Carl Friedrich (1777–1855) Geary, Roy C. Geer, Sara van de (1958–) Geiringer, Hilda (1893–1973) Geisser, Seymour (1929–2004) Gel, Yulia Geller, Nancy (1944–) Gelman, Andrew (1965–) Geman, Donald (1943–) Genest, Christian (1957–) Geppert, Maria-Pia (1907–1997) Ghazzali, Nadia (1961–) Ghosh, Jayanta Kumar Ghysels, Eric Gibbons, Jean D. (1938–) Giblin, Lyndhurst (1872–1951) Giffen, Robert (1837–1910) Gijbels, Irène Gilbert, Ethel Gile, Krista Gilford, Dorothy M. (1919–2014) Gill, Richard D. (1951–) Gini, Corrado (1884–1965) Girolami, Mark


id: list-of-statisticians-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians-2.md
category: reference
title: List of statisticians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:44.303512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statisticians-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Nair, Vijayan N. Nason, Guy Neill, Charles P. Nelder, John (1924–2010) Nesbitt, Cecil J. Newmarch, William (1820–1882) Neyman, Jerzy (1894–1981) Nightingale, Florence (1820–1910) Niyogi, Partha (1967–2010) Noether, Gottfried E. Nordling, Carl O. Norwood, Janet L. (1923–2015) Notestein, Frank W. == O == Ogburn, William Fielding Olshansky, S. Jay Onicescu, Octav Onslow, William Orshansky, Mollie == P == Paine, George Pakington, John Panaretos, John Parzen, Emanuel (1929–2016) Pearl, Raymond Pearson, Egon (1895–1980) Pearson, Karl (1857–1936) Peirce, Charles Sanders Pereira, Basilio de Bragança Pena, Daniel Peto, Julian Peto, Richard Petty, William (1623–1687) Petty-Fitzmaurice, Henry Piekałkiewicz, Jan Pillai, K. C. Sreedharan Pillai, Vijayan K Pink, Brian Pitman, E. J. G. (1897–1993) Plackett, Robin Playfair, William (1759–1823) Pleszczyńska, Elżbieta Pocock, Stuart Poisson, Siméon Denis (1781–1840) Pollak, Henry O. Polson, Nicholas Preston, Samuel H. Price, Richard Priestley, Maurice Princet, Maurice Proschan, Frank (1921–2003) Punnett, Reginald Pólya, George (1887–1985) Puri, Madan Lal (1929–) == Q == Quetelet, Adolphe (1796–1874) Qazi Motahar Hossain (1897–1981) == R == Chand Rattan (1955–) Raftery, Adrian Raghavarao, D. Raiffa, Howard Ralescu, Stefan (1952–) Rao, C.R. (1920–2023) Rasch, Georg (1901–1980) Redington, Frank Reid, Nancy Reiersøl, Olav (1908–2001) Rhodes, E. C. Rice, Thomas Spring Richardson, Sylvia Rickman, John Ripley, Brian


id: list-of-stochastic-processes-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stochastic_processes_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of stochastic processes topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stochastic_processes_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:45.551061+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-stochastic-processes-topics-20260505-0
summary:
In the mathematics of probability, a stochastic process is a random function. In practical applications, the domain over which the function is defined is a time interval (time series) or a region of space (random field). Familiar examples of time series include stock market and exchange rate fluctuations, signals such as speech, audio and video; medical data such as a patient's EKG, EEG, blood pressure or temperature; and random movement such as Brownian motion or random walks. Examples of random fields include static images, random topographies (landscapes), or composition variations of an inhomogeneous material. == Stochastic processes topics == This list is currently incomplete. See also Category:Stochastic processes Basic affine jump diffusion Bernoulli process: discrete-time processes with two possible states. Bernoulli schemes: discrete-time processes with N possible states; every stationary process in N outcomes is a Bernoulli scheme, and vice versa. Bessel process Birth–death process Branching process Branching random walk Brownian bridge Brownian motion Chinese restaurant process CIR process Continuous stochastic process Cox process Dirichlet processes Finite-dimensional distribution First passage time Galton–Watson process Gamma process Gaussian process – a process where all linear combinations of coordinates are normally distributed random variables. Gauss–Markov process (cf. below) GenI process Girsanov's theorem Hawkes


id: list-of-global-sustainability-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_global_sustainability_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of global sustainability statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_global_sustainability_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:46.742395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-global-sustainability-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Global sustainability statistics are benchmarks for measuring the status of sustainability parameters. The following agencies provide baseline data for sustainability governance. They are just one form of data used for sustainability accounting and are valuable for assessing trends and measuring progress. This list provides sources of statistics at the global level of governance only. General lists Meadows, D.H., Randers, J. & Meadows, D.L. 2004. Limits to growth: the 30-year update. Chelsea Green Publishing Company, White River Junction, USA. The CIAs World Fact Book World Data Center United Nations Environmental Indicators Also publications on environmental statistics and statistical methods. Water (water resources, water supply industry, waste water) Air pollution (SO2 & NOx), Climate change (greenhouse gas emissions; by sector(absolute & percentage); CO2 emissions; CH4 & N2O emissions) Waste (municipal waste collection, treatment, hazardous waste) Land use (total land area by country, forest area by country, agricultural area by country). European Commission (Eurostat) Biodiversity Groombridge, B & Jenkins, M.D. 2002. World Atlas of Biodiversity. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre Energy BP Statistical Review of World Energy The International Energy Agency. Key World Energy Statistics UN Energy Statistics Database Fisheries UN Food and Agriculture Organization Forests UN Food and Agriculture Organization Fertilizer International


id: list-of-textbooks-in-thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:47.896132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics-20260505-0
summary:
A list of notable textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, arranged by category and date. == Only or mainly thermodynamics == Fermi, Enrico (1956). Thermodynamics (New ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486603612. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Van Ness, H. C. (1983). Understanding Thermodynamics. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486632773. Callen, Herbert (1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-86256-8. Finn, C. B. P. (1993). Thermal Physics (2nd ed.). United States of America: CRC Press. ISBN 0-7487-4379-0. Zemansky, Mark W.; Dittman, Richard (1997). Heat and Thermodynamics: An Intermediate Textbook (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-070-17059-9. Hanson, Robert M.; Green, Susan (2008). Introduction to Molecular Thermodynamics. University Science Books. ISBN 978-1891389498, 978-1-938787-63-8. Pokrovskii, Vladimir (2020). Thermodynamics of Complex Systems: Principles and applications. IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK. ISBN 978-0-7503-3451-8. == Both thermodynamics and statistical mechanics == Reif, Frederick (1965). Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-051800-9. Sears, Francis W. (1975). Thermodynamics, Kinetic Theory, and Statistical Thermodynamics. Addison Wesley. ISBN 020106894X. Kittel, Charles (1969). Thermal Physics. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-49030-X. 2e Kittel, Charles; and Kroemer, Herbert (1980) New York: W.H. Freeman ISBN 0-7167-1088-9 Mandl, Franz (1971). Statistical physics. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-56658-6. 2e (1988)


id: timeline-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:49.098176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a timeline of probability and statistics. == Before 1600 == 8th century – Al-Khalil, an Arab mathematician studying cryptology, wrote the Book of Cryptographic Messages. The work has been lost, but based on the reports of later authors, it contained the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels. 9th century - Al-Kindi was the first to use frequency analysis to decipher encrypted messages and developed the first code breaking algorithm. He wrote a book entitled Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages, containing detailed discussions on statistics and cryptanalysis. Al-Kindi also made the earliest known use of statistical inference. 13th century – An important contribution of Ibn Adlan was on sample size for use of frequency analysis. 13th century – the first known calculation of the probability for throwing 3 dices is published in the Latin poem De vetula. 1560s (published 1663) – Cardano's Liber de ludo aleae attempts to calculate probabilities of dice throws. He demonstrates the efficacy of defining odds as the ratio of favourable to unfavourable outcomes (which implies that the probability of an event is given by the ratio of favourable outcomes to the total number


id: list-of-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:51.720779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Many (but not all) graphemes that are part of a writing system that encodes a full spoken language are included in the Unicode standard, which also includes graphical symbols. See: Language code List of Unicode characters List of writing systems Punctuation List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks The remainder of this list focuses on graphemes not part of spoken language-encoding systems. == Basic communication == ⃠ — No symbol Character Circled dot Emoji ☺ — Smiley ✓ — checkmark (UK: tick) Harvey balls – Graphic symbols used to compare quality ☆ — Star (polygon) I - signal 0 - lack of signal, hence: [I]/[0] == Scientific and engineering symbols == Alchemical symbols Astronomical symbols Planet symbols Chemical symbols Electronic symbol (for circuit diagrams, etc.) Engineering drawing symbols Energy Systems Language Hazard symbols List of mathematical constants (typically letters and compound symbols) Glossary of mathematical symbols List of physical constants (typically letters and compound symbols) List of common physics notations (typically letters used as variable names in equations) Rod of Asclepius / Caduceus as a symbol of medicine == Consumer symbols == Various currency signs (sublist) === Navigational symbols === Traffic signs, including warning signs contain many specialized symbols (see


id: list-of-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:51.720779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
=== S === Sacred Chao Sacred Heart Saint symbolism Scientology symbols Shield of the Trinity Sigil Sigillum Dei Sigil of Baphomet Sigils of demons Skull and crossbones, Jolly Roger Solar symbols Radiate crown Sunburst Sun of May Vergina Sun Winged sun Soyombo symbol Star Star and crescent Star of David Starburst Star polygon Five-pointed star Arabic star Sun cross Swastika Square and Compasses === T === Taiji Taegeuk Taijitu Tanit symbol Tarot iconography Tattva symbols Tetractys Thor's Hammer Tilaka Tomoe Torii Three hares Tree of Life Tree of Peace Trefoil Trimurti Triple Goddess Triple spiral Triquetra Triratna/Three Jewels Triskelion Tudor Rose Tursaansydän Turtle === U === Unicursal hexagram Urantia symbols === V === Vajra Valknut Vande matram Vesica piscis === W === White buffalo White Rose of York White stag Wreath === Y === Yantra Yin-yang Yoni == Heraldic symbols == Charge (heraldry) Coat of arms List of coats of arms Mon (emblem) Mullet Monogram Flag Vexillology / Glossary of vexillology Maritime flag Insignia == Historical == Gediminid House mark Pūloʻuloʻu Rurikid Tamga == Sports and games == Chess symbols in Unicode Olympic symbols Paralympic symbols == Political symbols == Anarchist symbolism Communist symbolism Fascist symbolism Flash and circle Francoist


id: alchemical-symbol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemical_symbol-0.md
category: reference
title: Alchemical symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemical_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:52.883968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemical-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemical symbols were used to denote chemical elements and compounds, as well as alchemical apparatus and processes, until the 18th century. Although notation was partly standardized, style and symbol varied between alchemists. Lüdy-Tenger published an inventory of 3,695 symbols and variants, and that was not exhaustive, omitting for example many of the symbols used by Isaac Newton. This page therefore lists only the most common symbols. == Three primes == According to Paracelsus (1493–1541), the three primes or tria prima – of which material substances are immediately composed – are: Sulfur or soul, the principle of combustibility: 🜍 () Mercury or spirit, the principle of fusibility and volatility: ☿ () Salt or body, the principle of non-combustibility and non-volatility: 🜔 () == Four basic elements == Western alchemy makes use of the four classical elements. The symbols used for these are: Air 🜁 () Earth 🜃 () Fire 🜂 () Water 🜄 () == Seven planetary metals == The seven metals known since Classical times in Europe were associated with the seven classical planets; this figured heavily in alchemical symbolism. The exact correlation varied over time, and in early centuries bronze or electrum were sometimes found instead of mercury, or


id: list-of-animals-representing-first-level-administrative-country-subdivisions-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of animals representing first-level administrative country subdivisions
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:54.128835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-animals-representing-first-level-administrative-country-subdivisions-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animals_representing_first-level_administrative_country_subdivisions-0.md

summary:
This is a list of animals that represent first-level administrative country subdivisions. == List by country == === Australia === === Canada === === People's Republic of China === === India === === Indonesia === === Italy === === Japan === === Netherlands === === Malaysia === === Mexico === === Pakistan === === Philippines === === Romania === === South Korea === === Spain === === Sweden === === Taiwan === === United Kingdom === === United States === == See also == Floral emblem List of national birds National emblem == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animals_representing_first-level_administrative_country_subdivisions


id: astronomical-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronomical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:55.281815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Astronomical symbols are abstract pictorial symbols used to represent astronomical objects, theoretical constructs and observational events in European astronomy. The earliest forms of these symbols appear in Greek papyrus texts of late antiquity. The Byzantine codices in which many Greek papyrus texts were preserved continued and extended the inventory of astronomical symbols. New symbols have been invented to represent many planets and minor planets discovered in the 18th to the 21st centuries. These symbols were once commonly used by professional astronomers, amateur astronomers, alchemists, and astrologers. While they are still commonly used in almanacs and astrological publications, their occurrence in published research and texts on astronomy is relatively infrequent, with some exceptions such as the Sun and Earth symbols appearing in astronomical constants, and certain zodiacal signs used to represent the solstices and equinoxes. Unicode has encoded many of these symbols, mainly in the Miscellaneous Symbols, Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows, Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs, Alchemical Symbols, and Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement blocks. == Sun and Moon == The use of astronomical symbols for the Sun and Moon dates to antiquity. The forms of the symbols that appear in the original papyrus texts of Greek horoscopes are a circle with one ray


id: astronomical-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: Astronomical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:55.281815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Following the discovery of Ceres in 1801 by the astronomer and Catholic priest Giuseppe Piazzi, a group of astronomers ratified the name, which Piazzi had proposed. At that time, the sickle was chosen as a symbol of the planet. The symbol for 2 Pallas, the spear of Pallas Athena, was invented by Baron Franz Xaver von Zach, who organized a group of twenty-four astronomers to search for a planet between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The symbol was introduced by von Zach in 1802. In a letter to von Zach, discoverer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (who had discovered and named Pallas) expressed his approval of the proposed symbol, but wished that the handle of the sickle of Ceres had been adorned with a pommel instead of a crossbar, to better differentiate it from the sign of Venus. German astronomer Karl Ludwig Harding created the symbol for 3 Juno. Harding, who discovered this asteroid in 1804, proposed the name Juno and the use of a scepter topped with a star as its astronomical symbol. The symbol for 4 Vesta was invented by German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Olbers, having previously discovered and named 2 Pallas, gave Gauss the honor of


id: astronomical-symbols-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols-2.md
category: reference
title: Astronomical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:55.281815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
All these symbols are rare or obsolete in modern astronomy, though NASA has used Ceres' symbol when describing the dwarf planets, and Psyche's symbol may have influenced the design of the insignia for the Psyche mission. The major use of symbols for minor planets today is by astrologers, who have invented symbols for many more objects, though they sometimes use symbols that differ from the historical symbols for the same bodies. The symbol for 99942 Apophis, a near-Earth asteroid discovered in 2004 that attracted interest when initial observations suggested a significant probability of an Earth impact in 2029 (a possibility since eliminated), is much later. It was designed by Denis Moskowitz, who also designed many of the dwarf-planet symbols, at a time when asteroid symbols had become extremely rare in astronomy. Nonetheless, its inclusion of a star is meant to recall the 19th-century asteroid symbols. === Asteroid table === == Trans-Neptunian objects == Pluto's name and symbol were announced by the discoverers on May 1, 1930. The symbol, a monogram of the letters PL, could be interpreted to stand for Pluto or for Percival Lowell, the astronomer who initiated Lowell Observatory's search for a planet beyond the orbit of Neptune.


id: list-of-common-astronomy-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_astronomy_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of common astronomy symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_astronomy_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:56.445064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-astronomy-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a compilation of symbols commonly used in astronomy, particularly professional astronomy. == Age (stellar) == τ - age == Astrometry parameters == Astrometry parameters Rv - radial velocity cz - apparent radial velocity z - Redshift μ - proper motion π - parallax J - epoch α - Right Ascension δ - Declination λ - Ecliptic longitude β - Ecliptic latitude l - Galactic longitude b - Galactic latitude Δ - Distance from Earth ø - Geographical or astronomical latitude == Cosmological parameters == Cosmological parameters h - dimensionless Hubble parameter H0 - Hubble constant Λ - cosmological constant Ω - density parameter ρ - density ρc - critical density z - redshift == Distance description == Distance description for orbital and non-orbital parameters: d - distance d - in km = kilometer d - in mi = mile d - in AU = astronomical unit d - in ly = light-year d - in pc = parsec d - in kpc = kiloparsec (1000 pc) DL - luminosity distance, obtaining an objects distance using only visual aspects == Galaxy comparison == Galaxy type and spectral comparison: see galaxy morphological classification == Luminosity comparison == Luminosity comparison: LS,


id: list-of-symbols-of-states-and-territories-of-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_states_and_territories_of_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols of states and territories of Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_states_and_territories_of_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:57.640457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-of-states-and-territories-of-australia-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of the symbols of the states and territories of Australia. Each state and territory has a unique set of official symbols, as well as the national symbols of Australia. == States == == See also == Australian state colours National colours of Australia National symbols of Australia List of Australian bird emblems List of Australian mammal emblems States and territories of Australia == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-canadian-provincial-and-territorial-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_provincial_and_territorial_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_provincial_and_territorial_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:58.889270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-canadian-provincial-and-territorial-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of the symbols of the provinces and territories of Canada. Each province and territory has a unique set of official symbols. == Provinces and territories == == See also == Canada portal Coat of arms of Canada List of Canadian flags National symbols of Canada Canadian Red Ensign Regional tartans of Canada == References ==


id: symbols-of-alberta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Alberta-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Alberta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Alberta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:00.046109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-alberta-20260505-0
summary:
Alberta is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several official emblems that reflect the province's history, its natural and diverse landscapes, and its people. == Official symbols of Alberta == == De facto symbols == While not officially adopted through legislation as emblems by the government of Alberta, these places and things are popularly associated with (hence could be considered symbols of) the province. == See also == List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols Canadian royal symbols == References ==


id: symbols-of-british-columbia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_British_Columbia-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of British Columbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_British_Columbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:01.216813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-british-columbia-20260505-0
summary:
British Columbia is Canada's westernmost province, and has established several provincial symbols. == Official symbols == == Other symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-manitoba-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Manitoba-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Manitoba
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Manitoba
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:02.508272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-manitoba-20260505-0
summary:
There are several symbols of Manitoba, one of the ten provinces of Canada. These symbols are designated by The Coat of Arms, Emblems and the Manitoba Tartan Act, which came into force on Feb 1, 1988. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-new-brunswick-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_New_Brunswick-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of New Brunswick
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_New_Brunswick
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:03.700055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-new-brunswick-20260505-0
summary:
New Brunswick is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several provincial symbols. == Official symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-newfoundland-and-labrador-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Newfoundland and Labrador
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:04.844297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-newfoundland-and-labrador-20260505-0
summary:
Newfoundland and Labrador is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several official symbols. Labrador, the mainland portion of the province, has its own distinct cultural identity and has established several unofficial symbols for itself. == Official symbols of Newfoundland and Labrador == == Unofficial symbols of Labrador == == References ==


id: symbols-of-nova-scotia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Nova_Scotia-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Nova Scotia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Nova_Scotia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:06.005297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-nova-scotia-20260505-0
summary:
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several provincial symbols. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-ontario-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Ontario-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Ontario
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Ontario
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:07.259234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-ontario-20260505-0
summary:
Ontario is a province of Canada that has established several official emblems and symbols to reflect the province's history, natural resources, and its people. In addition to official symbols, several other emblems and symbols exist that are commonly associated with the province. == Official symbols == Several emblems and symbols are used to officially represent the province, established through royal warrant or through the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. They include: == Other symbols == Several emblems and symbols exist that are commonly associated with province. They include: === Symbols of the lieutenant governor of Ontario === There exists several official emblems and symbols to represent the lieutenant governor of Ontario. == References ==


id: symbols-of-prince-edward-island-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Prince_Edward_Island-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Prince Edward Island
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Prince_Edward_Island
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:08.386957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-prince-edward-island-20260505-0
summary:
Prince Edward Island is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several provincial symbols. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-quebec-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Quebec-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Quebec
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Quebec
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:09.542252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-quebec-20260505-0
summary:
The people and province of Quebec have created and established several symbols throughout Quebec's history to represent the collective identity of its residents. Many of Quebec's symbols are related to its history, to Catholicism, to Quebec's winters and/or the flora and fauna of Quebec. The motif most commonly seen in Quebec's various symbols is the fleur de lys, which is associated with the French language and New France. == Symbols == The fleur-de-lis, one of Quebec's most common symbols, is an ancient symbol of the French monarchy and was first shown in Quebec on the shores of Gaspésie in 1534 when Jacques Cartier arrived in Quebec for the first time. Saint-Jean-Baptiste, the patron saint of Canadiens, is honoured every 24 June during Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day. The expression La belle province is still used as a nickname for the province. Finally, the Great Seal of Quebec is used to authenticate documents issued by the government of Quebec. === Coat of arms === The coat of arms of Quebec dates back to 1868, shortly after the creation of Quebec as a province of Canada. The arms were granted by a royal warrant issued by Queen Victoria. The arms were adopted in their current


id: symbols-of-saskatchewan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Saskatchewan-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Saskatchewan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Saskatchewan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:10.719385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-saskatchewan-20260505-0
summary:
Saskatchewan is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several provincial symbols. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-the-northwest-territories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_the_Northwest_Territories-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of the Northwest Territories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_the_Northwest_Territories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:11.883322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-the-northwest-territories-20260505-0
summary:
The Northwest Territories, one of Canada's territories, has established several territorial symbols. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-yukon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Yukon-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Yukon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Yukon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:13.027601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-yukon-20260505-0
summary:
Yukon is one of Canada's territories, and has established several territorial symbols. == Official symbols == == Great Seal == Like Nunavut, Yukon does not have an official Great Seal. == References ==


id: chess-annotation-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Chess annotation symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:14.184479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chess-annotation-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
When annotating chess games, commentators frequently use widely recognized annotation symbols. Question marks and exclamation points that denote a move as bad or good are ubiquitous in chess literature. Some publications intended for an international audience, such as the Chess Informant, have a wide range of additional symbols that transcend language barriers. The common symbols for evaluating the merits of a move are "??", "?", "?!", "!?", "!", and "!!". The chosen symbol is appended to the text describing the move (e.g. Re7? or Kh1!?); see Algebraic chess notation. Use of these annotation symbols is subjective, as different annotators use the same symbols differently or for a different reason. == Evaluation symbols == === Moves === Move evaluation symbols, by decreasing severity or increasing effectiveness of the move: ==== ?? (Blunder) ==== The double question mark "??" indicates a blunder, a critically bad mistake. Typical moves that receive double question marks are those that overlook a tactic that wins substantial material, overlook a checkmate, or miss a winning move after a severe mistake by the opponent. A "??"-worthy move may result in an immediately lost position, turn a won position into a draw, lose an important piece or otherwise severely


id: chess-annotation-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: Chess annotation symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:14.184479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chess-annotation-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
==== Parentheses ==== Sometimes annotation symbols are put in parentheses, e.g. "(?)", "(!)". Different writers have used these in different ways. Ludek Pachman used "(?)" to indicate a move that he considered inferior but that he did not wish to comment on further; Simon Webb used it to indicate a move that is objectively sound, but was in his opinion a poor psychological choice; and Robert Hübner (see below) used it to indicate a move that is inaccurate and makes the player's task more difficult. When put in parentheses, "(!)" usually indicates a subtlety which demonstrates the player's skill rather than a spectacular move. == Formalized definitions == Some writers choose to take a less subjective or more formalized approach to these symbols. === Nunn's convention === In his 1992 book Secrets of Rook Endings and other books in the series (Secrets of Minor-Piece Endings and Secrets of Pawnless Endings), John Nunn uses these symbols in a more specific way in the context of endgames where the optimal line of play can be determined with certainty: This convention has been used in some later works, such as Fundamental Chess Endings and Secrets of Pawn Endings by Karsten Müller and Frank


id: chess-symbols-in-unicode-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_symbols_in_Unicode-0.md
category: reference
title: Chess symbols in Unicode
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_symbols_in_Unicode
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:15.379486+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chess-symbols-in-unicode-20260505-0
summary:
Unicode has text representations of chess pieces. These allow to produce the symbols using plain text without the need of a graphics interface. The inclusion of the chess symbols enables the use of figurine algebraic notation, which replaces the letter that stands for a piece by its symbol, e.g. ♛f1 instead of Qf1. This also allows the play of chess games in text-only environments, such as the terminal. == Unicode blocks == Unicode 15.1 specifies a total of 110 spread across two blocks. The standard set of chess pieces—king, queen, rook, bishop, knight, or pawn, with white and black variants—were included in the block Miscellaneous Symbols. In Unicode 12.0, the Chess Symbols block (U+1FA00–U+1FA6F) was allocated for inclusion of extra chess piece representations. This includes fairy chess pieces, such as rotated pieces, neutral (neither white nor black) pieces, knighted pieces, equihoppers, as well as xiangqi pieces. In 2024, four shatranj pieces were provisionally assigned for a future version in the range U+1FA54–U+1FA57. This was completed in Unicode 17.0. === Miscellaneous symbols === === Chess symbols === == Emoji == In Unicode 11.0, an emojified representation of the character U+265F ♟ BLACK CHESS PAWN was added. As of Unicode 15.1, only


id: county-flowers-of-the-united-kingdom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_flowers_of_the_United_Kingdom-0.md
category: reference
title: County flowers of the United Kingdom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_flowers_of_the_United_Kingdom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:16.650902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: county-flowers-of-the-united-kingdom-20260505-0
summary:
In 2002 Plantlife conducted a "County Flowers" public survey to assign flowers to each of the counties of the United Kingdom and the Isle of Man. The results of this campaign designated a single plant species to a "county or metropolitan area" in the UK and Isle of Man. Some English counties already had flowers traditionally associated with them before 2002, and which were different from those assigned to them by Plantlife, including the white rose for Yorkshire (assigned the harebell), the poppy for Norfolk (assigned the Alexanders), and the cowslip for Essex (assigned the poppy). Some flowers were assigned to multiple counties. == England == == Isle of Man == == Northern Ireland == == Scotland == == Wales == == Notes == == References == === Bibliography === The list of county flowers above is taken from the county flowers pages at Plantlife's website. County statuses are taken from: Stace, C. A., R. G. Ellis, D. H. Kent and D. J. McCosh (2003) Vice-county Census Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Great Britain Botanical Society of the British Isles (for British counties) Source to be determined for Northern Ireland


id: esperanto-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Esperanto symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:18.850252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: esperanto-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Esperanto symbols, primarily the Esperanto flag, have seen much consistency over the time of Esperanto's existence (namely in the consistent usage of the colour green), though a few variations in exact flag patterning and symbology exist. The main flag of Esperanto, featuring the Verda Stelo ('Green Star'), was adopted in 1905 for use as a symbol of mutual recognition among Esperantists, and is used by most Esperantists. As an alternative to the flag, the jubilea simbolo ('jubilee symbol') was proposed in 1987. == History == === Verda Stelo === Since the earliest days of Esperanto, the colour green has been used as a symbol of mutual recognition, and it appears prominently in all Esperanto symbols. In a letter to The British Esperantist in 1911, L. L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, wrote: "It seems to me, that my attention was drawn to the color green by Mr. Richard H. Geoghegan and from that time I began to publish all of my works with green covers . . . Looking at one of my pamphlets that I had entirely by chance printed with a green cover, he pointed out that this was the color of his homeland, Ireland; at that time


