# kb

id: netvibes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netvibes-0.md
category: reference
title: Netvibes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netvibes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:31.800507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: netvibes-20260505-0
summary:
Netvibes is a French brand of Dassault Systèmes that previously ran a web service offering a dashboard and feed reader. Currently, the company offers business intelligence tools. == History == === 2005–2012 === Founded in 2005 by Tariq Krim, the company provided software for personalized dashboards for real-time monitoring, social analytics, knowledge sharing, and decision support. === 2012–present === On February 9, 2012, Dassault Systèmes announced the acquisition of Netvibes. As of 2024, Netvibes also contains the operations of two other software companies acquired by Dassault Systèmes: Exalead: founded in 2000 by François Bourdoncle, the company provided search platforms and search-based applications for consumer and business users. On June 9, 2010, Dassault Systèmes acquired the company. Proxem: Founded in 2007 by François-Régis Caumartin, the company provided AI-powered semantic processing software and services. On June 23, 2020, Dassault Systèmes acquired Proxem and integrated its technology into the 3DEXPERIENCE® platform to complement its information intelligence applications. Dassault Systèmes announced in April 2025 that Netvibes would retire its standalone web service offering on June 2, 2025. == Activities == Brand monitoring – to track clients, customers and competitors across media sources all in one place, analyze live results with third party reporting tools,


id: nosql-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NoSQL-0.md
category: reference
title: NoSQL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NoSQL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:32.988294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nosql-20260505-0
summary:
NoSQL (originally meaning "not only SQL" or "non-relational") refers to a type of database design that stores and retrieves data differently from the traditional table-based structure of relational databases. Unlike relational databases, which organize data into rows and columns like a spreadsheet, NoSQL databases use a single data structure—such as key–value pairs, wide columns, graphs, or documents—to hold information. Since this non-relational design does not require a fixed schema, it scales easily to manage large, often unstructured datasets. NoSQL systems are sometimes called "Not only SQL" because they can support SQL-like query languages or work alongside SQL databases in polyglot-persistent setups, where multiple database types are combined. Non-relational databases date back to the late 1960s, but the term "NoSQL" emerged in the early 2000s, spurred by the needs of Web 2.0 companies like social media platforms. NoSQL databases are popular in big data and real-time web applications due to their simple design, ability to scale across clusters of machines (called horizontal scaling), and precise control over data availability. These structures can speed up certain tasks and are often considered more adaptable than fixed database tables. However, many NoSQL systems prioritize speed and availability over strict consistency (per the CAP theorem),


id: nosql-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NoSQL-1.md
category: reference
title: NoSQL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NoSQL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:32.988294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nosql-20260505-0
summary:
=== Multiple queries === Instead of retrieving all the data with one query, it is common to do several queries to get the desired data. NoSQL queries are often faster than traditional SQL queries, so the cost of additional queries may be acceptable. If an excessive number of queries would be necessary, one of the other two approaches is more appropriate. === Caching, replication and non-normalized data === Instead of only storing foreign keys, it is common to store actual foreign values along with the model's data. For example, each blog comment might include the username in addition to a user id, thus providing easy access to the username without requiring another lookup. When a username changes, however, this will now need to be changed in many places in the database. Thus this approach works better when reads are much more common than writes. === Nesting data === With document databases like MongoDB it is common to put more data in a smaller number of collections. For example, in a blogging application, one might choose to store comments within the blog post document, so that with a single retrieval one gets all the comments. Thus in this approach a single


id: offset-filtration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_filtration-0.md
category: reference
title: Offset filtration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_filtration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:34.194182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: offset-filtration-20260505-0
summary:
The offset filtration (also called the "union-of-balls" or "union-of-disks" filtration) is a growing sequence of metric balls used to detect the size and scale of topological features of a data set. The offset filtration commonly arises in persistent homology and the field of topological data analysis. Utilizing a union of balls to approximate the shape of geometric objects was first suggested by Frosini in 1992 in the context of submanifolds of Euclidean space. The construction was independently explored by Robins in 1998, and expanded to considering the collection of offsets indexed over a series of increasing scale parameters (i.e., a growing sequence of balls), in order to observe the stability of topological features with respect to attractors. Homological persistence as introduced in these papers by Frosini and Robins was subsequently formalized by Edelsbrunner et al. in their seminal 2002 paper Topological Persistence and Simplification. Since then, the offset filtration has become a primary example in the study of computational topology and data analysis. == Definition == Let X {\displaystyle X} be a finite set in a metric space ( M , d ) {\displaystyle (M,d)} , and for any x ∈ X {\displaystyle x\in X} let B ( x ,


id: open-coding-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_coding-0.md
category: reference
title: Open coding
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_coding
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:35.377999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-coding-20260505-0
summary:
Based in grounded theory, open coding is the analytic process through which concepts (codes) are attached to observed data and phenomena during qualitative data analysis. It is one of the techniques described by Strauss (1987) and Strauss and Corbin (1990) for working with text. Open coding attempts to codify, name or classifying the observed phenomenon and is achieved by segmenting data into meaningful expressions and describing that data with a single word or short sequence of words. Relevant annotations and concepts are then attached to these expressions. == Details == Applied in varying degrees of detail, open coding can be linked to a line, sentence, paragraph or complete text (e.g., protocol, scenario). Alternatives are selected according to the research question, relevant data, personal style of the analyst and the stage of research. However, coding should always follow its aim to break down and understand a text and develop a scheme of categories over the course of time. The result of open coding should be a list of characteristic codes and categories attached to the text and supported by code notes to explain the content. These notes could take the form of interesting observations and thoughts that are relevant to the


id: open-data-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_data_index-0.md
category: reference
title: Open data index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_data_index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:36.535575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-data-index-20260505-0
summary:
An open data index is any set of indicators which assesses and evaluates the general openness of a government's open data portal. Open data indices not only show how open a data portal is, but also encourage citizens and government officials alike, to participate in their local open data communities, particularly in advocating for local open data and local open data policies. There are two mainstream methodologies, which are Global Open Data Index and Open Data Barometer. The Global Open Data Index evaluates an open data portal from 11 different aspects based on the Open Definition of open data, while the Open Data Barometer adds two more indices compared to the previous one. == Scoring standard == According to the service offered by Open Knowledge International, they run a measurement called "Global Open Data Index" which is "an annual effort to measure the state of open government data around the world". And they evaluate the openness of an open dataset according to the following questions: 1. Does the data exist? (5 marks) The Open Knowledge Foundation specifically indicates that the data of an open data portal should be directly comes from the official government department or a third party with


id: opendap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPeNDAP-0.md
category: reference
title: OPeNDAP
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPeNDAP
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:37.688368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opendap-20260505-0
summary:
OPeNDAP (Open-source Project for a Network Data Access Protocol) is an endeavor focused on enhancing the retrieval of remote, structured data through a Web-based architecture and a discipline-neutral Data Access Protocol (DAP). == Project == Widely used, especially in Earth science, the protocol is layered on HTTP, and its current specification is DAP4, though the previous DAP2 version remains broadly used. Developed and advanced (openly and collaboratively) by the non-profit OPeNDAP, Inc., DAP is intended to enable remote, selective data-retrieval as an easily invoked Web service. OPeNDAP, Inc. also develops and maintains zero-cost (reference) implementations of the DAP protocol in both server-side and client-side software. "OPeNDAP" often is used in place of "DAP" to denote the protocol but also may refer to an entire DAP-based data-retrieval architecture. Other DAP-centered architectures, such as THREDDS and ERDDAP, the NOAA GEO-IDE UAF ERDDAP exhibit significant interoperability with one another as well as with systems employing OPeNDAP's own (open-source) servers and software. A DAP client can be an ordinary browser or even a spreadsheet, though with limited functionality (see OPeNDAP's Web page on Available Client Software). More typically, DAP clients are: Data-analysis or data-visualization tools (such as MATLAB, IDL, Panoply, GrADS, Integrated Data Viewer,


id: operational-analytical-processing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_analytical_processing-0.md
category: reference
title: Operational analytical processing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_analytical_processing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:54.131392+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operational-analytical-processing-20260505-0
summary:
Operational analytical processing, more popularly known as operational analytics, is a subset of data analytics that focuses on improving the operational nature of a business or entity. The main characteristic that distinguishes operational analytics from other types of analytics is that it is analytics on the fly, which means that signals emanating from various parts of a business are processed in real-time to feed back into instant decision-making for the business. This is sometimes referred to as "continuous analytics," which is another way to emphasize the continuous digital feedback loop that can exist from one part of a business to its other parts. == Overview == The rapid digital transformation of many businesses means that an increasing number of business signals are being recorded and stored in digital form. Businesses are using these signals to improve their efficiency, improve their performance and provide better experiences to their users and customers. A Forrester Report details how digitization of a business is impacting its customer experiences by leveraging data. Operational analytics allows you to process various types of information from different sources and then decide what to do next: what action to take, whom to talk to, what immediate plans to make.


id: ordered-key-value-store-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_key–value_store-0.md
category: reference
title: Ordered key–value store
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_key–value_store
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:55.294937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ordered-key-value-store-20260505-0
summary:
An ordered key–value store (OKVS) is a type of data storage paradigm that can support multi-model databases. An OKVS is an ordered mapping of bytes to bytes. An OKVS will keep the key–value pairs sorted by the key lexicographic order. OKVS systems provides different set of features and performance trade-offs. Most of them are shipped as a library without network interfaces, in order to be embedded in another process. Most OKVS support ACID guarantees. Some OKVS are distributed databases. Ordered key–value stores found their way into many modern database systems including NewSQL database systems. == History == The origin of ordered key–value store stems from the work of Ken Thompson on dbm in 1979. Later in 1991, Berkeley DB was released that featured a B-Tree backend that allowed the keys to stay sorted. Berkeley DB was said to be very fast and made its way into various commercial product. It was included in Python standard library until 2.7. In 2009, Tokyo Cabinet was released that was superseded by Kyoto Cabinet that support both transaction and ordered keys. In 2011, LMDB was created to replace Berkeley DB in OpenLDAP. There is also Google's LevelDB that was forked by Facebook in 2012


id: persistence-module-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_module-0.md
category: reference
title: Persistence module
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_module
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:56.529466+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: persistence-module-20260505-0
summary:
A persistence module is a mathematical structure in persistent homology and topological data analysis that formally captures the persistence of topological features of an object across a range of scale parameters. A persistence module often consists of a collection of homology groups (or vector spaces if using field coefficients) corresponding to a filtration of topological spaces, and a collection of linear maps induced by the inclusions of the filtration. The concept of a persistence module was first introduced in 2005 as an application of graded modules over polynomial rings, thus importing well-developed algebraic ideas from classical commutative algebra theory to the setting of persistent homology. Since then, persistence modules have been one of the primary algebraic structures studied in the field of applied topology. == Definition == === Single Parameter Persistence Modules === Let T {\displaystyle T} be a totally ordered set and let K {\displaystyle K} be a field. The set T {\displaystyle T} is sometimes called the indexing set. Then a single-parameter persistence module M {\displaystyle M} is a functor M : T → V e c K {\displaystyle M:T\to \mathbf {Vec} _{K}} from the poset category of T {\displaystyle T} to the category of vector spaces over


id: persistence-module-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_module-1.md
category: reference
title: Persistence module
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_module
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:56.529466+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: persistence-module-20260505-0
summary:
=== Interval Modules === A primary concern in the study of persistence modules is whether modules can be decomposed into "simpler pieces", roughly speaking. In particular, it is algebraically and computationally convenient if a persistence module can be expressed as a direct sum of smaller modules known as interval modules. Let J {\displaystyle J} be a nonempty subset of a poset P {\displaystyle P} . Then J {\displaystyle J} is an interval in P {\displaystyle P} if For every x , z ∈ J {\displaystyle x,z\in J} if x ≤ y ≤ z ∈ P {\displaystyle x\leq y\leq z\in P} then y ∈ J {\displaystyle y\in J} For every x , z ∈ J {\displaystyle x,z\in J} there is a sequence of elements p 1 , p 2 , … , p n ∈ J {\displaystyle p_{1},p_{2},\dots ,p_{n}\in J} such that p 1 = x {\displaystyle p_{1}=x} , p n = z {\displaystyle p_{n}=z} , and p i , p j {\displaystyle p_{i},p_{j}} are comparable for all i , j ∈ { 1 , … , n } {\displaystyle i,j\in \{1,\dots ,n\}} . Now given an interval J ⊆ P {\displaystyle J\subseteq P} we can define a persistence module I


id: persistent-betti-number-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Betti_number-0.md
category: reference
title: Persistent Betti number
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Betti_number
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:57.708149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: persistent-betti-number-20260505-0
summary:
In persistent homology, a persistent Betti number is a multiscale analog of a Betti number that tracks the number of topological features that persist over multiple scale parameters in a filtration. Whereas the classical n t h {\displaystyle n^{th}} Betti number equals the rank of the n t h {\displaystyle n^{th}} homology group, the n t h {\displaystyle n^{th}} persistent Betti number is the rank of the n t h {\displaystyle n^{th}} persistent homology group. The concept of a persistent Betti number was introduced by Herbert Edelsbrunner, David Letscher, and Afra Zomorodian in the 2002 paper Topological Persistence and Simplification, one of the seminal papers in the field of persistent homology and topological data analysis. Applications of the persistent Betti number appear in a variety of fields including data analysis, machine learning, and physics. == Definition == Let K {\displaystyle K} be a simplicial complex, and let f : K → R {\displaystyle f:K\to \mathbb {R} } be a monotonic, i.e., non-decreasing function. Requiring monotonicity guarantees that the sublevel set K ( a ) := f − 1 ( − ∞ , a ] {\displaystyle K(a):=f^{-1}(-\infty ,a]} is a subcomplex of K {\displaystyle K} for all a ∈ R {\displaystyle


id: persistent-homology-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_homology_group-0.md
category: reference
title: Persistent homology group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_homology_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:54:58.899489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: persistent-homology-group-20260505-0
summary:
In persistent homology, a persistent homology group is a multiscale analog of a homology group that captures information about the evolution of topological features across a filtration of spaces. While the ordinary homology group represents nontrivial homology classes of an individual topological space, the persistent homology group tracks only those classes that remain nontrivial across multiple parameters in the underlying filtration. Analogous to the ordinary Betti number, the ranks of the persistent homology groups are known as the persistent Betti numbers. Persistent homology groups were first introduced by Herbert Edelsbrunner, David Letscher, and Afra Zomorodian in a 2002 paper Topological Persistence and Simplification, one of the foundational papers in the fields of persistent homology and topological data analysis, based largely on the persistence barcodes and the persistence algorithm, that were first described by Serguei Barannikov in the 1994 paper. Since then, the study of persistent homology groups has led to applications in data science, machine learning, materials science, biology, and economics. == Definition == Let K {\displaystyle K} be a simplicial complex, and let f : K → R {\displaystyle f:K\to \mathbb {R} } be a real-valued monotonic function. Then for some values a 0 < a 1 < ⋯


id: photoanalysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoanalysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Photoanalysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoanalysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:00.074890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photoanalysis-20260505-0
summary:
Photoanalysis (or photo analysis) refers to the study of pictures to compile various types of data, for example, to measure the size distribution of virtually anything that can be captured by photo. Photoanalysis technology has changed the way mines and mills quantify fragmented material. Images are an effective way to document conditions before, after, and even during blasting activities. The technology is advancing at a high rate, and lenses, storage media memory, light sensitivity and resolution have been improving steadily. Today's digital cameras and camcorders include high-resolution optics, compact size, automatic time and date stamps, good battery life, shutters to freeze motion, and computers to autofocus and eliminate jitter using image stabilization. == Mining == Photoanalysis in mining operations can provide an automated system that forewarns a company of potential problems with materials, leading to economies and reduced damage caused from over-sized materials. It can also help determine the effectiveness of blasts. A company can use this technology to monitor materials moving on a conveyor belt in an underground environment, to measure piles left over from a blast, and even measure the amount of material being carried by dump trucks or vessels to a destination. Photoanalysis is being used on


id: pivot-table-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivot_table-0.md
category: reference
title: Pivot table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivot_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:01.231074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pivot-table-20260505-0
summary:
A pivot table is a table of values which are aggregations of groups of individual values from a more extensive table (such as from a database, spreadsheet, or business intelligence program) within one or more discrete categories. The aggregations or summaries of the groups of the individual terms might include sums, averages, counts, or other statistics. A pivot table is the outcome of the statistical processing of tabularized raw data and can be used for decision-making. Although pivot table is a generic term, Microsoft held a trademark on the term in the United States from 1994 to 2020. == History == In their book Pivot Table Data Crunching, Bill Jelen and Mike Alexander refer to Pito Salas as the "father of pivot tables". While working on a concept for a new program that would eventually become Lotus Improv, Salas noted that spreadsheets have patterns of data. A tool that could help the user recognize these patterns would help to build advanced data models quickly. With Improv, users could define and store sets of categories, then change views by dragging category names with the mouse. This core functionality would provide the model for pivot tables. Lotus Development released Improv in 1991


id: pivot-table-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivot_table-1.md
category: reference
title: Pivot table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivot_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:01.231074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pivot-table-20260505-0
summary:
=== Columns === Column labels are used to apply a filter to one or more columns that have to be shown in the pivot table. For instance if the "Salesperson" field is dragged to this area, then the table constructed will have values from the column "Sales Person", i.e., one will have a number of columns equal to the number of "Salesperson". There will also be one added column of Total. In the example above, this instruction will create five columns in the table — one for each salesperson, and Grand Total. There will be a filter above the data — column labels — from which one can select or deselect a particular salesperson for the pivot table. This table will not have any numerical values as no numerical field is selected but when it is selected, the values will automatically get updated in the column of "Grand total". === Rows === Row labels are used to apply a filter to one or more rows that have to be shown in the pivot table. For instance, if the "Salesperson" field is dragged on this area then the other output table constructed will have values from the column "Salesperson", i.e., one


id: post-hoc-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_hoc_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Post hoc analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_hoc_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:02.388216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: post-hoc-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
In a scientific study, post hoc analysis (from Latin post hoc, "after this") consists of statistical analyses that were specified after the data were seen. A post hoc analysis is usually used to explore specific, statistically significant differences between the means of three or more independent groups-- differences detected with an analysis of variance (ANOVA). An ANOVA does not identify the group(s); for that, a post hoc analysis is required. Because each post hoc analysis is effectively a statistical test, conducting multiple post hoc comparisons introduces a family-wise error rate problem, which is a type of multiple testing problem. This increases the likelihood of false positives unless corrected. Post hoc tests are follow-up tests performed after a significant ANOVA result to identify where the differences lie (which specific groups differ). To compensate, multiple post hoc testing procedures are sometimes used, but that is often difficult or impossible to do precisely. Post hoc analysis that is conducted and interpreted without adequate consideration of this problem is sometimes called data dredging (p-hacking) by critics because the statistical associations that it finds are often spurious. In other words, findings from data dredging are invalid or not trustworthy. Post hoc analyses are acceptable when


id: qualitative-comparative-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_comparative_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Qualitative comparative analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_comparative_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:03.633787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qualitative-comparative-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
In statistics, qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) is a data analysis based on set theory to examine the relationship of conditions to outcome. QCA describes the relationship in terms of necessary conditions and sufficient conditions. The technique was originally developed by Charles Ragin in 1987 to study data sets that are too small for linear regression analysis but large enough for cross-case analysis. == Summary of technique == In the case of categorical variables, QCA begins by listing and counting all types of cases which occur, where each type of case is defined by its unique combination of values of its independent and dependent variables. For instance, if there were four categorical variables of interest, {A,B,C,D}, and A and B were dichotomous (could take on two values), C could take on five values, and D could take on three, then there would be 60 possible types of observations determined by the possible combinations of variables, not all of which would necessarily occur in real life. By counting the number of observations that exist for each of the 60 unique combination of variables, QCA can determine which descriptive inferences or implications are empirically supported by a data set. Thus, the input to


id: qualitative-comparative-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_comparative_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Qualitative comparative analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_comparative_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:03.633787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qualitative-comparative-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== Response to criticisms == QCA can be performed probabilistically or deterministically with observations of categorical variables. For instance, the existence of a descriptive inference or implication is supported deterministically by the absence of any counter-example cases to the inference; i.e. if a researcher claims condition X implies condition Y, then, deterministically, there must not exist any counterexample cases having condition X, but not condition Y. However, if the researcher wants to claim that condition X is a probabilistic 'predictor' of condition Y, in another similar set of cases, then the proportion of counterexample cases to an inference to the proportion of cases having that same combination of conditions can be set at a threshold value of for example 80% or higher. For each prime implicant that QCA outputs via its logical inference reduction process, the "coverage" — percentage out of all observations that exhibit that implication or inference — and the "consistency" — the percentage of observations conforming to that combination of variables having that particular value of the dependent variable or outcome — are calculated and reported, and can be used as indicators of the strength of such an explorative probabilistic inference. In real-life complex societal processes, QCA


id: random-mapping-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_mapping-0.md
category: reference
title: Random mapping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_mapping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:04.806192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: random-mapping-20260505-0
summary:
For data analysis, Random mapping (RM) is a fast dimensionality reduction method categorized as feature extraction method. The RM consists in generation of a random matrix that is multiplied by each original vector and result in a reduced vector. When the data vectors are high-dimensional it is computationally infeasible to use data analysis or pattern recognition algorithms which repeatedly compute similarities or distances in the original data space. It is therefore necessary to reduce the dimensionality before, for example, clustering the data. In a text mining context, it is demonstrated that the document classification accuracy obtained after the dimensionality has been reduced using a random mapping method will be almost as good as the original accuracy if the final dimensionality is sufficiently large (about 100 out of 6000). In fact, it can be shown that the inner product (similarity) between the mapped vectors follows closely the inner product of the original vectors. == See also == Random variable Semantic mapping Random projection == References == Kaski, S. Dimensionality reduction by random mapping: fast similarity computation for clustering. Proceedings of The 1998 IEEE International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, 1998. pp. 413–418. doi: 10.1109/IJCNN.1998.682302


id: real-time-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_data-0.md
category: reference
title: Real-time data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:05.986758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: real-time-data-20260505-0
summary:
Real-time data (RTD) is information that is delivered immediately after collection. There is no delay in the timeliness of the information provided. Real-time data is often used for navigation or tracking. Such data is usually processed using real-time computing although it can also be stored for later or off-line data analysis. Real-time data is not the same as dynamic data. Real-time data can be dynamic (e.g. a variable indicating current location) or static (e.g. a fresh log entry indicating location at a specific time). == In economics == Real-time economic data, and other official statistics, are often based on preliminary estimates, and therefore are frequently adjusted as better estimates become available. These later adjusted data are called "revised data". The terms real-time economic data and real-time economic analysis were coined by Francis X. Diebold and Glenn D. Rudebusch. Macroeconomist Glenn D. Rudebusch defined real-time analysis as 'the use of sequential information sets that were actually available as history unfolded.' Macroeconomist Athanasios Orphanides has argued that economic policy rules may have very different effects when based on error-prone real-time data (as they inevitably are in reality) than they would if policy makers followed the same rules but had more accurate data


id: semblance-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semblance_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Semblance analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semblance_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:07.132203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: semblance-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Semblance analysis is a process used in the refinement and study of seismic data. The use of this technique along with other methods makes it possible to greatly increase the resolution of the data despite the presence of background noise. The new data received following the semblance analysis is usually easier to interpret when trying to deduce the underground structure of an area. Weighted semblance can be used for increasing the resolution of traditional semblance or make traditional semblance capable of analyzing more complicated seismic data. == History == Semblance analysis is a technique that first began to be developed and used in the late 1960s. Prior to the discovery of this method, identifying the main reflections produced by the many layers under the ground was fairly difficult. The primary reflections of these layers were often obscured by the background noise as well as noise from the many secondary reflections that are produced. The use of semblance analysis allows for the removal of the extra noise and leaves only the primary reflection. == Process == Semblance analysis allows for the refinement of seismic data. This is done by developing a velocity spectra display to determine the velocity through different layers