id: european-hazard-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_hazard_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: European hazard symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_hazard_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:20.093948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-hazard-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
European hazard symbols for chemicals are pictograms defined by the European Union for labelling chemical packaging (for storage and workplace) and containers (for transportation). They are standardised currently by the CLP/GHS classification. == GHS hazard pictograms == The European Union CLP Regulation (for "Classification, Labelling and Packaging") was introduced as EC Regulation 1272/2008. It is based on the GHS system, to secure for "physical, health and environment hazards". The European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) fixed harmonised pictograms for transportation. Vehicles carrying dangerous goods have to be fitted with orange signs, where the lower number identifies the substance, while the upper number is a key for the threat it may pose. == Chemical warning signage == Directive 92/58/EEC provides several safety signs for identifying dangerous materials and areas where they are handled and stored. == Former hazard pictograms (1967–2017) == The previous hazard symbols for chemicals, were introduced in the Directive Directive 67/548/EEC, in 1967, and required to be adopted no later than 1 January 1970. The symbols were also included as a part of Directive 1999/45/EC. The symbols were replaced from 1 December 2010 to 1 June 2017, via a gradual phaseout. After


id: list-of-symbols-designated-by-the-adl-as-hate-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_designated_by_the_ADL_as_hate_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols designated by the ADL as hate symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_designated_by_the_ADL_as_hate_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:21.308857+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-designated-by-the-adl-as-hate-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of hate symbols, including acronyms, numbers, phrases, logos, flags, gestures and other miscellaneous symbols used for hateful purposes, according to the Anti-Defamation League in their "Hate on Display" database. Some of these items have been appropriated by hate groups and may have other, non-hate-group-related meanings, including anti-racist meanings. == Acronyms == == Numerical == == Phrases == == Hate group logos == == Flags == == Gestures == == Miscellaneous symbols == == See also == Armanen runes Cross burning Far-right subcultures Fascist symbolism List of fascist movements List of Ku Klux Klan organizations List of neo-Nazi organizations List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups List of white nationalist organizations Nazi symbolism The modern Federal Republic of Germany's Strafgesetzbuch section 86a == References == Informational notes a.^^^^This symbol, while sometimes used as a hate symbol, is also used as a religious symbol for many pagans, and should not be assumed to be a hate symbol in all contexts. Citations


id: list-of-oldest-heraldry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_heraldry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of oldest heraldry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_heraldry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:22.514906+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oldest-heraldry-20260505-0
summary:
Heraldry developed in the High Middle Ages based on earlier traditions of visual identification by means of seals, field signs, emblems used on coins, etc. Notably, lions that would subsequently appear in 12th-century coats of arms of European nobility have pre-figurations in the animal style of ancient art (specifically the style of Scythian art as it developed from c. the 7th century BC). The origin of the term heraldry itself (Middle English heraldy, Old French hiraudie) can be placed in the context of the early forms of the knightly tournaments in the 12th century. Combatants wore full armour, and identified themselves by wearing their emblems on their shields. A herald (Old French heraut, from a Frankish *hariwald "commander of an army") was an officer who would announce the competitors. The display of heraldic emblems on shields is an innovation of the 12th century. The kite shields shown in the Bayeux Tapestry (c. 1070) sometimes show simple cross or spiral ornaments, but no heraldic emblems. Similarly, Frankish or German round shields of the 11th century (Ottonian, Salian) are sometimes depicted with simple geometric ornamentation, but not with figurative emblems. Early mention of heraldic shields in Middle High German literature likewise dates


id: list-of-japanese-map-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_map_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Japanese map symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_map_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:23.725757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-japanese-map-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of symbols appearing on Japanese maps. These symbols are called chizukigou (地図記号) in the Japanese language. They are standardized by the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GSI) and the Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB). These two sources generally agree, but they have alternative forms for a few symbols. Because these symbols were developed within a specifically Japanese cultural setting, alternative symbols have been developed for some meanings that are more consistent with worldwide symbol usage or more obvious in what they depict. == Partial list of symbols for users with visual impairment == Official symbols according to the conventions of the Geographical Survey Institute of Japan appear with a circle below. == See also == Key (map) – Graphic depiction of a geographic phenomenonPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets List of Japanese typographic symbols Geospatial Information Authority of Japan – Institution responsible for surveying and mapping the national land of Japan (GSI) == References == == External links == Japanese map symbols List of symbols (in Japanese) (Translate to English: Google, Bing, Yandex) Children's list from the GSI (in Japanese) (Translate to English: Google, Bing, Yandex) This is a very good reference, it


id: list-of-japanese-typographic-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_typographic_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Japanese typographic symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_typographic_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:38.635191+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-japanese-typographic-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists Japanese typographic symbols that are not included in kana or kanji groupings. == Repetition marks == == Brackets and quotation marks == == Phonetic marks == == Punctuation marks == == Other special marks == == Organization-specific symbols == == See also == Japanese map symbols Japanese punctuation Emoji, which originated in Japanese mobile phone culture == References ==


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Over the course of its history, the LGBTQ community has adopted certain symbols for self-identification to demonstrate unity, pride, shared values, and allegiance to one another. These symbols communicate ideas, concepts, and identity both within their communities and to mainstream culture. The two symbols most recognized internationally are the pink triangle and the rainbow flag. == Letters and glyphs == === Gender symbols === The female and male gender symbols are derived from the astronomical symbols for the planets Venus and Mars respectively. Following Linnaeus, biologists use the planetary symbol for Venus to represent the female sex, and the planetary symbol for Mars to represent the male sex. Two interlocking female symbols (⚢) represent a lesbian or the lesbian community, and two interlocking male symbols (⚣) a gay male or the gay male community. These symbols first appeared in the 1970s. The combined male-female symbol (⚦) is used to represent androgyne or transgender people; when additionally combined with the female (♀) and male (♂) symbols (⚧) it indicates gender inclusivity, though it is also used as a transgender symbol. === Lambda === In 1970, graphic designer Tom Doerr selected the lower-case Greek letter lambda (λ) to be the symbol of


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
The color lavender and the eponymous plant are symbols of LGBTQ identity. This has led to the naming of terms such as the "Lavender Scare" and "lavender marriage". In 19th-century England, green indicated homosexual affiliations, as popularized by homosexual author Oscar Wilde, who often wore a green carnation on his lapel, and used with the book The Green Carnation and Noël Coward's song, "We All Wear a Green Carnation" in his operetta, Bitter Sweet. According to some interpretations, American poet Walt Whitman used the sweet flag plant to represent homoerotic male love because of its phallic connotations. The term bara (薔薇), "rose" in Japanese, has historically been used in Japan as a pejorative for men who love men, roughly equivalent to the English language term "pansy". Beginning in the 1960s, the term was reappropriated by Japanese gay media: notably with the 1961 anthology Ba-ra-kei: Ordeal by Roses, a collection of semi-nude photographs of homosexual writer Yukio Mishima by photographer Eikoh Hosoe, and later with Barazoku (薔薇族; lit. "rose tribe") in 1971, the first commercially produced gay magazine in Asia. The use of the rose as a prominent symbol of love between males is supposedly derived from the Greek myth of


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-2.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Daniel Thaxton and Bernie Toale created a lavender rhinoceros symbol for a public ad campaign to increase visibility for gay people in Boston helmed by Gay Media Action-Advertising; Toale said they chose a rhinoceros because "it is a much maligned and misunderstood animal" and that it was lavender because that is a mix of pink and blue, making it a symbolic merger of the feminine and masculine. (Lavender had already been used to represent LGBTQ people in other contexts). However, in May 1974, Metro Transit Advertising said its lawyers could not "determine eligibility of the public service rate" for the lavender rhinoceros ads, which tripled the cost of the ad campaign. Gay Media Action challenged this but were unsuccessful. The lavender rhinoceros symbol was seen on signs, pins, and t-shirts at the Boston Pride Parade later in 1974, and a life-sized papier-mâché lavender rhinoceros was part of the parade. Money was raised for the ads, and they began running on the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority's Green Line by December 3, 1974, and ran there until February 1975. The lavender rhinoceros continued as a symbol of the gay community, appearing at the 1976 Boston Pride Parade and on a flag that


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-3.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
=== Asexual and aromantic symbols === The ace ring, a black ring worn on the middle finger of one's right hand, is a way asexual people signify their asexuality. The ring is deliberately worn in a similar manner as one would a wedding ring to symbolize marriage. Use of the symbol began in 2005. The aro ring, a white ring, worn on the middle finger on one's left hand is a way aromantic people signify their identity on the aromantic spectrum. Use of the symbol began in 2015. This was chosen as the opposite of the ace ring which is a black ring worn on the right hand. Another symbol often used by aromantic people is arrows or an arrow as the word arrow is a homophone to the shortened word aro used by aromantic people to refer to themselves. ==== Ace playing cards representing asexuality ==== Ace playing cards, due to the phonetic shortening from asexual to ace, are sometimes used to represent asexuality. The ace of hearts and ace of spades are used to symbolize romantic asexuality and aromantic asexuality respectively. Also, the ace of clubs is used to symbolize gray asexuality and grayromanticism, and the ace of


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-4.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
In the 1950s, some lesbians in Buffalo, New York wore a blue five-pointed star tattoo on the wrist, a location that could be covered by a watch. People getting tattoos to reflect this history may choose a nautical-style star. === White knot === The white knot is a symbol of support for same-sex marriage in the United States. The white knot combines two symbols of marriage, the color white and "tying the knot," to represent support for same-sex marriage. The white knot has been worn publicly by many celebrities as a means of demonstrating solidarity with that cause. The white knot was created by Frank Voci in November 2008, in response to the passage of Proposition 8 in California and bans on same-sex marriage and denial of other civil rights for LGBTQ persons across the nation. == Flags == == Gallery == === Symbols === === Simple icons === === Flags === == Encoding == Many of these symbols have unrelated meanings in other fields, notably as alchemical symbols and planetary symbols. == See also == LGBTQ slang LGBTQ slogans Pride flag == Notes == == References == == External links == LGBTQIA+ Glossary Archived 2021-12-18 at the Wayback Machine


id: list-of-lucky-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lucky_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of lucky symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lucky_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:41.244191+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-lucky-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
A good luck charm is an amulet or other item that is believed to bring good luck. Almost any object can be used as a charm. Coins, horseshoes and buttons are examples, as are small objects given as gifts, due to the favorable associations they make. Many souvenir shops have a range of tiny items that may be used as good luck charms. Good luck charms are often worn on the body, but not necessarily. == History == The mojo is a charm originating in African culture. It is used in voodoo ceremonies to carry several lucky objects or spells and intended to cause a specific effect. The concept is that particular objects placed in the bag and charged will create a supernatural effect for the bearer. Even today, mojo bags are still used. Europe also contributed to the concept of lucky charms. Adherents of St. Patrick (the patron saint of Ireland) adopted the four-leaf clover as a symbol of Irish luck because clovers are abundant in the hills of Ireland. == List == Luck is symbolized by a wide array of objects, numbers, symbols, plant and animal life which vary significantly in different cultures globally. The significance of each


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
A mathematical symbol is a figure or a combination of figures that is used to represent a mathematical object, an action on mathematical objects, a relation between mathematical objects, or for structuring the other symbols that occur in a formula or a mathematical expression. More formally, a mathematical symbol is any grapheme used in mathematical formulas and expressions. As formulas and expressions are entirely constituted with symbols of various types, many symbols are needed for expressing all mathematics. The most basic symbols are the decimal digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), and the letters of the Latin alphabet. The decimal digits are used for representing numbers through the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. Historically, upper-case letters were used for representing points in geometry, and lower-case letters were used for variables and constants. Letters are used for representing many other types of mathematical object. As the number of these types has increased, the Greek alphabet and some Hebrew letters have also come to be used. For more symbols, other typefaces are also used, mainly boldface ⁠ a {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} } ⁠, ⁠ A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } ⁠, ⁠ b {\displaystyle \mathbf {b} } ⁠, ⁠ B


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
+ (plus sign) 1. Denotes addition and is read as plus; for example, 3 + 2. 2. Denotes that a number is positive and is read as plus. Redundant, but sometimes used for emphasizing that a number is positive, specially when other numbers in the context are or may be negative; for example, +2. 3. Sometimes used instead of ⊔ {\displaystyle \sqcup } for a disjoint union of sets. − (minus sign) 1. Denotes subtraction and is read as minus; for example, 3 − 2. 2. Denotes the additive inverse and is read as minus, the negative of, or the opposite of; for example, −2. 3. Also used in place of \ for denoting the set-theoretic complement; see \ in § Set theory. × (multiplication sign) 1. In elementary arithmetic, denotes multiplication, and is read as times; for example, 3 × 2. 2. In geometry and linear algebra, denotes the cross product. 3. In set theory and category theory, denotes the Cartesian product and the direct product. See also × in § Set theory. · (dot) 1. Denotes multiplication and is read as times; for example, 3 ⋅ 2. 2. In geometry and linear algebra, denotes the dot product. 3.


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
> (greater-than sign) 1. Strict inequality between two numbers; means and is read as "greater than". 2. Commonly used for denoting any strict order. 3. Between two groups, may mean that the second one is a proper subgroup of the first one. ≤ 1. Means "less than or equal to". That is, whatever A and B are, A ≤ B is equivalent to A < B or A = B. 2. Between two groups, may mean that the first one is a subgroup of the second one. ≥ 1. Means "greater than or equal to". That is, whatever A and B are, A ≥ B is equivalent to A > B or A = B. 2. Between two groups, may mean that the second one is a subgroup of the first one. ≪ and ≫ {\displaystyle \ll {\text{ and }}\gg } 1. Means "much less than" and "much greater than". Generally, much is not formally defined, but means that the lesser quantity can be neglected with respect to the other. This is generally the case when the lesser quantity is smaller than the other by one or several orders of magnitude. 2. In measure theory, μ ≪ ν {\displaystyle \mu


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
1. With a subscript, denotes a set complement: that is, if ⁠ B ⊆ A {\displaystyle B\subseteq A} ⁠, then ⁠ ∁ A B = A ∖ B {\displaystyle \complement _{A}B=A\setminus B} ⁠. 2. Without a subscript, denotes the absolute complement; that is, ⁠ ∁ A = ∁ U A {\displaystyle \complement A=\complement _{U}A} ⁠, where U is a set which contains all possible sets currently under consideration, implicitly defined by the context. This set U is sometimes called the universe of discourse. 3. Used as a superscript on a set symbol, denotes the complement of that set; that is, A ∁ = U ∖ A , {\displaystyle \ A^{\complement }=U\ \backslash \ A\ ,} where U is the universal set, as in definition 2. × (multiplication sign) See also × in § Arithmetic operators. 1. Denotes the Cartesian product of two sets. That is, A × B {\displaystyle A\times B} is the set formed by all pairs of an element of A and an element of B. 2. Denotes the direct product of two mathematical structures of the same type, which is the Cartesian product of the underlying sets, equipped with a structure of the same type. For example,


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
⊥ (up tack) 1. ⊥ {\displaystyle \bot } denotes the logical predicate always false. 2. Denotes also the truth value false. 3. Sometimes denotes the bottom element of a bounded lattice (previous meanings are specific examples). 4. In cryptography often denotes an error in place of a regular value. 5. For the use as a superscript, see □⊥. 6. For the similar symbol, see ⊥ {\displaystyle \perp } . == Blackboard bold == The blackboard bold typeface is widely used for denoting the basic number systems. These systems are often also denoted by the corresponding uppercase bold letter. A clear advantage of blackboard bold is that these symbols cannot be confused with anything else. This allows using them in any area of mathematics, without having to recall their definition. For example, if one encounters R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } in combinatorics, one should immediately know that this denotes the real numbers, although combinatorics does not study the real numbers (but it uses them for many proofs). N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } Denotes the set of natural numbers { 1 , 2 , … } , {\displaystyle \{1,2,\ldots \},} or sometimes { 0 , 1 , 2 , … } .


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
⁠∂□/∂□⁠ Partial derivative: If f ( x 1 , … , x n ) {\displaystyle f(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})} is a function of several variables, ∂ f ∂ x i {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{i}}}} is the derivative with respect to the ith variable considered as an independent variable, the other variables being considered as constants. ⁠𝛿□/𝛿□⁠ Functional derivative: If f ( y 1 , … , y n ) {\displaystyle f(y_{1},\ldots ,y_{n})} is a functional of several functions, δ f δ y i {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\delta f}{\delta y_{i}}}} is the functional derivative with respect to the nth function considered as an independent variable, the other functions being considered constant. ◻ ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {\Box }}} 1. Complex conjugate: If z is a complex number, then z ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {z}}} is its complex conjugate. For example, a + b i ¯ = a − b i . {\displaystyle {\overline {a+bi}}=a-b\ i~.} 2. Topological closure: If S is a subset of a topological space T, then S ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {S}}} is its topological closure, that is, the smallest closed subset of T that contains S. 3. Algebraic closure: If F is a field, then F ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {F}}}


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
∇2 or ∇⋅∇ Laplace operator or Laplacian: ⁠ ∂ 2 ∂ x 2 + ∂ 2 ∂ y 2 + ∂ 2 ∂ z 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial y^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial z^{2}}}} ⁠. The forms ∇ 2 {\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}} and ∇ ⋅ ∇ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}\cdot {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}} represents the dot product of the gradient ( ∇ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}} or ⁠ ∇ → {\displaystyle {\vec {\nabla }}} ⁠) with itself. Also notated Δ (next item). Δ (Capital Greek letter delta—not to be confused with ⁠ △ {\displaystyle \triangle } ⁠, which may denote a geometric triangle or, alternatively, the symmetric difference of two sets.) 1. Another notation for the Laplacian (see above). 2. Operator of finite difference. ∂ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\partial }}} or ∂ μ {\displaystyle \partial _{\mu }} (Note: Although ◻ → {\displaystyle \ {\vec {\Box }}\ } may be used unambiguously, the notation ◻ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Box }}} is not recommended for the four-gradient since both ◻ {\displaystyle \Box } and ◻ 2 {\displaystyle {\Box }^{2}} are used to denote the d'Alembertian; see below.) Quad, the 4-vector gradient operator or four-gradient, ( ∂ ∂ t , ∂ ∂


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
□⊥ 1. Orthogonal complement: If W is a linear subspace of an inner product space V, then W⊥ denotes its orthogonal complement, that is, the linear space of the elements of V whose inner products with the elements of W are all zero. 2. Orthogonal subspace in the dual space: If W is a linear subspace (or a submodule) of a vector space (or of a module) V, then W⊥ may denote the orthogonal subspace of W, that is, the set of all linear forms that map W to zero. 3. For inline uses of the symbol, see ⊥. == Advanced group theory == ⊲⊴ Normal subgroup of and normal subgroup of including equality, respectively. If N and G are groups such that N is a normal subgroup of (including equality) G, this is written ⁠ N ⊴ G {\displaystyle N\trianglelefteq G} ⁠. ⋉⋊ 1. Inner semidirect product: if N and H are subgroups of a group G, such that N is a normal subgroup of G, then G = N ⋊ H {\displaystyle G=N\rtimes H} and G = H ⋉ N {\displaystyle G=H\ltimes N} mean that G is the semidirect product of N and H, that is, that every


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
(□, □) 1. Denotes an ordered pair of mathematical objects, for example, ( π , 0 ) {\displaystyle (\pi ,0)} . 2. If a and b are real numbers, − ∞ {\displaystyle -\infty } , or + ∞ {\displaystyle +\infty } , and a < b, then ( a , b ) {\displaystyle (a,b)} denotes the open interval delimited by a and b. See ]□, □[ for an alternative notation. 3. If a and b are integers, ( a , b ) {\displaystyle (a,b)} may denote the greatest common divisor of a and b. Notation gcd ( a , b ) {\displaystyle \gcd(a,b)} is often used instead. (□, □, □) If x, y, z are vectors in R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} , then ( x , y , z ) {\displaystyle (x,y,z)} may denote the scalar triple product. See also [□,□,□] in § Square brackets. (□, ..., □) Denotes a tuple. If there are n objects separated by commas, it is an n-tuple. (□, □, ...)(□, ..., □, ...) Denotes an infinite sequence. ( ◻ ⋯ ◻ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ◻ ⋯ ◻ ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}\Box &\cdots &\Box \\\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\\Box &\cdots &\Box \end{pmatrix}}} Denotes a matrix.


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
{□ : □} {□ | □} Set-builder notation: if P ( x ) {\displaystyle P(x)} is a predicate depending on a variable x, then both { x : P ( x ) } {\displaystyle \{x:P(x)\}} and { x ∣ P ( x ) } {\displaystyle \{x\mid P(x)\}} denote the set formed by the values of x for which P ( x ) {\displaystyle P(x)} is true. Single brace 1. Used for emphasizing that several equations have to be considered as simultaneous equations; for example, { 2 x + y = 1 3 x − y = 1 {\displaystyle \textstyle {\begin{cases}2x+y=1\\3x-y=1\end{cases}}} . 2. Piecewise definition; for example, | x | = { x if x ≥ 0 − x if x < 0 {\displaystyle \textstyle |x|={\begin{cases}x&{\text{if }}x\geq 0\\-x&{\text{if }}x<0\end{cases}}} . 3. Used for grouped annotation of elements in a formula; for example, ( a , b , … , z ) ⏟ 26 {\displaystyle \textstyle \underbrace {(a,b,\ldots ,z)} _{26}} , 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 100 ⏞ = 5050 {\displaystyle \textstyle \overbrace {1+2+\cdots +100} ^{=5050}} , [ A B ] } m + n rows {\displaystyle \textstyle \left.{\begin{bmatrix}A\\B\end{bmatrix}}\right\}m+n{\text{ rows}}} === Other brackets === |□| 1. Absolute value: if x is


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
■ , □ Used for marking the end of a proof and separating it from the current text. The initialism Q.E.D. or QED (Latin: quod erat demonstrandum, "as was to be shown") is often used for the same purpose, either in its upper-case form or in lower case. ☡ Bourbaki dangerous bend symbol: Sometimes used in the margin to forewarn readers against serious errors, where they risk falling, or to mark a passage that is tricky on a first reading because of an especially subtle argument. ∴ Abbreviation of "therefore". Placed between two assertions, it means that the first one implies the second one. For example: "All humans are mortal, and Socrates is a human. ∴ Socrates is mortal." ∵ Abbreviation of "because" or "since". Placed between two assertions, it means that the first one is implied by the second one. For example: "11 is prime ∵ it has no positive integer factors other than itself and one." ∋ 1. Abbreviation of "such that". For example, x ∋ x > 3 {\displaystyle x\ni x>3} is normally printed "x such that x > 3 {\displaystyle x>3} ". 2. Sometimes used for reversing the operands of ∈ {\displaystyle \in } ; that


id: symbols-of-nunavut-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Nunavut-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Nunavut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Nunavut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:43.661757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-nunavut-20260505-0
summary:
Nunavut is one of Canada's territories, and has established several territorial symbols. == Symbols of Nunavut == == Great Seal == Like Yukon, Nunavut does not have an official Great Seal. == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-occult-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_occult_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of occult symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_occult_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:44.843337+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-occult-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of symbols associated with the occult. == List == == See also == Iconography List of occult terms List of sigils of demons Planet symbols Alchemical symbols == References == === Works cited === == Further reading ==


id: list-of-ideological-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ideological_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ideological symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ideological_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:46.204908+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ideological-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a partial list of symbols and labels used by political parties, groups or movements around the world. Some symbols are associated with one or more worldwide ideologies and used by many parties that support a particular ideology. Others are region or country-specific. == Colours == === Worldwide === === Armenia === === Australia === === Brazil === === Bangladesh === === Canada === === Chile === === Finland === Blue-and-Black Movement Finns Party Freedom Alliance New Communist Party of Finland Truth Party === France === === Georgia === === Guatemala === === Hungary === === Italy === === India === === Ireland === === Japan === === Lebanon === === Mexico === === The Netherlands === === New Zealand === === Norway === Conservative Industry and Business Party Liberalistene Nasjonal Samling === Peru === Orange – Fujimorism === Portugal === === Russia === === Rwanda === === Serbia === === Slovakia === === South Africa === Orange, white, blue, and green – Afrikaner Volksfront Red, white and black – Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging Orange, white and blue – Herstigte Nasionale Party Red, black and yellow – South African Communist Party === Sweden === === Syria === === Turkey === ===


id: religious-symbol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_symbol-0.md
category: reference
title: Religious symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:47.330093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
A religious symbol is an iconic representation intended to represent a specific religion, or a specific concept within a given religion. Religious symbols have been used in the military in many countries, such as the United States military chaplain symbols. Similarly, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers recognize 57 symbols (including a number of symbols expressing non-religiosity). == Symbols representing a specific religion == Symbolic representation of a specific religious tradition is useful in a society with religious pluralism, as was the case in the Roman Empire, and again in modern multiculturalism. == Religious symbolism == === African Indigenous religions === In some African Indigenous religions, there are graphical and pictorial symbols representing the actual religion or faith just like the Abrahamic faith. Each indigenous religion however, has symbolisms which are religious or spiritual in nature. Some of these may be graphical, numerological (as in Serer numerology - see Serer creation myth) or a combination of both. However, these graphical images represent the actual religion practice and elements within the faith. The Ìṣẹ̀ṣe religion of the yoruba people indigenous religion as an example has it graphical and pictorial symbol representing the religion, the symbol


id: list-of-saint-patrick-s-crosses-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Saint_Patrick's_crosses-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Saint Patrick's crosses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Saint_Patrick's_crosses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:48.448985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-saint-patrick-s-crosses-20260505-0
summary:
A variety of crosses, both designs and physical objects, have been associated with Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Traditionally, the cross pattée has been associated with him, but in more recent times, the Saint Patrick's Saltire has also been linked to him. Some authors have stated, however, that Patrick is not entitled to have a cross as a symbol since he was not a martyr, unlike Saints George and Andrew. == Celtic Cross == It is popularly believed that St. Patrick introduced the Celtic Cross in Ireland, during his conversion of the provincial kings from paganism to Christianity. St Patrick is said to have taken the symbol of the sun and extended one of the lengths to form a melding of the Christian Cross and the sun. == Saltire == Saint Patrick's Saltire is a red saltire on a white field. It is used in the insignia of the Order of Saint Patrick, established in 1783, and after the Acts of Union 1800 it was combined with the Saint George's Cross of England and the Saint Andrew's Cross of Scotland to form the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. A saltire was intermittently


id: list-of-symbols-of-scientology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_Scientology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols of Scientology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_Scientology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:49.666162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-of-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
Scientology symbols include graphic emblems, diagrams, and visual devices used by the Church of Scientology and affiliated organizations. Many were created or approved by L. Ron Hubbard and are used to represent key concepts such as the ARC and KRC triangles, the eight dynamics, the Scientology cross, and the S-and-double-triangle emblem. These symbols appear throughout Scientology literature, training materials, uniforms, and buildings, and visually express elements of Scientology beliefs and practices. Scholars of new religious movements have noted that Scientology employs distinctive symbols that reinforce insider identity, and encode Hubbard's conceptual system. Some researchers have connected Scientology's symbolic system to Hubbard's emphasis on mystery, games conditions, and the mechanisms by which a thetan becomes stuck or entrapped. Mikael Rothstein states that Scientology's symbols imprint on the participant, help structure the believer's understanding of spiritual progression and organizational hierarchy, and suggests that "Hubbard is symbolically embedded in the [e-meter] and is symbolically manifested during its use". All official symbols of Scientology are trademarks held by the Religious Technology Center (RTC). RTC says they are to be used "on Scientology religious materials to signify their authenticity ... and provide a legal mechanism to ensure the spiritual technologies are orthodox and ministered according