id: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Sequence analysis in social sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:08.316729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
In social sciences, sequence analysis (SA) is concerned with the analysis of sets of categorical sequences that typically describe longitudinal data. Analyzed sequences are encoded representations of, for example, individual life trajectories such as family formation, school to work transitions, working careers, but they may also describe daily or weekly time use or represent the evolution of observed or self-reported health, of political behaviors, or the development stages of organizations. Such sequences are chronologically ordered unlike words or DNA sequences for example. SA is a longitudinal analysis approach that is holistic in the sense that it considers each sequence as a whole. SA is essentially exploratory. Broadly, SA provides a comprehensible overall picture of sets of sequences with the objective of characterizing the structure of the set of sequences, finding the salient characteristics of groups, identifying typical paths, comparing groups, and more generally studying how the sequences are related to covariates such as sex, birth cohort, or social origin. Introduced in the social sciences in the 1980s by Andrew Abbott, SA has gained much popularity after the release of dedicated software such as the SQ and SADI addons for Stata and the TraMineR R package with its companions TraMineRextras and


id: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences-1.md
category: reference
title: Sequence analysis in social sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:08.316729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sociology === The analysis of sequence patterns has foundations in sociological theories that emerged in the middle of the 20th century. Structural theorists argued that society is a system that is characterized by regular patterns. Even seemingly trivial social phenomena are ordered in highly predictable ways. This idea serves as an implicit motivation behind social sequence analysts' use of optimal matching, clustering, and related methods to identify common "classes" of sequences at all levels of social organization, a form of pattern search. This focus on regularized patterns of social action has become an increasingly influential framework for understanding microsocial interaction and contact sequences, or "microsequences." This is closely related to Anthony Giddens's theory of structuration, which holds that social actors' behaviors are predominantly structured by routines, and which in turn provides predictability and a sense of stability in an otherwise chaotic and rapidly moving social world. This idea is also echoed in Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus, which emphasizes the emergence and influence of stable worldviews in guiding everyday action and thus produce predictable, orderly sequences of behavior. The resulting influence of routine as a structuring influence on social phenomena was first illustrated empirically by Pitirim Sorokin, who led


id: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences-2.md
category: reference
title: Sequence analysis in social sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:08.316729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Political sciences === The analysis of temporal processes in the domain of political sciences regards how institutions, that is, systems and organizations (regimes, governments, parties, courts, etc.) that crystallize political interactions, formalize legal constraints and impose a degree of stability or inertia. Special importance is given to, first, the role of contexts, which confer meaning to trends and events, while shared contexts offer shared meanings; second, to changes over time in power relationships, and, subsequently, asymmetries, hierarchies, contention, or conflict; and, finally, to historical events that are able to shape trajectories, such as elections, accidents, inaugural speeches, treaties, revolutions, or ceasefires. Empirically, political sequences' unit of analysis can be individuals, organizations, movements, or institutional processes. Depending on the unit of analysis, the sample sizes may be limited few cases (e.g., regions in a country when considering the turnover of local political parties over time) or include a few hundreds (e.g., individuals' voting patterns). Three broad kinds of political sequences may be distinguished. The first and most common is careers, that is, formal, mostly hierarchical positions along which individuals progress in institutional environments, such as parliaments, cabinets, administrations, parties, unions or business organizations. We may name trajectories political sequences that


id: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences-3.md
category: reference
title: Sequence analysis in social sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:08.316729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Visualization === State sequences can nicely be rendered graphically and such plots prove useful for interpretation purposes. As shown above, the two basic plots are the index plot that renders individual sequences and the chronogram that renders the evolution of the cross-sectional state distribution along the timeframe. Chronograms (also known as status proportion plot or state distribution plot) completely overlook the diversity of the sequences, while index plots are often too scattered to be readable. Relative frequency plots and plots of representative sequences attempt to increase the readability of index plots without falling in the oversimplification of a chronogram. In addition, there are many plots that focus on specific characteristics of the sequences. Below is a list of plots that have been proposed in the literature for rendering large sets of sequences. For each plot, we give examples of software (details in section Software) that produce it. Index plot: renders the set of individual sequences (SADI, SQ, TraMineR) Chronogram (status proportion plot, state distribution plot): renders the sequence of cross-sectional distributions (SADI, SQ, TraMineR) Plot of multidomain/multichannel sequences grouped by channels (TraMineR, seqHMM) or by individuals Plot of time series of cross-sectional indicators (entropy, modal state, ...) (SQ, TraMineR)


id: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences-4.md
category: reference
title: Sequence analysis in social sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:08.316729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequence-analysis-in-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
== Fields of application == These techniques have proved valuable in a variety of contexts. In life-course research, for example, research has shown that retirement plans are affected not just by the last year or two of one's life, but instead how one's work and family careers unfolded over a period of several decades. People who followed an "orderly" career path (characterized by consistent employment and gradual ladder-climbing within a single organization) retired earlier than others, including people who had intermittent careers, those who entered the labor force late, as well as those who enjoyed regular employment but who made numerous lateral moves across organizations throughout their careers. In the field of economic sociology, research has shown that firm performance depends not just on a firm's current or recent social network connectedness, but also the durability or stability of their connections to other firms. Firms that have more "durably cohesive" ownership network structures attract more foreign investment than less stable or poorly connected structures. Research has also used data on everyday work activity sequences to identify classes of work schedules, finding that the timing of work during the day significantly affects workers' abilities to maintain connections with the broader community,


id: seriation-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriation_(statistics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Seriation (statistics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriation_(statistics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:09.506205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seriation-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
In combinatorial data analysis, seriation is the process of finding an arrangement of all objects in a set, in a linear order, given a loss function. The main goal is exploratory, to reveal structural information. == References ==


id: sesri-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SESRI-0.md
category: reference
title: SESRI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SESRI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:10.664517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sesri-20260505-0
summary:
Social and Economic Survey Research Institute (SESRI) is a survey institute and social science research contributor that is part of Qatar University. Qatar University realized the importance to enhance its social science research capacity with particular focus on monitoring the reality of national development and trends of its indicators based on evidence. Therefore, QU established SESRI in October 2008. To advance evidence-based decision-making and policy-making, SESRI established Policy Department in 2014. Since its commencement, SESRI carried out more than 100 high-quality surveys on Qataris citizens, and also on the enormous expatriate residents of Qatar. Surveys were conducted to guide the public and the government, in line with the Qatar National Vision 2030. All surveys were performed in accordance with the highest scientific and ethical standards. == SESRI Departments == SESRI has three departments: Survey Operations Support Department Research Department Policy Department == Accreditation == To ensure commitments to quality and to affirm compliance to international standards, SESRI successfully passed the requirements for ISO 9001:2015 Quality Management Standards from Bureau Veritas. == Key Roles == Provides consultancy services in survey research and socio-cultural development. Advances the evidence-based decision-making and policy-making. Capacity building for Qatari nationals in survey research methodology. Research topics


id: single-particle-trajectory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-particle_trajectory-0.md
category: reference
title: Single-particle trajectory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-particle_trajectory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:11.886018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: single-particle-trajectory-20260505-0
summary:
Single-particle trajectories (SPTs) consist of a collection of successive discrete points causal in time. These trajectories are acquired from images in experimental data. In the context of cell biology, the trajectories are obtained by the transient activation by a laser of small dyes attached to a moving molecule. Molecules can now by visualized based on recent super-resolution microscopy, which allow routine collections of thousands of short and long trajectories. These trajectories explore part of a cell, either on the membrane or in 3 dimensions and their paths are critically influenced by the local crowded organization and molecular interaction inside the cell, as emphasized in various cell types such as neuronal cells, astrocytes, immune cells and many others. == SPTs allow observing moving molecules inside cells to collect statistics == SPT allowed observing moving particles. These trajectories are used to investigate cytoplasm or membrane organization, but also the cell nucleus dynamics, remodeler dynamics or mRNA production. Due to the constant improvement of the instrumentation, the spatial resolution is continuously decreasing, reaching now values of approximately 20 nm, while the acquisition time step is usually in the range of 10 to 50 ms to capture short events occurring in live tissues. A


id: single-particle-trajectory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-particle_trajectory-1.md
category: reference
title: Single-particle trajectory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-particle_trajectory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:11.886018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: single-particle-trajectory-20260505-0
summary:
γ x ˙ + U ′ ( x ) = 2 ε γ w ˙ , {\displaystyle \gamma {\dot {x}}+U^{\prime }(x)={\sqrt {2\varepsilon \gamma }}\,{\dot {w}},} where w ˙ ( t ) {\displaystyle {\dot {w}}(t)} is δ {\displaystyle \delta } -correlated. This equation is obtained when the diffusion coefficient is constant in space. When this is not case, coarse grained equations (at a coarse spatial resolution) should be derived from molecular considerations. Interpretation of the physical forces are not resolved by Ito's vs Stratonovich integral representations or any others. === General model equations === For a timescale much longer than the elementary molecular collision, the position of a tracked particle is described by a more general overdamped limit of the Langevin stochastic model. Indeed, if the acquisition timescale of empirical recorded trajectories is much lower compared to the thermal fluctuations, rapid events are not resolved in the data. Thus at this coarser spatiotemporal scale, the motion description is replaced by an effective stochastic equation X ˙ ( t ) = b ( X ( t ) ) + 2 B e ( X ( t ) ) w ˙ ( t ) , ( 1 ) {\displaystyle {\dot {X}}(t)={b}(X(t))+{\sqrt {2}}{B}_{e}(X(t)){\dot {w}}(t),\qquad


id: single-particle-trajectory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-particle_trajectory-2.md
category: reference
title: Single-particle trajectory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-particle_trajectory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:11.886018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: single-particle-trajectory-20260505-0
summary:
a x ( x k ) ≈ 1 N k ∑ j = 1 N t ∑ i = 0 , x ~ i j ∈ S ( x k , r ) N s − 1 ( x i + 1 j − x i j Δ t ) {\displaystyle a_{x}(x_{k})\approx {\frac {1}{N_{k}}}\sum _{j=1}^{N_{t}}\sum _{i=0,{\tilde {x}}_{i}^{j}\in S(x_{k},r)}^{N_{s}-1}\left({\frac {x_{i+1}^{j}-x_{i}^{j}}{\Delta t}}\right)} a y ( x k ) ≈ 1 N k ∑ j = 1 N t ∑ i = 0 , x ~ i j ∈ S ( x k , r ) N s − 1 ( y i + 1 j − y i j Δ t ) , {\displaystyle a_{y}(x_{k})\approx {\frac {1}{N_{k}}}\sum _{j=1}^{N_{t}}\sum _{i=0,{\tilde {x}}_{i}^{j}\in S(x_{k},r)}^{N_{s}-1}\left({\frac {y_{i+1}^{j}-y_{i}^{j}}{\Delta t}}\right),} where N k {\displaystyle N_{k}} is the number of points of trajectory that fall in the square S ( x k , r ) {\displaystyle S(x_{k},r)} . Similarly, the components of the effective diffusion tensor D ( x k ) {\displaystyle D(x_{k})} are approximated by the empirical sums D x x ( x k ) ≈ 1 N k ∑ j = 1 N t ∑ i = 0 , x i ∈ S ( x k , r


id: social-media-mining-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media_mining-0.md
category: reference
title: Social media mining
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media_mining
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:13.117723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-media-mining-20260505-0
summary:
Social media mining is the process of obtaining data from user-generated content on social media in order to extract actionable patterns, form conclusions about users, and act upon the information. Mining supports targeting advertising to users or academic research. The term is an analogy to the process of mining for minerals. Mining companies sift through raw ore to find the valuable minerals; likewise, social media mining sifts through social media data in order to discern patterns and trends about matters such as social media usage, online behaviour, content sharing, connections between individuals, buying behaviour. These patterns and trends are of interest to companies, governments and not-for-profit organizations, as such organizations can use the analyses for tasks such as design strategies, introduce programs, products, processes or services. Social media mining uses concepts from computer science, data mining, machine learning, and statistics. Mining is based on social network analysis, network science, sociology, ethnography, optimization and mathematics. It attempts to formally represent, measure and model patterns from social media data. In the 2010s, major corporations, governments and not-for-profit organizations began mining to learn about customers, clients and others. Platforms such as Google, Facebook (partnered with Datalogix and BlueKai) conduct mining to target users


id: social-media-mining-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media_mining-1.md
category: reference
title: Social media mining
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media_mining
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:13.117723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-media-mining-20260505-0
summary:
== Perception == Modern social media mining is a controversial practice that has led to exponential gains in user growth for tech giants such as Facebook, Inc., Twitter, and Google. Companies such as these, considered "Big Tech" are companies that build algorithms that take advantage of user input to understand their preferences, and keep them on the platform as much as possible. These inputs, that can be as simple as time spent on a given screen, provide the data being mined, and lead to companies profiting heavily from using that data to capitalize on extremely accurate predictions about user behavior. The growth of platforms accelerated rapidly once these strategies were put in place; Most of the largest platforms now average over 1 billion active users per month as of 2021. It has been claimed by a multitude of anti-algorithm personalities, like Tristan Harris or Chamath Palihapitiya, that certain companies (specifically Facebook) valued growth above all else, and ignored potential negative impacts from these growth engineering tactics. At the same time, users have now created their own data arbitrages with the help of their own data, through content monetization and becoming influencers. Users typically have access to a varied set of


id: social-media-mining-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media_mining-2.md
category: reference
title: Social media mining
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media_mining
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:13.117723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-media-mining-20260505-0
summary:
KDD Conference – ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining WWW Conference – International World Wide Web Conference WSDM Conference – ACM Conference on Web Search and Data Mining CIKM Conference – ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management ICDM Conference – IEEE International Conference on Data Mining Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) ASONAM conference - IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining Internet Measuring Conference (IMC) International Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM) International Conference on Social Media & Society International Conference on Web Engineering (ICWE) The European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases(ECML/PKDD), International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI), Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI), Recommender Systems (RecSys) Computer-Human Interaction (CHI) Social Computing Behavioral-Cultural Modeling and Prediction (SBP). HT Conference – ACM Conference on Hypertext SDM Conference – SIAM International Conference on Data Mining (SIAM) PAKDD Conference – The annual Pacific-Asia Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining MISNC - Multidisciplinary International Social Networks Conference ==== Journals ==== DMKD Conference – Research Issues on Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery ECML-PKDD Conference – European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice


id: subdivision-bifiltration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdivision_bifiltration-0.md
category: reference
title: Subdivision bifiltration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdivision_bifiltration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:14.286535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subdivision-bifiltration-20260505-0
summary:
In topological data analysis, a subdivision bifiltration is a collection of filtered simplicial complexes, typically built upon a set of data points in a metric space, that captures shape and density information about the underlying data set. The subdivision bifiltration relies on a natural filtration of the barycentric subdivision of a simplicial complex by flags of minimum dimension, which encodes density information about the metric space upon which the complex is built. The subdivision bifiltration was first introduced by Donald Sheehy in 2011 as part of his doctoral thesis (later subsumed by a conference paper in 2012) as a discrete model of the multicover bifiltration, a continuous construction whose underlying framework dates back to the 1970s. In particular, Sheehy applied the construction to both the Vietoris-Rips and Čech filtrations, two common objects in the field of topological data analysis. Whereas single parameter filtrations are not robust with respect to outliers in the data, the subdivision-Rips and -Cech bifiltrations satisfy several desirable stability properties. == Definition == Let T {\displaystyle T} be a simplicial complex. Then a nested sequence of simplices σ 1 ⊂ σ 2 ⊂ ⋯ ⊂ σ k {\displaystyle \sigma _{1}\subset \sigma _{2}\subset \cdots \subset \sigma _{k}} of


id: symbolic-data-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_data_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbolic data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:15.432627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbolic-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Symbolic data analysis (SDA) is an extension of standard data analysis where symbolic data tables are used as input and symbolic objects are made output as a result. The data units are called symbolic since they are more complex than standard ones, as they not only contain values or categories, but also include internal variation and structure. SDA is based on four spaces: the space of individuals, the space of concepts, the space of descriptions, and the space of symbolic objects. The space of descriptions models individuals, while the space of symbolic objects models concepts. == References == == Further reading == Diday, Edwin; Noirhomme-Fraiture, Monique (2008). Symbolic Data Analysis and the SODAS Software. Wiley–Blackwell. ISBN 9780470018835. == External links == Symbolic Data Analysis: Conceptual Statistics and Data Mining An introduction to symbolic data analysis and its Application to the Sodas Project by Edwin Diday R2S: An R package to transform relational data into symbolic data


id: task-force-on-process-mining-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_Force_on_Process_Mining-0.md
category: reference
title: Task Force on Process Mining
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_Force_on_Process_Mining
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:16.578150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: task-force-on-process-mining-20260505-0
summary:
The IEEE Task Force on Process Mining (TFPM) is a non-commercial association for process mining. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Task Force on Process Mining was established in October 2009 as part of the IEEE Computational Intelligence Society at the Eindhoven University of Technology. The task force is supported by over 80 organizations and has around 750 members. The main goal of the task force is to promote the research, development, education, and understanding of process mining. == About == In 2012, the IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence/ IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation held a session on Process Mining. Process mining is a type of research that is a mix of computational intelligence and data mining, as well as process modeling and analysis. === Activities and organization === The Task Force on Process Mining has a Steering Committee and an Advisory Board. The Steering Committee, was chaired by Wil van der Aalst in its inception in 2009, defined 15 action lines. These include the organization of the annual International Process Mining Conference (ICPM) series, standardization efforts leading to the IEEE XES standard for storing and exchanging event data, and the Process Mining Manifesto which was translated


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
In applied mathematics, topological data analysis (TDA) is an approach to the analysis of datasets using techniques from topology. Extraction of information from datasets that are high-dimensional, incomplete and noisy is generally challenging. TDA provides a general framework to analyze such data in a manner that is insensitive to the particular metric chosen and provides dimensionality reduction and robustness to noise. Beyond this, it inherits functoriality, a fundamental concept of modern mathematics, from its topological nature, which allows it to adapt to new mathematical tools. The initial motivation is to study the shape of data. TDA has combined algebraic topology and other tools from pure mathematics to allow mathematically rigorous study of "shape". The main tool is persistent homology, an adaptation of homology to point cloud data. Persistent homology has been applied to many types of data across many fields. Moreover, its mathematical foundation is also of theoretical importance. The unique features of TDA make it a promising bridge between topology and geometry. == Basic theory == === Intuition === TDA is premised on the idea that the shape of data sets contains relevant information. Real high-dimensional data is typically sparse, and tends to have relevant low dimensional features. One


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Concepts === Some widely used concepts are introduced below. Note that some definitions may vary from author to author. A point cloud is often defined as a finite set of points in some Euclidean space, but may be taken to be any finite metric space. The Čech complex of a point cloud is the nerve of the cover of balls of a fixed radius around each point in the cloud. A persistence module U {\displaystyle \mathbb {U} } indexed by Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } is a vector space U t {\displaystyle U_{t}} for each t ∈ Z {\displaystyle t\in \mathbb {Z} } , and a linear map u t s : U s → U t {\displaystyle u_{t}^{s}\colon U_{s}\to U_{t}} whenever s ≤ t {\displaystyle s\leq t} , such that u t t = 1 {\displaystyle u_{t}^{t}=1} for all t {\displaystyle t} and u t s u s r = u t r {\displaystyle u_{t}^{s}u_{s}^{r}=u_{t}^{r}} whenever r ≤ s ≤ t . {\displaystyle r\leq s\leq t.} An equivalent definition is a functor from Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } considered as a partially ordered set to the category of vector spaces. The persistent homology group P H {\displaystyle PH}


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-2.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== Computation == The first algorithm over all fields for persistent homology in algebraic topology setting was described by Barannikov through reduction to the canonical form by upper-triangular matrices. The algorithm for persistent homology over F 2 {\displaystyle F_{2}} was given by Edelsbrunner et al. Afra Zomorodian and Carlsson gave the practical algorithm to compute persistent homology over all fields. Edelsbrunner and Harer's book gives general guidance on computational topology. One issue that arises in computation is the choice of complex. The Čech complex and the Vietoris–Rips complex are most natural at first glance; however, their size grows rapidly with the number of data points. The Vietoris–Rips complex is preferred over the Čech complex because its definition is simpler and the Čech complex requires extra effort to define in a general finite metric space. Efficient ways to lower the computational cost of homology have been studied. For example, the α-complex and witness complex are used to reduce the dimension and size of complexes. Recently, Discrete Morse theory has shown promise for computational homology because it can reduce a given simplicial complex to a much smaller cellular complex which is homotopic to the original one. This reduction can in fact be


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-3.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== Multidimensional persistence == Multidimensional persistence is important to TDA. The concept arises in both theory and practice. The first investigation of multidimensional persistence was early in the development of TDA. Carlsson-Zomorodian introduced the theory of multidimensional persistence in and in collaboration with Singh introduced the use of tools from symbolic algebra (Grobner basis methods) to compute MPH modules. Their definition presents multidimensional persistence with n parameters as a Z n {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} ^{n}} graded module over a polynomial ring in n variables. Tools from commutative and homological algebra are applied to the study of multidimensional persistence in work of Harrington-Otter-Schenck-Tillman. The first application to appear in the literature is a method for shape comparison, similar to the invention of TDA. The definition of an n-dimensional persistence module in R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} is vector space V s {\displaystyle V_{s}} is assigned to each point in s = ( s 1 , … , s n ) {\displaystyle s=(s_{1},\ldots ,s_{n})} map ρ s t : V s → V t {\displaystyle \rho _{s}^{t}\colon V_{s}\to V_{t}} is assigned if s ≤ t {\displaystyle s\leq t} ( s i ≤ t i , i = 1 , … ,


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-4.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Extended persistence and levelset persistence === There are some attempts to loosen the stricter restriction of the function. Please refer to the Categorification and cosheaves and Impact on mathematics sections for more information. It's natural to extend persistence homology to other basic concepts in algebraic topology, such as cohomology and relative homology/cohomology. An interesting application is the computation of circular coordinates for a data set via the first persistent cohomology group. === Circular persistence === Normal persistence homology studies real-valued functions. The circle-valued map might be useful, "persistence theory for circle-valued maps promises to play the role for some vector fields as does the standard persistence theory for scalar fields", as commented in Dan Burghelea et al. The main difference is that Jordan cells (very similar in format to the Jordan blocks in linear algebra) are nontrivial in circle-valued functions, which would be zero in real-valued case, and combining with barcodes give the invariants of a tame map, under moderate conditions. Two techniques they use are Morse-Novikov theory and graph representation theory. More recent results can be found in D. Burghelea et al. For example, the tameness requirement can be replaced by the much weaker condition, continuous. === Persistence


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-5.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
The soft stability theorem asserts that H F {\displaystyle HF} is Lipschitz continuous, and the hard stability theorem asserts that J {\displaystyle J} is Lipschitz continuous. Bottleneck distance is widely used in TDA. The isometry theorem asserts that the interleaving distance d I {\displaystyle d_{I}} is equal to the bottleneck distance. Bubenik et al. have abstracted the definition to that between functors F , G : P → D {\displaystyle F,G\colon P\to D} when P {\textstyle P} is equipped with a sublinear projection or superlinear family, in which still remains a pseudometric. Considering the magnificent characters of interleaving distance, here we introduce the general definition of interleaving distance(instead of the first introduced one): Let Γ , K ∈ T r a n s P {\displaystyle \Gamma ,K\in \mathrm {Trans_{P}} } (a function from P {\textstyle P} to P {\textstyle P} which is monotone and satisfies x ≤ Γ ( x ) {\displaystyle x\leq \Gamma (x)} for all x ∈ P {\textstyle x\in P} ). A ( Γ , K ) {\displaystyle (\Gamma ,K)} -interleaving between F and G consists of natural transformations φ : F ⇒ G Γ {\displaystyle \varphi \colon F\Rightarrow G\Gamma } and ψ : G ⇒ F


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-6.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== Structure theorem == The structure theorem is of central importance to TDA; as commented by G. Carlsson, "what makes homology useful as a discriminator between topological spaces is the fact that there is a classification theorem for finitely generated abelian groups". (see the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups). The main argument used in the proof of the original structure theorem is the standard structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. However, this argument fails if the indexing set is ( R , ≤ ) {\displaystyle (\mathbb {R} ,\leq )} . In general, not every persistence module can be decomposed into intervals. Many attempts have been made at relaxing the restrictions of the original structure theorem. The case for pointwise finite-dimensional persistence modules indexed by a locally finite subset of R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } is solved based on the work of Webb. The most notable result is done by Crawley-Boevey, which solved the case of R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } . Crawley-Boevey's theorem states that any pointwise finite-dimensional persistence module is a direct sum of interval modules. To understand the definition of his theorem, some concepts need introducing. An interval in ( R


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-7.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== Statistics == Real data is always finite, and so its study requires us to take stochasticity into account. Statistical analysis gives us the ability to separate true features of the data from artifacts introduced by random noise. Persistent homology has no inherent mechanism to distinguish between low-probability features and high-probability features. One way to apply statistics to topological data analysis is to study the statistical properties of topological features of point clouds. The study of random simplicial complexes offers some insight into statistical topology. Katharine Turner et al. offers a summary of work in this vein. A second way is to study probability distributions on the persistence space. The persistence space B ∞ {\displaystyle B_{\infty }} is ∐ n B n / ∽ {\displaystyle \coprod _{n}B_{n}/{\backsim }} , where B n {\displaystyle B_{n}} is the space of all barcodes containing exactly n {\displaystyle n} intervals and the equivalences are { [ x 1 , y 1 ] , [ x 2 , y 2 ] , … , [ x n , y n ] } ∽ { [ x 1 , y 1 ] , [ x 2 , y 2 ] , … , [ x n


id: topological-data-analysis-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis-8.md
category: reference
title: Topological data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:17.950679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topological-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Classification of applications === More than one way exists to classify the applications of TDA. Perhaps the most natural way is by field. A very incomplete list of successful applications includes data skeletonization, shape study, graph reconstruction, image analysis, material, progression analysis of disease, sensor network, signal analysis, cosmic web, complex network, fractal geometry, viral evolution, propagation of contagions on networks, bacteria classification using molecular spectroscopy, super-resolution microscopy, hyperspectral imaging in physical-chemistry, remote sensing, feature selection, and early warning signs of financial crashes. Another way is by distinguishing the techniques by G. Carlsson,one being the study of homological invariants of data on individual data sets, and the other is the use of homological invariants in the study of databases where the data points themselves have geometric structure. === Impact on mathematics === Topological data analysis and persistent homology have had impacts on Morse theory. Morse theory has played a very important role in the theory of TDA, including on computation. Some work in persistent homology has extended results about Morse functions to tame functions or, even to continuous functions. A forgotten result of R. Deheuvels long before the invention of persistent homology extends Morse theory to all continuous functions.


id: twyman-s-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyman's_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Twyman's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twyman's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:19.200428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: twyman-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
Twyman's law states that "Any figure that looks interesting or different is usually wrong", following the principle that "the more unusual or interesting the data, the more likely they are to have been the result of an error of one kind or another". It is named after the media and market researcher Tony Twyman and has been described as one of the most important laws of data analysis. The law is based on the fact that errors in data measurement and analysis can lead to observed quantities that are wildly different from typical values. These errors are usually more common than real changes of similar magnitude in the underlying process being measured. For example, if an analyst at a software company notices that the number of users has doubled overnight, the most likely explanation is a bug in logging, rather than a true increase in users. The law can also be extended to situations where the underlying data is influenced by unexpected factors that differ from what was intended to be measured. For example, when schools show unusually large improvements in test scores, subsequent investigation often reveals that those scores were driven by fraud. == See also == Extraordinary claims


id: unicity-data-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicity_(data_analysis)-0.md
category: reference
title: Unicity (data analysis)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicity_(data_analysis)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:20.371242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unicity-data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Unicity ( ε p {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{p}} ) is a risk metric for measuring the re-identifiability of high-dimensional anonymous data. First introduced in 2013, unicity is measured by the number of points p needed to uniquely identify an individual in a data set. The fewer points needed, the more unique the traces are and the easier they would be to re-identify using outside information. In a high-dimensional, human behavioural data set, such as mobile phone meta-data, for each person, there exists potentially thousands of different records. In the case of mobile phone meta-data, credit card transaction histories and many other types of personal data, this information includes the time and location of an individual. In research, unicity is widely used to illustrate the re-identifiability of anonymous data sets. In 2013 researchers from the MIT Media Lab showed that only 4 points needed to uniquely identify 95% of individual trajectories in a de-identified data set of 1.5 million mobility trajectories. These points were location-time pairs that appeared with the resolution of 1 hour and 0.15 km² to 15 km². These results were shown to hold true for credit card transaction data as well with 4 points being enough to re-identify 90%


id: vietoris-rips-filtration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietoris–Rips_filtration-0.md
category: reference
title: Vietoris–Rips filtration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietoris–Rips_filtration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:21.553662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vietoris-rips-filtration-20260505-0
summary:
In topological data analysis, the Vietoris–Rips filtration (sometimes shortened to "Rips filtration") is the collection of nested Vietoris–Rips complexes on a metric space created by taking the sequence of Vietoris–Rips complexes over an increasing scale parameter. Often, the Vietoris–Rips filtration is used to create a discrete, simplicial model on point cloud data embedded in an ambient metric space. The Vietoris–Rips filtration is a multiscale extension of the Vietoris–Rips complex that enables researchers to detect and track the persistence of topological features, over a range of parameters, by way of computing the persistent homology of the entire filtration. It is named after Leopold Vietoris and Eliyahu Rips. == Definition == The Vietoris–Rips filtration is the nested collection of Vietoris–Rips complexes indexed by an increasing scale parameter. The Vietoris–Rips complex is a classical construction in mathematics that dates back to a 1927 paper of Leopold Vietoris, though it was independently considered by Eliyahu Rips in the study of hyperbolic groups, as noted by Mikhail Gromov in the 1980s. The conjoined name "Vietoris–Rips" is due to Jean-Claude Hausmann. Given a metric space X {\displaystyle X} and a scale parameter (sometimes called the threshold or distance parameter) r ∈ [ 0 , ∞ )


id: vietoris-rips-filtration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietoris–Rips_filtration-1.md
category: reference
title: Vietoris–Rips filtration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietoris–Rips_filtration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:21.553662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vietoris-rips-filtration-20260505-0
summary:
== Properties == The size of a filtration refers to the number of simplices in the largest complex, assuming the underlying metric space is finite. The k {\displaystyle k} -skeleton, i.e., the number of simplices up to dimension k {\displaystyle k} , of the Vietoris–Rips filtration is known to be O ( n k + 1 ) {\displaystyle O\left(n^{k+1}\right)} , where n {\displaystyle n} is the number of points. The size of the complete skeleton has precisely 2 n − 1 {\displaystyle 2^{n}-1} simplices, one for each non-empty subset of points. Since this is exponential, researchers usually only compute the skeleton of the Vietoris–Rips filtration up to small values of k {\displaystyle k} . When the underlying metric space is finite, the Vietoris–Rips filtration is sometimes referred to as essentially discrete, meaning that there exists some terminal or maximum scale parameter r max ∈ [ 0 , ∞ ) {\displaystyle r_{\text{max}}\in [0,\infty )} such that V R s ( X ) = V R r max ( X ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {VR} _{s}(X)=\mathbf {VR} _{r_{\max }}(X)} for all s ≥ r max {\displaystyle s\geq r_{\max }} , and furthermore that the inclusion map V R s → t ( X


id: vietoris-rips-filtration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietoris–Rips_filtration-2.md
category: reference
title: Vietoris–Rips filtration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietoris–Rips_filtration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:21.553662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vietoris-rips-filtration-20260505-0
summary:
The Degree-Rips bifiltration extends the Vietoris–Rips filtration by constructing a sub-graph of the 1-skeleton of each complex in the Vietoris–Rips filtration, restricting only to vertices whose degree is at least a given parameter a ∈ [ 0 , ∞ ) {\displaystyle a\in [0,\infty )} , then building the clique complex on that subgraph. The degree of a vertex encodes density information about the data, because it is quantifies how "central" that point is by way of how many other vertices it is connected to. The collection over all degree parameters a {\displaystyle a} defines a filtration of each complex in the Vietoris–Rips filtration, where the complexes get smaller as a {\displaystyle a} increases. Altogether, this defines a 2-parameter extension of the Vietoris–Rips filtration, by considering the collection of bi-filtered complexes over all scale parameters ( a , r ) ∈ R op × R {\displaystyle (a,r)\in \mathbb {R} ^{\operatorname {op} }\times \mathbb {R} } , where "op" denotes the opposite poset. The Function-Rips bifiltration extends the Vietoris–Rips filtration by bifiltering each complex according to the superlevel-sets of some function γ : X → R {\displaystyle \gamma :X\to \mathbb {R} } , where γ {\displaystyle \gamma } can be a density


id: visual-inspection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_inspection-0.md
category: reference
title: Visual inspection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_inspection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:22.749258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: visual-inspection-20260505-0
summary:
Visual inspection is a common method of quality control, data acquisition, and data analysis. Visual Inspection, used in maintenance of facilities, means inspection of equipment and structures using either or all of raw human senses such as vision, hearing, touch and smell and/or any non-specialized inspection equipment. Inspections requiring Ultrasonic, X-Ray equipment, Infrared, etc. are not typically regarded as visual inspection as these Inspection methodologies require specialized equipment, training and certification. == Quality control == A study of the visual inspection of small integrated circuits found that the modal duration of eye fixations of trained inspectors was about 200 ms. The most accurate inspectors made the fewest eye fixations and were the fastest. When the same chip was judged more than once by an individual inspector the consistency of judgment was very high whereas the consistency between inspectors was somewhat less. Variation by a factor of six in inspection speed led to variation of less than a factor of two in inspection accuracy. Visual inspection had a false positive rate of 2% and a false negative rate of 23%. == Humorous terminology == To do an eyeball search is to look for something specific in a mass of code or


id: chronological-dating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_dating-0.md
category: reference
title: Chronological dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:24.404740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronological-dating-20260505-0
summary:
Chronological dating, or simply dating, is the process of attributing to an object or event a date in the past, allowing such object or event to be located in a previously established chronology. This usually requires what is commonly known as a "dating method". Several dating methods exist, depending on different criteria and techniques, and some very well known examples of disciplines using such techniques are, for example, history, geology, paleontology, archaeology, astronomy and even forensic science, since in the latter it is sometimes necessary to investigate the moment in the past during which the death of a cadaver occurred. These methods are typically identified as absolute, which involves a specified date or date range, or relative, which refers to dating which places artifacts or events on a timeline relative to other events and/or artifacts. Other markers can help place an artifact or event in a chronology, such as nearby writings and stratigraphic markers. == Absolute and relative dating == Dating methods are most commonly classified following two criteria: relative dating and absolute dating. === Relative dating === Relative dating methods are unable to determine the absolute age of an object or event, but can determine the impossibility of a


id: chronological-dating-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_dating-1.md
category: reference
title: Chronological dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:24.404740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronological-dating-20260505-0
summary:
== Dating methods in archaeology == Just like geologists or paleontologists, archaeologists are also brought to determine the age of both ancient and recent humans. Thus, to be considered as archaeological, the remains, objects or artifacts to be dated must be related to human activity. It is commonly assumed that if the remains or elements to be dated are older than the human species, the disciplines which study them are sciences such geology or paleontology, among some others. Nevertheless, the range of time within archaeological dating can be enormous compared to the average lifespan of a singular human being. As an example Pinnacle Point's caves, in the southern coast of South Africa, provided evidence that marine resources (shellfish) have been regularly exploited by humans as of 170,000 years ago. On the other hand, remains as recent as a hundred years old can also be the target of archaeological dating methods. It was the case of an 18th-century sloop whose excavation was led in South Carolina (United States) in 1992. Thus, from the oldest to the youngest, all archaeological sites are likely to be dated by an appropriate method. Dating material drawn from the archaeological record can be made by a


id: absolute-dating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_dating-0.md
category: reference
title: Absolute dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:25.571074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: absolute-dating-20260505-0
summary:
Absolute dating is the process of determining an age on a specified chronology in archaeology and geology. Absolute dating provides a numerical age or range, in contrast with relative dating, which places events in order without any measure of the age between events. Some scientists prefer the terms chronometric dating or calendar dating, as the use of the word "absolute" may imply an unwarranted certainty of accuracy. In archaeology, absolute dating is usually based on the physical, chemical, and life properties of the materials of artifacts, buildings, or other items that have been modified by humans and by historical associations with materials with known dates (such as coins and historical records). For example, coins found in excavations may have their production date written on them, or there may be written records describing the coin and when it was used, allowing the site to be associated with a particular calendar year. Absolute dating techniques include radiocarbon dating of wood or bones, potassium-argon dating, and trapped-charge dating methods such as thermoluminescence dating of glazed ceramics. In historical geology, the primary methods of absolute dating involve using the radioactive decay of elements trapped in rocks or minerals, including isotope systems from younger organic


id: absolute-dating-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_dating-1.md
category: reference
title: Absolute dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:25.571074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: absolute-dating-20260505-0
summary:
=== Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) === Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating constrains the time at which sediment was last exposed to light. During sediment transport, exposure to sunlight 'zeros' the luminescence signal. Upon burial, the sediment accumulates a luminescence signal as natural ambient radiation gradually ionises the mineral grains. Careful sampling under dark conditions allows the sediment to be exposed to artificial light in the laboratory, which releases the OSL signal. The amount of luminescence released is used to calculate the equivalent dose (De) that the sediment has acquired since deposition, which can be used in combination with the dose rate (Dr) to calculate the age. == Dendrochronology == Dendrochronology, or tree-ring dating, is the scientific method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings, also known as growth rings. Dendrochronology can date the time at which tree rings were formed, in many types of wood, to the exact calendar year. Dendrochronology has three main areas of application: paleoecology, where it is used to determine certain aspects of past ecologies (most prominently climate); archaeology, where it is used to date old buildings, etc.; and radiocarbon dating, where it is used to calibrate radiocarbon ages (see below). In


id: acanthochronology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthochronology-0.md
category: reference
title: Acanthochronology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthochronology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:26.759970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acanthochronology-20260505-0
summary:
Acanthochronology is the study of cactus spines or Euphorbia thorns grown in time ordered sequence (i.e. in series). Physical, morphological or chemical characteristics and information about the relative order or absolute age of the spines or thorns is used to study past climate or plant physiology. For example, columnar cactus spines grow from the apex of the plant. After several weeks the spines stop growing and have been moved to the side of the stem. The old spines remain in place for decades as new spines are created at the continually growing apex. The result is that along each external "rib" of the cactus is a series of spines arranged in the order they grew in – the oldest spines are at the bottom and the youngest spines are at the top. These spines can be dated using bomb-spike Carbon-14 and isotopes of carbon (Carbon-13) and oxygen (Oxygen-18) may be used to infer past climate (e.g. precipitation or temperature), plant stem growth or plant physiology (e.g. photosynthetic processes). Alternatively, the width of small transverse bands in the spine may be used to infer daily information about cloud cover or plant productivity, although this remains to be tested. It has also


id: amino-acid-dating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid_dating-0.md
category: reference
title: Amino acid dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:27.976616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amino-acid-dating-20260505-0
summary:
Amino acid dating or racemization dating is a dating technique used to estimate the age of a specimen in paleobiology, molecular paleontology, archaeology, forensic science, taphonomy, sedimentary geology and other fields. This technique relates changes in amino acid molecules to the time elapsed since they were formed. == Background == === Chemistry === Amino acids are a set of organic compounds that are used by living organisms to synthesise proteins. All amino acids (except glycine) have one or more pairs of stereoisomers, isomers which share the same bond order but are organized differently in 3D space. Amino acid stereoisomer pairs that are optically active and non-superimposable mirror images of each other are enantiomers; pairs that are not mirror images are diastereomers or epimers. Biological systems are stereoselective, preferring certain stereoisomers for chemical reactions; living organisms keep all their amino acids in their "left-handed" (L or levo-) forms (a state called homochirality) because they are unable to use the "right-handed" (D or dextro-) forms for protein synthesis. This ratio of D and L forms is unstable, as the molecules may undergo reactions (known as racemization or epimerization respective to the type of stereoisomer pair involved) and become the other stereoisomer. When


id: appearance-event-ordination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appearance_event_ordination-0.md
category: reference
title: Appearance event ordination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appearance_event_ordination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:29.143585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: appearance-event-ordination-20260505-0
summary:
Appearance event ordination or AEO is a scientific method for biochronology through the ordering of the appearance of fossil mammal genera by multivariate analysis, using conjunctional (overlapping) and disconjunctional (nonoverlapping) range distributions in large sets of data. == Process == AEO is based on faunal overlap and stratigraphic superposition to derive a best-fit sequence of first and last appearance events. === Step 1 === The first step is to translate patterns of overlap and superposition into pairwise first-before-last statements. The wolf species Canis edwardii and Canis armbrusteri are used as example taxa for the following patterns. Each statement means C. edwardii, for example, must have first appeared before C. armbusteri last appeared. This is true whenever either (1) C. edwardii and C. armbrusteri have been found together in at least one nontime-averaged fossil collection, or (2) C. edwardii is found lower in at least one lithostratigraphic section than C. armbrusteri. === Step 2 === A multivariate ordination algorithm is applied to derive a first-pass, hypothesized sequence of first and last appearances. The minimal constraint on this sequence is that if there is an observed, real-world C. edwardii before C. armbrusteri statement for any pair of taxa, the hypothesized event sequence


id: dendrochronology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology-0.md
category: reference
title: Dendrochronology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:31.464391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dendrochronology-20260505-0
summary:
Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed in a tree. As well as dating them, this can give data for dendroclimatology, the study of climate and atmospheric conditions during different periods in history from the wood of old trees. Dendrochronology derives from the Ancient Greek dendron (δένδρον), meaning "tree", khronos (χρόνος), meaning "time", and -logia (-λογία), "the study of". Dendrochronology is useful for determining the precise age of samples, especially those that are too recent for radiocarbon dating, which always produces a range rather than an exact date. However, for a precise date of the death of the tree a full sample to the edge is needed, which most trimmed timber will not provide. It also gives data on the timing of events and rates of change in the environment (most prominently climate) and also in wood found in archaeology or works of art and architecture, such as old panel paintings. It is also used as a check in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages. New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark. A tree's growth rate changes in


id: dendrochronology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology-1.md
category: reference
title: Dendrochronology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:31.464391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dendrochronology-20260505-0
summary:
Many trees in temperate zones produce one growth-ring each year, with the newest adjacent to the bark. Hence, for the entire period of a tree's life, a year-by-year record or ring pattern builds up that reflects the age of the tree and the climatic conditions in which the tree grew. Adequate moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring, while a drought year may result in a very narrow one. Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a complex science, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single-ring-per-year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree species may present "missing rings", and this influences the selection of trees for study of long time-spans. For instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees. Critical to the science, trees from the same region tend to develop the same patterns of ring widths for a given period of chronological study. Researchers can compare and match these patterns ring-for-ring with patterns from trees which have grown at the same time in the same geographical zone (and therefore under similar climatic conditions). When one


id: dendrochronology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology-2.md
category: reference
title: Dendrochronology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:31.464391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dendrochronology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Miyake events === Miyake events, such as the ones in 774–775 and 993–994, can provide fixed reference points in an unknown time sequence as they are due to cosmic radiation. As they appear as spikes in carbon 14 in tree rings for that year all round the world, they can be used to date historical events to the year. For example, wooden houses in the Viking site at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland were dated by finding the layer with the 993 spike, which showed that the wood is from a tree felled in 1021. Researchers at the University of Bern have provided exact dating of a floating sequence in a Neolithic settlement in northern Greece by tying it to a spike in cosmogenic radiocarbon in 5259 BC. === Frost rings === Frost ring is a term used to designate a layer of deformed, collapsed tracheids and traumatic parenchyma cells in tree ring analysis. They are formed when air temperature falls below freezing during a period of cambial activity. They can be used in dendrochronology to indicate years that are colder than usual. == Applications == === Radiocarbon dating calibration === Dates from dendrochronology can be used as a


id: dendrochronology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology-3.md
category: reference
title: Dendrochronology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:31.464391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dendrochronology-20260505-0
summary:
The Post Track and Sweet Track, ancient timber trackways in the Somerset levels, England, have been dated to 3838 BC and 3807 BC. Navan Fort where in Prehistoric Ireland a large structure was built with more than two hundred posts. The central oak post was felled in 95 BC. The Fairbanks House in Dedham, Massachusetts. While the house had long been claimed to have been built c. 1640 (and being the oldest wood-framed house in North America), core samples of wood taken from a summer beam confirmed the wood was from an oak tree felled in 1637–8, as wood was not seasoned before use in building at that time in New England. An additional sample from another beam yielded a date of 1641, thus confirming the house had been constructed starting in 1638 and finished sometime after 1641 . The burial chamber of Gorm the Old, who died c. 958, was constructed from wood of timbers felled in 958. Veliky Novgorod, where, between the tenth and the fifteenth century, numerous consecutive layers of wooden log pavement have been placed over the accumulating dirt. The Neolithic well with linings made of oak wood, found near Ostrov, Czech Republic, have been dated


id: law-of-superposition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_superposition-0.md
category: reference
title: Law of superposition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_superposition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:33.767014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: law-of-superposition-20260505-0
summary:
The law of superposition is an axiom that forms one of the bases of the sciences of geology, archaeology, and other fields pertaining to geological stratigraphy. In its plainest form, it states that in undeformed stratigraphic sequences, the oldest strata will lie at the bottom of the sequence, while newer material stacks upon the surface to form new deposits over time. This is paramount to stratigraphic dating, which requires a set of assumptions, including that the law of superposition holds true and that an object cannot be older than the materials of which it is composed. To illustrate the practical applications of superposition in scientific inquiry, sedimentary rock that has not been deformed by more than 90° will exhibit the oldest layers on the bottom, thus enabling paleontologists and paleobotanists to identify the relative ages of any fossils found within the strata, with the remains of the most archaic lifeforms confined to the lowest. These findings can inform the community on the fossil record covering the relevant strata, to determine which species coexisted temporally and which species existed successively in perhaps an evolutionarily or phylogenetically relevant way. == History == The law of superposition was first proposed in 1669 by


id: marine-isotope-stages-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_isotope_stages-0.md
category: reference
title: Marine isotope stages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_isotope_stages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:34.928910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-isotope-stages-20260505-0
summary:
Marine isotope stages (MIS), marine oxygen-isotope stages, or oxygen isotope stages (OIS), are alternating warm and cool periods in the Earth's paleoclimate, deduced from oxygen isotope data derived from deep sea core samples. Working backwards from the present, which is MIS 1 in the scale, stages with even numbers have high levels of oxygen-18 and represent cold glacial periods, while the odd-numbered stages are lows in the oxygen-18 figures, representing warm interglacial intervals. The data are derived from pollen and foraminifera (plankton) remains in drilled marine sediment cores, sapropels, and other data that reflect historic climate; these are called proxies. The MIS timescale was developed from the pioneering work of Cesare Emiliani in the 1950s, modifying an earlier system introduced by oceanographer Gustaf Arrhenius. It is now widely used in archaeology and other fields to express dating in the Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years), as well as providing the fullest and best data for that period for paleoclimatology or the study of the early climate of the Earth, representing "the standard to which we correlate other Quaternary climate records". Emiliani's work in turn depended on Harold Urey's prediction in a paper of 1947 that the ratio between oxygen-18


id: marine-isotope-stages-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_isotope_stages-1.md
category: reference
title: Marine isotope stages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_isotope_stages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:34.928910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-isotope-stages-20260505-0
summary:
The following are the start dates (apart from MIS 5 sub-stages) of the most recent MIS (Lisiecki & Raymo 2005, LR04 Benthic Stack). The figures, in thousands of years ago, are from Lisiecki's website. Numbers for substages in MIS 5 denote peaks of substages rather than boundaries. MIS Start date MIS 1 – 14 kya, end of the Younger Dryas marks the start of the Holocene. The LR04 date of 14 kya had to accommodate less well studied time intervals, and the generally accepted date of 11.7 kya is to be preferred. MIS 2 – 29 (Last Glacial Maximum) MIS 3 – 57 (MIS 5d- MIS 2 is called the Last Glacial Period, Wisconsinan glaciation in North America, Weichselian glaciation in northern Europe) MIS 4 – 71 MIS 5 – 130, usually sub-divided into a to e: MIS 5a – 82 (peak of interglacial sub-stage) MIS 5b – 87 (peak of glacial sub-stage) MIS 5c – 96 (peak of interglacial sub-stage) MIS 5d – 109 (peak of glacial sub-stage) MIS 5e – 123 (peak of Last Interglacial, also known as the Eemian among other names) MIS 6 – 191 (Penultimate Glacial Period, also called Illinoian glacial in North America, later