id: list-of-symbols-of-scientology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_Scientology-1.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols of Scientology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_Scientology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:49.666162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-of-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
The symbol of the Sea Organization is colored gold and consists of two crossed laurel branches with a five-pointed star above. The Sea Org is the senior-most group of staff within the Church of Scientology network. At one point Hubbard said the star symbolized the spirit and the laurel wreath represented victory, though in a 1968 lecture he said the star was the galactic confederation and the 26 leaves were the number of stars in the confederation. The symbol appears on uniforms, uniform insignia, flags, and Sea Org materials. === L. Ron Hubbard hallmark === The L. Ron Hubbard hallmark is a stylized monogram combining the letters L, R, and H. Designed to resemble an assay office hallmark, it is used to authenticate Hubbard's writings, lectures, and approved Scientology materials. The symbol appears on books, devices, jewelry, and other official items. === Church of Spiritual Technology symbol === The Church of Spiritual Technology (CST) uses a symbol consisting of two overlapping circles, each containing a lozenge shape. Large versions of this symbol are carved into the landscape at CST archival sites, including the Trementina Base in New Mexico, where they are visible from the air. CST maintains archival copies of


id: list-of-sigils-of-demons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sigils_of_demons-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sigils of demons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sigils_of_demons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:50.843438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sigils-of-demons-20260505-0
summary:
In demonology, sigils are pictorial signatures attributed to demons, angels, or other beings. In the ceremonial magic of the Middle Ages, sigils were used in the summoning of these beings and were the pictorial equivalent to their true name. == See also == List of theological demons List of demons in the Ars Goetia List of occult symbols == References == == External links == Media related to Sigils of demons at Wikimedia Commons


id: solar-symbol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_symbol-0.md
category: reference
title: Solar symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:52.043832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solar-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
A solar symbol is a symbol representing the Sun. Common solar symbols include circles (with or without rays), crosses, and spirals. In religious iconography, personifications of the Sun or solar attributes are often indicated by means of a halo or a radiate crown. When the systematic study of comparative mythology first became popular in the 19th century, scholarly opinion tended to over-interpret historical myths and iconography in terms of "solar symbolism". This was especially the case with Max Müller and his followers beginning in the 1860s in the context of Indo-European studies. Many "solar symbols" claimed in the 19th century, such as the swastika, triskele, Sun cross, etc. have tended to be interpreted more conservatively in scholarship since the later 20th century. == Solar disk == The basic element of most solar symbols is the circular solar disk. The disk can be modified in various ways, notably by adding rays (found in the Bronze Age in Egyptian depictions of Aten) or a cross. In the ancient Near East, the solar disk could also be modified by addition of the Uraeus (rearing cobra), and in ancient Mesopotamia it was shown with wings. === Bronze Age writing === Egyptian hieroglyphs have a


id: solar-symbol-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_symbol-1.md
category: reference
title: Solar symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:52.043832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solar-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
== Modern flags and emblems == Official insignia which incorporate rayed solar symbols include the flag of Uruguay, the flag of Kiribati, some versions of the flag of Argentina, the Irish Defence Forces cap badge, and the 1959–1965 coat of arms of Iraq. The depictions of the sun on the flags of the Republic of China (Taiwan), Kazakhstan, Kurdistan, the Brazilian state of Pernambuco, and Nepal have only straight (triangular) rays; that of Kyrgyzstan has only curvy rays; while that of the Philippines has short diverging rays grouped into threes. Another rayed form of the sun has simple radial lines dividing the background into two colors, as in the military flags of Japan and the flag of North Macedonia, and in the top parts of the flags of Tibet and Arizona. The flag of New Mexico is based on the Zia sun symbol which has four groups of four parallel rays emanating symmetrically from a central circle. == Code points in Unicode == U+2609 ☉ SUN U+2600 ☀ BLACK SUN WITH RAYS (A more accurate term might be "solid colour". The actual colour is an implementation choice, for example ☀, ☀.) U+263C ☼ WHITE SUN WITH RAYS (A more accurate


id: list-of-provincial-trees-of-thailand-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_provincial_trees_of_Thailand-0.md
category: reference
title: List of provincial trees of Thailand
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_provincial_trees_of_Thailand
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:53.243447+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-provincial-trees-of-thailand-20260505-0
summary:
List of official trees of the provinces of Thailand: == List == == See also == Seals of the provinces of Thailand List of trees of northern Thailand List of U.S. state and territory trees == References == == Bibliography == ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน. พจนานุกรม ฉบับราชบัณฑิตยสถาน พ.ศ. ๒๕๕๔ เฉลิมพระเกียรติพระบาทสมเด็จพระเจ้าอยู่หัว เนื่องในโอกาสพระราชพิธีมหามงคลเฉลิมพระชนมพรรษา ๗ รอบ ๕ ธันวาคม ๒๕๕๔. กรุงเทพฯ : ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน, 2556. (in Thai) ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน. หนังสืออนุกรมวิธานพืช อักษร ก. พิมพ์ครั้งที่ 2. กรุงเทพฯ : ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน, 2547. (in Thai) ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน. หนังสืออนุกรมวิธานพืช อักษร ข. กรุงเทพฯ : ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน, 2547. (in Thai) ราชันย์ ภู่มา และสมราน สุดดี, บรรณาธิการ. ชื่อพรรณไม้แห่งประเทศไทย เต็ม สมิตินันทน์ ฉบับแก้ไขเพิ่มเติม พ.ศ. 2557. กรุงเทพฯ : สำนักงานหอพรรณไม้ สำนักวิจัยการอนุรักษ์ป่าไม้และพันธุ์พืช กรมอุทยานแห่งชาติ สัตว์ป่า และพันธุ์พืช กระทรวงทรัพยากรธรรมชาติและสิ่งแวดล้อม, 2557. (in Thai) ส่วนเพาะชำกล้าไม้. สำนักส่งเสริมการปลูกป่า. กรมป่าไม้. พันธุ์ไม้มงคลพระราชทาน. กรุงเทพฯ : มูลนิธิสถาบันราชพฤกษ์, 2540. (in Thai)


id: list-of-unicode-characters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Unicode_characters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Unicode characters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Unicode_characters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:55.297388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unicode-characters-20260505-0
summary:
As of Unicode version 17.0, there are 297,334 assigned characters with code points, covering 172 modern and historical scripts, as well as multiple symbol sets. As it is not technically possible to list all of these characters in a single page, this list is limited to a subset of the most important characters for English-language readers, with links to other pages which list the supplementary characters. Accordingly, this article lists the 1,062 characters in the Multilingual European Character Set 2 (MES-2) subset, and some additional related characters. (The term Unicode character was coined to categorise characters that do not also have ASCII code points.) == Character reference overview == HTML and XML provide ways to reference Unicode characters when the characters themselves either cannot or should not be used. A numeric character reference refers to a character by its Universal Character Set/Unicode code point, and a character entity reference refers to a character by a predefined name. A numeric character reference uses the format &#nnnn; or &#xhhhh; where nnnn is the code point in decimal form, and hhhh is the code point in hexadecimal form. The x must be lowercase in XML documents. The nnnn or hhhh may be any


id: list-of-unicode-characters-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Unicode_characters-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Unicode characters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Unicode_characters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:55.297388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unicode-characters-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tamil === === Telugu === === Kannada === === Malayalam === === Sinhala === === Other Brahmic scripts === Other Brahmic and Indic scripts in Unicode include: == Other South and Central Asian writing systems == Gunjala Gondi (Unicode block) Masaram Gondi (Unicode block) Mro (Unicode block) Nag Mundari (Unicode block) Ol Chiki (Unicode block) Ol Onal (Unicode block) Sora Sompeng (Unicode block) Sunuwar (Unicode block) Tangsa (Unicode block) Tolong Siki (Unicode block) Toto (Unicode block) Warang Citi (Unicode block) == Southeast Asian writing systems == Hanifi Rohingya (Unicode block) Kayah Li (Unicode block) Pahawh Hmong (Unicode block) Pau Cin Hau (Unicode block) == Georgian == == African scripts == === Ge'ez/Ethiopic script === === Other African scripts === Adlam (Unicode block) Bamum (Unicode block) Bamum Supplement (Unicode block) Beria Erfe (Unicode block) Bassa Vah (Unicode block) Garay (Unicode block) Medefaidrin (Unicode block) Mende Kikakui (Unicode block) NKo (Unicode block) Osmanya (Unicode block) Ottoman Siyaq Numbers Tifinagh (Unicode block) Vai (Unicode block) == American scripts == === Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics === === Other American scripts === Cherokee (Unicode block) Cherokee Supplement (Unicode block) Deseret (Unicode block) Kaktovik Numerals (Unicode block) Osage (Unicode block) == Mongolian == == Unicode


id: united-states-department-of-veterans-affairs-emblems-for-headstones-and-markers-20260505-0
category: reference
title: United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:56.475655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: united-states-department-of-veterans-affairs-emblems-for-headstones-and-markers-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs_emblems_for_headstones_and_markers-0.md

summary:
The United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) maintains many cemeteries specifically devoted to veterans. Most have various rules regarding what must take place in order to be interred there. == Procedure == The VA only permits graphics on government-furnished headstones or markers that are approved emblems of belief, the Civil War Union Shield (including those who served in the U.S. military through the Spanish–American War), the Civil War Confederate Southern Cross of Honor, and the Medal of Honor insignia. Arlington National Cemetery has similar restrictions on headstones, though it is maintained by US Department of the Army. The religious symbols are rendered as simple inscriptions without sculptural relief or coloring other than black. The emblem of belief is an optional feature. Generally the VA adds a new symbol a few months after receiving a petition from a faith group. However, the Wiccan symbol was only added in 2007 to settle a lawsuit filed on behalf of several families by Americans United for the Separation of Church and State in November 2006. A separate parallel lawsuit was filed on behalf of two Wiccan churches and three families by the American Civil Liberties Union in September 2006, which was resolved by

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs_emblems_for_headstones_and_markers


id: list-of-bad-luck-signs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bad_luck_signs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of bad luck signs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bad_luck_signs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:57.647315+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bad-luck-signs-20260505-0
summary:
Bad luck is an unpredictable outcome that is unfortunate. This is a list of signs believed to bring bad luck according to superstitions. == List == Breaking a mirror is said to bring seven years of bad luck A bird or flock of birds going from left to right (Auspicia) (Paganism) Certain numbers: The number 4. Fear of the number 4 is known as tetraphobia; in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean languages, the number sounds like the word for "death". The number 9. Fear of the number 9 is known as enneaphobia, in Japanese culture; this is because it sounds like the Japanese word for "suffering". The number 13. Fear of the number 13 is known as triskaidekaphobia. The number 17. Fear of the number 17 is known as heptadecaphobia and is prominent in Italian culture. The number 39. Fear of the number 39 is known as the curse of 39, especially in Afghan culture. The number 43. In Japanese culture, maternity wards numbered 43 are considered taboo, as the word for the number means "stillbirth". The number 666. Fear of the number 666 is known as hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia. Per Biblical prophecy, the "Number of The Beast", signifies the return of the


id: variations-of-the-ichthys-symbol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variations_of_the_ichthys_symbol-0.md
category: reference
title: Variations of the ichthys symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variations_of_the_ichthys_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:58.800947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: variations-of-the-ichthys-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
The ichthys symbol (or "Jesus fish") is a sign typically used to proclaim an affiliation with or affinity for Christianity. The fish was originally adopted by early Christians as a secret symbol, but the many variations known today first appeared in the 1980s. Some of these are made by Christians in order to promote a specific doctrine or theological perspective, such as evolutionary creation. Both the traditional ichthys and its variations are found at religious goods stores and are used to adorn the bumpers or trunks of automobiles, often in the form of adhesive badges made of chrome-colored plastic. Other variations are intended for the purpose of satire by non-Christian groups. == Christian ichthys symbol == An ancient Hellenistic Christian slogan espoused the Greek acronym/acrostic ΙΧΘΥΣ (ichthys) for Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ (Iēsous Christos, Theou Yios, Sōtēr), which translates into English as 'Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour'; the Greek word ichthys translating to 'fish' in English. The first appearances of fish symbols as adopted in Christian art and literature date to the 2nd century AD. Some fish symbol variations, called the Jesus fish, contain the English word Jesus in the center, or are empty entirely. Jeroen Temperman, with


id: vegetarian-and-vegan-symbolism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian_and_vegan_symbolism-0.md
category: reference
title: Vegetarian and vegan symbolism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian_and_vegan_symbolism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:59.963720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vegetarian-and-vegan-symbolism-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple symbols have been developed to represent lacto-vegetarianism and veganism. Several are used on food packaging, including voluntary labels such as The Vegan Society trademark or the V-Label (with support of the European Vegetarian Union) as well as the vegetarian and non-vegetarian marks mandated by the Indian government. Symbols may also be used by members of the vegetarian and vegan communities to represent their identities, and in the course of animal rights activism. == Vegetarian symbols == === Indian vegetarian mark === Packaged food and toothpaste products sold in India are required to be labelled with a mark in order to be distinguished between lacto-vegetarian and non-vegetarian. The symbol is in effect following the Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Act of 2006, and received a mandatory status after the framing of the respective regulations (Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Regulation) in 2011. According to the law, vegetarian food should be identified by a green symbol and non-vegetarian food with a brown symbol. They are defined as: "Vegetarian food must have a symbol of a green color-filled circle inside a square with a green outline prominently displayed on the package, contrasting against the background on the principal


id: vegetarian-and-vegan-symbolism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian_and_vegan_symbolism-1.md
category: reference
title: Vegetarian and vegan symbolism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian_and_vegan_symbolism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:59.963720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vegetarian-and-vegan-symbolism-20260505-0
summary:
The vegan flag was designed in 2017 by a network group of graphic designers and activists from several countries. The group was opened by Gad Hakimi, a vegan activist and designer from Israel. who intended it to be a Civil flag to represent veganism. The flag consists of three blue and green triangles forming the letter V, the first letter in the word "vegan". Originally, some members of the group suggested that animals should be featured on the flag, with red colours featuring prominently to symbolize the blood of slaughtered animals. However, the group eventually chose to make the flag about human–animal respect, not about animals themselves. Inspired by the LGBT rainbow flag, the flag was created in hopes of uniting animal rights organizations and activists. The colours white, green, and blue were chosen to represent the natural habitats of animals: sky, land, and sea. The letter V stands for Vegan, and is an inverted pyramid intended to symbolize the ability to do the impossible. V-Label The international V-Label supported by the European Vegetarian Union is an internationally recognised and protected trademark for the labelling of vegetarian and vegan products. === Vegetarian Society Approved vegan trademark === The Vegetarian Society


id: yiddish-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Yiddish symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:01.093888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yiddish-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
A number of Yiddish symbols have emerged to represent the language and the Yiddishist movement over history. Lacking a central authority, however, they have not had the prominence of those of the Hebrew revival and the Zionist symbols of Israel. Several of the Yiddish symbols are drawn from Yiddish songs in the klezmer tradition. == Yiddish symbols == === The Golden Peacock === The Golden Peacock (Yiddish: די גאָלדענע פּאַווע) has historically been a common symbol in Yiddish literature, popularized by Di Goldene Pave. It has often been a subject of Yiddish poetry, including a collection under that title from Moyshe-Leyb Halpern. Yiddishpiel uses a logo of golden peacock plumage surrounding its theatre building, while The Forward has used gold in its masthead (also recalling Di Goldene Medine) since 2015, A variation of this symbol has been used as the logo of the Yiddish cafe Pink Peacock in Glasgow. === The Little Goat === The traditional Jewish lullaby "Raisins and Almonds" popularized the little goat (Yiddish: ציגעלע, romanized: tsigele) as a Yiddish symbol, echoing that in Chad Gadya, a traditional Passover song. The Yiddish Book Center has adopted a golden goat (a recoloring of the lullaby's white goat after the


id: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:02.692165+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
summary:
The following articles contain lists of problems. This includes unsolved problems, which may refer to several notable conjectures or open problems in various academic fields: == Natural sciences, engineering and medicine == List of unsolved problems in astronomy List of unsolved problems in biology List of unsolved problems in chemistry List of unsolved problems in geoscience Unsolved problems in medicine List of unsolved problems in neuroscience List of unsolved problems in physics == Mathematics == List of unsolved problems in mathematics List of undecidable problems List of NP-complete problems List of PSPACE-complete problems List of problems in loop theory and quasigroup theory == Social sciences, statistics, and information sciences == List of unsolved problems in economics List of unsolved problems in fair division List of unsolved problems in statistics List of unsolved problems in computer science List of unsolved problems in information theory == Other == List of philosophical problems List of unsolved deaths == See also == Cold case List of ciphertexts List of hypothetical technologies List of paradoxes Unknowability


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:03.931725+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a list of notable unsolved problems in astronomy. Problems may be theoretical or experimental. Theoretical problems result from inability of current theories to explain observed phenomena or experimental results. Experimental problems result from inability to test or investigate a proposed theory. Other problems involve unique events or occurrences that have not repeated themselves with unclear causes. == Planetary astronomy == === The Solar System === Orbiting bodies and rotation: Are there any non-dwarf planets beyond Neptune? Why do extreme trans-Neptunian objects have elongated orbits? The rotation rate of Saturn: Why does the magnetosphere of Saturn rotate at a rate close to that at which the planet's clouds rotate? What is the rotation rate of Saturn's deep interior? Satellite geomorphology: What is the origin of the chain of high mountains that closely follows the equator of Saturn's moon, Iapetus? Are the mountains the remnant of hot and fast-rotating young Iapetus? Are the mountains the result of material (either from the rings of Saturn or its ring) that over time collected upon the surface? === Extra-solar === How common are Solar System-like planetary systems? (Some observed planetary systems contain Super-Earths and Hot Jupiters that orbit very close to their


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-astronomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:03.931725+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
== Cosmology == Cosmological principle: Is the universe homogeneous and isotropic at sufficiently large scales, as claimed by the cosmological principle and assumed by all models that use the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric, including the current version of the ΛCDM model, or is the universe inhomogeneous or anisotropic? Is the CMB dipole purely kinematic, or does it signal anisotropy of the universe, resulting in the breakdown of the FLRW metric and the cosmological principle? Is the Hubble tension evidence that the cosmological principle is false? If the cosmological principle is correct, is the FLRW metric the correct metric describing the universe? Are the observations interpreted as the accelerating expansion of the universe correctly interpreted, or are they instead evidence that the cosmological principle is false? Copernican principle: Are cosmological observations made from Earth representative of observations from the other positions in the universe? Dark matter: What is the identity and composition of dark matter? Is dark matter a particle? If so, is it a WIMP, an axion, the lightest superpartner (LSP), or something else? Do the phenomena attributed to dark matter point to an extension of gravity instead of some other type of matter? Dark energy: What causes the observed accelerating


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:05.105952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists notable unsolved problems in biology. == General biology == === Evolution and origins of life === Origin of life. Exactly how, where, and when did life on Earth originate? Which, if any, of the many hypotheses is correct? What were the metabolic pathways used by the earliest life forms? How did genetic code originate? What was the molecular mechanism that allows the association of the amino acids with their triplet codons? What were the biochemical paths from individual bio-building blocks like amino acids or nucleic acids to functional polymers such as proteins and DNA? Origin of sexual reproduction. What were the fundamental selective forces responsible for the origin of sexual reproduction? Maintenance of sexual reproduction. What are the fundamental selective forces maintaining sexual reproduction? Origins of viruses (Virus World). Exactly how and when did different groups of viruses originate? Morphology problem. How are neural tissues formed in specific ways in different species? The formation of neural tissues in a certain way is necessary for the formation of certain goal-directed behavior for certain species. Developmental psychobiology posed this question since the lack of knowledge about the precise coordination of all cells, even those not related anatomically, in space


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:05.105952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Biological homochirality. What is the origin of homochirality in living organisms? In biological organisms, amino acids appear almost exclusively in the left-handed form and sugars in the right-handed form. Homochirality is an obvious characteristic of life on Earth, yet extraterrestrial samples contain largely racemic compounds. It is not known whether homochirality existed before life, whether the building blocks of life must have this particular chirality, or whether life must be homochiral at all. What do all the unknown proteins do? Two decades since the first eukaryotes were sequenced, the "biological role" of around 20% of proteins are still unknown. Many of these proteins are conserved across most eukaryotic species and some are conserved in bacteria, indicating a role fundamental for life. Determinants of cell size. How do cells determine what size to grow to before dividing? Golgi apparatus. In cell theory, what is the exact transport mechanism by which proteins travel through the Golgi apparatus? Mechanism of action of drugs. The mechanisms of action of many drugs including lithium, thalidomide, and ketamine are not completely understood. Protein folding. What is the folding code? What is the folding mechanism? Can the native structure of a protein be predicted from its amino


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:05.105952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
== Human biology == Handedness: It is unclear how handedness develops, what purpose it serves, why right-handedness is far more common, and why left-handedness exists. Laughter: While it is generally accepted that laughing evolved as a form of social communication, the exact neurobiological process that leads humans to laugh is not well understood. Yawning: It is yet to be established what the biological or social purpose of yawning is. Heritable components of homosexuality: How to reconcile evolution with the heritable components of human homosexuality? Homosexuality is prevalent across human societies, past and present. These facts constitute an evolutionary puzzle. Decline in average human body temperature since the 19th century: Medical data suggests that the average body temperature has declined 0.6 °C since the 19th century. The cause is unclear although it has been suggested that it has some relation with reduced inflammation from reduced exposure to microorganisms. Why are there blood types? It is unclear what the origin and purpose of having blood types is. It is thought that O blood may be an adaptation to malaria and that different blood types respond to different diseases but this hypothesis has yet to be proven. Why did these antigens develop in


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-3.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:05.105952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Paradox of the plankton. The high diversity of phytoplankton seems to violate the competitive exclusion principle. Ediacaran biota. How should Ediacaran biota be classified? Even what kingdom they belong to is unclear. Why were they so decisively displaced by Cambrian biota? Cambrian explosion. What is the cause of the apparent rapid diversification of multicellular animal life around the beginning of the Cambrian, resulting in the emergence of almost all modern animal phyla? Darwin's abominable mystery of botany/plants. What is the exact evolutionary history of flowers and what is the cause of the apparently sudden appearance of nearly modern flowers in the fossil record? Adult form of Facetotecta. The adult form of this animal has never been encountered in the water, and it remains a mystery what it grows into. Origin of snakes. Did snakes evolve from burrowing lizards or aquatic lizards? There is evidence for both hypotheses. Origin of turtles. Did turtles evolve from anapsids or diapsids? There is evidence for both hypotheses. Paleodictyon: What is the origin of this trace fossil and its modern counterparts? Despite many theories proposed, no evidence has been found to confirm any of them. Francevillian biota: were they early multicellular organisms? Snowball Earth: what


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:06.291916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of unsolved problems in chemistry. Problems in chemistry are considered unsolved when an expert in the field considers it unsolved or when several experts in the field disagree about a solution to a problem. == Physical chemistry problems == Can the transition temperature of high-temperature superconductors be brought up to room temperature? How do the spin–orbit coupling, other relativistic corrections, and inter-electron effects modify the chemistry of the trans-actinides? Is it possible to create a practically useful lithium–air battery? == Organic chemistry problems == What is the origin of homochirality in biomolecules? Why are accelerated kinetics observed for some organic reactions at the water-organic interface? Do replacement reactions of aryl diazonium salts (dediazotizations) predominantly undergo SN1 or a radical mechanism? Can an electrochemical cell reliably perform organic redox reactions? Which "classic organic chemistry" reactions admit chiral catalysts? Is it possible to construct a quaternary carbon atom with arbitrary (distinguishable) substituents and stereochemistry? Can artificial enzymes replace the need for protecting groups when modifying sensitive compounds? == Inorganic chemistry problems == Are there any molecules that certainly contain a phi bond? Is there a less labor- or energy-intensive technique for titanium refinement than the Kroll process? Does


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-computer-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_science-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:07.458238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-computer-science-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a list of notable unsolved problems in computer science. A problem in computer science is considered unsolved when no solution is known or when experts in the field disagree about proposed solutions. == Computational complexity == P versus NP problem – The P vs NP problem is a major unsolved question in computer science that asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified by a computer (NP) can also be quickly solved by a computer (P). This question has profound implications for fields such as cryptography, algorithm design, and computational theory. What is the relationship between BQP and NP? NC = P problem NP = co-NP problem P = BPP problem P = PSPACE problem L = NL problem PH = PSPACE problem L = P problem L = RL problem Unique games conjecture Is the exponential time hypothesis true? Is the strong exponential time hypothesis (SETH) true? Do one-way functions exist? Is public-key cryptography possible? Log-rank conjecture Hartmanis–Stearns conjecture == Polynomial versus nondeterministic-polynomial time for specific algorithmic problems == Can integer factorization be done in polynomial time on a classical (non-quantum) computer? Can the discrete logarithm be computed in polynomial time on a classical


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-economics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_economics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:08.644071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-economics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of some of the major unsolved problems, puzzles, or questions in economics. Some of these are theoretical in origin and some of them concern the inability of orthodox economic theory to explain an empirical observation. == Capital theory == Cambridge capital controversy: The Cambridge capital controversy is a dispute in economics that started in the 1950s. The debate concerned the nature and role of capital goods and a critique of the neoclassical vision of aggregate production and distribution. The question of whether the natural growth rate is exogenous, or endogenous to demand (and whether it is input growth that causes output growth, or vice versa), lies at the heart of the debate. The resolution of the debate has not been agreed upon by economists. Transformation problem: The transformation problem is the problem specific to Marxist economics, and not to economics in general, of finding a general rule by which to transform the values of commodities based on socially necessary labour time into the competitive prices of the marketplace. The essential difficulty is how to reconcile profit in the form of surplus value from direct labour inputs and the ratio of direct labour input to capital input


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-economics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_economics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:08.644071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Home bias in trade puzzle: The home bias in trade puzzle is an empirical observation that even when factors such as economic size of trading partners and the distance between them are considered, trade between regions within a given country is substantially greater than trade between regions in different countries, even when there are no substantial legal barriers. There is currently no framework to explain this observation. Equity home bias puzzle: This puzzle concerns the observation that individuals and institutions in many countries only hold modest amounts of foreign equity, despite the ability for vast diversification of their portfolios in the global economy. While some explanations do exist, such as that local individuals and firms have greater access to information about local firms and economic conditions, these explanations are not accepted by the majority of economists and have been mostly refuted. Backus–Kehoe–Kydland puzzle: The Backus–Kehoe–Kydland consumption correlation puzzle is the empirical observation that consumption is much less correlated across countries than output. Standard economic theory suggests that country-specific output risks should be collective and domestic consumption growth should not depend strongly on country-specific income shocks. Thus, we should not see the observation that consumption is much less correlated across countries


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in fair division
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:09.846628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-0
summary:
This page lists notable open problems related to fair division - a field in the intersection of mathematics, computer science, political science and economics. == Open problems in fair cake-cutting == === Query complexity of envy-free cake-cutting === In the problem of envy-free cake-cutting, there is a cake modeled as an interval, and n {\displaystyle n} agents with different value measures over the cake. The value measures are accessible only via queries of the form "evaluate a given piece of cake" or "mark a piece of cake with a given value". With n = 2 {\displaystyle n=2} agents, an envy-free division can be found using two queries, via divide and choose. With n > 2 {\displaystyle n>2} agents, there are several open problems regarding the number of required queries. 1. First, assume that the entire cake must be allocated (i.e., there is no disposal), and pieces may be disconnected. How many queries are required? Lower bound: Ω ( n 2 ) {\displaystyle \Omega (n^{2})} ; Upper bound: O ( n n n n n n ) {\displaystyle O\left(n^{n^{n^{n^{n^{n}}}}}\right)} . 2. Next, assume that some cake may be left unallocated (i.e., there is free disposal), but the allocation must be proportional


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in fair division
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:09.846628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approximate maximin-share fairness === The 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} maximin share (MMS) of an agent is the largest utility the agent can secure by partitioning the items into n {\displaystyle n} bundles and receiving the worst bundle. For two agents, divide and choose gives each agent at least his/her 1-of-2 MMS. For n > 2 {\displaystyle n>2} agents, it is almost always, but not always, possible to give each agent his/her 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} MMS. This raises several kinds of questions. ==== 1. Computational complexity ==== What is the runtime complexity of deciding whether a given instance admits a 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} MMS allocation? Upper bound: N P N P {\displaystyle {NP}^{NP}} (which is Σ 2 P {\displaystyle \Sigma _{2}^{P}} - level 2 in the polynomial hierarchy) Lower bound: none (so it may be level 2 or 1 or even 0 of the hierarchy). NOTE: the following related problems are known to be computationally hard: Calculating the 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} MMS of a given agent is NP-hard even if all agents have additive preferences (reduction from partition problem). Deciding whether a given allocation is 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} MMS is co-NP complete for agents with additive


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in fair division
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:09.846628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-0
summary:
==== Price of fairness ==== The price of fairness is the ratio between the maximum social welfare (sum of utilities) in any allocation, and the maximum social welfare in a fair allocation. What is the price of EF1 fairness? The upper bound is O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} - by either Round-robin or maximum Nash welfare. The lower bound is O ( n ) {\displaystyle O({\sqrt {n}})} . === Existence of EFx allocation === An allocation is called EFx ("envy-free up to any good") if, for any two agents i {\displaystyle i} and j {\displaystyle j} , and for any good in the bundle of j {\displaystyle j} , if we remove that good from j {\displaystyle j} 's bundle then i {\displaystyle i} does not envy. For three agents with additive valuations, does there always exist an EFx allocation? For n {\displaystyle n} agents with general monotone valuations, can we prove that there does not exist an EFx allocation? Known cases: If at least n − 1 {\displaystyle n-1} valuations are identical: yes. Hence, for two agents: yes. This is true even for general monotone valuations. For three agents: yes, by a recent working paper. === Existence of


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-geoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_geoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in geoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_geoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:11.045396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-geoscience-20260505-0
summary:
This list provides references to notable unsolved problems in geoscience. == Early Earth and the Solar System == Was there ever a collision of Earth with the hypothesized planet of Theia, which gave birth to the Moon? There is compelling evidence, such as measures of a shorter duration of the Earth's rotation and lunar month in the past, that suggests the possibility that Earth's Moon was much closer to Earth during the early stages of Solar System formation. What is the long-term heat balance of Earth? How did its internal temperature decay since it formed by accretion of chondrites? How abundant are radiogenic elements in the interior? Did a "faint young Sun" ever warm a "snowball Earth"? and that is cause it formed on one of the earths langrage sharing it's orbit line == Topography and environment == Can the now widely available topographic data be used to derive past tectonic and climatic conditions (in the multi-million year scale)? Do we know enough about the erosion and transport processes? Does the stochasticity of meteorological and tectonic events reflect in the landscape? How much has life contributed to shape the Earth's surface? Can classical geomorphological concepts such as peneplanation or retrogressive


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-information-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_information_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in information theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_information_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:12.210120+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-information-theory-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists notable unsolved problems in information theory. These are separated into source coding and channel coding. There are also related unsolved problems in philosophy. == Channel coding == Capacity of a network: The capacity of a general wireless network is not known. There are some specific cases for which the capacity is known, such as the AWGN channel and fading channel. Capacity of the broadcast channel: The capacity of the broadcast channel, or the case in which a single transmitter is sending information to many receivers, is unknown in general, though it is known for several specific cases. Capacity of the interference channel (Two User): The capacity of the interference channel, in the case where there are two transmitter and receiver pairs that interfere among each other, is unknown in general. Capacity is known in special cases: strong interference regime, injective-deterministic. Capacity is known in approximate sense or within a range for: injective-semi-deterministic, additive white Gaussian noise with per block power constraint. Capacity of the two-way channel: The capacity of the two-way channel (a channel in which information is sent in both directions simultaneously) is unknown. Capacity of Aloha: The ALOHAnet used a very simple access scheme for


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Many mathematical problems have been stated but not yet solved. These problems come from many areas of mathematics, such as theoretical physics, computer science, algebra, analysis, combinatorics, algebraic, differential, discrete and Euclidean geometries, graph theory, group theory, mathematical logic, number theory, set theory, Ramsey theory, dynamical systems, and partial differential equations. Some problems belong to more than one discipline and are studied using techniques from different areas. Prizes are often awarded for the solution to a long-standing problem, and some lists of unsolved problems, such as the Millennium Prize Problems, receive considerable attention. This list is a composite of notable unsolved problems mentioned in previously published lists, including but not limited to lists considered authoritative, and the problems listed here vary widely in both difficulty and importance. == Notable lists == Various mathematicians and organizations have published and promoted lists of unsolved mathematical problems. In some cases, the lists have been associated with prizes for the discoverers of solutions. === Millennium Prize Problems === Of the original seven Millennium Prize Problems listed by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000, six remain unsolved to date: Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture Hodge conjecture Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness P versus NP Riemann hypothesis Yang–Mills


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Birch–Tate conjecture on the relation between the order of the center of the Steinberg group of the ring of integers of a number field to the field's Dedekind zeta function. Casas-Alvero conjecture: if a polynomial of degree d {\displaystyle d} defined over a field K {\displaystyle K} of characteristic 0 {\displaystyle 0} has a factor in common with its first through d − 1 {\displaystyle d-1} -th derivative, then must f {\displaystyle f} be the d {\displaystyle d} -th power of a linear polynomial? Connes embedding problem in Von Neumann algebra theory Crouzeix's conjecture: the matrix norm of a complex function f {\displaystyle f} applied to a complex matrix A {\displaystyle A} is at most twice the supremum of | f ( z ) | {\displaystyle |f(z)|} over the field of values of A {\displaystyle A} . Determinantal conjecture on the determinant of the sum of two normal matrices. Eilenberg–Ganea conjecture: a group with cohomological dimension 2 also has a 2-dimensional Eilenberg–MacLane space K ( G , 1 ) {\displaystyle K(G,1)} . Farrell–Jones conjecture on whether certain assembly maps are isomorphisms. Bost conjecture: a specific case of the Farrell–Jones conjecture Finite lattice representation problem: is every finite lattice isomorphic to


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The Brennan conjecture: estimating the integral powers of the moduli of the derivative of conformal maps into the open unit disk, on certain subsets of C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } Fuglede's conjecture on whether nonconvex sets in R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } and R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} are spectral if and only if they tile by translation. Goodman's conjecture on the coefficients of multivalued functions Invariant subspace problem – does every bounded operator on a complex Banach space send some non-trivial closed subspace to itself? Kung–Traub conjecture on the optimal order of a multipoint iteration without memory Lehmer's conjecture on the Mahler measure of non-cyclotomic polynomials The mean value problem: given a complex polynomial f {\displaystyle f} of degree d ≥ 2 {\displaystyle d\geq 2} and a complex number z {\displaystyle z} , is there a critical point c {\displaystyle c} of f {\displaystyle f} such that | f ( z ) − f ( c ) | ≤ | f ′ ( z ) | | z − c | {\displaystyle |f(z)-f(c)|\leq |f'(z)||z-c|} ? The Pompeiu problem on the topology of domains for which some nonzero function has integrals that vanish over every congruent copy Sendov's conjecture:


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-3.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Sudoku: How many puzzles have exactly one solution? How many puzzles with exactly one solution are minimal? What is the maximum number of givens for a minimal puzzle? Tic-tac-toe variants: Given the width of a tic-tac-toe board, what is the smallest dimension such that X is guaranteed to have a winning strategy? (See also Hales–Jewett theorem and nd game) Chess: What is the outcome of a perfectly played game of chess? (See also first-move advantage in chess) Go: What is the perfect value of Komi? Set: What is the largest possible cap set, as a function of n {\displaystyle n} in the n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional affine space over the three-element field? Are the nim-sequences of all finite octal games eventually periodic? Is the nim-sequence of Grundy's game eventually periodic? ==== Games with imperfect information ==== Rendezvous problem === Geometry === ==== Algebraic geometry ==== Abundance conjecture: if the canonical bundle of a projective variety with Kawamata log terminal singularities is nef, then it is semiample. Bass conjecture on the finite generation of certain algebraic K-groups. Bass–Quillen conjecture relating vector bundles over a regular Noetherian ring and over the polynomial ring A [ t 1 , … , t n


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-4.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The spherical Bernstein's problem, a generalization of Bernstein's problem Carathéodory conjecture: any convex, closed, and twice-differentiable surface in three-dimensional Euclidean space admits at least two umbilical points. Cartan–Hadamard conjecture: can the classical isoperimetric inequality for subsets of Euclidean space be extended to spaces of nonpositive curvature, known as Cartan–Hadamard manifolds? Chern's conjecture (affine geometry) that the Euler characteristic of a compact affine manifold vanishes. Chern's conjecture for hypersurfaces in spheres, a number of closely related conjectures. Closed curve problem: find (explicit) necessary and sufficient conditions that determine when, given two periodic functions with the same period, the integral curve is closed. The filling area conjecture, that a hemisphere has the minimum area among shortcut-free surfaces in Euclidean space whose boundary forms a closed curve of given length The Hopf conjectures relating the curvature and Euler characteristic of higher-dimensional Riemannian manifolds Osserman conjecture: that every Osserman manifold is either flat or locally isometric to a rank-one symmetric space Yau's conjecture on the first eigenvalue that the first eigenvalue for the Laplace–Beltrami operator on an embedded minimal hypersurface of S n + 1 {\displaystyle S^{n+1}} is n {\displaystyle n} . ==== Discrete geometry ==== The big-line-big-clique conjecture on the existence of either


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-5.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
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Falconer's conjecture: sets of Hausdorff dimension greater than d / 2 {\displaystyle d/2} in R d {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{d}} must have a distance set of nonzero Lebesgue measure The values of the Hermite constants for dimensions other than 1–8 and 24 What is the lowest number of faces possible for a holyhedron? Inscribed square problem, also known as Toeplitz' conjecture and the square peg problem – does every Jordan curve have an inscribed square? The Kakeya conjecture – do n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional sets that contain a unit line segment in every direction necessarily have Hausdorff dimension and Minkowski dimension equal to n {\displaystyle n} ? The Kelvin problem on minimum-surface-area partitions of space into equal-volume cells, and the optimality of the Weaire–Phelan structure as a solution to the Kelvin problem Lebesgue's universal covering problem on the minimum-area convex shape in the plane that can cover any shape of diameter one Mahler's conjecture on the product of the volumes of a centrally symmetric convex body and its polar. In Meissner body): Are the two Meissner tetrahedra the minimum-volume three-dimensional shapes of constant width? Moser's worm problem – what is the smallest area of a shape that can cover every


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-6.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Graph drawing and embedding ==== The Albertson conjecture: the crossing number can be lower-bounded by the crossing number of a complete graph with the same chromatic number Conway's thrackle conjecture that thrackles cannot have more edges than vertices The GNRS conjecture on whether minor-closed graph families have ℓ 1 {\displaystyle \ell _{1}} embeddings with bounded distortion Harborth's conjecture: every planar graph can be drawn with integer edge lengths Negami's conjecture on projective-plane embeddings of graphs with planar covers The strong Papadimitriou–Ratajczak conjecture: every polyhedral graph has a convex greedy embedding Turán's brick factory problem – Is there a drawing of any complete bipartite graph with fewer crossings than the number given by Zarankiewicz? Guy's conjecture on the crossing number for complete graphs – Is there a drawing of any complete graph with fewer crossings than the number given by his upper bound? Universal point sets of subquadratic size for planar graphs ==== Restriction of graph parameters ==== Does there exist a conference graph for every number of vertices v > 1 {\displaystyle v>1} where v ≡ 1 mod 4 {\displaystyle v\equiv 1{\bmod {4}}} and v {\displaystyle v} is an odd sum of two squares? Conway's 99-graph problem: does there


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-7.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Miscellaneous graph theory ==== Delta-conjecture (1978): consider a complete graph ( V ; E 1 , … , E d ) {\displaystyle (V;E_{1},\dots ,E_{d})} each edge of which is colored by one of d {\displaystyle d} colors such that there exists a triangle Δ {\displaystyle \Delta } colored in three pairwise distinct colors. Then, in each chromatic component ( V , E i ) , i = 1 , … , d {\displaystyle (V,E_{i}),i=1,\dots ,d} , one can choose a maximal independent vertex-set such that the intersection of the obtained d {\displaystyle d} sets is empty. The imbalance conjecture: If the imbalance for each edge of a graph is at least 1, is the multiset of all edge imbalances always graphic? The implicit graph conjecture on the existence of implicit representations for slowly-growing hereditary families of graphs Ryser's conjecture relating the maximum matching size and minimum transversal size in hypergraphs The second neighborhood problem: does every oriented graph contain a vertex for which there are at least as many other vertices at distance two as at distance one? Sidorenko's conjecture on homomorphism densities of graphs in graphons Teschner's bondage number conjecture: is the bondage number of a graph always


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-8.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
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Büchi's problem on sufficiently large sequences of square numbers with constant second difference. Carmichael's totient function conjecture: do all values of Euler's totient function have multiplicity greater than 1 {\displaystyle 1} ? Catalan–Dickson conjecture on aliquot sequences: no aliquot sequences are infinite but non-repeating. Exponent pair conjecture: for all ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} , is the pair ( ε , 1 / 2 + ε ) {\displaystyle (\varepsilon ,1/2+\varepsilon )} an exponent pair? The Gauss circle problem: how far can the number of integer points in a circle centered at the origin be from the area of the circle? Grimm's conjecture: each element of a set of consecutive composite numbers can be assigned a distinct prime number that divides it. Hall's conjecture: for any ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} , there is some constant c ( ε ) {\displaystyle c(\varepsilon )} such that either y 2 = x 3 {\displaystyle y^{2}=x^{3}} or | y 2 − x 3 | > c ( ε ) x 1 / 2 − ε {\displaystyle |y^{2}-x^{3}|>c(\varepsilon )x^{1/2-\varepsilon }} . Lehmer's totient problem: if ϕ ( n ) {\displaystyle \phi (n)} divides n − 1 {\displaystyle n-1} , must n {\displaystyle n}


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-9.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Leopoldt's conjecture: a p-adic analogue of the regulator of an algebraic number field does not vanish. Stark conjectures (including Brumer–Stark conjecture) Characterize all algebraic number fields that have some power basis. ==== Analytic number theory ==== Beilinson's conjectures about special values of L-functions. Do Siegel zeros exist? Find the value of the De Bruijn–Newman constant. Is Selberg class of Dirichlet series equal to class of automorphic L-functions? Hardy–Littlewood zeta function conjectures Keating–Snaith conjecture concerning the asymptotics of an integral involving the Riemann zeta function Hilbert–Pólya conjecture: the nontrivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function correspond to eigenvalues of a self-adjoint operator. Lindelöf hypothesis that for all ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} , ζ ( 1 / 2 + i t ) = o ( t ε ) {\displaystyle \zeta (1/2+it)=o(t^{\varepsilon })} The density hypothesis for zeroes of the Riemann zeta function. Location of nontrivial zeros of L-functions, especially conjectures concerning their critical lines: Grand Riemann hypothesis: do the nontrivial zeros of all automorphic L-functions lie on the critical line 1 / 2 + i t {\displaystyle 1/2+it} with real t {\displaystyle t} ? Generalized Riemann hypothesis for Selberg class: do the nontrivial zeros of all functions in Selberg class


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-10.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Littlewood conjecture: for any two real numbers α , β {\displaystyle \alpha ,\beta } , lim inf n → ∞ n ‖ n α ‖ ‖ n β ‖ = 0 {\displaystyle \liminf _{n\rightarrow \infty }n\,\Vert n\alpha \Vert \,\Vert n\beta \Vert =0} , where ‖ x ‖ {\displaystyle \Vert x\Vert } is the distance from x {\displaystyle x} to the nearest integer. Schanuel's conjecture on the transcendence degree of certain field extensions of the rational numbers. In particular: Are π {\displaystyle \pi } and e {\displaystyle e} algebraically independent? Which nontrivial combinations of transcendental numbers (such as e + π , e π , π e , π π , e e {\displaystyle e+\pi ,e\pi ,\pi ^{e},\pi ^{\pi },e^{e}} ) are themselves transcendental? The four exponentials conjecture: the transcendence of at least one of four exponentials of combinations of irrationals Are Euler's constant γ {\displaystyle \gamma } and Catalan's constant G {\displaystyle G} irrational? Are they transcendental? Is Apéry's constant ζ ( 3 ) {\displaystyle \zeta (3)} transcendental? Which transcendental numbers are (exponential) periods? How well can non-quadratic irrational numbers be approximated? What is the irrationality measure of specific (suspected) transcendental numbers such as π {\displaystyle \pi } and γ


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-11.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Fortune's conjecture that no Fortunate number is composite. The Gaussian moat problem: is it possible to find an infinite sequence of distinct Gaussian prime numbers such that the difference between consecutive numbers in the sequence is bounded? Gillies' conjecture on the distribution of prime divisors of Mersenne numbers. Landau's problems Goldbach conjecture: all even natural numbers greater than 2 {\displaystyle 2} are the sum of two prime numbers. Legendre's conjecture: for every positive integer n {\displaystyle n} , there is a prime between n 2 {\displaystyle n^{2}} and ( n + 1 ) 2 {\displaystyle (n+1)^{2}} . Twin prime conjecture: there are infinitely many twin primes. Are there infinitely many primes of the form n 2 + 1 {\displaystyle n^{2}+1} ? Problems associated to Linnik's theorem New Mersenne conjecture: for any odd natural number p {\displaystyle p} , if any two of the three conditions p = 2 k ± 1 {\displaystyle p=2^{k}\pm 1} or p = 4 k ± 3 {\displaystyle p=4^{k}\pm 3} , 2 p − 1 {\displaystyle 2^{p}-1} is prime, and ( 2 p + 1 ) / 3 {\displaystyle (2^{p}+1)/3} is prime are true, then the third condition is also true. Polignac's conjecture: for all positive


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-12.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Does the partition principle (PP) imply the axiom of choice (AC)? (Woodin) Does the generalized continuum hypothesis below a strongly compact cardinal imply the generalized continuum hypothesis everywhere? Does the generalized continuum hypothesis entail ♢ ( E cf ⁡ ( λ ) λ + ) {\displaystyle {\diamondsuit (E_{\operatorname {cf} (\lambda )}^{\lambda ^{+}}})} for every singular cardinal λ {\displaystyle \lambda } ? Does the generalized continuum hypothesis imply the existence of an ℵ2-Suslin tree? If ℵω is a strong limit cardinal, is 2 ℵ ω < ℵ ω 1 {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{\omega }}<\aleph _{\omega _{1}}} (see Singular cardinals hypothesis)? The best bound, ℵω4, was obtained by Shelah using his PCF theory. The problem of finding the ultimate core model, one that contains all large cardinals. Woodin's Ω-conjecture: if there is a proper class of Woodin cardinals, then Ω-logic satisfies an analogue of Gödel's completeness theorem. Does the consistency of the existence of a strongly compact cardinal imply the consistent existence of a supercompact cardinal? Does there exist a Jónsson algebra on ℵω? Is OCA (the open coloring axiom) consistent with 2 ℵ 0 > ℵ 2 {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}>\aleph _{2}} ? Reinhardt cardinals: Without assuming the axiom of choice, can a


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-13.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Graph theory === Kahn–Kalai conjecture (Jinyoung Park and Huy Tuan Pham, 2022) Blankenship–Oporowski conjecture on the book thickness of subdivisions (Vida Dujmović, David Eppstein, Robert Hickingbotham, Pat Morin, and David Wood, 2021) Ringel's conjecture that the complete graph K 2 n + 1 {\displaystyle K_{2n+1}} can be decomposed into 2 n + 1 {\displaystyle 2n+1} copies of any tree with n {\displaystyle n} edges (Richard Montgomery, Benny Sudakov, Alexey Pokrovskiy, 2020) Disproof of Hedetniemi's conjecture on the chromatic number of tensor products of graphs (Yaroslav Shitov, 2019) Kelmans–Seymour conjecture (Dawei He, Yan Wang, and Xingxing Yu, 2020) Goldberg–Seymour conjecture (Guantao Chen, Guangming Jing, and Wenan Zang, 2019) Babai's problem (Alireza Abdollahi, Maysam Zallaghi, 2015) Alspach's conjecture (Darryn Bryant, Daniel Horsley, William Pettersson, 2014) Alon–Saks–Seymour conjecture (Hao Huang, Benny Sudakov, 2012) Read–Hoggar conjecture (June Huh, 2009) Scheinerman's conjecture (Jeremie Chalopin and Daniel Gonçalves, 2009) Erdős–Menger conjecture (Ron Aharoni, Eli Berger 2007) Road coloring conjecture (Avraham Trahtman, 2007) Robertson–Seymour theorem (Neil Robertson, Paul Seymour, 2004) Strong perfect graph conjecture (Maria Chudnovsky, Neil Robertson, Paul Seymour and Robin Thomas, 2002) Toida's conjecture (Mikhail Muzychuk, Mikhail Klin, and Reinhard Pöschel, 2001) Harary's conjecture on the integral sum number of complete graphs (Zhibo Chen,


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-14.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Books discussing unsolved problems === Chung, Fan; Graham, Ron (1999). Erdös on Graphs: His Legacy of Unsolved Problems. AK Peters. ISBN 978-1-56881-111-6. Croft, Hallard T.; Falconer, Kenneth J.; Guy, Richard K. (1994). Unsolved Problems in Geometry. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-97506-1. Guy, Richard K. (2004). Unsolved Problems in Number Theory. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-20860-2. Klee, Victor; Wagon, Stan (1996). Old and New Unsolved Problems in Plane Geometry and Number Theory. The Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 978-0-88385-315-3. du Sautoy, Marcus (2003). The Music of the Primes: Searching to Solve the Greatest Mystery in Mathematics. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-093558-0. Derbyshire, John (2003). Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0-309-08549-6. Devlin, Keith (2006). The Millennium Problems – The Seven Greatest Unsolved* Mathematical Puzzles Of Our Time. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-7607-8659-8. Blondel, Vincent D.; Megrestski, Alexandre (2004). Unsolved problems in mathematical systems and control theory. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11748-5. Ji, Lizhen; Poon, Yat-Sun; Yau, Shing-Tung (2013). Open Problems and Surveys of Contemporary Mathematics (volume 6 in the Surveys in Modern Mathematics series) (Surveys of Modern Mathematics). International Press of Boston. ISBN 978-1-57146-278-7. Waldschmidt, Michel (2004). "Open Diophantine Problems" (PDF). Moscow Mathematical Journal. 4 (1):


id: unsolved-problems-in-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsolved_problems_in_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Unsolved problems in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsolved_problems_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:14.566300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unsolved-problems-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
This article discusses notable unsolved problems in medicine. Many of the problems relate to how drugs work (the so-called mechanism of action), and to diseases with an unknown cause, the so-called idiopathic diseases. == Definition of "disease" == There is no overarching, clear definition of what a disease is. On one hand, there is a scientific definition which is tied to a physiological process, and on the other hand, there is the subjective suffering of a patient and the loss of their life quality. Both approaches do not need to match, and they can even be contradictory. For example, when a patient seeks medical help because of a severe flu, the doctor will not care about the specific virological and immunological process behind the clearly visible suffering. This is contrasted by many hemochromatosis patients who will neither see suffering nor a change in their life quality, while the disease-causing process is severe and often deadly if left untreated. Similarly, many cancers in their very early stages are asymptomatic (e.g. pancreatic cancer) and the patient still feels healthy, which delays seeking treatment. Sometimes, cultural factors also play a role in defining "disease". Erectile dysfunction was long seen as a negative but


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-neuroscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:15.768254+00:00
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parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable unsolved problems in neuroscience. A problem is considered unsolved if no answer is known or if there is significant disagreement among experts about a proposed solution. == Consciousness == Consciousness: How can consciousness be defined? What is the neural basis of subjective experience, cognition, wakefulness, alertness, arousal, and attention? Binding problem: How exactly is it that objects, background, and abstract or emotional features are combined into a single experience? What is the neural basis of self? Quantum mind: Do quantum mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition, play an important part in the brain's function and can it explain critical aspects of consciousness? Is there a "hard problem of consciousness"? If so, how is it solved? Vertiginous question: Why is it that a specific subject of experience is "live" from a given perspective? What, if anything, is the function of consciousness? Problem of mental causation: How exactly do mental states cause intentional actions to happen? What is the nature and mechanism behind near-death experiences? How can death be defined? Can consciousness exist after death? If consciousness is generated by brain activity, then how do some patients with physically deteriorated brains suddenly gain a


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-0.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
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parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of some of the major problems in philosophy. == Philosophy of language == === Counterfactuals === A counterfactual statement is a conditional statement with a false antecedent. For example, the statement "If Joseph Swan had not invented the modern incandescent light bulb, then someone else would have invented it anyway" is a counterfactual, because, in fact, Joseph Swan invented the modern incandescent light bulb. The most immediate task concerning counterfactuals is that of explaining their truth-conditions. As a start, one might assert that background information is assumed when stating and interpreting counterfactual conditionals and that this background information is just every true statement about the world as it is (pre-counterfactual). In the case of the Swan statement, we have certain trends in the history of technology, the utility of artificial light, the discovery of electricity, and so on. We quickly encounter an error with this initial account: among the true statements will be "Joseph Swan did invent the modern incandescent light bulb." From the conjunction of this statement (call it "S") and the antecedent of the counterfactual ("¬S"), we can derive any conclusion, and we have the unwelcome result that any statement follows from any counterfactual


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-1.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
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parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
Foundationalism, which posits certain basic beliefs as self-justifying, thus halting the regress. Coherentism, which argues that beliefs are justified by their coherence with other beliefs. Susan Haack's foundherentism is a notable hybrid approach. Infinitism, proposed by Peter D. Klein, which views the infinite regress as unproblematic. Among contemporary epistemologists, reliabilism has emerged as the most widely accepted approach to addressing the problem of the criterion. Developed by philosophers like Alvin Goldman, reliabilism suggests that beliefs can be justified if they are produced by reliable cognitive processes, potentially avoiding the need for infinite justification. This view aligns well with naturalistic approaches to epistemology and has gained significant traction in recent decades. In practice, many philosophers find that there is often a discernible line between sufficient justification and excessive inquiry, allowing for practical epistemological investigations despite the theoretical challenges posed by the problem of the criterion. The debate surrounding this problem remains active, with various approaches offering different insights into the nature of knowledge and justification. === Problem of induction === Scottish philosopher David Hume first formulated the problem of induction, arguing there is no non-circular way to justify inductive reasoning. That is, reasoning based on inferring general conclusions from specific observations.