id: miyake-event-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyake_event-0.md
category: reference
title: Miyake event
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyake_event
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:36.116294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: miyake-event-20260505-0
summary:
A Miyake event is an observed sharp enhancement of the production of cosmogenic isotopes by cosmic rays. It can be marked by a spike in the concentration of radioactive carbon isotope 14C in tree rings, as well as 10Be and 36Cl in ice cores, which are all independently dated. At present, five significant events are known (7176 BCE, 5259 BCE, 664-663 BCE (historically referred to as 660 BCE), 774 CE, 993 CE) for which the spike in 14C is quite remarkable, i.e. above 1% rise over a period of two years, and four more events (12,350 BCE, 5410 BCE, 1052 CE, 1279 CE) need independent confirmation. It is not known how often Miyake events occur, but from the available data it is estimated to be every 400 to 2,400 years. A Miyake event occurring in modern conditions would cause severe damage to global technological infrastructure such as satellites, telecommunications, and power grids. There is strong evidence that Miyake events are caused by extreme solar particle events and they are likely related to super-flares discovered on solar-like stars. Although Miyake events are based on extreme year-to-year rises of 14C concentration, the duration of the periods over which the 14C levels increase


id: nucleocosmochronology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleocosmochronology-0.md
category: reference
title: Nucleocosmochronology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleocosmochronology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:37.317730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nucleocosmochronology-20260505-0
summary:
Nucleocosmochronology, or nuclear cosmochronology, is a technique used to determine timescales for astrophysical objects and events based on observed ratios of radioactive heavy elements and their decay products. It is similar in many respects to radiometric dating, in which trace radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated into materials when they were formed. To calculate the age of formation of astronomical objects, the observed ratios of abundances of heavy radioactive and stable nuclides are compared to the primordial ratios predicted by nucleosynthesis theory. Both radioactive elements and their decay products matter, and some important elements include the long-lived radioactive nuclei Th-232, U-235, and U-238, all formed by the r-process. The process has been compared to radiocarbon dating. The age of the objects are determined by placing constraints on the duration of nucleosynthesis in the galaxy. Nucleocosmochronology has been employed to determine the age of the Sun (4.57±0.02 billion years) and of the Galactic thin disk (8.8±1.8 billion years), among other objects. It has also been used to estimate the age of the Milky Way itself by studying Cayrel's Star in the Galactic halo, which due to its low metallicity, is believed to have formed early in the history of the Galaxy. Limiting


id: optically-stimulated-luminescence-thermochronometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optically_stimulated_luminescence_thermochronometry-0.md
category: reference
title: Optically stimulated luminescence thermochronometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optically_stimulated_luminescence_thermochronometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:38.553390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: optically-stimulated-luminescence-thermochronometry-20260505-0
summary:
Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) thermochronometry is a dating method used to determine the time since quartz and/or feldspar began to store charge as it cools through the effective closure temperature. The closure temperature for quartz and Na-rich K-feldspar is 30-35 °C and 25 °C respectively. When quartz and feldspar are beneath the earth, they are hot. They cool when any geological process e.g. focused erosion causes their exhumation to the earth surface. As they cool, they trap electron charges originating from within the crystal lattice. These charges are accommodated within crystallographic defects or vacancies in their crystal lattices as the mineral cools below the closure temperature. During detrapping of these electrons, luminescence is produced. The luminescence or light emission from the mineral is assumed to be proportional to the trapped electron charge population. The age recorded in standard OSL method is determined by counting the number of these trapped charges in an OSL detection system. The OSL age is the cooling age of the quartz and/or feldspar. This cooling history is a record of the mineral's thermal history, which is used to reconstruct the geological event. The sub-Quaternary period (104 to 105 years) is the geological age where OSL is


id: optically-stimulated-luminescence-thermochronometry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optically_stimulated_luminescence_thermochronometry-1.md
category: reference
title: Optically stimulated luminescence thermochronometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optically_stimulated_luminescence_thermochronometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:38.553390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: optically-stimulated-luminescence-thermochronometry-20260505-0
summary:
== Sample preparation == Bedrock samples from earth surface or boreholes are required earth materials for OSL dating. Minerals (quartz and/or feldspar) are usually separated from the rock or sediment samples under regulated laboratory lighting system similar to procedures used in archaeological OSL dating. The light source is usually a controlled red light condition to avoid luminescence signal resetting.[7] Crushing of sample are gently carried out to avoid generating heat that is strong enough to reset OSL signal in the minerals. Crushed samples are separated by means of a sieve to get fine-grained. A range of values varying from 90 – 125 microns, 100 – 200 microns and 180 – 212 microns can be used for OSL measurement. The selected grains are chemically treated with HCl to digest carbonates and with H2O2 to remove organic materials that can contaminate the sensitivity of OSL signal during measurement. Feldspar and quartz with densities of < 2.62 g cm−3 and < 2.68 g cm−3 respectively are separated from other heavier minerals by density separation. Inclusions of zircon, apatite and feldspar in quartz as well as alpha-particles irradiated grain edges that can contaminate OSL signal are removed by etching in hydrofluoric acid (HF). ==


id: optically-stimulated-luminescence-thermochronometry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optically_stimulated_luminescence_thermochronometry-2.md
category: reference
title: Optically stimulated luminescence thermochronometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optically_stimulated_luminescence_thermochronometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:38.553390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: optically-stimulated-luminescence-thermochronometry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Equivalent dose determination === The equivalent dose ( D E {\displaystyle D_{E}} ) is also known as the dose response is determined from the dose response curve (see Plot B). The single-aliquot regenerative (SAR) protocol is a commonly used method for the determination of the equivalent dose. The protocol involves series of laboratory measurement of OSL signal (see Plot A), which is emitted by the aliquot after it has been optically stimulated at a known beta dose within a given time in seconds. The beta-source may be 90Sr/90Y in an automated Ris ∅ {\displaystyle \varnothing } Thermal Luminescence Reader . During SAR protocol, the difference in the measurement for quartz and feldspar is mainly on the degree of heat required per time and the source of stimulation. The first stage involves determination of the natural dose (see Plot B) preheating the aliquot to about 160 -130 °C (for feldspar) for 10 s or 160-300 °C (for quartz) when the natural luminescence signal (i.e. natural dose) is still intact. This is done to remove unstable signals in the mineral. After preheating, the aliquot is optically stimulated by Infrared light emitting diode (for feldspar) or Blue light emitting diode (for quartz)


id: orbital-tuning-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_tuning-0.md
category: reference
title: Orbital tuning
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_tuning
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:39.748346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orbital-tuning-20260505-0
summary:
Orbital tuning refers to the process of adjusting the time scale of a paleoenvironmental proxy record so that the observed fluctuations correspond to the Milankovitch cycles in the Earth's orbital motion. This is typically done to correct for dating uncertainty or in cases where dating is not possible, such as beyond the range of radiocarbon dating. == Description == Changes in the Earth's orbit affect the amount and distribution of sunlight the Earth and certain parts of the Earth receives. Such changes are expected to introduce periodic climate changes on a time scale of 20-100 kyr. Long records of sedimentation or climate should record such variations. However, such records often have poorly constrained age scales. As a result, scientists will sometimes adjust the timing of the features in their samples to match the predictions of orbital theory in the hopes of improving the accuracy of their data. == Methods and uses == Orbital tuning is done by adjusting the timescale of a paleoclimate record to match variations in an insolated record. These small adjustments synchronize the paleoclimate proxy record to that of orbital cycles. If they are not, scientists are able to adjust one or more points to have these


id: principle-of-faunal-succession-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_faunal_succession-0.md
category: reference
title: Principle of faunal succession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_faunal_succession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:40.963821+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: principle-of-faunal-succession-20260505-0
summary:
The principle of faunal succession, also known as the law of faunal succession, is based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these fossils succeed each other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over wide horizontal distances. A fossilized Neanderthal bone (less than 500,000 years old) will never be found in the same stratum as a fossilized Megalosaurus (about 160 million years old), for example, because neanderthals and megalosaurs lived during different geological periods, separated by millions of years. This allows for strata to be identified and dated by the fossils found within. This principle, which received its name from the English geologist William Smith, is of great importance in determining the relative age of rocks and strata. The fossil content of rocks together with the law of superposition helps to determine the time sequence in which sedimentary rocks were laid down. Evolution explains the observed faunal and floral succession preserved in rocks. Faunal succession was documented by Smith in England during the first decade of the 19th century, and concurrently in France by Cuvier (with the assistance of the mineralogist Alexandre Brongniart). Archaic biological features and organisms are


id: relative-dating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_dating-0.md
category: reference
title: Relative dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:42.146774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relative-dating-20260505-0
summary:
Relative dating is the science of determining the relative order of past events (i.e., the age of an object in comparison to another), without necessarily determining their absolute age (i.e., estimated age). In geology, rock or superficial deposits, fossils and lithologies can be used to correlate one stratigraphic column with another. Prior to the discovery of radiometric dating in the early 20th century, which provided a means of absolute dating, archaeologists and geologists used relative dating to determine ages of materials. Though relative dating can only determine the sequential order in which a series of events occurred, not when they occurred, it remains a useful technique. Relative dating by biostratigraphy is the preferred method in paleontology and is, in some respects, more accurate. The Law of Superposition, which states that older layers will be deeper in a site than more recent layers, was the summary outcome of 'relative dating' as observed in geology from the 17th century to the early 20th century. == Geology == The regular order of the occurrence of fossils in rock layers was discovered around 1800 by William Smith. While digging the Somerset Coal Canal in Southwest England, he found that fossils were always in the


id: relative-dating-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_dating-1.md
category: reference
title: Relative dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:42.146774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relative-dating-20260505-0
summary:
The principle of lateral continuity states that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous. As a result, rocks that are otherwise similar, but are now separated by a valley or other erosional feature, can be assumed to be originally continuous. Layers of sediment do not extend indefinitely; rather, the limits can be recognized and are controlled by the amount and type of sediment available and the size and shape of the sedimentary basin. Sediment will continue to be transported to an area and it will eventually be deposited. However, the layer of that material will become thinner as the amount of material lessens away from the source. Often, coarser-grained material can no longer be transported to an area because the transporting medium has insufficient energy to carry it to that location. In its place, the particles that settle from the transporting medium will be finer-grained, and there will be a lateral transition from coarser- to finer-grained material. The lateral variation in sediment within a stratum is known as sedimentary facies. If sufficient sedimentary material is available, it will be deposited up to the limits of the sedimentary basin. Often, the sedimentary


id: relative-dating-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_dating-2.md
category: reference
title: Relative dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:42.146774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relative-dating-20260505-0
summary:
== Ecology == Dating the layers of bird nests made from plastic pollution can be done by checking the expiration date on food packaging. By doing so, a stratigraphy emerges, documenting the history of the breeding site and reflecting all earlier breeding attempts. A nest found in Amsterdam found in 2021 could be traced back all the way to the early 90s. The oldest nest item was a Mars bar advertising the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Single-use packages of perishable products like 'fresh milk' or a 'ripe avocado' proved to be very precise marker in time referring not only to the year but also to the near exact date it was most likely consumed. Non-food or nonperishable, shelf-stable products, could result in less precise dating. == Archaeology == Relative dating methods in archaeology are similar to some of those applied in geology. The principles of typology can be compared to the biostratigraphic approach in geology. == See also == Astronomical chronology Age of the Earth Age of the universe Chronological dating, archaeological chronology Absolute dating Relative dating, this article Phase (archaeology) Archaeological association Archaeological context Archaeological culture – Group of artifact types and structure layouts that often occur together Relationship


id: skeletochronology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletochronology-0.md
category: reference
title: Skeletochronology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletochronology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:43.322398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skeletochronology-20260505-0
summary:
Skeletochronology is a technique used to determine the individual, chronological ages of vertebrates by counting lines of arrested, annual growth, also known as LAGs, within skeletal tissues. Within the annual bone growth specimens, there are broad and narrow lines. Broad lines represent the growth period and narrow lines represent a growth pause. These narrow lines are what characterises one growth year, therefore make it suitable to determine the age of the specimen. Not all bones grow at the same rate and the individual growth rate of a bone changes over a lifetime, therefore periodic growth marks can take irregular patterns. This indicates significant chronological events in an individual's life. The use of bone as a biomaterial is useful in investigating structure-property relationships. In addition to current research in skeletochronology, the ability of bone to adapt and change its structure to the external environment provides potential for further research in bone histomorphometry in the future. Amphibians and Reptiles are commonly aged determined, using this method, because they undergo discrete annual activity cycles such as winter dormancy or metamorphosis, however it cannot be used for all species of bony animals. The different environmental and biological factors that influence bone growth and development


id: tempore-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempore-0.md
category: reference
title: Tempore
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempore
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:44.514312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tempore-20260505-0
summary:
Tempore (abbreviated to temp.) in historical literature, denotes a period during which a person whose exact lifespan is unknown, was known to have been alive or active, or some other date which is not exactly known, usually given as the reign of a monarch. The word is Latin, being the ablative singular of the noun tempus, temporis, "time", thus meaning "in the time (of)". It should be followed by a name in the genitive case. The theoretical full form might be vixit tempore Regis Henrici Primi ("they lived in the time of King Henry the First"; i.e. 1100–1135). The best-known occurrence is in the Domesday Book of 1086, where the phrase Tempore Regis Eduardi (nominative case Rex Eduardus), meaning "in the time of King Edward (the Confessor)" appears in the entry for almost every manor, abbreviated as TRE. It thus signifies the date range 1042–1066. It is useful in historical literature because the names of many historical persons appear in surviving documents only in royal charters, possibly as witnesses, which can be dated to the reign of the originating monarch. The word tempore is often given in its abbreviated form temp. It is similar to floruit ("flourished" [at a date


id: terminus-post-quem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminus_post_quem-0.md
category: reference
title: Terminus post quem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminus_post_quem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:45.704663+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminus-post-quem-20260505-0
summary:
A terminus post quem ('limit after which', sometimes abbreviated TPQ) and terminus ante quem ('limit before which', abbreviated TAQ) specify the known limits of dating for events or items. A terminus post quem is the earliest date the event may have happened or the item was in existence, and a terminus ante quem is the latest. An event may well have both a terminus post quem and a terminus ante quem, in which case the limits of the possible range of dates are known at both ends, but many events have just one or the other. Similarly, a terminus ad quem 'limit to which' is the latest possible date of a non-punctual event (period, era, etc.), whereas a terminus a quo 'limit from which' is the earliest. The concepts are similar to those of upper and lower bounds in mathematics. These terms are often used in archaeological and historical studies, such as dating layers in excavated sites, coins, historical events, authors, inscriptions or texts where the exact dates may not be known or may be in dispute. == Example == For example, consider an archaeological find of a burial that contains coins dating to 1588, 1595, and others less securely


id: thermoluminescence-dating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating-0.md
category: reference
title: Thermoluminescence dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:46.871512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thermoluminescence-dating-20260505-0
summary:
Thermoluminescence dating (TL) is the determination, by means of measuring the accumulated radiation dose, of the time elapsed since material containing crystalline minerals was either heated (lava, ceramics) or exposed to sunlight (sediments). As a crystalline material is heated during measurements, the process of thermoluminescence starts. Thermoluminescence emits a weak light signal that is proportional to the radiation dose absorbed by the material. It is a type of luminescence dating. The technique has wide application, and is relatively cheap at some US$300–700 per object; ideally a number of samples are tested. Sediments are more expensive to date. The destruction of a relatively significant amount of sample material is necessary, which can be a limitation in the case of artworks. The heating must have taken the object above 500 °C, which covers most ceramics, although very high-fired porcelain creates other difficulties. It will often work well with stones that have been heated by fire. The clay core of bronze sculptures made by lost wax casting is also able to be tested. Different materials vary considerably in their suitability for the technique, depending on several factors. Subsequent irradiation, for example if an x-ray is taken, can affect accuracy, as will the "annual


id: thermoluminescence-dating-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating-1.md
category: reference
title: Thermoluminescence dating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:46.871512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thermoluminescence-dating-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Geochronology Luminescence dating Rehydroxylation dating Thermoluminescent dosimeter == Notes == Oxford Authentication: Home - TL Testing Authentication 'Oxford Authentication® Ltd authenticates ceramic antiquities using the scientific technique of thermoluminescence (TL). TL testing is a dating method for archaeological items which can distinguish between genuine and fake antiquities.' See some of their case studies here: https://www.oxfordauthentication.com/case-studies/ == References and bibliography == GlobalNet.co.uk, Quaternary TL Surveys - Guide to thermoluminescence date measurement Aitken, M.J., Thermoluminescence Dating, Academic Press, London (1985) – Standard text for introduction to the field. Quite complete and rather technical, but well written and well organized. There is a second edition. Aitken, M.J., Introduction to Optical Dating, Oxford University Press (1998) – Good introduction to the field. Keizars, K.Z. 2003. NRTL as a method of analysis of sand transport along the coast of the St. Joseph Peninsula, Florida. GAC/MAC 2003. Presentation: Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. JCRonline.org, Ķeizars, Z., Forrest, B., Rink, W.J. 2008. Natural Residual Thermoluminescence as a Method of Analysis of Sand Transport along the Coast of the St. Joseph Peninsula, Florida. Journal of Coastal Research, 24: 500–507. Keizars, Z. 2008b. NRTL trends observed in the sands of St. Joseph Peninsula, Florida.


id: evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:48.385077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence for a proposition is what supports the proposition. It is usually understood as an indication that the proposition is true. The exact definition and role of evidence vary across different fields. In epistemology, evidence is what justifies beliefs or what makes it rational to hold a certain doxastic attitude. For example, a perceptual experience of a tree may serve as evidence to justify the belief that there is a tree. In this role, evidence is usually understood as a private mental state. In phenomenology, evidence is limited to intuitive knowledge, often associated with the controversial assumption that it provides indubitable access to truth. In science, scientific evidence is information gained through the scientific method that confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses, acting as a neutral arbiter between competing theories. Measurements of Mercury's "anomalous" orbit, for example, are seen as evidence that confirms Einstein's theory of general relativity. The problems of underdetermination and theory-ladenness are two obstacles that threaten to undermine the role of scientific evidence. Philosophers of science tend to understand evidence not as mental states but as verifiable information, observable physical objects or events, secured by following the scientific method. In law, evidence is information to establish or refute


id: evidence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:48.385077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-20260505-0
summary:
The evident instills certainty and grants the knower a subjective sense of security, as they believe to have aligned with the truth Initially, evident truths are perceived as natural and effortless, as Aristotle highlighted. They are innately present within the intellect, fostering a peaceful and harmonious understanding. Consequently, evident truths appear to be widely shared, strongly connected to common sense, which comprises generally accepted beliefs. Evident truths are fertile ground: they provide a solid foundation for other branches of scientific knowledge to flourish. These ten characteristics of what is evident allowed Riofrio to formulate a test of evidence to detect the level of certainty or evidence that one argument or proof could have. === Evidential relation === Philosophers in the 20th century started to investigate the "evidential relation", the relation between evidence and the proposition supported by it. The issue of the nature of the evidential relation concerns the question of what this relation has to be like in order for one thing to justify a belief or to confirm a hypothesis. Important theories in this field include the probabilistic approach, hypothetico-deductivism and the positive-instance approach. Probabilistic approaches, also referred to as Bayesian confirmation theory, explain the evidential relation in


id: evidence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:48.385077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-20260505-0
summary:
==== In epistemology ==== The guiding intuition within epistemology concerning the role of evidence is that it is what justifies beliefs. For example, Phoebe's auditory experience of the music justifies her belief that the speakers are on. Evidence has to be possessed by the believer in order to play this role. So Phoebe's own experiences can justify her own beliefs but not someone else's beliefs. Some philosophers hold that evidence possession is restricted to conscious mental states, for example, to sense data. This view has the implausible consequence that many of simple everyday-beliefs would be unjustified. The more common view is that all kinds of mental states, including stored beliefs that are currently unconscious, can act as evidence. It is sometimes argued that the possession of a mental state capable of justifying another is not sufficient for the justification to happen. The idea behind this line of thought is that justified belief has to be connected to or grounded in the mental state acting as its evidence. So Phoebe's belief that the speakers are on is not justified by her auditory experience if the belief is not based in this experience. This would be the case, for example, if Phoebe


id: evidence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:48.385077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-20260505-0
summary:
==== In philosophy of science ==== In the sciences, evidence is understood as what confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses. The term "confirmation" is sometimes used synonymously with that of "evidential support". Measurements of Mercury's "anomalous" orbit, for example, are seen as evidence that confirms Einstein's theory of general relativity. This is especially relevant for choosing between competing theories. So in the case above, evidence plays the role of neutral arbiter between Newton's and Einstein's theory of gravitation. This is only possible if scientific evidence is public and uncontroversial so that proponents of competing scientific theories agree on what evidence is available. These requirements suggest scientific evidence consists not of private mental states but of public physical objects or events. It is often held that evidence is in some sense prior to the hypotheses it confirms. This was sometimes understood as temporal priority, i.e. that we come first to possess the evidence and later form the hypothesis through induction. But this temporal order is not always reflected in scientific practice, where experimental researchers may look for a specific piece of evidence in order to confirm or disconfirm a pre-existing hypothesis. Logical positivists, on the other hand, held that this priority is


id: evidence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-4.md
category: reference
title: Evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:48.385077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-20260505-0
summary:
In law, the production and presentation of evidence depend first on establishing on whom the burden of proof lies. Admissible evidence is that which a court receives and considers for the purposes of deciding a particular case. Two primary burden-of-proof considerations exist in law. The first is on whom the burden rests. In many, especially Western, courts, the burden of proof is placed on the prosecution in criminal cases and the plaintiff in civil cases. The second consideration is the degree of certitude proof must reach, depending on both the quantity and quality of evidence. These degrees are different for criminal and civil cases, the former requiring evidence beyond a reasonable doubt, the latter considering only which side has the preponderance of evidence, or whether the proposition is more likely true or false. The parts of a legal case that are not in controversy are known, in general, as the "facts of the case." Beyond any facts that are undisputed, a judge or jury is usually tasked with being a trier of fact for the other issues of a case. Evidence and rules are used to decide questions of fact that are disputed, some of which may be determined by


id: empirical-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:49.542435+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
Empirical evidence is evidence obtained through sense experience or experimental procedure. It is of central importance to the sciences and plays a role in various other fields, like epistemology and law. There is no general agreement on how the terms evidence and empirical are to be defined. Often different fields work with quite different conceptions. In epistemology, evidence is what justifies beliefs or what determines whether holding a certain belief is rational. This is only possible if the evidence is possessed by the person, which has prompted various epistemologists to conceive evidence as private mental states like experiences or other beliefs. In philosophy of science, on the other hand, evidence is understood as that which confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses and arbitrates between competing theories. For this role, evidence must be public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or events and unlike private mental states, so that evidence may foster scientific consensus. The term empirical comes from Greek ἐμπειρία empeiría, i.e. 'experience'. In this context, it is usually understood as what is observable, in contrast to unobservable or theoretical objects. It is generally accepted that unaided perception constitutes observation, but it is disputed to what extent objects accessible only to


id: empirical-evidence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence-1.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:49.542435+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
== Definition == A thing is evidence for a proposition if it epistemically supports this proposition or indicates that the supported proposition is true. Evidence is empirical if it is constituted by or accessible to sensory experience. There are various competing theories about the exact definition of the terms evidence and empirical. Different fields, like epistemology, the sciences or legal systems, often associate different concepts with these terms. An important distinction among theories of evidence is whether they identify evidence with private mental states or with public physical objects. Concerning the term empirical, there is a dispute about where to draw the line between observable or empirical objects in contrast to unobservable or merely theoretical objects. The traditional view proposes that evidence is empirical if it is constituted by or accessible to sensory experience. This involves experiences arising from the stimulation of the sense organs, like visual or auditory experiences, but the term is often used in a wider sense including memories and introspection. It is usually seen as excluding purely intellectual experiences, like rational insights or intuitions used to justify basic logical or mathematical principles. The terms empirical and observable are closely related and sometimes used as synonyms. There


id: empirical-evidence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence-2.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:49.542435+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Empiricism and rationalism === In its strictest sense, empiricism is the view that all knowledge is based on experience or that all epistemic justification arises from empirical evidence. This stands in contrast to the rationalist view, which holds that some knowledge is independent of experience, either because it is innate or because it is justified by reason or rational reflection alone. Expressed through the distinction between knowledge a priori and a posteriori from the previous section, rationalism affirms that there is knowledge a priori, which is denied by empiricism in this strict form. One difficulty for empiricists is to account for the justification of knowledge pertaining to fields like mathematics and logic, for example, that 3 is a prime number or that modus ponens is a valid form of deduction. The difficulty is due to the fact that there seems to be no good candidate of empirical evidence that could justify these beliefs. Such cases have prompted empiricists to allow for certain forms of knowledge a priori, for example, concerning tautologies or relations between our concepts. These concessions preserve the spirit of empiricism insofar as the restriction to experience still applies to knowledge about the external world. In some


id: anecdotal-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Anecdotal evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:50.761018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anecdotal-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
Anecdotal evidence (or anecdata) is evidence based on descriptions and reports of individual, personal experiences, or observations, collected in a non-systematic manner. The term anecdotal encompasses a variety of forms of evidence, including personal experiences, self-reported claims, eyewitness accounts of others, and those from fictional sources, making it a broad category that can lead to confusion due to its varied interpretations. Anecdotal evidence can be true or false but is not usually subjected to scholarly methods, scientific methods, or rules of legal, historical, academic, or intellectual rigor, meaning there are little or no safeguards against fabrication or inaccuracy. However, the use of anecdotal reports in advertising or promotion of a product, service, or idea may be considered a testimonial, which is highly regulated in certain jurisdictions. The persuasiveness of anecdotal evidence compared to that of statistical evidence has been a subject of debate; some studies have argued that there is a generalized tendency to overvalue anecdotal evidence, whereas others argue the contrary. == Scientific context == In science, definitions of anecdotal evidence include: "casual observations/indications rather than rigorous or scientific analysis" "information passed along by word-of-mouth but not documented scientifically" "evidence that comes from an individual experience. This may be


id: attestation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attestation-0.md
category: reference
title: Attestation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attestation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:53.102961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attestation-20260505-0
summary:
An attestation is something that serves to bear witness, confirm, authenticate or verify the validity of some fact or status. An attestor is someone who performs an attestation. An attestation date is the date on which an attestation is performed. == Examples == Examples of attestations include: Testimony, a sworn verification of the truth of a set of factual statements An attestation clause, verifying a document A police oath or an oath of allegiance in armed forces of the United Kingdom, pledging loyalty or the faithful execution of duties A validation of the integrity of a computing device such as a server needed for trusted computing == See also == The dictionary definition of attest at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of attestation at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of attestor at Wiktionary Attested language, a language for which documented evidence exists == References ==


id: burden-of-proof-philosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(philosophy)-0.md
category: reference
title: Burden of proof (philosophy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(philosophy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:54.272353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burden-of-proof-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
The burden of proof (Latin: onus probandi, shortened from Onus probandi incumbit ei qui dicit, non ei qui negat – the burden of proof lies with the one who speaks, not the one who denies) is the obligation on a party in a dispute to provide sufficient warrant for its position. == Holder of the burden == When two parties are in a discussion and one makes a claim that the other disputes, the one who makes the claim typically has a burden of proof to justify or substantiate that claim, especially when it challenges a perceived status quo. This is also stated in Hitchens's razor, which declares that "what may be asserted without evidence may be dismissed without evidence." Carl Sagan proposed a related criterion: "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence". While certain kinds of arguments, such as logical syllogisms, require mathematical or strictly logical proofs, the standard for evidence to meet the burden of proof is usually determined by context and community standards and conventions. Philosophical debate can devolve into arguing about who has the burden of proof about a particular claim. This has been described as "burden tennis" or the "onus game". == Shifting the burden of proof


id: burden-of-proof-philosophy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(philosophy)-1.md
category: reference
title: Burden of proof (philosophy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(philosophy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:54.272353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burden-of-proof-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
In inferential statistics, the null hypothesis is a general statement or default position that there is no relationship between two measured phenomena, or no association among groups. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis—and thus concluding that there are grounds for believing that there is a relationship between two phenomena (e.g. that a potential treatment has a measurable effect)—is a central task in the modern practice of science; the field of statistics gives precise criteria for rejecting a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally assumed to be true until evidence indicates otherwise. In statistics, it is often denoted H0 (read "H-nought", "H-null", "H-oh", or "H-zero"). The concept of a null hypothesis is used differently in two approaches to statistical inference. In the significance testing approach of Ronald Fisher, a null hypothesis is rejected if the observed data are significantly unlikely to have occurred if the null hypothesis were true. In this case the null hypothesis is rejected and an alternative hypothesis is accepted in its place. If the data are consistent with the null hypothesis, then the null hypothesis is not rejected. In neither case is the null hypothesis or its alternative proven; the null hypothesis is tested with data


id: case-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study-0.md
category: reference
title: Case study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:55.504712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-study-20260505-0
summary:
A case study is an in-depth, detailed examination of a particular case (or cases) within a real-world context. For example, case studies in medicine may focus on an individual patient or ailment; case studies in business might cover a particular firm's strategy or a broader market; similarly, case studies in politics can range from a narrow happening over time like the operations of a specific political campaign, to an enormous undertaking like world war, or more often the policy analysis of real-world problems affecting multiple stakeholders. Generally, a case study can highlight nearly any individual, group, organization, event, belief system, or action. A case study does not necessarily have to be one observation (N=1), but may include many observations (one or multiple individuals and entities across multiple time periods, all within the same case study). Research projects involving numerous cases are frequently called cross-case research, whereas a study of a single case is called within-case research. Case study research has been extensively practiced in both the social and natural sciences. == Definition == There are multiple definitions of case studies, which may emphasize the number of observations (a small N), the method (qualitative), the thickness of the research (a comprehensive


id: case-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study-1.md
category: reference
title: Case study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:55.504712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-study-20260505-0
summary:
Typical cases are cases that exemplify a stable cross-case relationship. These cases are representative of the larger population of cases, and the purpose of the study is to look within the case rather than compare it with other cases. Diverse cases are cases that have variations on the relevant X and Y variables. Due to the range of variation on the relevant variables, these cases are representative of the full population of cases. Extreme cases are cases that have an extreme value on the X or Y variable relative to other cases. Deviant cases are cases that defy existing theories and common sense. They not only have extreme values on X or Y (like extreme cases) but defy existing knowledge about causal relations. Influential cases are cases that are central to a model or theory (for example, Nazi Germany in theories of fascism and the far-right). Most similar cases are cases that are similar on all the independent variables, except the one of interest to the researcher. Most different cases are cases that are different on all the independent variables, except the one of interest to the researcher. For theoretical discovery, Jason Seawright recommends using deviant cases or extreme cases


id: case-study-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study-2.md
category: reference
title: Case study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:55.504712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-study-20260505-0
summary:
== Limitations == Designing Social Inquiry (also called "KKV"), an influential 1994 book written by Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba, primarily applies lessons from regression-oriented analysis to qualitative research, arguing that the same logics of causal inference can be used in both types of research. The authors' recommendation is to increase the number of observations (a recommendation that Barbara Geddes also makes in Paradigms and Sand Castles), because few observations make it harder to estimate multiple causal effects, as well as increase the risk that there is measurement error, and that an event in a single case was caused by random error or unobservable factors. KKV sees process-tracing and qualitative research as being "unable to yield strong causal inference" because qualitative scholars would struggle with determining which of many intervening variables truly links the independent variable with a dependent variable. The primary problem is that qualitative research lacks a sufficient number of observations to properly estimate the effects of an independent variable. They write that the number of observations could be increased through various means, but that would simultaneously lead to another problem: that the number of variables would increase and thus reduce degrees of freedom. Christopher H.


id: cherry-picking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_picking-0.md
category: reference
title: Cherry picking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_picking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:56.680790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cherry-picking-20260505-0
summary:
Cherry picking, suppressing evidence, or the fallacy of incomplete evidence is the act of pointing to individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position while ignoring a significant portion of related and similar cases or data that may contradict that position. Cherry picking may be committed intentionally or unintentionally. == Name == The term is based on the perceived process of harvesting fruit, such as cherries. The picker would be expected to select only the ripest and healthiest fruits. An observer who sees only the selected fruit may thus wrongly conclude that most, or even all, of the tree's fruit is in a likewise good condition. This can also give a false impression of the quality of the fruit (since it is only a sample and is not a representative sample). A concept sometimes confused with cherry picking is the idea of gathering only the fruit that is easy to harvest, while ignoring other fruit that is higher up on the tree and thus more difficult to obtain (see low-hanging fruit). Cherry picking has a negative connotation as the practice neglects, overlooks or directly suppresses evidence that could lead to a complete picture. Cherry picking can be


id: cherry-picking-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_picking-1.md
category: reference
title: Cherry picking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_picking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:56.680790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cherry-picking-20260505-0
summary:
[…] You might think that one-sidedness is actually desirable when your goal is winning rather than discovering a complex and nuanced truth. If this is true, then it's true of every fallacy. If winning is persuading a decision-maker, then any kind of manipulation or deception that actually works is desirable. But in fact, while winning may sometimes be served by one-sidedness, it is usually better served by two-sidedness. If your argument (say) in court is one-sided, then you are likely to be surprised by a strong counter-argument for which you are unprepared. The lesson is to cultivate two-sidedness in your thinking about any issue. Beware of any job that requires you to truncate your own understanding. Card stacking is a propaganda technique that seeks to manipulate audience perception of an issue by emphasizing one side and repressing another. Such emphasis may be achieved through media bias or the use of one-sided testimonials, or by simply censoring the voices of critics. The technique is commonly used in speeches by political candidates to discredit their opponents and to make themselves seem more worthy. The term originates from the magician's gimmick of "stacking the deck", which involves presenting a deck of cards that


id: consilience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience-0.md
category: reference
title: Consilience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:57.901867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consilience-20260505-0
summary:
In science and history, consilience (also convergence of evidence or concordance of evidence) is the principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions. That is, when multiple sources of evidence are in agreement, the conclusion can be very strong even when none of the individual sources of evidence is significantly so on its own. Most established scientific knowledge is supported by a convergence of evidence: if not, the evidence is comparatively weak, and there will probably not be a strong scientific consensus. The principle is based on unity of knowledge; measuring the same result by several different methods should lead to the same answer. For example, it should not matter whether one measures distances within the Giza pyramid complex by laser rangefinding, by satellite imaging, or with a metre-stick – in all three cases, the answer should be approximately the same. For the same reason, different dating methods in geochronology should concur, a result in chemistry should not contradict a result in geology, etc. The word consilience was originally coined as the phrase "consilience of inductions" by William Whewell (consilience refers to a "jumping together" of knowledge). The word comes from Latin com- "together" and -siliens


id: consilience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience-1.md
category: reference
title: Consilience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:57.901867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consilience-20260505-0
summary:
== Deviations == Consilience does not forbid deviations: in fact, since not all experiments are perfect, some deviations from established knowledge are expected. However, when the convergence is strong enough, then new evidence inconsistent with the previous conclusion is not usually enough to outweigh that convergence. Without an equally strong convergence on the new result, the weight of evidence will still favor the established result. This means that the new evidence is most likely to be wrong. Science denialism (for example, AIDS denialism) is often based on a misunderstanding of this property of consilience. A denier may promote small gaps not yet accounted for by the consilient evidence, or small amounts of evidence contradicting a conclusion without accounting for the pre-existing strength resulting from consilience. More generally, to insist that all evidence converge precisely with no deviations would be naïve falsificationism, equivalent to considering a single contrary result to falsify a theory when another explanation, such as equipment malfunction or misinterpretation of results, is much more likely. == In history == Historical evidence also converges in an analogous way. For example: if five ancient historians, none of whom knew each other, all claim that Julius Caesar seized power in Rome


id: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence for the spherical shape of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:59.111630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The roughly spherical shape of Earth can be empirically evidenced by many different types of observation, ranging from ground level, flight, or orbit. The spherical shape causes a number of effects and phenomena that when combined disprove flat Earth beliefs. These include the visibility of distant objects on Earth's surface; lunar eclipses; appearance of the Moon; observation of the sky from a certain altitude; observation of certain fixed stars from different locations; observing the Sun; surface navigation; grid distortion on a spherical surface; weather systems; gravity; and modern technology. == Visibility of distant objects on Earth's surface == On a completely flat Earth without obstructions (mountains, hills, valleys or volcanos), the ground itself would never obscure distant objects. A spherical surface has a horizon which is closer when viewed from a lower altitude. In theory, a person standing on the surface with eyes 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) above the ground can see the ground up to about 4.79 kilometres (2.98 mi) away, but a person at the top of the Eiffel Tower at 273 metres (896 ft) can see the ground up to about 58.98 kilometres (36.65 mi) away. This phenomenon permits a way of confirming that Earth's


id: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence for the spherical shape of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:59.111630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Observation of the sky from altitude with the aid of a diagram == On a perfectly spherical Earth, not considering obstructions and atmospheric refraction, its surface blocks almost half the sky for an observer close against the surface (see horizon). Moving away from the surface of Earth means that the ground blocks less and less of the sky. For example, when viewed from the Moon, Earth blocks only a small portion of the sky because it is so distant. This effect of geometry means that, when viewed from a high mountain, flat ground or ocean blocks less than a hemisphere of the sky. With the presumption of a spherical Earth, an expedition commissioned by caliph al-Ma'mun used this fact to calculate Earth's circumference to within 7,920 kilometres (4,920 mi) of the correct value of around 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi), and possibly as accurately as 180 kilometres (110 mi). The rate of change in the angle blocked by Earth as altitude increases would be different for a disk than for a sphere. The amount of surface blocked would be different for a mountain close to the edge of a flat Earth compared to a mountain in the middle of a


id: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth-2.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence for the spherical shape of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:59.111630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Observing the Sun == On a flat Earth, a Sun that shines in all directions would illuminate the entire surface at the same time, and all places would experience sunrise and sunset at the horizon at about the same time. With a spherical Earth, half the planet is in daylight at any given time and the other half experiences nighttime. When a given location on the spherical Earth is in sunlight, its antipode – the location exactly on the opposite side of Earth – is in darkness. The spherical shape of Earth causes the Sun to rise and set at different times in different places, and different locations get different amounts of sunlight each day. In order to explain day and night, time zones, and the seasons, some flat Earth theorists propose that the Sun does not emit light in all directions, but acts more like a spotlight, only illuminating part of the flat Earth at a time. This conjecture is not consistent with observation: At sunrise and sunset, a spotlight Sun would be up in the sky at least a little bit, rather than at the horizon where it is always actually observed. A spotlight Sun would also


id: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth-3.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence for the spherical shape of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:59.111630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Observing sunlight before or after seeing Sun === It is possible to see sun-lit windows of nearby high-rise buildings from ground level a few minutes before seeing the sun rise or after seeing the sun set. On a non-curved, flat landmass it would only take seconds, due to minuscule ratio (compare ~45 meters / 150 feet of a 14-story building to intercontinental distances). If such a phenomenon were caused by a prismatic property of atmosphere in a flat world, with a relatively small source of light revolving around Earth (as in later, 1800's-dated, maps of Flat Earth), it would contradict with one's ability to see a proper panorama of starry sky at a time at night, rather than a small yet distorted, "stretched" patch of it. Likewise, the top of a mountain is illuminated before sunrise and after sunset, as are clouds. === Watching the sun set twice === On level ground, the difference in the distance to the horizon between lying down and standing up is large enough to watch the Sun set twice by quickly standing up immediately after seeing it set for the first time while lying down. This also can be done with an aerial


id: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth-4.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence for the spherical shape of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:59.111630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Angle to the Sun at different locations === On a given day, if many different cities measure the angle of the Sun at local noon, the resulting data, when combined with the known distances between cities, shows that Earth has 180 degrees of north-south curvature. (A full range of angles will be observed if the north and south poles are included, and the day chosen is either the autumnal or spring equinox.) This is consistent with many rounded shapes, including a sphere, and is inconsistent with a flat shape. Some claim that this experiment assumes a very distant Sun, such that the incoming rays are essentially parallel, and if a flat Earth is assumed, that the measured angles can allow one to calculate the distance to the Sun, which must be small enough that its incoming rays are not very parallel. However, if more than two relatively well-separated cities are included in the experiment, the calculation will make clear whether the Sun is distant or nearby. For example, on the equinox, the 0-degree angle from the North Pole and the 90-degree angle from the equator predict a Sun which would have to be located essentially next to the surface


id: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth-5.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence for the spherical shape of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:59.111630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
Because Earth is spherical, long-distance travel sometimes requires heading in different directions than one would head on a flat Earth. An example would be an airplane travelling 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) in a straight line, taking a 90-degree right turn, travelling another 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi), taking another 90-degree right turn, and travelling 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) a third time. On a flat Earth, the aircraft would have travelled along three sides of a square, and arrive at a spot about 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) from where it started. But because Earth is spherical, in reality it will have travelled along three sides of a triangle, and arrive back very close to its starting point. If the starting point is the North Pole, it would have travelled due south from the North Pole to the equator, then west for a quarter of the way around Earth, and then due north back to the North Pole. In spherical geometry, the sum of angles inside a triangle is greater than 180° (in this example 270°, having arrived back at the north pole a 90° angle to the departure path) unlike on a flat surface, where it is always exactly 180°. == Weather


id: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth-6.md
category: reference
title: Empirical evidence for the spherical shape of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence_for_the_spherical_shape_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:55:59.111630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-evidence-for-the-spherical-shape-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Aircraft and spacecraft === People in high-flying aircraft or skydiving from high-altitude balloons can plainly see the curvature of Earth. Low-flying planes and commercial airliners do not necessarily fly high enough to make this obvious, especially when passenger windows narrow the field of view or clouds or terrain reduce the effective height from the visible surface. Trying to measure the curvature of the horizon by taking a picture is complicated by the fact that both windows and camera lenses can produce distorted images depending on the angle used. An extreme version of this effect can be seen in the fisheye lens. Scientific measurements would require a carefully calibrated lens. Photos of the ground taken from airplanes over a large enough area also do not fit seamlessly together on a flat surface, but do fit on a roughly spherical surface. Aerial photographs of large areas must be corrected to account for curvature. Many pictures have been taken of the entirety of Earth by satellites launched by a variety of governments and private organizations. From high orbits, where half the planet can be seen at once, it is plainly spherical. The only way to piece together all the pictures taken of


id: psychoanalytic-infant-observation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_infant_observation-0.md
category: reference
title: Psychoanalytic infant observation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_infant_observation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:00.301945+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychoanalytic-infant-observation-20260505-0
summary:
Psychoanalytic infant observation is a distinct empirical case study method in psychoanalytic and psychotherapy training which was developed at the Tavistock Clinic in London by child psychoanalyst Esther Bick. In 1948 she collaborated with John Bowlby to develop the approach as part of psychotherapy training. It has since become an essential feature of pre-clinical training in child and adult psychotherapy, psychoanalysis and related fields throughout the Western world. Psychoanalytic infant observation usually involves observing an infant and mother weekly over a two-year period beginning soon after birth until the child's second birthday. This naturalistic form of experiential enquiry provides a unique opportunity to sharpen and extend the observational skills of future therapists. Trainees learn first-hand how a relationship develops between babies and their family members and enables them to think about how babies grow physically, mentally and emotionally. The experience of observing family life is invaluable for professionals who later work with complex and disturbing presentations. == Rationale for the method == Infant Observation was the inspired initiative of Esther Bick. As a Child Psychoanalyst she pioneered this particular approach to studying babies in the midst of their family environment. In 1948, she began teaching at the Tavistock Clinic and


id: psychoanalytic-infant-observation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_infant_observation-1.md
category: reference
title: Psychoanalytic infant observation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_infant_observation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:00.301945+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychoanalytic-infant-observation-20260505-0
summary:
Every observation is written up in detail as soon after the observation as possible. This can often take about an hour to complete. Students discuss their observations in small group seminars which take place on a weekly, over two academic years. Each trainee has the opportunity to present their detailed observations to the group. The presentations are anonymised and no identifying features are used. The unique experience of psychoanalytic observation allows the trainee to observe a mother and baby, living through and resolving routine and difficult situations in their own ways, without any intervention from the observer. With the help of the seminar, the observer learns to process the inclination for judgmental and blaming thoughts which arise when anxiety is stirred. Along with developing sensitivity and precision in observation, the course teaches how to think freshly and inductively from observation, including trying to understand how the developing infant is making sense of his world. == The Young Child and Brief Observations == Some courses and trainings, including those at the Tavistock Clinic, The Birmingham Trust for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy and the Northern School of Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy also offer the chance to undertake an observation of a pre-school child (approximately


id: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and efficacy of homeopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:01.587272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-0
summary:
The infinitesimally low concentration of homeopathic preparations, which often lack even a single molecule of the diluted substance, has been the basis of questions about the effects of the preparations since the 19th century. Modern advocates of homeopathy have proposed a concept of "water memory", according to which water "remembers" the substances mixed in it, and transmits the effect of those substances when consumed. This concept is inconsistent with the current understanding of matter, and water memory has never been demonstrated to exist, in terms of any detectable effect, biological or otherwise. James Randi and the 10:23 campaign groups have highlighted the lack of active ingredients in most homeopathic products by taking large 'overdoses'. None of the hundreds of demonstrators in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US were injured and "no one was cured of anything, either". Outside of the alternative medicine community, scientists have long considered homeopathy a sham or a pseudoscience, and the mainstream medical community regards it as quackery. There is an overall absence of sound statistical evidence of therapeutic efficacy, which is consistent with the lack of any biologically plausible pharmacological agent or mechanism. Abstract concepts within theoretical physics have been invoked to


id: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and efficacy of homeopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:01.587272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-0
summary:
No individual homeopathic preparation has been unambiguously shown by research to be different from placebo. The methodological quality of the primary research was generally low, with such problems as weaknesses in study design and reporting, small sample size, and selection bias. Since better quality trials have become available, the evidence for efficacy of homeopathy preparations has diminished; the highest-quality trials indicate that the preparations themselves exert no intrinsic effect. A review conducted in 2010 of all the pertinent studies of "best evidence" produced by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that "the most reliable evidence – that produced by Cochrane reviews – fails to demonstrate that homeopathic medicines have effects beyond placebo." === Government level reviews === Government-level reviews have been conducted in recent years by Switzerland (2005), the United Kingdom (2009), Australia (2015) and the European Academies' Science Advisory Council (2017). The Swiss programme for the evaluation of complementary medicine (PEK) resulted in the peer-reviewed Shang publication (see Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of efficacy) and a controversial competing analysis by homeopaths and advocates led by Gudrun Bornhöft and Peter Matthiessen, which has misleadingly been presented as a Swiss government report by homeopathy proponents, a claim that has been repudiated by the


id: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and efficacy of homeopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:01.587272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-0
summary:
The evidence of bias [in the primary studies] weakens the findings of our original meta-analysis. Since we completed our literature search in 1995, a considerable number of new homeopathy trials have been published. The fact that a number of the new high-quality trials ... have negative results, and a recent update of our review for the most "original" subtype of homeopathy (classical or individualized homeopathy), seem to confirm the finding that more rigorous trials have less-promising results. It seems, therefore, likely that our meta-analysis at least overestimated the effects of homeopathic treatments. Subsequent work by John Ioannidis and others has shown that for treatments with no prior plausibility, the chances of a positive result being a false positive are much higher, and that any result not consistent with the null hypothesis should be assumed to be a false positive. A systematic review of the available systematic reviews confirmed in 2002 that higher-quality trials tended to have less positive results, and found no convincing evidence that any homeopathic preparation exerts clinical effects different from placebo. In 2005, The Lancet medical journal published a meta-analysis of 110 placebo-controlled homeopathy trials and 110 matched medical trials based upon the Swiss government's Programme for


id: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and efficacy of homeopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:01.587272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-0
summary:
While some articles have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes including the growth of grain, histamine release by leukocytes, and enzyme reactions, such evidence is disputed since attempts to replicate them have failed. A 2007 systematic review of high-dilution experiments found that none of the experiments with positive results could be reproduced by all investigators. In 1987, French immunologist Jacques Benveniste submitted a paper to the journal Nature while working at INSERM. The paper purported to have discovered that basophils, a type of white blood cell, released histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of anti-immunoglobulin E antibody. The journal editors, sceptical of the results, requested that the study be replicated in a separate laboratory. Upon replication in four separate laboratories the study was published. Still sceptical of the findings, Nature assembled an independent investigative team to determine the accuracy of the research, consisting of Nature editor and physicist Sir John Maddox, American scientific fraud investigator and chemist Walter Stewart, and sceptic James Randi. After investigating the findings and methodology of the experiment, the team found that the experiments were "statistically ill-controlled", "interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of measurements


id: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy-4.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and efficacy of homeopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:01.587272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Adverse effects === Some homeopathic preparations involve poisons such as Belladonna, arsenic, and poison ivy, which are highly diluted in the homeopathic preparation. In rare cases, the original ingredients are present at detectable levels. This may be due to improper preparation or intentional low dilution. Serious adverse effects such as seizures and death have been reported or associated with some homeopathic preparations. On September 30, 2016, the FDA issued a safety alert to consumers warning against the use of homeopathic teething gels and tablets following reports of adverse events after their use. The agency recommended that parents discard these products and "seek advice from their health care professional for safe alternatives" to homeopathy for teething. The pharmacy CVS announced, also on September 30, that it was voluntarily withdrawing the products from sale and on October 11 Hyland's (the manufacturer) announced that it was discontinuing their teething medicine in the United States though the products remain on sale in Canada. On October 12, Buzzfeed reported that the regulator had "examined more than 400 reports of seizures, fever and vomiting, as well as 10 deaths" over a six-year period. The investigation (including analyses of the products) is still ongoing and the


id: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy-5.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and efficacy of homeopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_efficacy_of_homeopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:01.587272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-efficacy-of-homeopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Homeopathy is a controversial topic in complementary medicine research. A number of the key concepts of homeopathy are not consistent with fundamental concepts of chemistry and physics. For example, it is not possible to explain in scientific terms how a preparation containing little or no active ingredient can have any effect. This, in turn, creates major challenges to the rigorous clinical investigation of homeopathic preparations. For example, one cannot confirm that an extremely dilute preparation contains what is listed on the label, or develop objective measures that show effects of extremely dilute preparations in the human body. Ben Goldacre noted that in the early days of homeopathy, when medicine was dogmatic and frequently worse than doing nothing, homeopathy at least failed to make matters worse: During the 19th-century cholera epidemic, death rates at the London Homeopathic Hospital were three times lower than at the Middlesex Hospital. Homeopathic sugar pills won't do anything against cholera, of course, but the reason for homeopathy's success in this epidemic is even more interesting than the placebo effect: at the time, nobody could treat cholera. So, while hideous medical treatments such as blood-letting were actively harmful, the homeopaths' treatments at least did nothing either way.