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-2.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
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parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
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The problem of universals refers to the question of whether properties exist, and if so, what they are. Properties are qualities or relations or names that two or more entities have in common. The various kinds of properties, such as qualities and relations, are referred to as universals. For instance, one can imagine three cup holders on a table that have in common the quality of being circular or exemplifying circularity, or bear the same name, "circular cup" or two daughters that have in common being the female offsprings of Frank. There are many such properties, such as being human, red, male or female, liquid, big or small, taller than, father of, etc. While philosophers agree that human beings talk and think about properties, they disagree on whether these universals exist in reality or merely in thought, speech and sight. === Principle of individuation === Related to the problem of universals, the principle of individuation is what individuates universals. === Sorites paradox === Otherwise known as the "paradox of the heap", the question regards how one defines a "thing." Is a bale of hay still a bale of hay if you remove one straw? If so, is it still a


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-3.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
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parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
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The question hinges on whether color is a product of the mind or an inherent property of objects. Whilst most philosophers will agree that color assignment corresponds to spectra of light frequencies, it is not at all clear whether the particular psychological phenomena of color are imposed on these visual signals by the mind, or whether such qualia are somehow naturally associated with their noumena. Another way to look at this question is to assume two people ("Fred" and "George" for the sake of convenience) see colors differently. That is, when Fred sees the sky, his mind interprets this light signal as blue. He calls the sky "blue." However, when George sees the sky, his mind assigns green to that light frequency. If Fred were able to step into George's mind, he would be amazed that George saw green skies. However, George has learned to associate the word "blue" with what his mind sees as green, and so he calls the sky "blue", because for him the color green has the name "blue." The question is whether blue must be blue for all people, or whether the perception of that particular color is assigned by the mind. This extends to


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-4.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
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parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cognition and AI === The philosophy of artificial intelligence and cognition examines the nature and possibility of machine intelligence and consciousness. It intersects with cognitive science, philosophy of mind, and computer science. Major debates concern whether artificial systems can possess genuine understanding, how intelligence should be operationally defined, and whether computational processes can replicate or instantiate mental states. The main question this field confronts is whether an AI is capable of intentionality, or "the capacity to have a mental representation of or about a thing or a state of affairs". The potential answers to these questions have changed as artificial intelligence has advanced much throughout the past decade alone. Artificial intelligence in image recognition began as training the program to search for specific features and separate images into categories. More recently, AI has been developed to "learn" via artificial machine learning (AML), which receives visual data from various photos and then reconstructs an idea of what something looks like based on those original images. If the program itself determines its own idea of what something looks like due to the data it is given, one must consider if this is emblematic of intelligence. The first explorations into these questions


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-5.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy, the problem of personal identity is concerned with how one is able to identify a single person over a time interval, dealing with such questions as, "What makes it true that a person at one time is the same thing as a person at another time?" or "What kinds of things are we persons?" A question related to the problem of personal identity is Benj Hellie's vertiginous question. The vertiginous question asks why, of all the subjects of experience out there, this one—the one corresponding to the human being referred to as Benj Hellie—is the one whose experiences are live? (The reader is supposed to substitute their own case for Hellie's.) Hellie's argument is closely related to Caspar Hare's theories of egocentric presentism and perspectival realism, of which several other philosophers have written reviews. Similar questions are also asked repeatedly by J. J. Valberg in justifying his horizonal view of the self. Tim S. Roberts refers to the question of why a particular organism out of all the organisms that happen to exist happens to be you as the "Even Harder Problem of Consciousness". The philosophical issues with personal identity have been extensively discussed by Thomas Nagel in


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-6.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
'The problem of demarcation' is an expression introduced by Karl Popper to refer to 'the problem of finding a criterion which would enable us to distinguish between the empirical sciences on the one hand, and mathematics and logic as well as "metaphysical" systems on the other'. Popper attributes this problem to Kant. Although Popper mentions mathematics and logic, other writers focus on distinguishing science from metaphysics. A prominent question in meta-philosophy is that of whether or not philosophical progress occurs and more so, whether such progress in philosophy is even possible. It has even been disputed, most notably by Ludwig Wittgenstein, whether genuine philosophical problems actually exist. The opposite has also been claimed, for example by Karl Popper, who held that such problems do exist, that they are solvable, and that he had actually found definite solutions to some of them. David Chalmers divides inquiry into philosophical progress in meta-philosophy into three questions. The Existence Question: is there progress in philosophy? The Comparison Question: is there as much progress in philosophy as in science? The Explanation Question: why isn't there more progress in philosophy? === Realism === Does a world independent of human beliefs and representations exist? Is such a


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable unsolved problems grouped into broad areas of physics. Some of the major unsolved problems in physics are theoretical, meaning that existing theories are currently unable to explain certain observed phenomena or experimental results. Others are experimental, involving challenges in creating experiments to test proposed theories or to investigate specific phenomena in greater detail. A number of important questions remain open in the area of physics beyond the Standard Model, such as the strong CP problem, determining the absolute mass of neutrinos, understanding matter–antimatter asymmetry, and identifying the nature of dark matter and dark energy. Another significant problem lies within the mathematical framework of the Standard Model itself, which remains inconsistent with general relativity. This incompatibility causes both theories to break down under extreme conditions, such as within known spacetime gravitational singularities like those at the Big Bang and at the centers of black holes beyond their event horizons. == Historical problems and lists == Isaac Newton in his book Opticks (first edition 1704), published a list of 31 queries about light. In 1900, Lord Kelvin in a speech identified two main issues in classical physics that represented "two clouds" for the physics of


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
== Quantum gravity == Quantum gravity: Can quantum mechanics and general relativity be realized as a fully consistent theory (perhaps as a quantum field theory)? Is spacetime fundamentally continuous or discrete? Would a consistent theory involve a force mediated by a hypothetical graviton, or be a product of a discrete structure of spacetime itself (as in loop quantum gravity)? Are there deviations from the predictions of general relativity at very small or very large scales or in other extreme circumstances that flow from a quantum gravity mechanism? Black holes, black hole information paradox, and black hole radiation: Do black holes produce thermal radiation, as expected on theoretical grounds? Does this radiation contain information about their inner structure, as suggested by gauge–gravity duality, or not, as implied by Hawking's original calculation? If not, and black holes can evaporate away, what happens to the information stored in them (since quantum mechanics does not provide for the destruction of information)? Or does the radiation stop at some point, leaving black hole remnants? Is there another way to probe their internal structure somehow, if such a structure even exists? The cosmic censorship hypothesis and the chronology protection conjecture: Can singularities not hidden behind an


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Dark matter: What is the identity of dark matter? Is it a particle? If so, is it a WIMP, axion, the lightest superpartner (LSP), or some other particle? Or, are the phenomena attributed to dark matter the result of an alternate theory of gravity separate from general relativity altogether? Despite extensive research, the exact composition of dark matter remains unknown. It is inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter, radiation, and the universe's large-scale structure. Understanding its properties is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the universe. Dark energy: What is the cause of the observed accelerating expansion of the universe (the de Sitter phase)? Are the observations rightly interpreted as the accelerating expansion of the universe, or are they evidence that the cosmological principle is false? Why is the energy density of the dark energy component of the same magnitude as the density of matter at present when the two evolve quite differently over time; could it be simply that we are observing at exactly the right time? Is dark energy a pure cosmological constant or are models of quintessence such as phantom energy applicable? Dark flow: Is a non-spherically-symmetric gravitational pull from outside the observable universe responsible for


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-3.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The QCD vacuum: Many of the equations in non-perturbative QCD are currently unsolved. These energies are the energies sufficient for the formation and description of atomic nuclei. How thus does low energy /non-pertubative QCD give rise to the formation of complex nuclei and nuclear constituents? Generations of matter: Why are there three generations of quarks and leptons? Is there a theory that can explain the masses of particular quarks and leptons in particular generations from first principles (a theory of Yukawa couplings)? Neutrino mass: What is the absolute mass of neutrinos? Are they Dirac or Majorana fermions? Is the mass hierarchy normal or inverted? Is the CP violating phase equal to 0? Reactor antineutrino anomaly: There is an anomaly in the existing body of data regarding the antineutrino flux from nuclear reactors around the world. Measured values of this flux appears to be only 94% of the value expected from theory. It is unknown whether this is due to unknown physics (such as sterile neutrinos), experimental error in the measurements, or errors in the theoretical flux calculations. Strong CP problem and axions: Why is the strong nuclear interaction invariant to parity and charge conjugation? Is Peccei–Quinn theory the solution to


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-4.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Solar cycle: How does the Sun generate its periodically reversing large-scale magnetic field? How do other solar-like stars generate their magnetic fields, and what are the similarities and differences between stellar activity cycles and that of the Sun? What caused the Maunder Minimum and other grand minima, and how does the solar cycle recover from a minima state? Coronal heating problem: Why is the Sun's corona (atmosphere layer) so much hotter than the Sun's surface? Why is the magnetic reconnection effect many orders of magnitude faster than predicted by standard models? Astrophysical jet: Why do only certain accretion discs surrounding certain astronomical objects emit relativistic jets along their polar axes? Why are there quasi-periodic oscillations in many accretion discs? Why does the period of these oscillations scale as the inverse of the mass of the central object? Why are there sometimes overtones, and why do these appear at different frequency ratios in different objects? Diffuse interstellar bands: What is responsible for the numerous interstellar absorption lines detected in astronomical spectra? Are they molecular in origin, and if so which molecules are responsible for them? How do they form? Supermassive black holes: What is the origin of the M–sigma relation between


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-5.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Quantum chromodynamics: What are the phases of strongly interacting matter, and what roles do they play in the evolution of the cosmos? What is the detailed partonic structure of the nucleons? What does QCD predict for the properties of strongly interacting matter? What determines the key features of QCD, and what is their relation to the nature of gravity and spacetime? Does QCD truly lack CP violations? Quark–gluon plasma: Where is the onset of deconfinement: 1) as a function of temperature and chemical potentials? 2) as a function of relativistic heavy-ion collision energy and system size? What is the mechanism of energy and baryon-number stopping leading to creation of quark-gluon plasma in relativistic heavy-ion collisions? Why is sudden hadronization and the statistical-hadronization model a near-to-perfect description of hadron production from quark–gluon plasma? Is quark flavor conserved in quark–gluon plasma? Are strangeness and charm in chemical equilibrium in quark–gluon plasma? Does strangeness in quark–gluon plasma flow at the same speed as up and down quark flavours? Why does deconfined matter show ideal flow? Specific models of quark–gluon plasma formation: Do gluons saturate when their occupation number is large? Do gluons form a dense system called colour glass condensate? What are the


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-6.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
== Plasma physics == Plasma physics and fusion power: Fusion energy may potentially provide power from an abundant resource (e.g. hydrogen) without the type of radioactive waste that fission energy currently produces. However, can ionized gases (plasma) be confined long enough and at a high enough temperature to create fusion power? What is the physical origin of H-mode? The injection problem: Fermi acceleration is thought to be the primary mechanism that accelerates astrophysical particles to high energy. However, it is unclear what mechanism causes those particles to initially have energies high enough for Fermi acceleration to work on them. Alfvénic turbulence: In the solar wind and the turbulence in solar flares, coronal mass ejections, and magnetospheric substorms are major unsolved problems in space plasma physics. Ball lightning: the exact physical nature of this mystery in atmospheric electricity. == Biophysics == Abiogenesis: can life be created from physical processes alone? Stochasticity and robustness to noise in gene expression: How do genes govern our body, withstanding different external pressures and internal stochasticity? Certain models exist for genetic processes, but we are far from understanding the whole picture, in particular in development where gene expression must be tightly regulated. Quantitative study of the


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-7.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== High-energy physics/particle physics === Existence of pentaquarks (1964–2015): In July 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN identified pentaquarks in the Λ0b→J/ψK−p channel, which represents the decay of the bottom lambda baryon (Λ0b) into a J/ψ meson (J/ψ), a kaon (K−) and a proton (p). The results showed that sometimes, instead of decaying directly into mesons and baryons, the Λ0b decayed via intermediate pentaquark states. The two states, named P+c(4380) and P+c(4450), had individual statistical significances of 9 σ and 12 σ, respectively, and a combined significance of 15 σ—enough to claim a formal discovery. The two pentaquark states were both observed decaying strongly to J/ψp, hence must have a valence quark content of two up quarks, a down quark, a charm quark, and an anti-charm quark (uudcc), making them charmonium-pentaquarks. Existence of quark-gluon plasma, a new phase of matter was discovered and confirmed in experiments at CERN-SPS (2000), BNL-RHIC (2005) and CERN-LHC (2010). Higgs boson and electroweak symmetry breaking (1963–2012): The mechanism responsible for breaking the electroweak gauge symmetry, giving mass to the W and Z bosons, was solved with the discovery of the Higgs boson of the Standard Model, with the expected couplings to the weak bosons. No


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:19.361016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
There are many longstanding unsolved problems in mathematics for which a solution has still not yet been found. The notable unsolved problems in statistics are generally of a different flavor; according to John Tukey, "difficulties in identifying problems have delayed statistics far more than difficulties in solving problems." A list of "one or two open problems" (in fact 22 of them) was given by David Cox. == Inference and testing == How to detect and correct for systematic errors, especially in sciences where random errors are large (a situation Tukey termed uncomfortable science). The Graybill–Deal estimator is often used to estimate the common mean of two normal populations with unknown and possibly unequal variances. Though this estimator is generally unbiased, its admissibility remains to be shown. Meta-analysis: Though independent p-values can be combined using Fisher's method, techniques are still being developed to handle the case of dependent p-values. Behrens–Fisher problem: Yuri Linnik showed in 1966 that there is no uniformly most powerful test for the difference of two means when the variances are unknown and possibly unequal. That is, there is no exact test (meaning that, if the means are in fact equal, one that rejects the null hypothesis with


id: list-of-hypothetical-technologies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_technologies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hypothetical technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:20.536514+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hypothetical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
Hypothetical technologies are technologies that do not exist yet, but that could exist in the future. They are distinct from emerging technologies, which have achieved some developmental success. Emerging technologies as of 2018 include 3-D metal printing and artificial embryos. Many hypothetical technologies have been the subject of science fiction. The criteria for this list are that the technology: Must not exist yet Is credibly proposed to exist in the future (e.g. no perpetual motion machines) If the technology does not have an existing article (i.e. it is "redlinked"), a reference must be provided for it == Biology == == Engineering and manufacturing == === Computing and robotics === === Megastructures === === Nanotechnology === === Transport === == Minds and psychology == == Physics == === Nuclear energy and weaponry === === Space === == See also == == References ==


id: above-and-beyond-the-encyclopedia-of-aviation-and-space-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_and_Beyond:_The_Encyclopedia_of_Aviation_and_Space_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Above and Beyond: The Encyclopedia of Aviation and Space Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_and_Beyond:_The_Encyclopedia_of_Aviation_and_Space_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:22.035663+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: above-and-beyond-the-encyclopedia-of-aviation-and-space-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Above and Beyond: The Encyclopedia of Aviation and Space Sciences was the first attempt at creating an encyclopedia of all matters related to the history, technology and aims of the aerospace industry as it existed in the late 1960s. Published in 1967 by New Horizons Publishers, Inc., of Chicago, this fourteen-volume collection was aimed primarily at teens and young adults. == References ==


id: aluminium-the-thirteenth-element-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium:_The_Thirteenth_Element-0.md
category: reference
title: Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium:_The_Thirteenth_Element
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:23.208203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aluminium-the-thirteenth-element-20260505-0
summary:
Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element (Russian: Алюминий. Тринадцатый элемент) is a Russian encyclopedia completely devoted to aluminium. The encyclopedia is published by United Company RUSAL, at the end of 2007, in both Russian and English. Four thousand copies were printed (240 pages). The encyclopedia covers various areas of aluminium application, starting from car engineering and architecture to jewellery and fashion, recounts how this metal was discovered, and describes technologies of its production, its properties and benefits for various spheres of life. The book consists of 9 chapters, with an index/glossary and name index enclosed at the end. The encyclopedia contains diversified illustrative materials stemming from Russia and from overseas photo archives, museums and private collections. == Contents == Chapter 1. The History of Aluminium Before the 19th Century. Historical background of aluminium in ancient times; archeological findings containing aluminium; first historic mentions of aluminium articles; information about 'alum' – compound substances with chemical structures containing aluminium; production technologies alum and areas of their application in the Ancient Times and Middle Ages. Chapter 2. How the Metal Was Discovered. Scientists and technologies associated with the first attempts to produce pure aluminium; the beginning of the industrial production of the metal and birth


id: american-beetles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Beetles-0.md
category: reference
title: American Beetles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Beetles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:24.383527+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-beetles-20260505-0
summary:
American Beetles is a comprehensive description of the beetles of North America north of the tropical area of Mexico. It was started by Ross H. Arnett, Jr. as an update of his classic The Beetles of the United States; along with Michael C. Thomas, he enlisted more than 60 specialists to write treatments of each family. The work outlived Arnett, and was published by CRC Press in 2001 (vol. 1) and 2002 (vol. 2). This is a highly technical book, with extensive references to the literature. The introduction includes a section on beetle anatomy that introduces all the technical terms used later. The bulk of the content consists of treatments of the 130-odd families known to occur in North America (a couple dozen are not known from North America, and are not described); the descriptive material applies worldwide, and there are brief notes about non-North American family members. A family treatment consists of a morphological description, including the larvae if known, habits and habitats, status of the classification, a key to the Nearctic genera (and sometimes species, if the family is small), and short treatments of the subtaxa. Every family gets at least one drawing of a member, and larger


id: encyclopedia-of-anthropology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Anthropology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:25.512305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-anthropology-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Anthropology is an encyclopedia of anthropology edited by H. James Birx of Canisius College and SUNY Geneseo. The encyclopedia, published in 2006 by SAGE Publications, is in five volumes, and contains over 1,200 articles by more than 300 contributors. Entries include the main people, concepts, and theories, in anthropology, but also relevant topics from other disciplines, such as politics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and archaeology. == Sources and external links == H. James Birx [ed.] Encyclopedia of Anthropology (2006, SAGE Publications; ISBN 0-7619-3029-9) Reader's Guide — list of entries (PDF)


id: the-ants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ants-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:26.641033+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ants-20260505-0
summary:
The Ants is a zoology textbook by the German entomologist Bert Hölldobler and the American entomologist E. O. Wilson, first published in 1990. It won the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction in 1991. == Contents == This book is primarily aimed at academics as a reference work, detailing the ants' anatomy, physiology, social organization including their caste system, altruistic behaviour, and chemical communication with pheromones, their ecology (vital for turning the soil and controlling insect pests), and natural history. An account of some of Hölldobler and Wilson's most interesting findings, popularized for the layman, can be found in their 1994 book Journey to the Ants. == Reception == The Science magazine reviewer described the book as a "mighty tome" and commented that it would "surely take its place among the greatest of all entomology books", as it was "a wonderful exploration of almost every ramification of evolutionary biology, from developmental biology to the structure of ecological communities". The illustrations are praised as lavish and extremely detailed, with monochrome drawings and 24 colour plates. All the 297 extant genera are illustrated and identifiable with the supplied keys. But "The Ants, like every great book and every ant colony, is much more


id: atlas-of-the-prehistoric-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_Prehistoric_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Atlas of the Prehistoric World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_Prehistoric_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:27.837231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atlas-of-the-prehistoric-world-20260505-0
summary:
Atlas of the Prehistoric World is a book written by Douglas Palmer. It was published in 1999 by Random House, Inc. It covers the last 620 million years. == References ==


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of encyclopedias as well as encyclopedic and biographical dictionaries published on the subject of biology in any language. Entries are in the English language unless specifically stated as otherwise. == General biology == Becher, Anne, Joseph Richey. American environmental leaders: From colonial times to the present. Grey House, 2008. ISBN 9781592371198. Butcher, Russell D., Stephen E. Adair, Lynn A. Greenwalt. America's national wildlife refuges: A complete guide. Roberts Rinehart Publishers in cooperation with Ducks Unlimited, 2003. ISBN 1570983798. Cullen, Katherine E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Life Science. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7008-4. Ecological Internet, Inc. EcoEarth.info: Environment portal and search engine. Ecological Internet, Inc. [1]. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons. 25 May 2007. ISBN 978-0-470-06651-5. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Groves Dictionaries Incorporated. 1 November 2001. ISBN 978-1-56159-238-8. Friday, Adrian & Davis S. Ingram. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Cambridge, 1985. Gaither, Carl C., Alma E. Cavazos-Gaither, Andrew Slocombe. Naturally speaking: A dictionary of quotations on biology, botany, nature and zoology. Institute of Physics, 2001. ISBN 0750306815. Gibson, Daniel, National Audubon Society. Audubon guide to the national wildlife refuges. Southwest: Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas. St. Martin's Griffin, 2000. ISBN 0312207778. Goudie, Andrew, David J.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Animals ==== Audubon Society Encyclopedia of Animal Life. Clarkson N. Potter, 1982. Bekoff, Marc, Jane Goodall. Encyclopedia of animal behavior. Greenwood Press, 2004. ISBN 0313327459. Bruce, Jenni. The encyclopedia of animals: A complete visual guide. University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0520244060. Burton, Maurice, Robert Burton. International wildlife encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish, 2002. ISBN 0761472665. Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Biology. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Ecology. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Evolution. Facts on File, 1987. Grzimek, Bernhard. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Van Nostrand, 1972–1975. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Ethology. Van Nostrand, 1972–1977. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Wildlife. Grey Castle Press, 1991. Knobil, Ernst and Jimmy D. Neill. Encyclopedia of reproduction. Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 0122270207. Macmillan Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia. Macmillan, 1984. Marshall Cavendish International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish, 1990. Nowak, Ronald M., David W. Macdonald, Roland W. Kays. Walker's carnivores of the world. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. ISBN 0801880335. The Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour. Oxford, 1987. World Nature Encyclopedia. Raintree/Steck-Vaughn, 1989. ===== Aquatic ===== Banister, Keith & Andrew Campbell. The Encyclopedia of Aquatic Life. Facts on File, 1985. Dakin, Nick. Macmillan Book of the Marine Aquarium. Macmillan,


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
===== Mammals ===== Beacham, Walton, Kirk H. Beetz. Beacham's guide to international endangered species. Beacham, 1998–2001. ISBN 0933833342. Elbroch, Mark. Mammal tracks and sign: A guide to North American species. Stackpole Books, 2003. ISBN 0811726266. Folkens, Pieter A., Randall R. Reeves, National Audubon Society. Guide to marine mammals of the world. A. A. Knopf, 2002. ISBN 0375411410. Grzimek, Bernhard. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals. McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 1990. ISBN 0079095089. Macdonald, David. Encyclopedia of Mammals. Facts on File, 2006. ISBN 0816064946. Mammals: A Multimedia Encyclopedia. National Geographic Society/IBM, 1990. Nowak, Ronald. Walker's Mammals of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. ISBN 0801857899. Reid, Fiona, National Audubon Society. A field guide to mammals of North America, north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, 2006. ISBN 0395935962. Whitaker, John O., National Audubon Society. National Audubon Society field guide to North American mammals. Knopf, 1996. ISBN 0679446311. Wilson, Don E., Sue Ruff, American Society of Mammalogists. The Smithsonian book of North American mammals. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999. ISBN 1560988452. ====== Canines ====== Alderton, David (September 2008). Encyclopedia of Dogs (Hardcover). Bath: Parragon Inc. p. 384. ISBN 978-1-4075-2438-2. American Kennel Club. The complete dog book: Official publication of the American Kennel Club. Ballantine Books, 2006. ISBN


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-3.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Plants ==== Bailey, Liberty Hyde & Ethel Zoe Bailey. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, 3rd ed., 1976. Barker, Joan. The encyclopedia of North American wild flowers. Parragon, 2004. ISBN 1405430354. Beckett, Kenneth A. The RHS Encyclopedia of House Plants Including Greenhouse Plants. Salem House, 1987. Brickell, Christopher. The American Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. Macmillan, 1989. Brickell, Christopher, Trevor J. Cole, American Horticultural Society. American Horticultural Society encyclopedia of plants and flowers. DK Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0789489937. Burrows, George E. Toxic plants of North America. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-0-8138-2034-7, doi:10.1002/9781118413425. Dirr, Michael. Dirr's hardy trees and shrubs: An illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, 1997. ISBN 0881924040. Flora of North America Association. Flora of North America. Flora of North America Association. [17]. Flora of North America Editorial Committee. Flora of North America North of Mexico. Oxford University Press, 1993–2006. ISBN 0195057139. Gerard, John, Thomas Johnson. The herbal; or, General history of plants. Dover Publications, 1975. ISBN 048623147X. Graf, Alfred Byrd. Exotica Series 4 International: Pictorial Cyclopedia of Exotic Plants from Tropical and Near-Tropical Regions. Scribner's, 12th ed., 1985. Graf, Alfred Byrd. Hortica: A Color Cyclopedia of Garden Flora in All