id: evidence-gap-map-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_gap_map-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence gap map
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_gap_map
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:02.798215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-gap-map-20260505-0
summary:
An evidence gap map (EGM) is a systematic display of the evidence for a domain which highlights the lack of evidence in particular areas. The evidence gaps typically appear as holes in a matrix of cross-referenced results. == References ==


id: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:04.124595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based medicine (EBM), sometimes known within healthcare as evidence-based practice (EBP), is "the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. It means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research." The aim of EBM is to integrate the experience of the clinician, the values of the patient, and the best available scientific information to guide decision-making about clinical management. The term was originally used to describe an approach to teaching the practice of medicine and improving decisions by individual physicians about individual patients. The EBM Pyramid is a tool that helps in visualizing the hierarchy of evidence in medicine, from least authoritative, like expert opinions, to most authoritative, like systematic reviews. Adoption of evidence-based medicine is necessary in a human rights-based approach to public health and a precondition for accessing the right to health. == Background, history, and definition == Medicine has a long history of scientific inquiry into the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human disease. In the 11th century AD, Avicenna, a Persian physician and philosopher, developed an approach to EBM that was mostly similar to current ideas and practises. The


id: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:04.124595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medical education === The term 'evidence-based medicine' was introduced slightly later, in the context of medical education. In the autumn of 1990, Gordon Guyatt used it in an unpublished description of a program at McMaster University for prospective or new medical students. Guyatt and others first published the term two years later (1992) to describe a new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. In 1996, David Sackett and colleagues clarified the definition of this tributary of evidence-based medicine as "the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. ... [It] means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research." This branch of evidence-based medicine aims to make individual decision making more structured and objective by better reflecting the evidence from research. Population-based data are applied to the care of an individual patient, while respecting the fact that practitioners have clinical expertise reflected in effective and efficient diagnosis and thoughtful identification and compassionate use of individual patients' predicaments, rights, and preferences. Between 1993 and 2000, the Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group at McMaster University published the methods to a broad physician audience in a


id: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:04.124595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
== Methods == === Steps === The steps for designing explicit, evidence-based guidelines were described in the late 1980s: formulate the question (population, intervention, comparison intervention, outcomes, time horizon, setting); search the literature to identify studies that inform the question; interpret each study to determine precisely what it says about the question; if several studies address the question, synthesize their results (meta-analysis); summarize the evidence in evidence tables; compare the benefits, harms and costs in a balance sheet; draw a conclusion about the preferred practice; write the guideline; write the rationale for the guideline; have others review each of the previous steps; implement the guideline. For the purposes of medical education and individual-level decision making, five steps of EBM in practice were described in 1992 and the experience of delegates attending the 2003 Conference of Evidence-Based Health Care Teachers and Developers was summarized into five steps and published in 2005. This five-step process can broadly be categorized as follows: Translation of uncertainty to an answerable question; includes critical questioning, study design and levels of evidence Systematic retrieval of the best evidence available Critical appraisal of evidence for internal validity that can be broken down into aspects regarding: Systematic errors as


id: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:04.124595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Level I: Evidence obtained from at least one properly designed randomized controlled trial. Level II-1: Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without randomization. Level II-2: Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort studies or case-control studies, preferably from more than one center or research group. Level II-3: Evidence obtained from multiple time series designs with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled trials might also be regarded as this type of evidence. Level III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees. Another example are the Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence published by the Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine. First released in September 2000, the Levels of Evidence provide a way to rank evidence for claims about prognosis, diagnosis, treatment benefits, treatment harms, and screening, which most grading schemes do not address. The original CEBM Levels were Evidence-Based On Call to make the process of finding evidence feasible and its results explicit. In 2011, an international team redesigned the Oxford CEBM Levels to make them more understandable and to take into account recent developments in evidence ranking schemes. The Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence have been used by patients and clinicians, as well as by


id: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine-4.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:04.124595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Level A: Good scientific evidence suggests that the benefits of the clinical service substantially outweigh the potential risks. Clinicians should discuss the service with eligible patients. Level B: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that the benefits of the clinical service outweighs the potential risks. Clinicians should discuss the service with eligible patients. Level C: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that the clinical service provides benefits, but the balance between benefits and risks is too close for general recommendations. Clinicians need not offer it unless individual considerations apply. Level D: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that the risks of the clinical service outweigh potential benefits. Clinicians should not routinely offer the service to asymptomatic patients. Level I: Scientific evidence is lacking, of poor quality, or conflicting, such that the risk versus benefit balance cannot be assessed. Clinicians should help patients understand the uncertainty surrounding the clinical service. GRADE guideline panelists may make strong or weak recommendations on the basis of further criteria. Some of the important criteria are the balance between desirable and undesirable effects (not considering cost), the quality of the evidence, values and preferences and costs (resource utilization). Despite the differences between systems, the purposes are


id: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine-5.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:04.124595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Research produced by EBM, such as from randomized controlled trials (RCTs), may not be relevant for all treatment situations. Research tends to focus on specific populations, but individual persons can vary substantially from population norms. Because certain population segments have been historically under-researched (due to reasons such as race, gender, age, and co-morbid diseases), evidence from RCTs may not be generalizable to those populations. Thus, EBM applies to groups of people, but this should not preclude clinicians from using their personal experience in deciding how to treat each patient. One author advises that "the knowledge gained from clinical research does not directly answer the primary clinical question of what is best for the patient at hand" and suggests that evidence-based medicine should not discount the value of clinical experience. Another author stated that "the practice of evidence-based medicine means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research." Use of evidence-based guidelines often fits poorly for complex, multimorbid patients. This is because the guidelines are usually based on clinical studies focused on single diseases. In reality, the recommended treatments in such circumstances may interact unfavorably with each other and often lead to polypharmacy. The theoretical


id: evidentialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidentialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:05.345615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidentialism-20260505-0
summary:
Evidentialism is a thesis in epistemology which states that one is justified to believe something if and only if that person has evidence which supports said belief. Evidentialism is, therefore, a thesis about which beliefs are justified and which are not. For philosophers Richard Feldman and Earl Conee, evidentialism is the strongest argument for justification because it identifies the primary notion of epistemic justification. They argue that if a person's attitude towards a proposition fits their evidence, then their doxastic attitude for that proposition is epistemically justified. Feldman and Conee offer the following argument for evidentialism as an epistemic justification: (EJ) Doxastic attitude D toward proposition p is epistemically justified for S at t if and only if having D toward p fits the evidence. For Feldman and Conee one's doxastic attitude is justified if it fits one's evidence. EJ is meant to show the idea that justification is characteristically epistemic. This idea makes justification dependent on evidence. Feldman and Conee believe that because objections to EJ have become so prominent their defense for it is appropriate. The theses that object EJ are implying that epistemic justification is dependent upon the "cognitive capacities of an individual or upon the cognitive


id: evidentialism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialism-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidentialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:05.345615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidentialism-20260505-0
summary:
Foundationalism: There exist beliefs that are justified, but not because they are based on any other beliefs. These are called properly basic beliefs, and they are the foundation upon which all other justified beliefs ultimately rest. Coherentism: Justified beliefs are all evidentially supported by other beliefs, but an infinite set of beliefs is not generated, because the chains of evidential support among beliefs is allowed to move in a circle. On the resulting picture, a person's belief is justified when it fits together with the person's other beliefs in a coherent way in which the person's various beliefs mutually support one another. A modest reasoner subset of Coherentism would insist that all justifiable beliefs be statements about "some objects" since the negation/complement of a some statement is another some statement. Skepticism: There cannot be any justified beliefs. A modest reasoner subset of Scepticism like the subset of Coherentism would likewise insist and define all justifiable beliefs be statements about "some objects" since the negation/complement of a some statement is another some statement. Infinitism: Aside from these responses, some philosophers have said that evidential chains terminate in beliefs that are not justified. Others have said that, indeed, there can exist infinite


id: evidentiality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidentiality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:06.594635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidentiality-20260505-0
summary:
In linguistics, evidentiality is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement; that is, whether evidence exists for the statement and if so, what kind. An evidential (also verificational or validational) is the particular grammatical element (affix, clitic, or particle) that indicates evidentiality. Languages with only a single evidential have had terms such as mediative, médiatif, médiaphorique, and indirective used instead of evidential. Evidentiality may be direct or indirect: direct evidentials are used to describe information directly perceived by the speaker through vision as well as other sensory experiences while indirect evidentials consist of the other grammatical markers for evidence such as quotatives and inferentials. == Introduction == All languages have some means of specifying the source of information. European languages (such as Germanic and Romance languages) often use modal verbs (Spanish: deber de, Dutch: zouden, Danish: skulle, German: sollen) or other lexical words (adverbials, English: reportedly) or phrases (English: it seems to me). Some languages have a distinct grammatical category of evidentiality that is required to be expressed at all times. In contrast, the elements in European languages indicating the information source are optional and usually do not indicate evidentiality as their primary function; thus,


id: evidentiality-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidentiality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:06.594635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidentiality-20260505-0
summary:
=== Indirectivity (type I) === Indirectivity (also known as inferentiality) systems are common in Uralic and Turkic languages. These languages indicate whether evidence exists for a given source of information; thus, they contrast direct information (reported directly) and indirect information (reported indirectly, focusing on its reception by the speaker/recipient). Unlike the other evidential "type II" systems, an indirectivity marking does not indicate information about the source of knowledge: it is irrelevant whether the information results from hearsay, inference, or perception; however, some Turkic languages distinguish between reported indirect and non-reported indirect, see Johanson 2003, 2000 for further elaboration. This can be seen in the following Turkish verbs: In the word geldi, the unmarked suffix -di indicates past tense. In the second word gelmiş, the suffix -miş also indicates past tense but indirectly. It may be translated into English with the added phrases 'obviously', 'apparently' or 'as far as I understand'. The direct past tense marker -di is unmarked (or neutral) in the sense that whether or not evidence exists supporting the statement is not specified. === Evidentiality (type II) === The other broad type of evidentiality systems ("type II") specifies the nature of the evidence supporting a statement. These kinds


id: evidentiality-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidentiality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:06.594635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidentiality-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tense === Some languages may only distinguish between direct and indirect evidentials in the past tense. This is the case for Georgian (Kartvelian), Turkish (Turkic), Komi-Zyrian (Finno-Ugric), Haida (a language isolate in British Columbia and Alaska), and Ika (Chibchan). === Epistemic modality === Evidentiality is often considered to be a sub-type of epistemic modality (see, for example, Palmer 1986, Kiefer 1994). Other linguists consider evidentiality (marking the source of information in a statement) to be distinct from epistemic modality (marking the degree of confidence in a statement). An English example: I see that he is coming. (evidential) I know that he is coming. (epistemic) For instance, de Haan states that evidentiality asserts evidence while epistemic modality evaluates evidence and that evidentiality is more akin to a deictic category marking the relationship between speakers and events/actions (like the way demonstratives mark the relationship between speakers and objects; see also Joseph 2003). Aikhenvald (2003) finds that evidentials may indicate a speaker's attitude about the validity of a statement but this is not a required feature of evidentials. Additionally, she finds that evidential-marking may co-occur with epistemic-marking, but it may also co-occur with aspectual/tense or mirative marking. Considering evidentiality as a type


id: evidentiality-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidentiality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:06.594635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidentiality-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; & Dixon, R. M. W. (1998). Evidentials and areal typology: A case-study from Amazonia. Language Sciences, 20, 241–257. Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; & Dixon, R. M. W. (Eds.). (2003). Studies in evidentiality. Typological studies in language (Vol. 54). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 90-272-2962-7; ISBN 1-58811-344-2. Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; & Dixon, R. M. W. (Eds.). (2014) The Grammar of Knowledge: A Cross-Linguistic Typology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-870131-6 Blakemore, D. (1994). Evidence and modality. In R. E. Asher (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (pp. 1183–1186). Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-035943-4. Chafe, Wallace L.; & Nichols, Johanna. (Eds.). (1986). Evidentiality: The linguistic encoding of epistemology. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Comrie, Bernard. (2000). Evidentials: Semantics and history. In L. Johanson & B. Utas (Eds.). de Haan, Ferdinand (2013b), "Coding of Evidentiality", in Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.), WALS Online (v2020.3), retrieved February 3, 2024 Faust, Norma. (1973). Lecciones para el aprendizaje del idioma shipibo-conibo [Lessons for learning the Shipibo-Conibo language]. Lima: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Guentchéva, Zlatka. (1996a). Introduction. In Z. Guentchéva (Ed.) (pp. 11–18). Guentchéva, Zlatka (Ed.). (1996b). L’Énonciation médiatisée. Bibliothèque de l’information grammaticale. Louvain: Éditions Peeters. ISBN 90-6831-861-6; ISBN 2-87723-244-1. Johanson,


id: exculpatory-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exculpatory_evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Exculpatory evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exculpatory_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:07.767056+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: exculpatory-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
Exculpatory evidence is evidence favorable to the defendant in a criminal trial that exonerates or tends to exonerate the defendant of guilt. It is the opposite of inculpatory evidence, which tends to present guilt. In many countries, including the United States, police and prosecutors are required to disclose to the defendant exculpatory evidence they possess before the defendant enters a plea (guilty or not guilty). In some countries, such as Germany, the prosecutor has to actively search for both exculpatory and inculpatory circumstances and evidence before filing of action. Per the Brady v. Maryland (1963) decision, prosecutors in the United States have a duty to disclose exculpatory evidence even if not requested to do so. While the prosecution is not required to search for exculpatory evidence and must disclose only the evidence in its possession, custody, or control, the prosecution's duty is to disclose all information known to any member of its team, e.g., police, investigators, crime labs, et cetera. In Brady v. Maryland, the U.S. Supreme Court held that such a requirement follows from constitutional due process and is consistent with the prosecutor's duty to seek justice. The Brady doctrine is a pretrial discovery rule that was established by


id: extraordinary-claims-require-extraordinary-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraordinary_claims_require_extraordinary_evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraordinary_claims_require_extraordinary_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:09.060729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraordinary-claims-require-extraordinary-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence" (sometimes shortened to ECREE), also known as the Sagan standard, is an aphorism popularized by science communicator Carl Sagan. He used the phrase in his 1979 book Broca's Brain and the 1980 television program Cosmos. It has been described as fundamental to the scientific method and is regarded as encapsulating the basic principles of scientific skepticism. The concept is similar to Occam's razor in that both heuristics prefer simpler explanations of a phenomenon to more complicated ones. In application, there is some ambiguity regarding when evidence is deemed sufficiently "extraordinary". It is often invoked to challenge data and scientific findings, or to criticize pseudoscientific claims. Some critics have argued that the standard can suppress innovation and affirm confirmation biases. Philosopher David Hume characterized the principle in his 1748 essay "Of Miracles". Similar statements were made by figures such as Thomas Jefferson in 1808, Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1814, and Théodore Flournoy in 1899. The formulation "extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof" was used a year prior to Sagan, by scientific skeptic Marcello Truzzi. == Application == The aphorism "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence", according to psychologist Patrizio Tressoldi, "is at the heart of the scientific method, and


id: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Hierarchy of evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:10.291720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
A hierarchy of evidence, comprising levels of evidence (LOEs), that is, evidence levels (ELs), is a heuristic used to rank the relative strength of results obtained from experimental research, especially medical research. There is broad agreement on the relative strength of large-scale, epidemiological studies. More than 80 different hierarchies have been proposed for assessing medical evidence. The design of the study (such as a case report for an individual patient or a blinded randomized controlled trial) and the endpoints measured (such as survival or quality of life) affect the strength of the evidence. In clinical research, the best evidence for treatment efficacy is mainly from meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and the least relevant evidence is expert opinion, including consensus of such. Systematic reviews of completed, high-quality randomized controlled trials – such as those published by the Cochrane Collaboration – rank the same as systematic review of completed high-quality observational studies in regard to the study of side effects. Evidence hierarchies are often applied in evidence-based practices and are integral to evidence-based medicine (EBM). == Definition == In 2014, Jacob Stegenga defined a hierarchy of evidence as "rank-ordering of kinds of methods according to the potential for that method


id: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence-1.md
category: reference
title: Hierarchy of evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:10.291720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Khan et al. === A protocol for evaluation of research quality was suggested by a report from the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, prepared by Khan et al. and intended as a general method for assessing both medical and psychosocial interventions. While strongly encouraging the use of randomized designs, this protocol noted that such designs were useful only if they met demanding criteria, such as true randomization and concealment of the assigned treatment group from the client and from others, including the individuals assessing the outcome. The Khan et al. protocol emphasized the need to make comparisons on the basis of "intention to treat" in order to avoid problems related to greater attrition in one group. The Khan et al. protocol also presented demanding criteria for nonrandomized studies, including matching of groups on potential confounding variables and adequate descriptions of groups and treatments at every stage, and concealment of treatment choice from persons assessing the outcomes. This protocol did not provide a classification of levels of evidence, but included or excluded treatments from classification as evidence-based depending on whether the research met the stated standards. === U.S. National Registry of Evidence-Based Practices and Programs === An assessment protocol has


id: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence-2.md
category: reference
title: Hierarchy of evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:10.291720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == In 2011, a systematic review of the critical literature found three kinds of criticism: procedural aspects of EBM (especially from Cartwright, Worrall and Howick), greater than expected fallibility of EBM (Ioaanidis and others), and EBM being incomplete as a philosophy of science (Ashcroft and others). Rawlins and Bluhm note, that EBM limits the ability of research results to inform the care of individual patients, and that to understand the causes of diseases both population-level and laboratory research are necessary. EBM hierarchy of evidence does not take into account research on the safety and efficacy of medical interventions. RCTs should be designed "to elucidate within-group variability, which can only be done if the hierarchy of evidence is replaced by a network that takes into account the relationship between epidemiological and laboratory research" The hierarchy of evidence produced by a study design has been questioned, because guidelines have "failed to properly define key terms, weight the merits of certain non-randomized controlled trials, and employ a comprehensive list of study design limitations". Stegenga has criticized specifically that meta-analyses are placed at the top of such hierarchies. The assumption that RCTs ought to be necessarily near the top of such hierarchies


id: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:11.488454+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-0
summary:
The Holocaust—the systematic killing of about six million Jews by Nazi Germany from 1941 to 1945—is the most documented genocide in history. Although there is no single document which lists the names of all Jewish victims of Nazi persecution, there is conclusive evidence that about six million Jews were murdered. There is also conclusive evidence that Jews were gassed at Auschwitz-Birkenau, the Operation Reinhard extermination camps, and in gas vans, and that there was a systematic plan by the Nazi leadership to murder them. Evidence for the Holocaust comes in four main varieties: Contemporary documents, including a wide variety of "letters, memos, blueprints, orders, bills, speeches"; Holocaust train schedules and statistical summaries generated by the SS; and photographs, including official photographs, clandestine photographs by survivors, aerial photographs, and film footage of the liberation of the camps. More than 3,000 tons of records were collected for the Nuremberg trials. Later testimony from tens of thousands of eyewitnesses, including survivors such as Sonderkommandos, who directly witnessed the extermination process; perpetrators such as Nazi leaders, SS guards, and Nazi concentration camp commandants; and local townspeople. Moreover, virtually none of the perpetrators put on trial denied the reality of the systematic murder, with the


id: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:11.488454+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-0
summary:
I also want to refer here very frankly to a very difficult matter. We can now very openly talk about this among ourselves, and yet we will never discuss this publicly. Just as we did not hesitate on June 30, 1934, to perform our duty as ordered and put comrades who had failed up against the wall and execute them, we also never spoke about it, nor will we ever speak about it. Let us thank God that we had within us enough self-evident fortitude never to discuss it among us, and we never talked about it. Every one of us was horrified, and yet every one clearly understood that we would do it next time, when the order is given and when it becomes necessary. I am now referring to the evacuation of the Jews, to the extermination of the Jewish people. Historian Peter Longerich states that Hitler "avoided giving a clear written order to exterminate Jewish civilians". Wide protest was evoked when Hitler's authorisation of the T4 program became public knowledge in Germany, and he was forced to put a halt to it as a result (nonetheless it continued discreetly). This made Hitler realise that such undertakings must


id: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:11.488454+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-0
summary:
I never saw a written order, Herr Hauptmann. All I know is that Heydrich said to me: "The Führer has ordered the physical extermination of the Jews." He said that as clearly and surely as I'm repeating it now. Critics state that Eichmann gives a virtually identical account of this in his memoirs, and state that it is also asserted that Eichmann never even asked for a written order, on the basis that "Hitler's wish as expressed through Himmler and Heydrich was good enough for him". Eichmann's memoirs were recorded by Willem Sassen before he was captured, and Eichmann's lawyer tried to prevent them from being presented as evidence to avoid any detriment against his case. In a speech, David Irving states that Heydrich told Eichmann, "The Führer has given the order for the physical destruction of the Jews". Irving admits that this contradicts his view that "Hitler wasn't involved", but explains it by suggesting that a completely different meaning can be construed, i.e. "the extirpation of Judaism" as opposed to the physical destruction of Jews if one changes "just one or two words". Critics of this view state that historians should not change words if their documents contradict their


id: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:11.488454+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-0
summary:
Deniers have said for years that physical evidence is lacking because they have seen no holes in the roof of the Birkenau gas chamber where the Zyklon was poured in. (In some of the gas chambers the Zyklon B was poured in through the roof, while in others it was thrown in through the windows.) The roof was dynamited at war's end, and today lies broken in pieces, but three of the four original holes were positively identified in a recent paper. Their location in the concrete matches with eyewitness testimony, aerial photos from 1944, and a ground photo from 1943. The physical evidence shows unmistakably that the Zyklon holes were cast into the concrete when the building was constructed. Deniers also claim that the doors of gas chambers, some of which were made out of wood, were not airtight enough for the chambers to have worked correctly, assertion that has been thrououghly debunked. Cremation in the open at the Reinhard extermination camps (Treblinka, Sobibor and Belzec) was discussed at Nuremberg on 7 April 1946 by Georg Konrad Morgen, SS judge and lawyer who investigated crimes committed in Nazi concentration camps. He stated: "The whole thing was like an assembly