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-4.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Biochemistry === Scott, Thomas A. & Mary Brewer. Concise Encyclopedia of Biochemistry. Walter de Gruyter, 2nd ed., 1988. === Bioethics === Post, Stephen Garrard. Encyclopedia of bioethics. Third edition. Macmillan Reference USA, 2003. ISBN 0028657748. ISSN 0950-4125; DOI:10.1108/09504120510573477. (5-Volume Set; 3062 pages). Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. First edition. New York: Free Press, 1978. ISBN 0029261805. ISBN 978-0029261804. (4-Volume Set; 1933 pages) Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. Second edition. New York: Free Press, 1982. (5-Volume Set; 2950 pages) Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. Third edition. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995; London: Simon and Schuster and Prentice Hall International, c1995. Rev. ed. (5-Volume Set; 2950 pages; 464 articles) ISBN 0028973550. ISBN 978-0028973555. === Food, nutrition, and agriculture === ==== Agriculture ==== American Veterinary Medical Association. AVMA: American Veterinary Medical Association. American Veterinary Medical Association, 2006-.[21]. Arntzen, Charles J. and Ellen M. Ritter. Encyclopedia of agricultural science. Academic Press, 1994. ISBN 0122266706. Bailey, Liberty Hyde. Cyclopedia of American agriculture. Macmillan, 1909. Bailey, L. H., Ethel Zoe Bailey, Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. Hortus third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, 1976. ISBN 0025054708. Bains, William. Biotechnology from A to Z.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-5.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
===== Nutrition ===== Ensminger, Audrey H. Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia. Pegus Press, 1983. Food for Health: A Nutrition Encyclopedia. Pegus Press, 1986. Margen, Sheldon. The Wellness Encyclopedia of Food and Nutrition: How to Buy, Store, and Prepare Every Variety of Fresh Food. Rebus, 1992. Mount Sinai School of Medicine Complete Book of Nutrition. St. Martin's Press, 1990. Tver, David F. and Percy Russell. Nutrition and Health Encyclopedia. 2nd ed., Van Nostrand, 1989. Winick, Myron. The Columbia Encyclopedia of Nutrition. Putnam, 1988. Yudin, John. Penguin Encyclopedia of Nutrition. Viking, 1985. ===== Wines, beers, and spirits ===== Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits. 5th ed., Knopf, 1987. Grossman's Guide to Wines, Beers, & Spirits. 7th ed., Scribner's, 1983. Hugh Johnson's Modern Encyclopedia of Wine. 3rd ed., Simon & Schuster, 1991. Hugh Johnson's World Atlas of Wine. 3rd ed., Simon & Schuster, 1985. Robinson, Jancis. The Oxford companion to wine. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 019866236X. Schoonmaker, Frank. The New Frank Schoonmaker Encyclopedia of Wine. Rev. ed., Morrow, 1988. === Health, medicine, and drugs === Adelman, George. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. Birkhauser Boston, 1987. Fishbein, Morris. Fishbein's Illustrated Medical and Health Encyclopedia. H. S. Struttman, 1983. Who's who in medicine and healthcare.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-6.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Medicine ==== Bailey, Hamilton, W. J. Bishop, Harold Ellis. Bailey and Bishop's notable names in medicine and surgery. Lewis, 1983. ISBN 0718604660. Bendiner, Jessica, Elmer Bendiner. Biographical dictionary of medicine. Facts on File, 1990. ISBN 0816018642. Berkow, Robert. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. 16th ed., Merck, 1992. Bremer, Sydney, Jeffrey H. Miller, William Broughton. Encyclopedia of genetics. Academic Press, 2002. ISBN 0122270800. Bynum, W. F., Helen Bynum. Dictionary of medical biography. Greenwood Press, 2006. ISBN 0313328773. Clayman, Charles B. The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine. Random House, 1989. Delves, Peter J., Ivan M. Roitt. Encyclopedia of immunology. Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 0122267656. Fischer, Isidor. Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärzte der letzten 50 Jahre. 1932–33. Ganten, Detlev, Klaus Ruckpaul. Encyclopedic reference of genomics and proteomics in molecular medicine. Springer, 2005. ISBN 3540442448. Gomez, Joan. Dictionary of Symptoms. Rev. ed., Stein & Day, 1985. Griffith, H. Winter. Complete Guide to Symptoms, Illness & Surgery. 2nd ed., Price Stern Sloan, 1989. Hafner, Arthur Wayne, Fred W. Hunter, B. Michael Tarpey. Directory of deceased American physicians, 1804–1929: A genealogical guide to over 149,000 medical practitioners providing brief biographical sketches drawn from the American Medical Association's Deceased Physician Masterfile. American Medical


id: birds-of-north-america-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_North_America_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Birds of North America (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_North_America_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:40.826773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birds-of-north-america-book-20260505-0
summary:
Birds of North America is a comprehensive encyclopedia of bird species in the United States and Canada, with substantial articles about each species. It was first published as a series of 716 printed booklets, prepared by 863 authors, and made available as the booklets were completed from 1992 through 2003. The project was overseen by the American Ornithologists' Union in partnership with the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. In 2004, an online version of the encyclopedia, including audio and video resources, was produced and released by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Access is by personal or institutional subscription. == References ==


id: brehms-tierleben-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brehms_Tierleben-0.md
category: reference
title: Brehms Tierleben
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brehms_Tierleben
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:41.985437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brehms-tierleben-20260505-0
summary:
Brehms Tierleben (English title: Brehm's Animal Life) is a scientific reference book, first published in the 1860s by Alfred Edmund Brehm (1829–1884). It was one of the first modern popular zoological treatises. First published in German as a six volume work that was completed in 1869 it was published by the Bibliographisches Institut of Herrmann Julius Meyer with illustration directed by Robert Kretschmer. The second edition, completed in 1879 had ten volumes. It was translated into several European languages. == Publishing history == As a freelance writer, Brehm furnished popular-scientific magazines with essays and travelogues. Because of his success in doing this, in 1860 he was commissioned to write a six-volume zoological encyclopedia. Journeys to Abyssinia, Scandinavia and Siberia both interrupted and enriched the work. The first six volumes of the encyclopedia, published under the title Illustrirtes Thierleben, appeared from 1864 to 1869, published by the Bibliographisches Institut under Herrmann Julius Meyer. Illustrated under the direction of Robert Kretschmer (1818–1872), they met with wide approval from the educated bourgeoisie. As of the second edition, which consisted of ten volumes published from 1876 to 1879, the work was already titled Brehms Tierleben. The work made Brehm famous around the world and


id: the-complete-guide-to-prehistoric-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Prehistoric_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Prehistoric_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:43.116492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-complete-guide-to-prehistoric-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life is a 2005 encyclopedia featuring 111 of the prehistoric animals from the Walking with... series, as well as an additional one (Homo floresiensis). It was published in 2005 by Firefly Books, and written by Tim Haines with Paul Chambers. It accompanies all of the main programs in the Walking with... series, including specials The Ballad of Big Al, The Giant Claw and Land of Giants but excluding Walking with Cavemen. == Contents == The book opens with an introduction by the authors reflecting on the making of the TV series. The book is then divided into three parts by era, first of which is The Rise of Life, which covers the Precambrian and the Paleozoic Era. The second part, The Age of Reptiles, covers the Mesozoic Era. The third and final part, The Age of Beasts, covers the Cenozoic Era. The book concludes with a timescale of life on earth, tree of life diagrams. == Reception == Stuart Sumida, writing in The Quarterly Review of Biology, stated that "The authors make a valiant attempt to clear locality and phylogenetic perspectives, but it is a mixed bag. They are properly up to date on the


id: dell-arcano-del-mare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell'Arcano_del_Mare-0.md
category: reference
title: Dell'Arcano del Mare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell'Arcano_del_Mare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:46.654953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dell-arcano-del-mare-20260505-0
summary:
Dell'Arcano del Mare by Sir Robert Dudley is a 17th-century maritime encyclopaedia, the sixth part of which comprises a maritime atlas of the entire world, which is the first such in print, the first made by an Englishman, and the first to use the Mercator projection. The work was first published in Italian at Florence in 1645 and 1646 in three folio volumes. Among other things, it is remarkable for its inclusion of a proposal for the construction of a navy in five rates (sizes) which Dudley designed and described. It was reprinted in Florence in a two volume folio edition in 1661 without the charts of the first edition. The seventh map is dedicated to Dudley's patrons, Ferdinando II de' Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Grand Duchess of Tuscany Vittoria della Rovere. The map covers the northeast coast of South America, which Dudley had visited in 1594. The area depicted covers modern French Guiana, Guyana, and a small portion of Brazil. The map also depicts "Monoa", the area otherwise known as El Dorado. == Scope == The six-part work covered navigation, shipbuilding and astronomy, with 130 maps in two volumes (nos. 2 and 6) . Unlike


id: the-dinosauria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dinosauria-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dinosauria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dinosauria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:47.839493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dinosauria-20260505-0
summary:
The Dinosauria is an encyclopedia on dinosaurs, edited by paleontologists David B. Weishampel, Peter Dodson, and Halszka Osmólska. It has been published in two editions by the University of California Press, with the first edition in 1990 and the second edition in 2004. The book is a single comprehensive text on dinosaurs, with the second edition revised and reorganized to reflect the substantial growth in dinosaur research over the elapsed time. == Content == The first edition of The Dinosauria includes 29 chapters organized into two sections, the first on "Dinosaur Relationships, Biology, and Distribution" and the second on "Dinosaur Taxonomy". This organization separates the book into a first section dedicated to topics that encompass Dinosauria as a whole, while the second focuses on individual taxa, organized by evolutionary group with a comprehensive description of anatomy, relationships, paleoecology, and other aspects of their biology. Each chapter is written by a paleontologist knowledgeable about the topic of group, edited and coordinated by American paleontologists David B. Weishampel and Peter Dodson, and Polish paleontologist Halszka Osmólska. Combined, 23 paleontologists from nine countries contributed to the first edition. The second edition of The Dinosauria revised and reorganized into 30 chapters organized into two


id: dinosaurs-holtz-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurs_(Holtz_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dinosaurs (Holtz book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurs_(Holtz_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:48.989904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dinosaurs-holtz-book-20260505-0
summary:
Dinosaurs (The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages) is a book by Thomas R. Holtz, Jr., with illustrations by Luis Rey. It was published in 2007 by Random House. The book received generally positive reviews upon release and garnered the nickname "The Dinosaur Bible". Holtz set up a companion website, which shares updates on new dinosaur discoveries. == References == == External links == Supplementary Information to Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages by Thomas R. Holtz, Jr., illustrations by Luis Rey Review in School Library Journal, November 21, 2007 Review in Science News, January 12, 2008 Listing in "Outstanding Science Trade Books for Students K–12: 2008 (Books published in 2007)" Archived 2010-08-10 at the Wayback Machine, National Science Teachers Association Parent's Choice Recommendation for Non-Fiction 2008 Archived 2009-03-09 at the Wayback Machine Listing in "Science Books for Fun and Learning — Some Recommendations from 2008" in Science magazine


id: encyclopaedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Social_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Social_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:51.306967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopaedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences is a specialized fifteen-volume Encyclopedia first published in 1930 and last published in 1967. It was envisaged in the 1920s by scholars working in disciplines which increasingly were coming to be known as "human sciences" or "social sciences". The goal was to create a comprehensive synthesis of the study of human affairs as undertaken by practitioners of all fields involved in such study. The parameters of what would come to be known as "social science" were in many ways initially established and defined by this publication. The Encyclopaedia's founding organizations included the American Anthropological Association, the American Association of Social Workers, the American Economic Association, the American Historical Association, the American Political Science Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Sociological Society, the American Statistical Association, the Association of American Law Schools, and the National Education Association. It was edited by American economists Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and Alvin Saunders Johnson. Seligman and Johnson solicited contributions from many of the most known and respected scholars in their fields, and established many links with European scholars in the process. The Rockefeller Foundation, Carnegie Foundation, and Russell Sage Foundation provided initial financial support, and Macmillan was


id: encyclopedia-of-conifers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Conifers-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Conifers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Conifers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:53.591586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-conifers-20260505-0
summary:
Encyclopedia of Conifers. A Comprehensive Guide to Conifer Cultivars and Species is an encyclopedia written by Aris G. Auders and Derek P. Spicer, published in 2012. The two-volume, illustrated encyclopedia is a complete reference book covering all recognised conifer cultivars and species, both hardy and tropical. The 1,500-page work features names, synonyms, and brief descriptions, as well as information about height and spread after 10 years, where known, for over 8,000 cultivars and all 615 conifer species, plus their subspecies and varieties. Apart from the descriptive text, it is illustrated with more than 5,000 photographs. == Publication history == The Encyclopedia of Conifers was written by Aris G. Auders, a conifer collector and photographer from Latvia, and Derek P. Spicer, Chairman of the British Conifer Society. The authors have been assisted by Lawrie Springate, RHS International Conifer Cultivar Registrar (2004–2009) and Victoria Matthews, RHS International Registrar. The publisher is Kingsblue Publishing Limited. == Illustration and design == Photography by the authors shows the general appearance of the plants, and in many cases detail special features. Many were photographed in summer and winter to show colour and texture changes through the seasons. == References == == External links == Official website


id: encyclopedia-of-cybernetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Cybernetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:54.774293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Cybernetics (Ukrainian: Енциклопедія кібернетики) is a Ukrainian language encyclopedia of computer science first published in Kyiv in 1973, with Victor Glushkov serving as its chief editor. The encyclopedia comprises two volumes containing over 1700 articles, primarily on topics in theoretical computer science, systems science, information theory, optimization and control theory. The articles were composed by some 600 scientists from various disciplines, affiliated with 102 educational and industrial institutions located throughout the Soviet Union. In 1974 the encyclopedia was translated into Russian. == Authors == About 600 scientists and specialists in various fields of knowledge from 102 scientific and industrial institutions of the Soviet Union took part in the creation of encyclopedia. Among them are such well-known scientists as: Alexey Ivakhnenko Anatoliy Skorokhod Kateryna Yuschenko Eduard Skorokhodko == See also == International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia Science and technology in Ukraine == Links == cyberua.info/novyny/persha-encyklopedija-kibernetyky-2t-ukr-red-vhlushkov-1973/ online (accessed 26.04.2016) (in Ukrainian) Myroslav Kratko The creation of the Ukrainian-language Encyclopedia of Cybernetics, www.istpravda.com.ua/digest/2011/02/7/22204/view_print/ online (accessed 26.04.2016) (in Ukrainian) == References ==


id: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:55.948063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Earth (EoE) is an electronic reference about the Earth, its natural environments, and their interaction with society. The Encyclopedia is described as a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and other approved experts, who collaborate and review each other's work. The articles are written in non-technical language and are intended to be useful to students, educators, scholars, and professionals, as well as to the general public. The authors, editors, and even copy editors are attributed on the articles with links to biographical pages on those individuals. The Encyclopedia of Earth is a component of the larger Earth Portal (part of the Digital Universe project), which is a constellation of subject-specific information portals that contain news services, structured metadata, a federated environmental search engine, and other information resources. The technology platform for the Encyclopedia of Earth is a modified version of MediaWiki, which is closed to all but approved users. Once an article is reviewed and approved it is published to a public site. The EoE was launched in September 2006 with about 360 articles, growing to 2,300 articles by mid-2007, and as of 30 November 2010, it had 7,678 articles. There are


id: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:55.948063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Organization and people == The Encyclopedia of Earth is being created by the Environmental Information Coalition (EIC), an open membership group of scientists, educators, and organizations. The EIC defines the roles and responsibilities for individuals and institutions involved in the Coalition, as well as the editorial guidelines for the Encyclopedia. An EIC Stewardship Committee functions as the primary working group that develops and enforces policies and guidelines for the Encyclopedia, with input from Topic Editors and Authors. The Secretariat for the EIC is the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE), based in Washington D.C., USA. NCSE is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization with a mission "to improve the scientific basis for environmental decisionmaking" and "specializes in programs that foster collaboration between diverse institutions, communities and individuals. We work closely with those creating and using environmental knowledge, including research, education, environmental, and business organizations, as well as governmental bodies at all levels." The Stewardship Committee comprises: Arnold Bloom, University of California at Davis Nancy Golubiewski, Auckland Council Jennifer Hammock, Smithsonian/Encyclopedia of Life Andy Jorgensen, University of Toledo Ida Kubiszewski, Australian National University Mark McGinley, Lingnan University Emily Monosson Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia Okanagan The International Advisory Board


id: encyclopedia-of-evolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Evolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:57.084688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Evolution is a print encyclopedia of evolutionary biology edited by Mark Pagel and published in 2002 by Oxford University Press. It consists of 370 original articles written by leading experts including Richard Dawkins, Stephen Jay Gould, and Jane Goodall, and was selected as one of the Outstanding Reference Sources of 2003 by American Libraries. A similar book, the Cambridge Encyclopedia of Evolution is edited by Steve Jones. == References == == External links == Oxford University Press: U.S. General Catalog LCCN record of Library of Congress


id: encyclopedia-of-flora-and-fauna-of-bangladesh-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Flora_and_Fauna_of_Bangladesh-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Flora_and_Fauna_of_Bangladesh
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:58.297753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-flora-and-fauna-of-bangladesh-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna is a multi-volume encyclopedia. It has been published by Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. It covers the biodiversity of Bangladesh. == Volumes == The Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh has been published in 28 volumes. Among the volumes 11 are about flora, 14 volumes about fauna, one volume is about Bangladesh and there are two index volumes. === Volumes === ==== Bangladesh profile ==== This is a 230-page encyclopedia. It covers in 20 articles about the environment of Bangladesh. It describes about the Sundarban. ==== Cyanobacteria, Bacteria and Fungi ==== This 415 page volume contains about the Prokaryotes. ==== Algae (Chlorophyta: Aphanochaetaceae- Zygnemataceae) ==== Division Chlorophyta or green algae is abundant in Bangladesh, the world's second largest delta next to the Amazon basin in Brazil . This volume describes 1,317 species collected from this land and studied by one of the most celebrated algologist of the country, National Professor A K M Nurul Islam. The species Ireksokonia formosa, endemic to lake Baikal was isolated from Bangladesh and is described in this volume. 812 pp. ==== Algae: Clorophyta – Rhodophyta ==== (Achnanthaceae – Vaucheriaceae) This volume adds an additional 800 species of algae to


id: encyclopedia-of-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:59.494502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) is a free, online encyclopedia intended to document all of the 1.9 million living species known to science. It aggregates content to form "pages" for every known species. Content is compiled from existing trusted databases which are curated by experts and it calls on the assistance of non-experts throughout the world. It includes video, sound, images, graphics, information on characteristics, as well as text. In addition, the Encyclopedia incorporates species-related content from the Biodiversity Heritage Library, which digitizes millions of pages of printed literature from the world's major natural history libraries. The BHL digital content is indexed with the names of organisms using taxonomic indexing software developed by the Global Names project. The EOL project was initially backed by a US$50 million funding commitment, led by the MacArthur Foundation and the Sloan Foundation, who provided US$20 million and US$5 million, respectively. The additional US$25 million came from five cornerstone institutions—the Field Museum, Harvard University, the Marine Biological Laboratory, the Missouri Botanical Garden, and the Smithsonian Institution. The project was initially led by Jim Edwards and the development team by David Patterson. Today, participating institutions and individual donors continue to support EOL through financial contributions. ==


id: encyclopedia-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:00.604202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
eLS (previously known as the Encyclopedia of Life Sciences) is a reference work that covers the life sciences; it is published by Wiley-Blackwell. As of June 2012, there were more than 4,800 article topics published in eLS online. eLS is updated monthly and over 400 articles are added to eLS each year. eLS is available online and in a print edition. The online edition was launched in April 2001, with the print edition published in January 2002. Full access to eLS requires a subscription. Article abstracts, key concepts, figures and references are freely accessible. At the end of 2004, eLS was acquired by Wiley-Blackwell from the Nature Publishing Group. == References == == External links == eLS website Archived 2011-05-13 at the Wayback Machine


id: encyclopedic-dictionary-of-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedic_Dictionary_of_Astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedic_Dictionary_of_Astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:04.163767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedic-dictionary-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Astronomy (Ukrainian: Астрономічний енциклопедичний словник) is a Ukrainian encyclopedia of astronomy. It was published in 2003 and has around 3000 entries. == See also == List of astronomical observatories in Ukraine List of Ukrainian encyclopedias Science and technology in Ukraine == References ==


id: the-engineer-s-and-mechanic-s-encyclopaedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Engineer's_and_Mechanic's_Encyclopaedia-0.md
category: reference
title: The Engineer's and Mechanic's Encyclopaedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Engineer's_and_Mechanic's_Encyclopaedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:05.297125+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-engineer-s-and-mechanic-s-encyclopaedia-20260505-0
summary:
The Engineer's and Mechanic's Encyclopaedia is a book edited by Luke Hebert, a Birmingham patent agent and journalist, and published by Thomas Kelly of Paternoster Row. The first edition appeared in 1836 and 1837. The second edition appeared in 1849. It was in two octavo volumes (Vol. 1, 796 pp and vol. 2, 928 pp), illustrated with woodcuts in the text and a number of full page engravings. Many of the articles relate to specific processes and machines, and overall the encyclopaedia is not over-concerned with the theoretical aspects. Of particular value are the monograph-length accounts of the progress of rail transport and steamboats. == External links == Online copies: The Engineer's and Mechanic's Encyclopaedia. Vol. 1. 1849 – via chestofbooks.com. The Engineer's and Mechanic's Encyclopaedia. Vol. 2. 1849 – via chestofbooks.com.


id: encyclopedia-of-genetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Genetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Genetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Genetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:06.451859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-genetics-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Genetics (ISBN 0-12-227080-0) is a print encyclopedia of genetics edited by Sydney Brenner and Jeffrey H. Miller. It has four volumes and 1,700 entries. == External links == Encyclopedia of Genetics on Science Direct


id: grzimek-s-animal-life-encyclopedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grzimek's_Animal_Life_Encyclopedia-0.md
category: reference
title: Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grzimek's_Animal_Life_Encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:07.622818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grzimek-s-animal-life-encyclopedia-20260505-0
summary:
Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia is a large comprehensive encyclopedia of animal life. It is named after its original editor in chief, Bernhard Grzimek (pronounced [ˈɡʒɪmɛk]). Originally the encyclopedia was published as a 13-volume set in German under the name Grzimeks Tierleben (Grzimek's Animal Life) in 1967–1972; it was translated into English in 1972–75. The encyclopedia was an international collaboration by a large number of scientists including Theodor Haltenorth, Wolfgang Gewalt, Heinz-Georg Klös, Konrad Lorenz, Heinz Heck, Lutz Heck, Jean Dorst, Constantine Walter Benson, Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Helmut Sick, Heini Hediger, Wolfgang Makatsch, Erich Thenius, Erna Mohr, Adolf Portmann, Nagamichi Kuroda, Lester L. Short, Gerlof Fokko Mees, and Andrew John Berger. It was later extensively updated and republished in a 17-volume second edition under the supervision of Michael Hutchins in 2003. Some university libraries offer access to a digitized version of the second edition. The German edition also published three supplementary volumes: Entwicklungsgeschichte der Lebewesen (History of Life), Verhaltensforschung (Behavioural Research) and Unsere Umwelt als Lebensraum - Ökologie (Our Environment as Living Space - Ecology). == Online portal == In fall 2009, Gale Cengage released a web-based version of the encyclopedia, with access to the web site by subscription. The site allows


id: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar-0.md
category: reference
title: A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:08.803489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
summary:
A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar, also known as The Guide to Science or Brewer's Guide to Science, is a book by Ebenezer Cobham Brewer presenting explanations for common phenomena. First published in the United Kingdom around 1840, the book is laid out in the style of a catechism and proved very popular. 47 editions were printed by 1905 in English alone and translations made into various other languages. A revised version was produced for the US market which was digitised and republished in 2005 as part of Making of America IV: the American voice, 1850–1877. Although it presented itself as an accurate science text, the book actually promotes religious ideas, including divine design. The popularity of The Guide to Science enabled Brewer to gather material for his Dictionary of Phrase and Fable which remains a classic reference work. == Content == The object of The Guide to Science was to present answers to over 2000 questions about common phenomena. There are questions dealing with man-made objects such as candles, stoves and chimneys, as well as answers seeking to explain natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning (including a mention of ball lightning), clouds, dew, and rainbows. Brewer


id: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar-1.md
category: reference
title: A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:08.803489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception and legacy == A review of the second edition of The Guide to Science was published by Punch magazine in 1850. The book was seen to be a "very useful little work", but in the typical Punch satirical style, the reviewer disagreed with one answer that we "feel a desire for activity in cold weather" due to "fanning combustion in the blood" by instead insisting that we feel a desire "to sit cosily over a fire in cold weather". The success of The Guide to Science convinced Brewer that his readers still accepted religious explanations rather than evolutionary theory. Following the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, Brewer wrote Theology in Science; or The Testimony of Science to the Wisdom and Goodness of God (published in 1860) in order to demonstrate that evolution had not destroyed theological tradition and to continue The Guide to Science's promotion of natural theology. The book's popularity also resulted in Brewer being sent "a large number of questions on all imaginary matters". These questions and their answers became the nucleus of Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, first published in 1870. This latter book has long outlived all of Brewer's


id: handbook-of-the-birds-of-the-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Birds of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:09.983289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-birds-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
The Handbook of the Birds of the World (HBW) is a multi-volume series produced by the Spanish publishing house Lynx Edicions in partnership with BirdLife International. It is the first handbook to cover every known living species of bird. The series was edited by Josep del Hoyo, Andrew Elliott, Jordi Sargatal and David A. Christie. All 16 volumes have been published. For the first time an animal class will have all the species illustrated and treated in detail in a single work. This has not been done before for any other group in the animal kingdom. Material in each volume is grouped first by family, with an introductory article on each family; this is followed by individual species accounts (taxonomy, subspecies and distribution, descriptive notes, habitat, food and feeding, breeding, movements, status and conservation, bibliography). In addition, all volumes except the first and second contain an essay on a particular ornithological theme. More than 200 renowned specialists and 35 illustrators (including Toni Llobet, Hilary Burn, Chris Rose and H. Douglas Pratt) from more than 40 countries have contributed to the project up to now, as well as 834 photographers from all over the world. Since the first volume appeared in


id: handbook-of-the-birds-of-the-world-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World-1.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Birds of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:09.983289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-birds-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
=== Volume 12: Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees === This volume was published in October 2007. It includes an introduction to the fossil birds by Kevin J. Kayleigh. This volume covers the following groups: === Volume 13: Penduline-tits to Shrikes === This volume was published in October 2008. It includes an introductory essay on bird migration by Ian Newton. Groups covered in this volume are as follows: === Volume 14: Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows === This volume was published in October 2009. It includes the foreword "Birding Past, Present and Future – a Global View" by Stephen Moss. Groups covered in this volume are as follows: === Volume 15: Weavers to New World Warblers === This volume was published in October 2010. It includes a foreword on bird conservation by Stuart Butchart, Nigel Collar, Alison Stattersfield, and Leon Bennun. Groups covered in this volume are as follows: === Volume 16: Cardinals to New World Blackbirds === This volume was published in December 2011. It includes a foreword on climate change and birds by Anders Pape Møller. Groups covered in this volume are as follows: === Special Volume: New Species and Global Index === This volume was published in July


id: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Mammals of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:11.168973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
Handbook of the Mammals of the World (HMW) is a book series from the publisher Lynx Edicions. The nine volumes were published from 2009 to 2019. Each mammal family is assessed in a full text introduction with photographs and each species has a text account with a distribution map and illustrations on a plate. This is the second major project by Lynx Edicions since the release of the Handbook of the Birds of the World in 1992. The chief editors are Russell Mittermeier and Don E. Wilson in association with Conservation International, the Texas A&M University and the IUCN. Don E. Wilson is also editor of the reference work Mammal Species of the World. An updated two-volume set with taxonomic revisions was released in 2020 as the Illustrated Checklist of the Mammals of the World, and a condensed, single-volume version of the series was published in 2023 as All the Mammals of the World. == Published volumes == === Volume 1: Carnivores (published in May 2009) === With an introduction to the class Mammalia by Don E. Wilson The first volume is devoted to Carnivora. It covers 13 families and the details to the taxonomy, range, habitat, reproduction, behavior, and


id: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World-1.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Mammals of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:11.168973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
Otariidae (eared seals). Seven genera and 15 species. Odobenidae (walrus). One genus and one species. Phocidae (earless seals). 13 genera and 18 species. Balaenidae (right whales). Two genera and four species. Neobalaenidae (pygmy right whale). One genus and one species. Eschrichtiidae (gray whale). One genus and one species. Balaenopteridae (rorquals). Two genera and eight species. Physeteridae (sperm whale). One genus and one species. Kogiidae (pygmy and dwarf sperm whales). One genus and two species. Ziphiidae (beaked whales). Six genera and 22 species. Platanistidae (South Asian river dolphin). One genus and one species. Iniidae (Amazon river dolphins). One genus and three species. Lipotidae (baiji). One genus and one species. Pontoporiidae (Franciscana). One genus and one species. Monodontidae (beluga and narwhal). Two genera and two species. Delphinidae (ocean dolphins). 17 genera and 36 species. Phocoenidae (porpoises). Three genera and seven species. Trichechidae (manatees). One genus and three species. Dugongidae (dugong). One genus and one species. Other details: Size: 31 × 24 cm. Pages: 614 pp. ISBN 978-84-96553-93-4 === Volume 5: Marsupials (published in June 2015) === The fifth volume is devoted to the marsupials, echidnas, platypus, and opossums. The 44 colour plates are created by Toni Llobet. It covers the details to


id: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World-2.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Mammals of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:11.168973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
Dasypodidae (long-nosed armadillos). One genus and seven species. Chlamyphoridae (chlamyphorid armadillos). Eight genera and 13 species. Myrmecophagidae (American anteaters). Two genera and three species. Cyclopedidae (silky anteater). One genus and seven species. Megalonychidae (two-toed sloths). One genus and two species. Bradypodidae (three-toed sloths). One genus and four species. Tenrecidae (tenrecs). Eight genera and 31 species. Potamogalidae (otter shrews). Two genera and three species. Chrysochloridae (golden moles). Ten genera and 21 species. Macroscelididae (elephant shrews). Five genera and 20 species. Ptilocercidae (pen-tailed tree shrew). One genus and one species. Tupaiidae (common tree shrews). Three genera and 22 species. Cynocephalidae (colugos). Two genera and two species. Erinaceidae (hedgehogs). Ten genera and 26 species. Soricidae (shrews). 25 genera and 448 species. Talpidae (moles). 18 genera and 54 species. Solenodontidae (solenodons). Two genera and two species. Other details: Size: 31 × 24 cm. Pages: 710. ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4 === Volume 9: Bats (published in October 2019) === The ninth volume is devoted to the bats. It covers the details to the taxonomy, range, habitat, reproduction, behaviour, and conservation status of 1401 species from 21 families in the order Chiroptera. Unlike previous volumes, where all the illustrations were created by a single person in each one,


id: historia-animalium-gessner-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Historia animalium (Gessner book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:12.389876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: historia-animalium-gessner-book-20260505-0
summary:
Historia animalium ("History of the Animals"), published in Zurich in 1551–1558 and 1587, is an encyclopedic "inventory of renaissance zoology" by Conrad Gessner (1516–1565). Gessner was a medical doctor and professor at the Carolinum in Zürich, the precursor of the University of Zurich. The Historia animalium, after Aristotle's work of the same name, is the first modern zoological work that attempts to describe all the animals known, and the first bibliography of natural history writings. The five volumes of natural history of animals cover more than 4,500 pages. The animals are presented in alphabetical order, marking the change from Middle Ages encyclopedias, or "mirrors" to a modern view of a consultation work. == Overview == The Historia animalium was Gessner's magnum opus, and was the most widely read of all the Renaissance natural histories. The generously illustrated work was so popular that Gessner's abridgement, Thierbuch ("Animal Book"), was published in Zurich in 1563, and in England Edward Topsell translated and condensed it as a Historie of foure-footed beastes (London: William Jaggard, 1607). Gessner's monumental work attempts to build a connection between the ancient knowledge of the animal world, its title the same as Aristotle's work on animals, and what was


id: encyclopedia-of-the-history-of-arabic-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_History_of_Arabic_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_History_of_Arabic_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:13.533209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-the-history-of-arabic-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science is a three-volume encyclopedia covering the history of Arabic contributions to science, mathematics and technology which had a marked influence on the Middle Ages in Europe. It is written by internationally recognized experts in the field and edited by Roshdi Rashed in collaboration with Régis Morelon. Volume one covers "Astronomy—Theoretical and applied". Volume two covers "Mathematics and the Physical Sciences". Volume three covers "Technology, Alchemy, and the Life Sciences". == Editions == French edition: "fr:Histoire des sciences arabes", 3 vol., Le Seuil, Paris, 1997, (ISBN 2-02-030355-8). Arabic edition: "Mawsu‘a Tarikh al-‘ulum al-‘arabiyya", 3 vol., Markaz Dirasat al-Wahda al-‘arabiyya, Beirut, 1997, (ISBN 9953-450-73-0, 978-9953-450-73-5). == Contributors == A partial list of contributors include: Volume 1 R. Morelon and George Saliba (Arabic astronomy) David A. King (astronomy in Islamic society) Edward Stewart Kennedy (mathematical geography) J. Vernet and J. Samsó (Arabic science in Andalusia) H. Grosset-Grange (Arabic nautical sciences) Volume 2 A. S. Saidan (numeration and arithmetic) Boris A. Rosenfeld and A. P. Yushkevich (geometry) J.-C. Chabrier and M. Rozhanskaya (music and statics) M.-Th. Debarnot (trigonometry, algebra) Roshdi Rashed (geometrical optics) G. Russell (physiological optics) Volume 3 Donald Routledge Hill (engineering) A. Miquel (geography)


id: international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-behavioral-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_&_Behavioral_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_&_Behavioral_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:14.733439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-behavioral-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, originally edited by Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes, is a 26-volume work published by Elsevier. It has some 4,000 signed articles (commissioned by around 50 subject editors), and includes 150 biographical entries, 122,400 entries, and an extensive hierarchical subject index. It is also available in online editions. Reviewers described the work as "the largest corpus of knowledge about the social and behavioral sciences in existence." and "the atomic bomb of reference works." It was first published in 2001, with a 2nd edition published in 2015. The second edition is edited by James D. Wright. == Subject Classification == Contents include the following broad Subject Classification. Overarching Topics: Institutions and infrastructure, History of the social sciences and the behavioral sciences, Ethics of research and applications, Biographies, Integrative concepts and issues Methodology: Statistics, Mathematics and computer sciences, Logic of inquiry and research design. Disciplines: Anthropology, Demography, Economics, Education, History, Linguistics. Philosophy, Political science, Clinical psychology and applied psychology, Cognitive psychology and cognitive science, Developmental psychology, social psychology, personality psychology and motivational psychology, Sociology Intersecting Fields: Evolutionary sciences, Genetics, behavior and society, Behavioral neuroscience and cognitive neuroscience, Psychiatry, Health, Gender studies, Religious


id: international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:15.926671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences was first published in 1968 and was edited by David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton. It contains seventeen volumes and thousands of entries written by scholars around the world. The 2nd edition is composed entirely of new articles. It was published in 2008 and edited by William A. Darity Jr., an American economist. The 1968 Encyclopedia was initially intended to "complement, not supplant" MacMillan's earlier, fifteen-volume Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, which had been published from 1930 to 1967 and was edited by American economists Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and Alvin Saunders Johnson, it effectively replaced the earlier Encyclopaedia, in practice. == Notes == == See also == List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (1930–35) International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (2001)


id: international-encyclopedia-of-unified-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_Unified_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: International Encyclopedia of Unified Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_Unified_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:17.127320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-encyclopedia-of-unified-science-20260505-0
summary:
The International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (IEUS) was a series of publications devoted to unified science. The IEUS was conceived at the Mundaneum Institute in The Hague in the 1930s, and published in the United States beginning in 1938. It was an ambitious project that was never completed. The IEUS was an output of the Vienna Circle to address the "growing concern throughout the world for the logic, the history, and the sociology of science..." Only the first section Foundations of the Unity of Science (FUS) was published; it contains two volumes for a total of nineteen monographs published from 1938 to 1969. == International Congresses for the Unity of Science == Creation of the IEUS was facilitated by the International Congresses for the Unity of Science organized by members of the Vienna Circle. After a preliminary conference in Prague in 1934, the First International Congress for the Unity of Science was held at the Sorbonne, Paris, 16–21 September 1935. It was attended by about 170 people from over twenty different countries. With the active involvement of Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz (Poland), Susan Stebbing (England), and Federigo Enriques (Italy) the scope of the project for an IEUS was considerably expanded. The congress


id: k-rschners-deutscher-gelehrten-kalender-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kürschners_Deutscher_Gelehrten-Kalender-0.md
category: reference
title: Kürschners Deutscher Gelehrten-Kalender
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kürschners_Deutscher_Gelehrten-Kalender
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:18.294630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: k-rschners-deutscher-gelehrten-kalender-20260505-0
summary:
Kürschners Deutscher Gelehrten-Kalender (English: "Kürschner's Encyclopedia of German Scholars"), formerly subtitled Lexikon der lebenden deutschsprachigen Wissenschaftler ("Encyclopedia of Living German-Speaking Scholars"), is a German language biographical and bibliographical encyclopedia of scientists and scholars from the German-speaking part of Europe. It is published by Walter de Gruyter. The first edition appeared in 1925, edited by Gerhard Lüdtke. Prior to the 9th edition, it consisted of one volume, but with the 6th edition in 1941 and then again from the 9th in 1961 it was extended to two volumes. Since the 22nd edition in 2009, it includes four volumes. The 28th edition appeared in 2016. The encyclopedia generally only includes academics who are active researchers at universities or research institutes, and who hold the Habilitation or are full professors, or have equivalent qualifications. It evolved from Kürschners Deutscher Literatur-Kalender, a bio-bibliographical encyclopedia of German literature founded in 1879 and subsequently edited by Joseph Kürschner, for whom both works are now named. == References == == External links == ISSN 1616-8399


id: lexikon-der-gesamten-technik-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexikon_der_gesamten_Technik-0.md
category: reference
title: Lexikon der gesamten Technik
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexikon_der_gesamten_Technik
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:19.527605+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lexikon-der-gesamten-technik-20260505-0
summary:
The Lexikon der gesamten Technik ("encyclopedia of all technology") is an illustrated German-language encyclopedia of architectural, engineering and manufacturing technology, written by Otto Lueger (German engineer, 1843–1911) and first published in 1894. == Editions == 1st Edition, 7 volumes, 1894–1899 2nd Edition, 8 volumes, 1904–1910 (with two supplements in 1914 and 1920) 3rd Edition, 6 volumes, 1926–1929 (with a separate index volume) 4th Edition, 17 volumes, 1960–1972 == External links == http://www.zeno.org/Lueger-1904, 10 volumes, digitized by Zeno.org and announced as public domain ("Lizenz: Gemeinfrei")


id: mcgraw-hill-encyclopedia-of-science-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Encyclopedia_of_Science_&_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Encyclopedia_of_Science_&_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:20.714972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mcgraw-hill-encyclopedia-of-science-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology is an English-language multivolume encyclopedia, specifically focused on scientific and technical subjects, and published by McGraw-Hill Education. The most recent edition in print is the eleventh edition, copyright 2012 (ISBN 9780071778343), comprising twenty volumes. The encyclopedia covers the life sciences and physical sciences, as well as engineering and technology topics. There is also a one-volume McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology based on the full set. The sixth edition was published in May 2009 in twenty volumes including the "Index" (ISBN 9780071613668). Further "Concise" editions for Chemistry or Engineering are available today. The references work has been mentioned and reviewed too. == References ==


id: the-new-encyclopedia-of-snakes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Encyclopedia_of_Snakes-0.md
category: reference
title: The New Encyclopedia of Snakes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Encyclopedia_of_Snakes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:24.296362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-new-encyclopedia-of-snakes-20260505-0
summary:
The New Encyclopedia of Snakes is an encyclopedia by Chris Mattison. == Book summary == The encyclopedia has information about snakes that is listed from A-Z. The book has pictures and information about snake morphology, habitats, diets, hunting and defense behaviors, taxonomy, and a history of human responses to snakes. == Reception == It was reviewed by Science Activities, Washington Times, Booklist, King Features Syndicate, Wildlife Activist, Dover Post, Choice, and Science Books and Fun. == References ==


id: the-ocean-world-of-jacques-cousteau-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean_World_of_Jacques_Cousteau-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ocean World of Jacques Cousteau
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean_World_of_Jacques_Cousteau
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:25.437982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ocean-world-of-jacques-cousteau-20260505-0
summary:
The Ocean World of Jacques Cousteau by Jacques Cousteau is an encyclopedia in 21 volumes, that forms an encyclopedia of marine life. It was published between 1973 and 1978. == List of books == Oasis in Space The Act of Life Quest for Food Window in the Sea The Art of Motion Attack and Defense Invisible Messages Instinct and Intelligence Pharaohs of the Sea Mammals in the Sea Provinces of the Sea Man Re-Enters Sea A Sea of Legends Adventure of Life Outer and Inner Space The Whitecaps Riches of the Sea Challenges of the Sea The Sea in Danger Guide to the Sea and Index Calypso == References ==


id: orr-s-circle-of-the-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orr's_Circle_of_the_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Orr's Circle of the Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orr's_Circle_of_the_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:26.585211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orr-s-circle-of-the-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Orr's Circle of the Sciences was a scientific encyclopedia of the 1850s, published in London by William Somerville Orr. == William S. Orr & Co. == William S. Orr & Co. was a publisher in Paternoster Row, London. It put out the British Cyclopædia in ten volumes of the 1830s. It also was in business selling engravings (for example the Kenny Meadows illustrations to Shakespeare), and maps, such as a mid-century Cab Fare and Guide Map of London (c. 1853). The firm was a general commercial publisher, with a specialist area of natural history, and also published periodicals. It was innovative in its use of wood engraving, in its 1838 edition of Paul et Virginie. In children's literature, it published Christoph von Schmid's Basket of Flowers in an English translation of 1848, in partnership with J. B. Müller of Stuttgart. == William Somerville Orr == Orr himself was a publishers' agent from the 1830s, and was a close associate of Robert and William Chambers. He printed a London edition of Chambers's Edinburgh Journal by mid-1832. The arrangement used stereotype plates, and brought the circulation up to 50,000. By 1845 the circulation was declining from its peak, and Orr wrote to


id: the-oxford-companion-to-the-history-of-modern-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_the_History_of_Modern_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_the_History_of_Modern_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:27.770746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-oxford-companion-to-the-history-of-modern-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science is an encyclopedia on the history of science from around the middle of the 16th century (the early modern period) to the beginning of the 21st century. The book includes 609 articles by over two hundred authors. The editor-in-chief was John L. Heilbron and the editors were James R. Bartholomew, Jim Bennett, Frederic L. Holmes, Rachel Laudan, and Giuliano Pancaldi. The book was published by Oxford University Press in 2003. An e-book version appeared in 2006. In 2014, the book was translated into Japanese and published by Asakura Publishing. The book has been reviewed by the British Journal for the History of Science Choice, Nature, and the Times Literary Supplement. == See also == Oxford Companions == References == == External links == OUP UK catalogue entry Aasakura Publishing catalogue entry (in Japanese)


id: prehistoric-life-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Life_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Prehistoric Life (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Life_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:28.920273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prehistoric-life-book-20260505-0
summary:
Prehistoric Life is a non-fiction encyclopedia edited by Angeles Gavira Guerrero and Peter Frances. The full title of the book is Prehistoric Life: The Definitive Visual History of Life on Earth. The 512-page book was published by DK in 2009. == Reception == Saying it had a "wealth of scientific information", Shauna Yusko of Booklist praised the book, writing, "The collection of full-color photographs of fossils (ranging from spore to dinosaur) and skeletons show amazing detail and clarity." In a positive review, the Courier Journal reviewer Scott Coffman wrote, "The intimate photographs, fossil scans, and CGI illustrations number over 2,500, with which the producers of this tome provide a history of life more thorough than that provided by any museum." The Globe and Mail said the book presents its information about the history of life on Earth in "colourful, well-illustrated, bite-sized morsels" and is "a reference book to savour". == References == == External links == Prehistoric Life: The Definitive Visual History of Life on Earth at Amazon.com


id: project-emitel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_EMITEL-0.md
category: reference
title: Project EMITEL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_EMITEL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:30.038780+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-emitel-20260505-0
summary:
The Project EMITEL was a pilot project of the EC Programme Leonardo da Vinci, which developed the first e-Encyclopaedia with Multilingual Scientific Dictionary of medical physics (2005–2009), aimed to support the education in the profession. The project continues activities of previous projects (as EMERALD, EMERALD2 and EMIT) to develop materials and e-books for medical physics education. The project included as partners Universities and Hospitals from the UK, Sweden, Italy, Bulgaria and the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) and was headed by specialists from King's College London. In the post-project time the Encyclopaedia with Dictionary were updated by hundreds of specialists from over 50 countries, overseen by an editorial board. The materials are available for free use through their original website emitel2.eu with thousands of users worldwide. The Encyclopaedia has been printed on paper by CRC Press/Routledge (Taylor and Francis Group). == References ==


id: proteopedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteopedia-0.md
category: reference
title: Proteopedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:31.189687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proteopedia-20260505-0
summary:
Proteopedia is a wiki, 3D encyclopedia of proteins and other molecules. == Website == The site contains a page for all of the entries in the Protein Data Bank (PDB), as well as pages that are more descriptive of protein structures in general such as acetylcholinesterase, hemoglobin, and the photosystem II with a Jmol view that highlights functional sites and ligands. It employs a scene-authoring tool so that users do not have to learn JSmol script language to create customized molecular scenes. Custom scenes are easily attached to "green links" in descriptive text that display those scenes in JSmol. A web browser is all that is needed to access the site and the 3D information; no viewers are required to be installed. Proteopedia was the winner of the 2010 award for the best website by The Scientist magazine. == Licensing terms == All user-added content is free and covered by the GNU Free Documentation License. Proteopedia is hosted at the Israel Structural Proteomics Center at the Weizmann Institute of Science. == References == == External links == Proteopedia website


id: rp-photonics-encyclopedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP_Photonics_Encyclopedia-0.md
category: reference
title: RP Photonics Encyclopedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP_Photonics_Encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:34.680656+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rp-photonics-encyclopedia-20260505-0
summary:
The RP Photonics Encyclopedia (formerly Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology) is an encyclopedia of optics and optoelectronics, laser technology, optical fibers, nonlinear optics, optical communications, imaging science, optical metrology, spectroscopy and ultrashort pulse physics. It is available online as a free resource. An earlier version of the encyclopedia appeared as a two-volume book. As of March 2024, the online version of the encyclopedia contains 1043 articles. Since 2012, the encyclopedia is closely interlinked with the RP Photonics Buyer's Guide, a large directory of photonics product suppliers. For the majority of products, there is a one-to-one correspondence between an encyclopedia article and a listing of suppliers for that product. Other resources linked with the RP Photonics Encyclopedia are a blog named The Photonics Spotlight, a glossary of photonics terms and acronyms, various tutorials and case studies, and a photonics quiz. The author is Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta, founder and managing director of RP Photonics AG in Frauenfeld, Switzerland. == References == == External links == RP Photonics Encyclopedia


id: the-simon-schuster-encyclopedia-of-dinosaurs-and-prehistoric-creatures-20260505-0
category: reference
title: The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:35.828034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-simon-schuster-encyclopedia-of-dinosaurs-and-prehistoric-creatures-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simon_&_Schuster_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Creatures-0.md

summary:
The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures: A Visual Who's Who of Prehistoric Life is an encyclopedia that was published in 1999 by Simon & Schuster. The book was first published in 1988. == Reception == The Houston Chronicle stated, "this reference work for the serious student combines succinct scientific descriptions with superbly rendered color illustrations". In a positive review for Palaeos, M. Alan Kazlev wrote, "This is a very good non-technical introduction to prehistoric vertebrates" and "it is the sheer number and diversity of creatures covered here, that makes this book so interesting". The Globe and Mail said of the book, "Here's an elegantly illustrated directory of ancient animals, from a tiny marine creature of Canada called a pkaia through a dim-witted, 21-metre dinosaur named after the Alamo, to mankind's departed brethren, the Cro-Magnon." == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simon_&_Schuster_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Creatures


id: the-skeptic-encyclopedia-of-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:37.033504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-skeptic-encyclopedia-of-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience is a two-volume collection of articles that discuss the Skeptics Society's scientific findings of investigations into pseudoscientific and supernatural claims. The editor, Michael Shermer, director of the Skeptics Society, has compiled articles originally published in Skeptic magazine with some conceptual overviews and historical documents to create this encyclopedia. It was published by ABC-CLIO in 2002. == About the editor == Michael Shermer is an American science writer and science historian. He gained Bachelor's and master's degrees in psychology before completing a PhD in the history of science. The author of more than 18 books on skepticism and science, Shermer is the founder of The Skeptics Society—which began in Los Angeles but now has an international membership—and the editor of its magazine Skeptic. Between April 2001 to January 2019, he was a monthly contributor to Scientific American magazine with a column called Skeptic. Shermer regularly engages in debates on a variety of topics, in which he emphasises the application of scientific skepticism to combat pseudoscience. Shermer was the producer and co-host of the 13-hour Fox Family television series "Exploring the Unknown" which was broadcast in 1999. He is also a scientific advisor to the American Council


id: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology-0.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:38.182148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, published from 1953–1966 by the Geological Society of America and the University of Kansas Press, 1969–2007 by the Geological Society of America and the University of Kansas, then 2009–present by the University of Kansas Paleontological Institute, is a definitive multi-authored work of currently 55 volumes, written by more than 300 paleontologists, and covering every phylum, class, order, family, and genus of fossil and extant (still living) invertebrate animals. The prehistoric invertebrates are described as to their taxonomy, morphology, paleoecology, stratigraphic and paleogeographic range. However, taxa with no fossil record whatsoever have just a very brief listing. Publication of the decades-long Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology is a work-in-progress; and therefore it is not yet complete: For example, there is no volume yet published regarding the post-Paleozoic era caenogastropods (a molluscan group including the whelk and periwinkle). Furthermore, when needed, previously published volumes of the Treatise are revised. == Evolution of the project == Raymond C. Moore, the project's founder and first editor, originally envisioned this Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology as comprising just three large volumes, and totaling only three thousand pages. The Treatise project has expanded far beyond that original expectation. The project began with work


id: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology-1.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:38.182148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
== Editors of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology: == Raymond C. Moore, the founder of the Paleontological Institute was the first editor of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, serving from 1953–1969. As Moore stated in the Editorial Preface to the first published Treatise volume, “the aim of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology is … to present the most comprehensive and authoritative, yet compact statement of knowledge concerning invertebrate fossil groups that can be formulated by collaboration of competent specialists.” Moore’s idea was that the Treatise “could serve two purposes: summarizing the past and looking to the future.” The initial purpose of the Paleontological Institute was to expedite the Treatise project. Moore’s vision and guidance of the project, beginning with the first published volume in 1953, set the template for all subsequent Treatise volumes. Since Moore’s original idea was that the Treatise would not publish new genera, he accordingly oversaw the creation of the journal Paleontological Contributions in which systematic and taxonomic papers would be published containing new material that would eventually be published in the Treatise. In addition to editing the Treatise, Moore himself also contributed, to some extent, to nine individual volumes: Part D Protista 3, 1954; Part F


id: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology-2.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:38.182148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
== Layout of the articles == From the beginning, the character of the Treatise volumes has followed and further developed the pattern of the classic Invertebrate Paleontology written by Moore, Lalicker and Fischer (1953). Following their lead, the Treatise includes in a typical article (a) a description of the basic anatomy of the modern members of each invertebrate group, (b) distinctive features of the fossils, (c) a comprehensive illustrated glossary of terms, (d) a short discussion of the evolutionary history of the group, (e) a stratigraphic range chart, done at the level of the major subdivision (lower, middle and upper) of each Geologic period. This is followed by (f) a listing and technical description of every known genus, along with (g) geographic distribution (usually by continent only, but occasionally by country) and (h) stratigraphic range. Next come (i) one or two representative species illustrated by line drawings (in the early volumes) or by black-and-white photographs (in subsequent volumes), each accompanied by an appropriate reference for that genus. Furthermore, each Treatise article includes (j) the date, authorship, and scientific history of the taxa. Finally, there is (k) a comprehensive bibliography and list of references. Not only that, but the more recent


id: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology-3.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:38.182148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mollusca (I, J, K, L, M & N) === Part I. Mollusca 1: Mollusca General Features, Scaphopoda, Amphineura, Monoplacophora, Gastropoda General Features, Archaeogastropoda, Mainly Paleozoic Caenogastropoda and Opisthobranchia), xxiii + 351 p., 216 fig., 1960. ISBN 0-8137-3009-0. The original volume is out-of-print, but is available here. --- Parts I and J refer to primitive mollusks and gastropods (such as snails). (Part J, Mollusca 2: Paleozoic Gastropoda --- volume in preparation). Part K. Mollusca 3: Cephalopoda General Features, Endoceratoidea, Actinoceratoidea, Nautiloidea, & Bactritoidea, xxviii + 519 p., 361 fig., 1964. ISBN 0-8137-3011-2. The original volume is out of print, but is available here. --- Parts K and L refer to cephalopods with external shells, including ammonites and Nautilus-like creatures. (Part K, Revised. Mollusca 3: Nautiloidea --- volume in preparation). Part L. Mollusca 4: Ammonoidea, xxii + 490 p., 558 fig., 1957. ISBN 0-8137-3012-0. The original volume is out-of-print, but is available here. Part L. Revised. Mollusca 4, Volume 2: Carboniferous and Permian Ammonoidea (Goniatitida and Prolecanitida), xxix + 258 p., 139 fig., 1 table, 2009, available here. ISBN 978-1-891276-61-3. Part L. Revised. Mollusca 4, Volume 4: Cretaceous Ammonoidea, xx + 362 p., 216 fig., 1995 / 1996, available here. ISBN


id: zipcodezoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZipcodeZoo-0.md
category: reference
title: ZipcodeZoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZipcodeZoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:41.614248+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zipcodezoo-20260505-0
summary:
ZipcodeZoo was a free, online encyclopedia intended to document all living species and infraspecies known to science. It was compiled from existing databases. It offered one page for each living species, supplementing text with video, sound, and images where available. ZipcodeZoo was integrated into an app called Lookup Life. As of 2019 the site no longer works. ZipcodeZoo was an online database that collected the natural history, classification, species characteristics, conservation biology, and distribution information of thousands of species and infraspecies. It included over 800,000 photographs, 50,000 videos, 160,000 sound clips, and 3.2 million maps describing nearly 3.2 million species and infraspecies. Its content is now only available on the Internet Archive The site and its sister site lookup.life included a number of specialized search functions, such as identifying a bird species from its color, shape and other traits, including where it was seen; or generating a list of plants or animals likely to be found in or near a specific location (a zipcode, state, country, latitude/longitude, etc.). The searches could be restricted to specific taxa, or broad categories like reptiles or fish. A sound trainer could play multiple bird song recordings simultaneously. ZipcodeZoo drew on the Catalogue of Life


id: elements-of-general-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Elements of General Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:43.056959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elements-of-general-science-20260505-0
summary:
Elements of General Science is a book written by Otis W. Caldwel and William L. Eikenberry that was first published by Ginn and Company in 1914. A revised version appeared in 1918. The book was designed to provide an introduction to the fundamental concepts of various scientific disciplines, aimed at high school students. It was the first general science textbook and contributed to the development of the general science movement in the United States in the early 20th century. == Context == In 1893, the Committee of Ten of the National Education Association (NEA) in the United States called for the gap between the goals of secondary education and the academic standards of the university to be closed, citing the poor quality and lack of preparation for college at the secondary level. The new goal was to make education more practical and relevant to everyday life. This triggered a process of educational reorganisation in secondary education, leading to the emergence of the general science in the US. General science, in contrast to separate sciences such as biology, physics or chemistry, was an integrated or combined science that emerged as an introductory secondary school subject in the 20th century in the