id: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust-4.md
category: reference
title: Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:11.488454+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-and-documentation-for-the-holocaust-20260505-0
summary:
== Testimonies == There is a voluminous amount of testimony from tens of thousands of survivors of the Holocaust, as well as the testimony of captured Nazi officers at the Nuremberg Trials and other times. Höss's testimony did not consist of merely a signed confession; while in jail he also wrote two volumes of memoirs and gave extensive testimony outside of the Nuremberg proceedings. Further, his testimony agrees with that of other contemporary written accounts by Auschwitz officials, such as Pery Broad, an SS man stationed at Auschwitz while Höss was the commandant, and the diary kept by SS physician at Auschwitz Johann Kremer, as well as the testimony of hundreds of camp guards and victims. Auschwitz guard Reinhold Hanning even testified that it was common knowledge among camp personnel that "the majority of people who arrived in the trains were killed". In addition, former SS personnel have criticised Holocaust denial. SS-Oberscharführer Josef Klehr said that anyone who maintains that nobody was gassed at Auschwitz must be "crazy or on the wrong". SS-Unterscharführer Oswald Kaduk stated that he did not consider those who maintain such a thing as normal people. Karl Frenzel, a senior officer at the Sobibor extermination camp,


id: law-of-hyperbolic-growth-of-the-human-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_hyperbolic_growth_of_the_human_population-0.md
category: reference
title: Law of hyperbolic growth of the human population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_hyperbolic_growth_of_the_human_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:12.676679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: law-of-hyperbolic-growth-of-the-human-population-20260505-0
summary:
The law of hyperbolic growth of the human population is an empirical law discovered by Heinz von Foerster, which states that the human population of the Earth has grown hyperbolically over several millennia. In the article published by Foerster et al. it was noted that hyperbolic growth is possible only if humanity acts "as a single player", that is, under the condition of some form of cooperation among all people on Earth. Most authors explain the hyperbolic growth by the joint intellectual development of humanity. At the same time, many (S. Kuznets, J. Simon, M. Kremer, S. V. Tsirel, A. V. Korotayev and others) consider the development of technologies as the main factor. A. V. Podlazov highlights life-saving technologies, which are understood not only as production methods but "in general, any knowledge and skills that can be used to save a person from death or prolong their life". S. P. Kapitsa and a number of other authors name the accumulation of knowledge and information in general as the cause of growth. == Boundaries of the law's application == According to statistical data, the law of hyperbolic growth ceased to operate in the 1960–1970s. Since 1989, the absolute rates of world


id: law-of-hyperbolic-growth-of-the-human-population-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_hyperbolic_growth_of_the_human_population-1.md
category: reference
title: Law of hyperbolic growth of the human population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_hyperbolic_growth_of_the_human_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:12.676679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: law-of-hyperbolic-growth-of-the-human-population-20260505-0
summary:
== Accumulation of information == In the works of S. P. Kapitsa the independence of human development from available resources is substantiated. Based on this position, the principle of demographic imperative is advanced, as the self-sufficiency of demography in describing human history. At the same time, leading importance in the cooperative nonlinear mechanism of development is given to the informational interaction of large groups of people. It is the accumulation of information in the process of such interaction that can explain the hyperbolic growth of the human population. Information has a more fundamental character than the technological level and differs from it in integrity: any information can be in demand for creating new technologies, whereas the state of humanity cannot be described by limiting to used technologies. According to Kapitsa, humanity is near the inflection point of the population growth curve, falling around 2005. After passing this point, a slowdown was expected, symmetric to the era of hyperbolic growth. Kapitsa's works are criticized for excessive physicalism. The accumulation of information and the associated hyperbolic growth of species diversity was also noted until recently (before human intervention) in the biosphere. The widely discussed opinion is that further civilization development will be


id: problem-of-the-speckled-hen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_the_speckled_hen-0.md
category: reference
title: Problem of the speckled hen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_the_speckled_hen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:13.885766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: problem-of-the-speckled-hen-20260505-0
summary:
In the theory of empirical knowledge, the problem of the speckled hen is whether a single immediate observation of a speckled hen provides a certain knowledge of the number of speckles observed. Clearly, this is not an isolated example, and therefore it is of fundamental nature. Philosophically, this problem probes the limits of knowledge by acquaintance: one is unable to know with certainty the existence of determinate things in one's experience merely by the virtue of the experience. Roderick Chisholm attributes it to Gilbert Ryle suggesting to A. J. Ayer. It is viewed as a criticism of the view expressed by C. I. Lewis that there can never be "positive bafflement in the presence of the immediate, because there is here no question which fails to find an answer." Joseph Heath remarks that this problem is one of the "descendants of Descartes's 'chiliagon' argument in the sixth of his Meditations". A. J. Ayer suggested that if we are unable to enumerate speckles accurately, then it is incorrect to suggest that the "sense-data" provides a definite number of speckles despite the fact that the hen does have a definite number of them, clearly outlined. In Ayers' words, speckles are enumerable only


id: proof-truth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_(truth)-0.md
category: reference
title: Proof (truth)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_(truth)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:15.017890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proof-truth-20260505-0
summary:
A proof is sufficient evidence or a sufficient argument for the truth of a proposition. The concept applies in a variety of disciplines, with both the nature of the evidence or justification and the criteria for sufficiency being area-dependent. In the area of oral and written communication such as conversation, dialog, rhetoric, etc., a proof is a persuasive perlocutionary speech act, which demonstrates the truth of a proposition. In any area of mathematics defined by its assumptions or axioms, a proof is an argument establishing a theorem of that area via accepted rules of inference starting from those axioms and from other previously established theorems. The subject of logic, in particular proof theory, formalizes and studies the notion of formal proof. In some areas of epistemology and theology, the notion of justification plays approximately the role of proof, while in jurisprudence the corresponding term is evidence, with "burden of proof" as a concept common to both philosophy and law. In most disciplines, evidence is required to prove something. Evidence is drawn from the experience of the world around us, with science obtaining its evidence from nature, law obtaining its evidence from witnesses and forensic investigation, and so on. A notable


id: real-world-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_world_data-0.md
category: reference
title: Real world data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_world_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:16.189791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: real-world-data-20260505-0
summary:
Real world data (RWD) in medicine is data derived from a number of sources that are associated with outcomes in a heterogeneous patient population in real-world settings, including but not limited to electronic health records, health insurance claims and patient surveys. While no universal definition of real world data exists, researchers typically understand RWD as distinct from data sourced from randomized clinical trials. == Real world data in healthcare == Real-world data refer to observational data as opposed to data gathered in an experimental setting such as a randomized controlled trial (RCT). They are derived from electronic health records (EHRs), claims and billing activities, product and disease registries, etc. A systematic scoping review of the literature suggests data quality dimensions and methods with RWD is not consistent in the literature, and as a result quality assessments are challenging due to the complex and heterogeneous nature of these data. The sources of RWD are only rarely interoperable, as each hospital-maintained EHR system is, by design, secured for patient privacy. Healthcare providers responsible for entering patient data into their EHR may agree to pooling that data with others, once it has been de-identified in accordance with privacy regulations such as HIPAA or


id: real-world-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_world_evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Real world evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_world_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:17.363407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: real-world-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
Real-world evidence (RWE) in medicine is the clinical evidence regarding the usage and potential benefits or risks of a medical product derived from analysis of real-world data (RWD). RWE can be generated by different study designs or analyses, including but not limited to, randomized trials, including large simple trials, pragmatic trials, and retrospective or prospective observational studies. In the USA the 21st Century Cures Act required the FDA to expand the role of real world evidence. Real-world evidence comes into play when clinical trials cannot really account for the entire patient population of a particular disease. Patients with comorbidities or belonging to a distant geographic region or age limit who did not participate in any clinical trial may not respond to the treatment in question as expected. RWE provides answers to these problems and also analyzes the effects of drugs over a longer period of time. Pharmaceutical companies and health insurance payers study RWE to understand patient pathways to deliver appropriate care for appropriate individuals and to minimize their own financial risk by investing in drugs that work for patients. == Data quality == Data quality (DQ) is the degree to which a given dataset meets a user's requirements. In


id: scientific-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:18.593506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific evidence is evidence that serves to either support or counter a scientific theory or hypothesis, although scientists also use evidence in other ways, such as when applying theories to practical problems. Such evidence is expected to be empirical evidence and interpretable in accordance with the scientific method. Standards for scientific evidence vary according to the field of inquiry, but the strength of scientific evidence is generally based on the results of statistical analysis and the strength of scientific controls. == Principles of inference == A person's assumptions or beliefs about the relationship between observations and a hypothesis will affect whether that person takes the observations as evidence. These assumptions or beliefs will also affect how a person utilizes the observations as evidence. For example, the Earth's apparent lack of motion may be taken as evidence for a geocentric cosmology. However, after sufficient evidence is presented for heliocentric cosmology and the apparent lack of motion is explained, the initial observation is strongly discounted as evidence. When rational observers have different background beliefs, they may draw different conclusions from the same scientific evidence. For example, Priestley, working with phlogiston theory, explained his observations about the decomposition of mercuric oxide using phlogiston.


id: scientific-evidence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_evidence-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:18.593506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
== Philosophical versus scientific views == In the 20th century, many philosophers investigated the logical relationship between evidence statements and hypotheses, whereas scientists tended to focus on how the data used for statistical inference are generated. But according to philosopher Deborah Mayo, by the end of the 20th century philosophers had come to understand that "there are key features of scientific practice that are overlooked or misdescribed by all such logical accounts of evidence, whether hypothetico-deductive, Bayesian, or instantiationist". There were a variety of 20th-century philosophical approaches to decide whether an observation may be considered evidence; many of these focused on the relationship between the evidence and the hypothesis. In the 1950s, Rudolf Carnap recommended distinguishing such approaches into three categories: classificatory (whether the evidence confirms the hypothesis), comparative (whether the evidence supports a first hypothesis more than an alternative hypothesis) or quantitative (the degree to which the evidence supports a hypothesis). A 1983 anthology edited by Peter Achinstein provided a concise presentation by prominent philosophers on scientific evidence, including Carl Hempel (on the logic of confirmation), R. B. Braithwaite (on the structure of a scientific system), Norwood Russell Hanson (on the logic of discovery), Nelson Goodman (of grue fame,


id: security-bag-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_bag-0.md
category: reference
title: Security bag
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_bag
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:19.789021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: security-bag-20260505-0
summary:
A security bag is a heavy duty bag used to contain high-value products, documents or legally sensitive items. Envelopes with security features are called security envelopes as well as security bags. Cash for deposit in a bank is often placed in a special deposit bag with security features. When they are used to contain items related to a crime, special evidence bags are used. Authentication of signatures and chain of custody are often required. == Construction == Security bags or envelopes may be specially designed plastic bags, paper bags, or fabric bags. Bags or envelopes can be made to be tamper resistant to make it difficult for unauthorized entry. It is often more important for these to be tamper evident so that an unauthorized entry is easily detected to have occurred. Bags and envelopes are often closed by an integral pressure sensitive adhesive on the closing flap. The removal of a release liner allows convenient closing of the bag. Several types of security features can be included in the flap structure and are designed to indicate its opening irreversibly. Separate security tapes are also used. Tamper-indicating security seals employ a variety of mechanisms for operation, each with its own advantages


id: self-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Self-evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:20.931953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
In epistemology (theory of knowledge), a self-evident proposition is a proposition that is known to be true by understanding its meaning without proof, and/or by ordinary human reason. Some epistemologists deny that any proposition can be self-evident. For most others, one's belief that oneself is conscious and possesses free will are offered as examples of self-evidence. However, one's belief that someone else is conscious or has free will are not epistemically self-evident. The following proposition is often said to be self-evident: "A finite whole is greater than, or equal to, any of its parts". A logical argument for a self-evident conclusion would demonstrate only an ignorance of the purpose of persuasively arguing for the conclusion based on one or more premises that differ from it (see ignoratio elenchi and begging the question). == Analytic propositions == It is sometimes said that a self-evident proposition is one whose denial is self-contradictory. It is also sometimes said that an analytic proposition is one whose denial is self-contradictory. But the concepts mean different things, i.e., an analytic proposition is not always a self-evident proposition. Provided that one understands and believes a self-evident proposition, self-evident propositions are not in need of proof. Likewise, that


id: smoking-gun-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_gun-0.md
category: reference
title: Smoking gun
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_gun
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:22.056126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: smoking-gun-20260505-0
summary:
The term "smoking gun" is a reference to an object or fact that serves as conclusive evidence of a crime or similar act, just short of being caught in flagrante delicto. "Smoking gun" refers to the strongest kind of circumstantial evidence, as opposed to direct evidence. Direct evidence would be eyewitness testimony of someone who saw an actus reus (the actual alleged act), while connected events (the preceding chase, etc.) are considered circumstantial. == Phrase origin == The phrase originally came from the idea that finding a very recently fired (hence smoking) gun on the person of a suspect wanted for shooting someone would in that situation be nearly unshakable proof of having committed the crime. A variant of the phrase (as "smoking pistol") is used in the Sherlock Holmes story, "The Adventure of the Gloria Scott" (1893). == Extended meaning == In addition to this, its meaning has evolved in uses completely unrelated to criminal activity: for example, scientific evidence that is highly suggestive in favor of a particular hypothesis is sometimes called "smoking gun evidence". == See also == Burden of proof (law) Incontrovertible evidence Nixon White House tapes § "Smoking Gun" tape == References ==


id: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum-0.md
category: reference
title: Subpoena duces tecum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:23.289503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-0
summary:
A subpoena duces tecum (pronounced in English sə-PEE-nə DEW-seez TEE-kəm), or subpoena for production of evidence, is a court summons ordering the recipient to appear before the court and produce documents or other tangible evidence for use at a hearing or trial. In some jurisdictions, it can also be issued by legislative bodies such as county boards of supervisors. The summons is known by various names in different jurisdictions. The term subpoena duces tecum is used in the United States, and some other common law jurisdictions such as South Africa and Canada. The summons is called a "subpoena for production of evidence" in some U.S. states that have sought to reduce the use of non-English words and phrases in court terminology. The subpoena duces tecum is similar to the subpoena ad testificandum, which is a writ summoning a witness to testify orally. However, unlike the latter summons, the subpoena duces tecum instructs the witness to bring in hand books, papers, or evidence for the court. In most jurisdictions, a subpoena usually has to be served personally. == Etymology == The phrase sub poena duces tecum is a Latin expression meaning literally "under [threat of] penalty [or punishment], you will bring


id: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum-1.md
category: reference
title: Subpoena duces tecum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:23.289503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-0
summary:
== Failure to produce documents == In the United States, a continuance (a rescheduling of a court hearing to a later date) of a civil action may be granted due to the absence of documents or papers. The party failing to produce the documents requested by a subpoena duces tecum must show good reason why there was a failure to do so. Acceptable explanations have included loss or destruction of papers, or an agreement to use copies. The party seeking the continuance must show that the absence of the documents is not because of the negligence of their own, or of the attorney of record. Similarly, a continuance may be granted in a criminal case if there is good reason documents pertinent to the case could not be produced at the time of trial. For example, a continuance should be granted for failure to produce a transcript of testimony given at a previous trial. In general, it is reversible error to proceed with a criminal trial in the absence of a previous trial transcript, when such contains pertinent information that should have been considered in the new trial. In these cases, a continuance is the usual remedy. === Commitment of


id: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum-2.md
category: reference
title: Subpoena duces tecum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:23.289503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-0
summary:
Attorney–client privilege is generally recognized by the courts. Communications between lawyer and client are generally immune from subpoena. In other words, a lawyer cannot be compelled to testify in a trial unless the lawyer becomes, or appears to become, a party to the litigation. A similar situation exists with "work product", meaning written documents or computer records generated in preparation for a trial or hearing. This includes information such as potential questions that may be asked of witnesses, lists of possible witnesses, memoranda, notes, trial strategies, written briefs, or documents that may, or may not end up being used in the course of litigation. Usually, none of this can be the subject of a subpoena duces tecum. If a communication between lawyer and client is made in the presence of a third party, the privilege is not recognized to exist. The federal courts will apply the common law rule of attorney–client privilege unless there is an intervening state law applying to the central issues of the matter. In those cases, the federal court uses the effective state law. Physician–patient privilege is usually statutorily defined, and can vary from state to state. The usual rule is that medical records are immune


id: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum-3.md
category: reference
title: Subpoena duces tecum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:23.289503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-0
summary:
=== Documents relating to Federal Trade Commission hearings in monopoly actions === Whenever the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has reason to believe that any person has violated 15 USC section 13, 14, 18 or 19, it must issue and serve on that person and on the Attorney General of the United States, a complaint stating its charges in that regard. The notice shall also give a date for a hearing in the matter. Delivery of the subpoena duces tecum for production of documents may be done in person, or by certified letter. Receipt of the letter is considered proof of service. Power to issue subpoenas is extended to Robinson–Patman Act cases of price-fixing and Clayton Act cases of unlawful acquisition. A Federal District Court lacks jurisdiction to enjoin the Federal Trade Commission from proceeding in an investigation. It cannot stay (stop) a subpoena duces tecum to produce documents in the investigative stage. An injunction by a federal court does not have the power to restrain the FTC from enforcing an order requiring corporations to furnish reports and documents un 15 USC § 49. The only relief available to stop a demand for documents is to seek an action of compliance


id: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum-4.md
category: reference
title: Subpoena duces tecum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:23.289503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-0
summary:
==== Experts and opinion evidence ==== In tort actions for recovery of damages, it is necessary for the introduction of medical records to establish a basis for the claimed loss. An injured plaintiff is entitled to recover the expenses necessary to cure or treat injuries. Courts frequently call upon expert testimony to interpret and advise, after examining medical records concerning the nature of injuries, future medical, disability and other issues before the court. ==== Worker's Compensation actions ==== Medical records introduced as evidence are crucial in determining both causation and impairment in worker's compensation cases. In cases where the evidence is contested, medical evidence in the form of records, opinions, affidavits and testimony concerning both fact and opinion is necessary. When oral testimony is taken from physicians, the usual standard is to state an opinion "within a reasonable degree of medical certainty". Worker's compensation laws are dictated by state statute or Federal Employers Liability Act. In many states, the employer has the right to demand an independent examination and can also direct treatment be carried out by certain physicians. ==== Mandatory reporting of child abuse ==== In the landmark 1976 California case of Landeros v. Flood, the California Supreme Court


id: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum-5.md
category: reference
title: Subpoena duces tecum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:23.289503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subpoena-duces-tecum-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sources === 11 USCS section 107 (a) Federal Rule 27 (a) (3) FRCP 30 (b) (5) FRCP 34 FRCP 69 (a) Caffey, "Multiple Fractures in the Long Bones of Infants Suffering from Chronic Subdural Hematoma", 56 Am. J. Roentgen 163 (1946) Caffey, "Some Traumatic Lesions in Growing Bones Other Than Fractures and Dislocation – Clinical and Radiological Features", 30 Br. J. Radiol. 225, 1957 Kempe, "The Battered Child Syndrome", Journal of the American Medical Syndrome", 181, July 7, 1962 Malone, Plant and Little, "Worker's Compensation and Employment Rights", West, 1980 Pegalis, S. and Wachsman, H., "American Law of Medical Malpractice", Lawyers Cooperative, Bancroft Whitney, 1980 Sharpe, D., Fiscina, S. and Head, M., "Law and Medicine" West, 1978 Stein, J., "Damages and Recovery, Personal Injury and Death Actions", Lawyers Cooperative, Bancroft Whitney, 1972 ==== American jurisprudence ==== 2 Am Jur 2nd "Administrative Law", section 328 (Jencks Act) 9 Am Jur 2nd "Bankruptcy", section 829, 828–829 16 A Am Jur 2nd "Constitutional Law", section 738 17 Am Jur 2nd "Continuance", sections 20, 81 21 A Am Jur 2nd "Criminal Law", section 666 et seq; 876 et seq 23 Am Jur 2nd "Depositions and Discovery", sections 126–127 29 A Am Jur 2nd


id: underdetermination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underdetermination-0.md
category: reference
title: Underdetermination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underdetermination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:24.490868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: underdetermination-20260505-0
summary:
In the philosophy of science, underdetermination or the underdetermination of theory by data (sometimes abbreviated UTD) is the idea that evidence available to us at a given time may be insufficient to determine what beliefs we should hold in response to it. The underdetermination thesis states that all evidence necessarily underdetermines any scientific theory. Underdetermination exists when available evidence is insufficient to identify which belief one should hold about that evidence. For example, if all that was known was that exactly $10 were spent on apples and oranges, and that apples cost $1 and oranges $2, then one would know enough to eliminate some possibilities (e.g., 6 oranges could not have been purchased), but one would not have enough evidence to know which specific combination of apples and oranges were purchased. In this example, one would say that belief in what combination was purchased is underdetermined by the available evidence. In contrast, overdetermination in philosophy of science means that more evidence is available than is necessary to justify a conclusion. == Origin == Ancient Greek skeptics argued for equipollence, the view that reasons for and against claims are equally balanced. This captures at least one sense of saying that the


id: underdetermination-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underdetermination-1.md
category: reference
title: Underdetermination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underdetermination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:24.490868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: underdetermination-20260505-0
summary:
All the available evidence of a certain type underdetermines which of several rival conclusions is correct. Only evidence of that type is relevant to believing one of these conclusions. Therefore, there is no evidence for believing one among the rival conclusions. The first premise makes the claim that a theory is underdetermined. The second says that rational decision (i.e. using available evidence) depends upon insufficient evidence. === Epistemological problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory === Any phenomenon can be explained by a multiplicity of hypotheses. How, then, can data ever be sufficient to prove a theory? This is the "epistemological problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory". The poverty of the stimulus argument and W.V.O. Quine's 1960 'Gavagai' example are perhaps the most commented variants of the epistemological problem of the indeterminacy of data to theory. === General skeptical arguments === Some skeptical arguments appeal to the fact that no possible evidence could be incompatible with 'skeptical hypotheses' like the maintenance of a complex illusion by Descartes' evil demon or (in a modern version) the machines who run the Matrix. A skeptic may argue that this undermines any claims to knowledge, or even (by internalist definitions), justification.


id: experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:26.048482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-20260505-0
summary:
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also exist natural experimental studies. A child may carry out basic experiments to understand how things fall to the ground, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance their understanding of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of hands-on activities are very important to student learning in the science classroom. Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time. Experiments can vary from personal and informal natural comparisons (e.g. tasting a range of chocolates to find a favorite), to highly controlled (e.g. tests requiring complex apparatus overseen by many scientists that hope to discover information about subatomic particles). Uses of experiments vary considerably between the natural and human sciences. Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of


id: experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:26.048482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-20260505-0
summary:
We should, that is, recommence the inquiry into its principles and premisses, beginning our investigation with an inspection of the things that exist and a survey of the conditions of visible objects. We should distinguish the properties of particulars, and gather by induction what pertains to the eye when vision takes place and what is found in the manner of sensation to be uniform, unchanging, manifest and not subject to doubt. After which we should ascend in our inquiry and reasonings, gradually and orderly, criticizing premisses and exercising caution in regard to conclusions—our aim in all that we make subject to inspection and review being to employ justice, not to follow prejudice, and to take care in all that we judge and criticize that we seek the truth and not to be swayed by opinion. We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels disagreement and resolves doubtful matters. For all that, we are not free from that human turbidity which is in the nature of man; but we must do our


id: experiment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment-2.md
category: reference
title: Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:26.048482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-20260505-0
summary:
A controlled experiment often compares the results obtained from experimental samples against control samples, which are practically identical to the experimental sample except for the one aspect whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or regular treatment would be the control one. In many laboratory experiments it is good practice to have several replicate samples for the test being performed and have both a positive control and a negative control. The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample). Most often, tests are done in duplicate or triplicate. A positive control is a procedure similar to the actual experimental test but is known from previous experience to give a positive result. A negative control is known to give a negative result. The positive control confirms that the basic conditions


id: experiment-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment-3.md
category: reference
title: Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:26.048482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The term "experiment" usually implies a controlled experiment, but sometimes controlled experiments are prohibitively difficult, impossible, unethical or illegal. In this case researchers resort to natural experiments or quasi-experiments. Natural experiments rely solely on observations of the variables of the system under study, rather than manipulation of just one or a few variables as occurs in controlled experiments. To the degree possible, they attempt to collect data for the system in such a way that contribution from all variables can be determined, and where the effects of variation in certain variables remain approximately constant so that the effects of other variables can be discerned. The degree to which this is possible depends on the observed correlation between explanatory variables in the observed data. When these variables are not well correlated, natural experiments can approach the power of controlled experiments. Usually, however, there is some correlation between these variables, which reduces the reliability of natural experiments relative to what could be concluded if a controlled experiment were performed. Also, because natural experiments usually take place in uncontrolled environments, variables from undetected sources are neither measured nor held constant, and these may produce illusory correlations in variables under study. Much research in


id: experiment-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment-4.md
category: reference
title: Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:26.048482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-20260505-0
summary:
An observational study is used when it is impractical, unethical, cost-prohibitive (or otherwise inefficient) to fit a physical or social system into a laboratory setting, to completely control confounding factors, or to apply random assignment. It can also be used when confounding factors are either limited or known well enough to analyze the data in light of them (though this may be rare when social phenomena are under examination). For an observational science to be valid, the experimenter must know and account for confounding factors. In these situations, observational studies have value because they often suggest hypotheses that can be tested with randomized experiments or by collecting fresh data. Fundamentally, however, observational studies are not experiments. By definition, observational studies lack the manipulation required for Baconian experiments. In addition, observational studies (e.g., in biological or social systems) often involve variables that are difficult to quantify or control. Observational studies are limited because they lack the statistical properties of randomized experiments. In a randomized experiment, the method of randomization specified in the experimental protocol guides the statistical analysis, which is usually specified also by the experimental protocol. Without a statistical model that reflects an objective randomization, the statistical analysis relies on