id: elements-of-general-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Elements of General Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:43.056959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elements-of-general-science-20260505-0
summary:
The 1918 revised version of the book retained the organization and methodology of the original edition while incorporating updates based on scientific discoveries and educational experimentation. Certain topics were omitted from the revised edition. The Work and Energy major division was expanded to include electricity. An additional major section, The Earth in Relation to Other Astronomical Bodies, has been introduced. It discusses topics about the Moon, planets and comets, and the Sun and other stars. A list of Questions for Discussion was included at the beginning of each chapter, intended for teachers to read and discuss them briefly. These questions aimed to help students recall their previous experiences and establish new, relevant problems related to the book. According to the authors, they could serve as the best review of the material. The revised edition also includes fifty extra illustrations. == Reception == === Reviews === In the revised edition of The Elements of General Science, the authors claimed that the use of the course resulted in students feeling that they hadn't had any of the differentiated sciences (for example physics, chemistry or biology) and made them much more interested in studying these differentiated sciences in the future. The textbook was


id: elements-of-general-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science-2.md
category: reference
title: Elements of General Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:43.056959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elements-of-general-science-20260505-0
summary:
The general science course faced challenges such as the lack of clear definitions, despite Eikenberry's attempts to address this issue in 1922, and inadequate training in general science within teacher training programs. Not all educators could effectively grasp or teach the course, with many preferring to focus on specialized sciences or lacking the comprehensive understanding needed to teach general science. The professor of educational history and culture John M. Heffron's also criticised the general science course, developed and promoted by Caldwell and Eikenberry, for its approach to integrating science into general education, which he argued often diluted the rigour of scientific inquiry. He claimed that the course's emphasis on common sense and practical reasoning overshadowed the theoretical foundations of science, leading to a reduction in scientific education to problem-solving techniques applicable to everyday life. This, he suggested, compromised the integrity of science by blurring the line between science and non-science. Heffron noted that the course's broad sociological framing of science, while aimed at fulfilling educational and vocational goals, failed to foster a deep understanding of scientific principles, limiting its educational value.Whether couched in broad sociological terms or in the language of common sense observation rejected by scientists over three centuries


id: free-high-school-science-texts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_High_School_Science_Texts-0.md
category: reference
title: Free High School Science Texts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_High_School_Science_Texts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:45.364559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: free-high-school-science-texts-20260505-0
summary:
The Free High School Science Texts (FHSST) organization is a South African non-profit project, which creates open textbooks on scientific subjects. Textbooks are edited to follow the government's syllabus, and published under a Creative Commons license (CC BY), allowing teachers and students to print them or share them digitally. == History == FHSST was conceived in 2002 by Mark Horner, a physicist, when some rural South African children asked him to proofread notes that they had taken on a talk he gave on wave phenomena. The children intended to take the notes back to their schoolmates to use as a textbook on the subject. == Subjects == FHSST has released books for grades 10-12 on physics, chemistry and mathematics. They are developing books in life sciences and computer literacy and a guide to teach students how to study. == See also == OpenCourseWare Open educational resources Open textbook Bookboon China Open Resources for Education Connexions Curriki Flat World Knowledge Flexbook Khan Academy MIT OpenCourseWare National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning India Open.Michigan Tufts OpenCourseWare == References == == External links == Official website


id: hydrology-in-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology_in_Practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Hydrology in Practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology_in_Practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:46.534024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hydrology-in-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Hydrology in Practice is a hydrology textbook by British hydrologist Elizabeth M. Shaw. The book was originally published in 1983 by Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Co. Ltd. and the most recent fourth edition was published in July 2010 by CRC Press, a division of Taylor & Francis. The book has been described as both an introductory text and a resource for professionals. == Synopsis == The third edition of the book is separated into three parts which discuss hydrological measurements, hydrological analysis, and engineering applications. == Reception == Hydrology in Practice has been described by CRC Press as "likely to be the course text for every undergraduate/MSc hydrology course in the UK". The book has been reviewed by the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, the Journal of the American Water Resources Association, the Hydrological Sciences Journal, and the Journal of Hydrology, along with being cited in many scientific journals. In a review of the third edition, the Hydrological Sciences Journal described the book as "an excellent compendium of techniques and methods of hydrological measurement and data analysis". The book is also recommended reading at Dartmouth College, Utah State University, the University of Malta, the American Institute of Hydrology,


id: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica-0.md
category: reference
title: De re metallica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:50.484105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
summary:
De re metallica (Latin for On the Nature of Metals [Minerals]) is a book in Latin cataloguing the state of the art of mining, refining, and smelting metals, published a year posthumously in 1556 due to a delay in preparing woodcuts for the text. The author was Georg Bauer, whose pen name was the Latinized Georgius Agricola ("Bauer" and "Agricola" being respectively the German and Latin words for "farmer"). The book remained the authoritative text on mining for 180 years after its publication. It was also an important chemistry text for the period and is significant in the history of chemistry. Mining was typically left to professionals, craftsmen and experts who were not eager to share the experiential knowledge they had accumulated over centuries; this knowledge was passed down orally within a small group of technicians and mining overseers. In the Middle Ages, these people held the same leading role as the master builders of the great cathedrals, or were perhaps like alchemists; a small, cosmopolitan elite within which knowledge was guarded from the outside world. Only a few writers found it worth the effort to write about mining, and only in the Renaissance did this begin to change. With


id: de-re-metallica-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica-1.md
category: reference
title: De re metallica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:50.484105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book I: Arguments for and against this art === This book consists of the arguments used against the art and Agricola's counter arguments. He explains that mining and prospecting are not just a matter of luck and hard work; there is specialized knowledge that must be learned. A miner should have knowledge of philosophy, medicine, astronomy, surveying, arithmetic, architecture, drawing and law, though few are masters of the whole craft and most are specialists. This section is full of classical references and shows Agricola's classical education to its fullest. The arguments range from philosophical objections to gold and silver as being intrinsically worthless, to the danger of mining to its workers and its destruction of the areas in which it is carried out. He argues that without metals, no other activity such as architecture or agriculture are possible. The dangers to miners are dismissed, noting that most deaths and injuries are caused by carelessness, and other occupations are hazardous too. Clearing forests for timber is advantageous as the land can be farmed. Mines tend to be in mountains and gloomy valleys with little economic value. The loss of food from the forests destroyed can be replaced by purchase from


id: de-re-metallica-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica-2.md
category: reference
title: De re metallica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:50.484105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
summary:
This book is extensively illustrated and describes the tools and machinery associated with mining. Handtools and different sorts of buckets, wheelbarrows and trucks on wooded plankways are described. Packs for horses and sledges are used to carry loads above ground. Agricola then provides details of various kinds of machines for lifting weights. Some of these are man-powered and some powered by up to four horses or by waterwheels. Horizontal drive shafts along tunnels allow lifting in shafts not directly connected to the surface. If this is not possible, treadmills will be installed underground. Instead of lifting weights, similar machines use chains of buckets to lift water. Agricola also describes several designs of piston force pumps, which are either man or animal-powered, or powered by water wheels. Because these pumps can only lift water about 24 feet, batteries of pumps are required for the deepest mines. Water pipe designs are also covered in this section. Designs of wind scoop for ventilating shafts or forced air using fans or bellows are also described. Finally, ladders and lifts using wicker cages are used to get miners up and down shafts. === Book VII: On the assaying of ore === This book deals with


id: de-re-metallica-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica-3.md
category: reference
title: De re metallica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:50.484105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book XII: Manufacturing salt, soda, alum, vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass === This describes the preparation of what Agricola calls "juices": salt, soda, nitre, alum, vitriol, saltpetre, sulphur and bitumen. Finally glass making is covered. Agricola seems less secure about this process. He is not clear about making glass from the raw ingredients but clearer about remelting glass to make objects. Prof. Philippus Bechius (1521–1560), a friend of Agricola, translated De re metallica libri XII into German. It was published with the German title Vom Bergkwerck XII Bücher in 1557. Herbert Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover describe the translation as "a wretched work, by one who knew nothing of the science," but it, like the Latin original, saw further editions. In 1563 Agricola's publisher, Froben and Bischoff ("Hieronimo Frobenio et Nicolao Episcopio") in Basel, published an Italian translation by Michelangelo Florio as well. == Publication history == Although Agricola died in 1555, the publication was delayed until the completion of the extensive and detailed woodcuts one year after his death. A German translation was published in 1557 and a second Latin edition appeared in 1561. A version in Spanish, though not a mere translation, was produced by Bernardo Pérez


id: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary-0.md
category: reference
title: Aberdeen Bestiary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:51.826157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
summary:
The Aberdeen Bestiary (Aberdeen University Library, Univ Lib. MS 24) is a 12th-century English illuminated manuscript bestiary that was first listed in 1542 in the inventory of the Old Royal Library at the Palace of Westminster. Due to similarities, it is often considered to be the "sister" manuscript of the Ashmole Bestiary. The connection between the ancient Greek didactic text Physiologus and similar bestiary manuscripts is also often noted. Information about the manuscript's origins and patrons are circumstantial, although the manuscript most likely originated from the 13th century and was owned by a wealthy ecclesiastical patron from northern or southern England. Currently, the Aberdeen Bestiary resides in the Aberdeen University Library in Scotland. == History == The Aberdeen Bestiary and the Ashmole Bestiary are considered by Xenia Muratova, a professor of Art History, to be "the work of different artists belonging to the same artistic milieu." Due to their "striking similarities" they are often compared and described by scholars as being "sister manuscripts." The medievalist scholar M. R. James considered the Aberdeen Bestiary ''a replica of Ashmole 1511" a view echoed by many other art historians. === Provenance === The original patron of both the Aberdeen and Ashmole Bestiary was


id: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary-1.md
category: reference
title: Aberdeen Bestiary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:51.826157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
summary:
=== Illuminations === Folio page 1 to 3 recto depicts the Genesis 1:1-25 which is represented with a large full page illumination Biblical Creation scene in the manuscript. Folio 5 recto shows Adam, a large figure surrounded by gold leaf and towering over others, with the theme of 'Adam naming the animals' - this starts the compilation of the bestiary portion within the manuscript. Folio 5 verso depicts quadrupeds, livestock, wild beasts, and the concept of the herd. Folio 7 to 18 recto depicts large cats and other beasts such as wolves, foxes and dogs. Many pages from the start of the manuscript's bestiary section such as 11 verso featuring a hyena shows small pin holes which were likely used to map out and copy artwork to a new manuscript. Folio 20 verso to 28 recto depicts livestock such as sheep, horses, and goats. Small animals like cats and mice are depicted on folio 24 to 25. Pages 25 recto to 63 recto feature depictions of birds and folio 64 recto to 80 recto depicts reptiles, worms and fish. 77 recto to 91 verso depicts trees and plants and other elements of nature such as the nature of man. The


id: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary-2.md
category: reference
title: Aberdeen Bestiary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:51.826157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
summary:
=== Livestock (Pecora) === Folio 20 verso : Sheep (Ovis) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 9; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 20) Folio 21 recto : Wether (Vervex) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 10) Folio 21 recto : Ram (Aries) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 11) Folio 21 recto : Lamb (Agnus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 12; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 28) Folio 21 recto : He-goat (Hircus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 14) Folio 21 verso : Kid (Hedus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 13) Folio 21 verso : Boar (Aper) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 27) Folio 21 verso : Bullock (Iuvencus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 28) Folio 21 verso : Bull (Taurus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 29) Folio 22 recto : Horse (Equus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 41–56; Hugh of Fouilloy, III, xxiii) Folio 23 recto : Mule (Mulus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 57–60) === Small animals (Minuta animala) === Folio 23 verso : Cat (Musio) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 38) Folio 23 verso : Mouse (Mus) (Isidore


id: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary-3.md
category: reference
title: Aberdeen Bestiary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:51.826157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
summary:
=== Stones (Lapides) === Folio 93 verso : Fire-bearing stone (Lapis ignifer) Folio 94 verso : Adamas stone (Lapis adamas) Folio 96 recto : Myrmecoleon (Mermecoleon) Folio 96 verso : Verse (Versus) Folio 97 recto : Stone in the foundation of the wall (Lapis in fundamento muri) Folio 97 recto : The first stone, Jasper Folio 97 recto : The second stone, Sapphire Folio 97 recto : The third stone, Chalcedony Folio 97 verso : The fourth stone, Smaragdus Folio 98 recto : The fifth stone, Sardonyx Folio 98 recto : The sixth stone, Sard Folio 98 verso : The seventh stone, Chrysolite Folio 98 verso : The eighth stone, Beryl Folio 99 recto : The ninth stone, Topaz Folio 99 verso : The tenth stone, Chrysoprase Folio 99 verso : The eleventh stone, Hyacinth Folio 100 recto : The twelfth stone, Amethyst Folio 100 recto : Of stones and what they can do (De effectu lapidum) == Gallery == == See also == Bestiary List of medieval bestiaries Physiologus Ashmole Bestiary Paris Psalter Aviarium == References == == External links == The Aberdeen Bestiary Project - University of Aberdeen, Online version of the bestiary. David Badke, The Medieval Bestiary


id: almost-like-a-whale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_Like_a_Whale-0.md
category: reference
title: Almost Like a Whale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_Like_a_Whale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:53.025647+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: almost-like-a-whale-20260505-0
summary:
Almost like a Whale by Steve Jones is a modern introduction to Charles Darwin's Origin of Species and closely follows its structure. It won the 1999 BP Natural World Book Prize. An American version was published as Darwin's Ghost: The Origin of Species Updated (ISBN 978-0-375-50103-6). The title refers to Darwin's observation that a bear, swimming in a lake and catching insects in its mouth, might conceivably evolve over time into a creature "almost like a whale". This statement attracted much ridicule at the time. == References ==


id: the-ancestor-s-tale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor's_Tale-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ancestor's Tale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor's_Tale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:54.233690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ancestor-s-tale-20260505-0
summary:
The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life is a popular science book by Richard Dawkins and Yan Wong in which the history of life is retraced in reverse chronological order. A growing band of species meet their most recent common ancestors (concestors) at 40 rendezvous points. First published in 2004, it was updated in 2016 to reflect recent discoveries. Many reviewers described it as Dawkins's magnum opus. Dawkins dedicated the book to John Maynard Smith. == Background == The book is patterned on Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, in which pilgrims on the road to Canterbury converge with other travelers and tell tales. Here, species convene with their common ancestors ("concestors"), and "Canterbury" is the origin of life. The epigraph is from Mark Twain: "History doesn't repeat itself, but it rhymes." The authors contend that "Evolution rhymes, patterns occur. And this doesn't just happen to be so. It is so for well-understood reasons: Darwinian reasons, mostly, for unlike human history or even physics, biology already has its grand unifying theory." They emphasize that no living species is ancestral to any other, but that all share a common ancestor, some more recently than others. Evidence for this fact


id: the-ancestor-s-tale-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor's_Tale-1.md
category: reference
title: The Ancestor's Tale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor's_Tale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:54.233690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ancestor-s-tale-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Carl Zimmer of the New York Times wrote that it is one of the best books to understand evolutionary trees. Rob Colwell of the Wall Street Journal called it "a fittingly superior beast -- lavishly produced and, weighing in at 1.6 kilograms, substantially heavier than the fully-evolved human brain that thought it up." Clive Cookson of the Financial Times called it "one of the richest accounts of evolution ever written. It is also an object lesson in the way thorough picture research, carefully commissioned illustrations and good design can enhance even the best text." He adds "He is so good at explaining complex scientific issues that readers will learn painlessly about matters well outside the author's field of evolutionary biology, from maths to cosmology. But he interlaces the hard science with 'pleasing speculations', humorous asides, personal anecdotes and even political observations." He concludes "we have no right to expect a second magnum opus on the scale of The Ancestor's Tale." Marek Kohn wrote "The success of this book comes from having one truly Chaucerian character: the author himself." Robin McKie in The Guardian thought it awkward to move backward in time starting from humans and thought this


id: anticipatory-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_Systems-0.md
category: reference
title: Anticipatory Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:55.400444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anticipatory-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Anticipatory Systems: Philosophical, Mathematical, and Methodological Foundations is a book by Robert Rosen, conceived in the 1970s and published for the first time in 1985. The book describes the way that biological systems anticipate the environment. The book draws from mathematics, in particular category theory, in describing the way systems can anticipate. The first five chapters of the book are about modeling: Rosen shows that natural systems, physical things in the world, are modeled by formal systems, which are at their heart mathematical. These formal systems simulate the natural systems. But in order to provide anticipatory knowledge, they must produce predictions ahead of the predicted phenomena. == Publication history == The first edition of Anticipatory Systems was published in 1985 by Pergamon Press. The second edition of Anticipatory Systems was published in 2012 by Springer. == Publication details == The second edition includes a fifty-page prolegomena by Mihai Nadin, as well as contributions by Judith Rosen and John J. Kineman. The book is the 27th volume in the International Federation for Systems Research International Series on Systems Science and Engineering, a series edited by George Klir. == Critical reception == A review by Eric Minch of the first edition called


id: behave-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behave_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Behave (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behave_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:56.575701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: behave-book-20260505-0
summary:
Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst is a 2017 non-fiction book by Robert Sapolsky. It describes how various biological processes influence human behavior, on scales ranging from less than a second before an action to thousands of years before. == Reception == A review in The Guardian called Behave "a miraculous synthesis of scholarly domains". Kirkus Reviews called it "An exemplary work of popular science, challenging but accessible." A review in the Star Tribune considers Behave to be Sapolsky's magnum opus as well as "a stunning achievement and an invaluable addition to the canon of scientific literature." In Science Magazine's edited book review blog, Behave was described as "exceptional in its scale, scope, detail, and writing style". == References ==


id: the-biology-of-the-cell-surface-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Biology_of_the_Cell_Surface-0.md
category: reference
title: The Biology of the Cell Surface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Biology_of_the_Cell_Surface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:57.758861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-biology-of-the-cell-surface-20260505-0
summary:
The Biology of the Cell Surface is a book by American biologist Ernest Everett Just. It was published by P. Blakiston’s Son & Co in 1939. Just began writing the book in 1934 in Naples and finished it in France, shortly before being sent to a prisoner-of-war camp. He considered the book to be his "crowning achievement". The book examined the role of the cell surface in embryology, development and evolution, and presented a critique of gene theory, particularly the views of Jacques Loeb. Sapp suggests that "Just’s theorizing on the cell cortex [in this work] was unsurpassed". == References == == External links == The Biology of the Cell Surface - full text Biodiversity Heritage Library


id: brain-gender-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Gender-0.md
category: reference
title: Brain Gender
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Gender
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:58.927865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brain-gender-20260505-0
summary:
Brain Gender is a 2005 biology book by Melissa Hines, published by Oxford University Press. Hines is a psychologist and neuroscientist at the University of Cambridge in England. Hines graduated with an undergraduate degree from Princeton, following through with a doctorate in psychology from UCLA. Brain Gender is a book exploring the biological differences between sex and gender. Hines questions whether different biological differences, such as hormones, affect the way people develop and act. Hines demonstrates the possibilities that genetic, biological, neuroendocrine, behavioral, social, and statistical aspects of born sex affect the differences between males or females in gender roles. In the end of the book, it is concluded that the human tendency to perceive generalized gender differences is not supported by evidence. Biology does not imply a deterministic set of gender creation or identification. == References ==


id: frank-macfarlane-burnet-bibliography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Macfarlane_Burnet_bibliography-0.md
category: reference
title: Frank Macfarlane Burnet bibliography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Macfarlane_Burnet_bibliography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:00.062720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frank-macfarlane-burnet-bibliography-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of books and monographs by Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, arranged thematically, with original titles, publishers and dates of publication. Burnet wrote widely on virology, immunology and later in life on popular science issues. He wrote over 500 papers and 31 books, several of which were published in multiple editions; 15 of those books followed his retirement as director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute. == Virology == The Use of the Developing Egg in Virus Research (Special Report No, 220), London: Medical Research Council, 1936 Biological Aspects of Infectious Disease Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940. Later editions of the book were published as The Natural History of Infectious Disease in 1953, 1962 and in 1973 with D.O. White. Published in Italian, Japanese, Spanish and German. With E. Clarke, Influenza: A Survey of the Last 50 years in Light of Modern Work and the Virus of Epidemic Influenza (Monograph of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute). Melbourne: Macmillam, 1942 Virus as Organism: evolutionary and ecological aspects of some human virus diseases. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945. Published in Russian and Japanese. The Background of Infectious Diseases in Man. Melbourne: The Melbourne Permanent Postgraduate Committee, 1946 With


id: campbell-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_Biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Campbell Biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_Biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:01.197728+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: campbell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Campbell Biology is a biology textbook used for introductory Biology and Advanced Placement Biology courses. The textbook was initially published in 1987 by American biologist Neil Campbell, and has been used internationally by over 700,000 students in both high school and college-level classes. == History == The first edition of the textbook was published in 1987 by Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Pearson Education. Over time, the textbook was substantially revised and updated. American biologists Jane Reece and Lisa Urry have provided substantial pedagogical contributions, making it an internationally known biology textbook. It is used in 90 percent of AP Biology classes and 60 percent of introductory college biology courses. As of 2024, the textbook has been used by over 14 million students and has been translated into over 20 languages. The book is currently in its 13th edition. == Contents == The textbook is divided into eight separate units comprising 56 chapters. The organization of the units are logical, appropriate, and easy for first-year university students to follow and help them learn the content. The first unit is an introductory unit that introduces the scientific method and concepts of evolution. The second unit focuses on the various components of


id: the-canon-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Canon (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:02.438846+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-canon-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Canon: A Whirligig Tour of the Beautiful Basics of Science is a book written by American science author Natalie Angier. == Overview == The Canon presents a summary of some of the different areas of science, as well as extensive descriptions of, and interviews with, contemporary scientists who work in these fields. Angier's tenet is that an understanding of the basics of major areas of science can assist with providing a means by which to understand current scientific issues, and that this process should be fun. In her Introduction, Angier writes: Of course you should know about science, for the same reason Dr. Seuss counsels his readers to sing with a Ying or play Ring the Gack: These things are fun, and fun is good. Angier included quotes from the scientists she interviewed throughout her descriptions of different scientific topics in an attempt to show how scientists experience and think about their work, and why they do it. == Scientists interviewed == To obtain material for The Canon, Angier interviewed a number of scientists, professors, and other science professionals, and incorporated their stories and quotes into her work. She asked them questions such as, "What does it mean to


id: chasing-shadows-my-life-tracking-the-great-white-shark-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasing_Shadows:_My_Life_Tracking_the_Great_White_Shark-0.md
category: reference
title: Chasing Shadows: My Life Tracking the Great White Shark
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasing_Shadows:_My_Life_Tracking_the_Great_White_Shark
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:03.601135+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chasing-shadows-my-life-tracking-the-great-white-shark-20260505-0
summary:
Chasing Shadows: My Life Tracking the Great White Shark is a memoir written by Greg Skomal that chronicles his decades long career as an Atlantic shark researcher. It was published in July 2023 by William Morrow, an imprint of HarperCollins. Ret Talbot, a science writer and independent journalist, co-authored this book. Talbot collaborated with Skomal so that the book would appeal to a general audience. The goal for Skomal is to educate and share insights with readers about the Great white shark. == Other books == Close to Shore by Michael Capuzzo about the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 Twelve Days of Terror by Richard Fernicola about the same events The Devil's Teeth by Canadian born journalist Susan Casey. == References == == External links == Official website Book excerpt Ret Talbot biography page. ISBN 9780063090835


id: close-to-shore-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_to_Shore-0.md
category: reference
title: Close to Shore
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_to_Shore
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:04.769968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: close-to-shore-20260505-0
summary:
Close to Shore: A True Story of Terror in an Age of Innocence is a non-fiction book by journalist Michael Capuzzo about the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916. The book was published in 2001 by Broadway Books. According to a reviewer writing for the New Yorker, it is an "adventure classic". The factual content and backgrounds were based on Richard Fernicola's In Search of the Jersey Man-Eater (1987). An adapted version, Close to Shore: The Terrifying Shark Attacks of 1916, was published in 2003, aimed at a middle-school audience, with fewer biographical background of the victims. There are photos and news clippings not in the original. Capuzzo's description of the shark's behaviour verges on being anthropomorphic. == References == == External links == Close to Shore homepage at RandomHouse.com. Capuzzo, Michael. Close to Shore: The Terrifying Shark Attacks of 1916. Crown. ISBN 0375922318.


id: colecci-n-la-fauna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colección_La_Fauna-0.md
category: reference
title: Colección La Fauna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colección_La_Fauna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:05.933883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: colecci-n-la-fauna-20260505-0
summary:
Colección La Fauna (La Fauna Collection) is a series of books about the Fauna of Venezuela. The first four titles were published in 2019 by Ediciones La Fauna KPT, based in Madrid. The collection have as origin the studies by German-born, Venezuelan zoologist, Pedro Trebbau, along with the documentary research of Israel Cañizales and Salvador Boher. The adaptation of the texts were made by writer Eduardo Sánchez Rugeles. The illustrations were made by the artist Leonardo Rodríguez. The editorial director of the collection is Miriam Ardizzone, the art direction is in charge of Manuel González Ruiz == History == The collection is part of the project for rescue of the scientific works of Pedro Trebbau, initiated with the re-edition of the book The Turtles of Venezuela (2018), as well of the publication of the biography Trebbau: Maestro por naturaleza (2018), by Albor Rodríguez. Trebbau is known for the promotion and preservation of Venezuelan wildlife and nature. == Titles == == References ==


id: daedalus-or-science-and-the-future-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus-0.md
category: reference
title: Daedalus; or, Science and the Future
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus;_or,_Science_and_the_Future
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:08.274374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: daedalus-or-science-and-the-future-20260505-0
summary:
Daedalus; or, Science and the Future is a book by the British scientist J. B. S. Haldane, published in England in 1924. It was the text of a lecture read to the Heretics Society (an intellectual club at the University of Cambridge) on 4 February 1923. Haldane uses the Greek myth of Daedalus as a symbol for the revolutionary nature of science with particular regard to his own discipline of biology. The chemical or physical inventor is always a Prometheus. There is no great invention, from fire to flying, which has not been hailed as an insult to some god. But if every physical and chemical invention is a blasphemy, every biological invention is a perversion. There is hardly one which, on first being brought to the notice of an observer from any nation which had not previously heard of their existence, would not appear to him as indecent and unnatural. He also expressed skepticism over the human benefits of some scientific advances, arguing that scientific advance would bring grief, rather than progress to mankind, unless it was accompanied by a similar advance in ethics. The book is an early vision of transhumanism and his vision of a future in


id: darwin-and-his-children-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_and_His_Children-0.md
category: reference
title: Darwin and His Children
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_and_His_Children
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:09.432218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-and-his-children-20260505-0
summary:
Darwin and His Children: His Other Legacy is a 2013 book by biologist and author, Tim Berra. The book examines the full lives of the ten children of Charles Darwin and his wife Emma Wedgwood. This book is written for a lay audience concluding with a timeline, cast of characters, references and index. An overview of Darwin's scientific achievements runs though the chronology of the children's lives. The book was published by Oxford University Press. == Synopsis == The book is broken into twelve chapters. The first, "Darwin's Paradigm Shift", is described by reviewer Christopher Cumo as a good overview of Darwin for any history of science student, saying the book is able to "present the scaffolding of Darwin's ideas without requiring one to build the entire house". Chapter two covers Charles Darwin and his first-cousin soon to be wife, Emma Wedgwood, with whom he had been friends since childhood. Emma's father, Josiah Wedgwood, was brother to Charles's mother Susannah Wedgwood. The stress of believing this close family relationship was the reason so many of their ten children suffered from ill health, and the infertility of three adult children, was woven throughout chapters three to twelve. Darwin struggled with intestinal