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:27.280362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of historically important scientific experiments and observations demonstrating something of great scientific interest, typically in an elegant or clever manner. == Astronomy == Ole Rømer makes the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light in 1676 by timing the motions of Jupiter's satellite Io with a telescope Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detect the cosmic microwave background radiation, giving support to the theory of the Big Bang (1964) Kerim Kerimov launches Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 as experiments on automatic docking eventually leading to the development of space stations (1967) The Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team discover, by observing Type Ia supernovae, that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating (1998) Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to observe that the moons of Jupiter appear to circle Jupiter. This evidence supports the heliocentric model, and weakens the geocentric model of the cosmos (1609) == Biology == Robert Hooke, using a microscope, observes cells (1665). Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovers microorganisms (1674–1676). James Lind, publishes 'A Treatise of the Scurvy' which describes a controlled shipboard experiment using two identical populations but with only one variable, the consumption of citrus fruit (1753). Edward Jenner


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-1.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:27.280362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
== Chemistry == Robert Boyle uses an air pump to determine the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. This relationship came to be known as Boyle's law (1660–1662). Joseph Priestley suspends a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery and synthesizes carbonated water (1767). Antoine Lavoisier determines that oxygen combines with materials upon combustion, thus disproving phlogiston theory (1783). Antoine Lavoisier determines that chemical reactions in a closed container do not alter total mass. From these observations he establishes the law of conservation of mass (1789). Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford demonstrates that the heat developed by the friction of boring cannon is nearly inexhaustible. This result was presented in opposition to caloric theory (1798). Humphry Davy uses electrolysis to isolate elemental potassium, sodium, calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, and chlorine (1807–1810). Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac studies reactions among gases and determines that their volumes combine chemically in simple integer ratios (1809). Robert Brown studies very small particles in water under the microscope and observes Brownian motion which was later named in his honor (1827). Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes the organic compound urea using inorganic reactants, disproving the application of vitalism to chemical processes (1828). Thomas Graham


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-2.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:27.280362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
Inclined plane experiment (1602–07): Galileo Galilei uses rolling balls to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion. Atmospheric pressure vs. altitude experiment (1648): Blaise Pascal carries a barometer up a church tower and a mountain to determine that atmospheric pressure is due to a column of air. Magdeburg hemispheres (1654): Otto von Guericke demonstrates atmospheric pressure using a pair of hollow copper hemisphere. Spring of air experiment (1660): Robert Boyle shows that the volume of a given amount of gas is inversely related to the pressure upon it. Kite experiment (1700s): Benjamin Franklin beginning in 1747 describes experiments in letters to Peter Collinson demonstrating electrical principles which were published in a book called Experiments and Observations on Electricity. Voltaic pile (1796): Alessandro Volta constructs a new source of electricity, the electrical battery. Cavendish experiment (1798): Henry Cavendish's torsion bar experiment measures the force of gravity in a laboratory. Double-slit experiment (c.1805): Thomas Young shows that light is a wave in his double-slit experiment. Arago spot (1819): Observation of circular diffraction by François Arago, validated a new wave theory of light by Augustin-Jean Fresnel disproving skeptics like Siméon Denis Poisson. Ørsted experiment (1820): Hans Christian Ørsted demonstrates the connection of electricity and


id: acali-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acali-0.md
category: reference
title: Acali
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acali
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:28.400557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acali-20260505-0
summary:
The Acali expedition (or Acali experiment or the Sex Raft) was a 1973 social experiment that aimed to investigate interpersonal relationships in conditions of limited space and social isolation. The experiment was conceived by Mexican anthropologist Santiago Genovés, who had previously been a crew member of Thor Heyerdahl's Ra expedition. The participants showed a restraint towards aggression, which frustrated Genovés and led him to start to try to create conflict, and at one point he took command of the float. Despite these attempts, the group remained peaceful. The raft had a complement of eleven people: five men and six women. It left Las Palmas, Spain, on 12 May 1973 and took 101 days to drift across the Atlantic Ocean and reach Cozumel, Mexico, with a single stopover in Barbados. Frequently dubbed the "Sex Raft" by the media, it was the subject of a 2018 documentary film The Raft, by Marcus Lindeen. == The Raft == The name of the raft, Acali, comes from the Nahuatl language and means "the house on the water". The raft was built specifically for the experiment. It had a steel hull and dimensions of 12 by 7 metres. The cabin measured 4 × 4 metres.


id: aircraft-nuclear-propulsion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion-0.md
category: reference
title: Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:29.596684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aircraft-nuclear-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
The Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion (ANP) program and the preceding Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft (NEPA) project worked to develop a nuclear propulsion system for aircraft. The United States Army Air Forces initiated Project NEPA on May 28, 1946. NEPA operated until May 1951, when the project was transferred to the joint Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)/USAF ANP. The USAF pursued two different systems for nuclear-powered jet engines, the Direct Air Cycle concept, which was developed by General Electric, and Indirect Air Cycle, which was assigned to Pratt & Whitney. The program was intended to develop and test the Convair X-6, but was canceled in 1961 before that aircraft was built. The total cost of the program from 1946 to 1961 was about $1 billion. == Types == === Direct air cycle === Direct cycle nuclear engines resemble a conventional jet engine without combustion chambers. The hot compressed air produced by the compressor section is instead directed into the nuclear reactor core. The air is heated further, thereby cooling the reactor. The air is then expanded through a turbine, powering the compressor, before it is exhausted at high velocity to provide thrust. The end result is that instead of using


id: aircraft-nuclear-propulsion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion-1.md
category: reference
title: Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:29.596684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aircraft-nuclear-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Reactor-1 === On February 5, 1957, another reactor was made critical at the Critical Experiments Facility of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) as part of the circulating-fuel reactor program of the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company (PWAC). This was called the PWAR-1, the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Reactor-1. The purpose of the experiment was to experimentally verify the theoretically predicted nuclear properties of a PWAC reactor. The experiment was only run briefly; by the end of February 1957 all data had been taken and disassembly had begun. The experiment was run at essentially zero nuclear power. The operating temperature was held constant at approximately 675 °C (1,247 °F), which corresponds closely to the design operating temperature of the PWAR-l moderator; this temperature was maintained by external heaters. Like the 2.5 MWt ARE, the PWAR-1 used NaF-ZrF4-UF4 as the primary fuel and coolant. == Cancellation == Technological competition with the Soviet Union (as represented by the launch of Sputnik 1), and continued strong support from the Air Force allowed the program to continue, despite divided leadership between the DOD and the AEC. Numerous test facilities were funded and constructed through the 1950s and 1960–61 in


id: bataan-rice-enrichment-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataan_Rice_Enrichment_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Bataan Rice Enrichment Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataan_Rice_Enrichment_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:30.770293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bataan-rice-enrichment-project-20260505-0
summary:
Bataan Rice Enrichment Project or the Bataan Experiment, was a collaborative research venture between American chemist Robert R. Williams and Juan Salcedo Jr. It was a series of feeding experiments conducted in municipalities in Bataan between 1947 and 1949. By the end of the experiments, it is shown that thiamine-enriched rice can reduce the cases of beriberi in the Philippines, which was the leading cause of deaths during those times. == Overview == The enrichment project came first as a plan in 1943. During this time, Salcedo, who had his studies at Columbia University, met American chemist Robert R. Williams, a well renowned scientist for his synthesis on vitamin B1 in 1935. The Philippine Bureau of Health reported a relatively stable beriberi rate from the mid-1920s to 1940. However, after World War II, beriberi cases surged, becoming the second leading cause of death in 1946 and 1947. Infants accounted for a significant portion of these deaths. At this time, Williams was disappointed by the agencies at the United Nations to further eradicate the rise of beriberi cases around the globe. Due to his previous failures in rice enrichment programs, Williams became desperate. Together with Salcedo, they began feeding experiments in


id: behavioral-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Behavioral experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:31.895442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: behavioral-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
Technically, all scientific experiments measure a change in hypothesized causal behavior, and may drop the behavioral prefix. Behavioral experiment may refer to: Behavioral experiment (analysis) Behavioral experiment (animals), for controlling variables (vs. field studies) Behavioral experiment (cognitive science), for determining what constitutes intelligent behavior Behavioral experiment (cognitive therapy), method for cognitive restructuring Behavioral experiment (cognitive behavioral therapy), for testing the validity of negative and alternative thoughts in real-life situations Behavioral experiment (computational modeling), of computational model for comparison with human data Behavioral experiment (experimental psychology), for measuring reaction time, choices among alternatives, and/or response rate or strength Behavioral experiment (human reasoning), for studying human reasoning Behavioral experiment (conditional reasoning), on conditionals in the psychology of reasoning Behavioral experiment (psychotherapy), for identifying potentially negative or harmful beliefs == See also == Behavioral experiments for monotropism Behaviorism, which is based on such experiments Experiment Category:Science experiments All pages with titles containing experiment Behavior All pages with titles containing behavior All pages with titles containing behaviour


id: cloud-seeding-in-the-united-arab-emirates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates-0.md
category: reference
title: Cloud seeding in the United Arab Emirates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:33.076239+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cloud-seeding-in-the-united-arab-emirates-20260505-0
summary:
Cloud seeding in the United Arab Emirates is a weather modification technique used by the government to address water challenges in the country. Cloud seeding is also referred to as man made precipitation and artificial rain making. The United Arab Emirates is one of the first countries in the Persian Gulf region to use cloud seeding technology. UAE scientists use cloud seeding technology to supplement the country's water insecurity, which stems from the extremely hot climate. They use weather radars to continuously monitor the atmosphere of the country. Forecasters and scientists have estimated that cloud seeding operations can enhance rainfall by as much as 30-35% percent in a clear atmosphere, and up to 10-15% in a more humid atmosphere. This practice has caused concerns regarding the impact on the environment because it is difficult to predict its long-term global implications. == Climate needs == The UAE has an arid climate with less than 100mm per year of rainfall, a high evaporation rate of surface water and a low groundwater recharge rate. Rainfall in the UAE has been fluctuating over the last few decades in winter season between December and March. The climate of the UAE is very dry aside from


id: cloud-seeding-in-the-united-arab-emirates-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates-1.md
category: reference
title: Cloud seeding in the United Arab Emirates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:33.076239+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cloud-seeding-in-the-united-arab-emirates-20260505-0
summary:
=== Flooding === It is predicted that climate change will lead to higher temperatures, increased humidity and a greater risk of flooding in parts of the Gulf region. These issues could be worsened in nations like the UAE which do not have adequate drainage infrastructure to manage heavy rainfall. Cloud seeding activities conducted in 2019 by the UAE National Center of Meteorology & Seismology (NCM) as part of the UAE Research Program for Rain Enhancement Science were carried out prior to floods in Dubai in 2019. Although the NCM has linked heavier rainfall to cloud seeding operations, they assert it was not the cause of the flooding. Commercial and residential areas were severely impacted and pumps were needed to remove excess water due to inadequate drainage systems because drainage systems could not handle the volume of water. The UAE planned to invest 500 million dirhams ($136.1 million) on flood protection and transport infrastructure after severe storms in 2020. Sharjah, one of the most populous cities in the UAE, has experienced repetitive urban flooding during the rainy season over the last three decades. Possible additional increased rainfall intensity due to cloud seeding would require additional investment in the city's drainage systems


id: control-variable-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_variable-0.md
category: reference
title: Control variable
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_variable
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:34.251757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: control-variable-20260505-0
summary:
A control variable (or scientific constant) in scientific experimentation is an experimental element which is constant (controlled) and unchanged throughout the course of the investigation. Control variables could strongly influence experimental results were they not held constant during the experiment in order to test the relative relationship of the dependent variable (DV) and independent variable (IV). The control variables themselves are not of primary interest to the experimenter. "Good controls", also known as “confounders” or “deconfounders”, are variables which are theorized to be unaffected by the treatment and which are intended to eliminate omitted-variable bias. "Bad controls", on the other hand, are variables that could be affected by the treatment, might contribute to collider bias, and lead to erroneous results. == Usage == A variable in an experiment which is held constant in order to assess the relationship between multiple variables, is a control variable. A control variable is an element that is not changed throughout an experiment because its unchanging state allows better understanding of the relationship between the other variables being tested. In any system existing in a natural state, many variables may be interdependent, with each affecting the other. Scientific experiments test the relationship of an IV


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:35.485516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The Eddington experiment was an observational test of general relativity, organised by the British astronomers Frank Watson Dyson and Arthur Stanley Eddington in 1919. Observations of the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 were carried out by two expeditions, one to the West African island of Príncipe, and the other to the Brazilian town of Sobral. The aim of the expeditions was to measure the gravitational deflection of starlight passing near the Sun. The amount of deflection was predicted by Albert Einstein in a 1911 paper; however, his initial prediction proved inaccurate because it was based on an incomplete theory of general relativity. Einstein improved his prediction after finalizing his theory in 1915 and obtaining the solution to his equations by Karl Schwarzschild. Following the return of the expeditions, the results were presented by Eddington to a joint meeting of the Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society in London and, after some deliberation, were accepted. Widespread newspaper coverage of the results led to worldwide fame for Einstein and his theories. == Background == One of the first considerations of gravitational deflection of light was published in 1801, when Johann Georg von Soldner pointed out that Newtonian gravity predicts that


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:35.485516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
== Theory == The theory behind the experiment concerns the predicted deflection of light by the Sun. The first observation of light deflection was performed by noting the change in position of stars as they passed near the Sun on the celestial sphere. The approximate angular deflection δφ for a massless particle coming in from infinity and going back out to infinity is given by the following formula: δ φ ≈ 2 r s b = 4 G M c 2 b . {\displaystyle \delta \varphi \approx {\frac {2r_{s}}{b}}={\frac {4GM}{c^{2}b}}.} Here, b can be interpreted as the distance of closest approach. Although this formula is approximate, it is accurate for most measurements of gravitational lensing, due to the smallness of the ratio rs/b. For light grazing the surface of the Sun, the approximate angular deflection is roughly 1.75 arcseconds. This is twice the value predicted by calculations using the Newtonian theory of gravity. It was this difference in the deflection between the two theories that Eddington's expedition and other later eclipse observers would attempt to observe. == Expeditions and observations == The aim of the expeditions was to take advantage of the shielding effect of the Moon during a total


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-2.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:35.485516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Príncipe === The equipment used for the expedition to Príncipe, an island in the Gulf of Guinea off the coast of West Africa, was an astrographic lens borrowed from the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford. Eddington sailed from England in March 1919. By mid-May he had his equipment set up on Príncipe near what was then Spanish Guinea. The eclipse was due to take place in the early afternoon of 29 May, at 2 pm, but that morning there was a storm with heavy rain. Eddington wrote: The rain stopped about noon and about 1.30 ... we began to get a glimpse of the sun. We had to carry out our photographs in faith. I did not see the eclipse, being too busy changing plates, except for one glance to make sure that it had begun and another half-way through to see how much cloud there was. We took sixteen photographs. They are all good of the sun, showing a very remarkable prominence; but the cloud has interfered with the star images. The last few photographs show a few images which I hope will give us what we need ... Eddington developed the photographs on Príncipe, and attempted to measure


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-3.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:35.485516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The presentation of the results at the joint 6 November 1919 session of Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society led to intensive press coverage first in Great Britain and a few days later in the US press, notably in The New York Times, and some days later still in the German press. While Einstein had been a moderately famous public figure in Germany for a few years by that time, the articles in question marked the beginning of his international celebrity status. A notable exception was Belgium, where the Eddington results were given the cold shoulder – partly because Einstein was seen as representing Germany, with the suffering of Belgium in World War I still very present in the country. The sudden popularity of Einstein's theories led to an "Einstein boom" of popular science books. While there is a later anecdote describing Einstein as unimpressed about the experimental results, and sure of his theory even in the absence of evidence (stating, when asked what he would have said if the results had been otherwise, "Then I would feel sorry for the dear Lord. The theory is correct anyway.") the evidence of Einstein's letters to other scientists indicates, on the contrary,


id: eddington-experiment-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment-4.md
category: reference
title: Eddington experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:35.485516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eddington-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources and further reading == Collins, Harry; Pinch, Trevor (1993). The Golem: What everyone should know about science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521477360. Cowen, Ron (May 2019). Gravity's Century: From Einstein's Eclipse to Images of Black Holes (Illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-97496-8. Crelinsten, Jeffrey (May 2006). Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12310-3. Gates, Sylvester J. Jr; Pelletier, Cathie (2019). Proving Einstein right: The daring expeditions that changed how we look at the universe (First ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1541762251. Kennefick, Daniel (2019). No Shadow of a Doubt: The 1919 Eclipse That Confirmed Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691183862. Popper, Karl (2002) [1935]. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-99462-0. Stanley, Matthew (2019). Einstein's War: How Relativity Triumphed Amid the Vicious Nationalism of World War I. Dutton. ISBN 978-1-5247-4541-7. == External links == Eclipse 1919, website about the eclipse, the expeditions and centenary events "Eddington's Eclipse and Einstein's Celebrity" Discovery (audio) episode (from BBC World Service) "The man who made Einstein world-famous" (BBC News, 24 May 2019) "Matthew Stanley and Einstein's War". Archived 2020-07-30 at the Wayback Machine (Clarke Center for Human Imagination, UCSD podcast) "100


id: evidence-of-absence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_absence-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence of absence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_absence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:36.622081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-of-absence-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence of absence is evidence of any kind that suggests something is missing or that it does not exist. What counts as evidence of absence has been a subject of debate between scientists and philosophers. It is often distinguished from absence of evidence. == Overview == Evidence of absence and absence of evidence are similar but distinct concepts. This distinction is captured in the aphorism "Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence." This antimetabole is often attributed to Martin Rees or Carl Sagan, but a version appeared as early as 1888 in a writing by William Wright. In Sagan's words, the expression is a critique of the "impatience with ambiguity" exhibited by appeals to ignorance. Despite what the expression may seem to imply, a lack of evidence can be informative. For example, when testing a new drug, if no harmful effects are observed then this suggests that the drug is safe. This is because, if the drug were harmful, evidence of that fact can be expected to turn up during testing. The expectation of evidence makes its absence significant. As the previous example shows, the difference between evidence that something is absent (e.g., an observation that suggests there were


id: list-of-experiments-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments_in_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:37.889335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable experiments in physics. The list includes only experiments with Wikipedia articles. For hypothetical experiments, see thought experiment. == Historical experiments == == Articles on several experiments == Bell tests BICEP and Keck Array Coincidence method Discovery of the neutron Large Hadron Collider experiments List of Super Proton Synchrotron experiments Precision tests of QED Tests of special relativity Tests of relativistic energy and momentum Modern searches for Lorentz violation Measurements of neutrino speed Tests of general relativity Experimental testing of time dilation == On-going experiments == Collider Detector at Fermilab China Dark Matter Experiment Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment General antiparticle spectrometer GlueX The E and B Experiment VIP2 experiment VITO experiment == See also == List of accelerators in particle physics


id: lady-tasting-tea-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_tasting_tea-0.md
category: reference
title: Lady tasting tea
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_tasting_tea
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:39.095339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lady-tasting-tea-20260505-0
summary:
In the design of experiments in statistics, the lady tasting tea is a randomized experiment devised by Ronald Fisher and reported in his book The Design of Experiments (1935). The experiment is the original exposition of Fisher's notion of a null hypothesis, which is "never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation". The example is loosely based on an event in Fisher's life. The woman in question, phycologist Muriel Bristol, claimed to be able to tell whether the tea or the milk was added first to a cup. Her future husband, William Roach, suggested that Fisher give her eight cups, four of each variety, in random order. One could then ask what the probability was for her getting the specific number of cups she identified correct (in fact all eight), but just by chance. Fisher's description is less than 10 pages in length and is notable for its simplicity and completeness regarding terminology, calculations and design of the experiment. The test used was Fisher's exact test. == The experiment == The experiment provides a subject with eight randomly ordered cups of tea – four prepared by pouring milk and then tea, four by pouring tea


id: mesocosm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesocosm-0.md
category: reference
title: Mesocosm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesocosm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:40.253813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mesocosm-20260505-0
summary:
A mesocosm (meso- or 'medium' and -cosm 'world') is any outdoor or indoor experimental system that examines the natural environment under controlled conditions. In this way mesocosm studies provide a link between field surveys and highly controlled laboratory experiments. Mesocosms tend to be medium-sized to large (e.g., aquatic mesocosm range: 1 litre (34 US fl oz) to 10,000 litres (2,600 US gal)+) and contain multiple trophic levels of interacting organisms. In contrast to laboratory experiments, mesocosm studies are normally conducted outdoors in order to incorporate natural variation (e.g., diel cycles). Mesocosm studies may be conducted in either an enclosure that is small enough that key variables can be brought under control or by field-collecting key components of the natural environment for further experimentation. In coastal and aquatic ecology, specialized mesocosms can also be designed to reproduce wave climates, allowing experiments on hydrodynamic effects on organisms, sediments, and biogeomorphic processes. Extensive mesocosm studies have been conducted to evaluate how organisms or communities might react to environmental change, through deliberate manipulation of environmental variables, such as increased temperature, carbon dioxide or pH levels. == Advantages == The advantage of mesocosm studies is that environmental gradients of interest (e.g., warming temperatures) can be


id: molten-salt-reactor-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:41.440510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: molten-salt-reactor-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) was an experimental molten-salt reactor research reactor at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. This technology was researched through the 1960s, the reactor was constructed by 1964, it went critical in 1965, and was operated until 1969. The costs of a cleanup project were estimated at $130 million. Initially designed for 15 MWth, the MSRE was operated at 7.4 MWth because of imprecise nuclear cross section data. It was a test reactor simulating the neutronic "kernel" of a type of inherently safer epithermal thorium breeder reactor called the liquid fluoride thorium reactor. It primarily used two fuels: first uranium-235 and later uranium-233. The latter 233UF4 was the result of breeding from thorium in other reactors. Since this was an engineering test, the large, expensive breeding blanket of thorium salt was omitted in favor of neutron measurements. In the MSRE, the heat from the reactor core was shed via a cooling system using air blown over radiators. It is thought similar reactors could power high-efficiency heat engines such as closed-cycle gas turbines. The MSRE's piping, core vat and structural components were made from Hastelloy-N, and its moderator was a pyrolytic graphite core.


id: molten-salt-reactor-experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:41.440510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: molten-salt-reactor-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Structural alloy Hastelloy-N === Hastelloy-N—a low chromium, nickel–molybdenum alloy—was used in the MSRE and proved compatible with the fluoride salts FLiBe and FLiNaK. All metal parts contacting salt were made of Hastelloy-N. The choice of Hastelloy-N for the MSRE was on the basis of the promising results of tests at aircraft nuclear propulsion conditions and the availability of much of the required metallurgical data. Development for the MSRE generated the further data required for ASME code approval. It also included preparation of standards for Hastelloy-N procurement and for component fabrication. Almost 200,000 lb (90,000 kg) in a variety of shapes of material for the MSRE were produced commercially. Requests for bids on component fabrication went to several companies in the nuclear fabrication industry, but all declined to submit lump-sum bids because of lack of experience with the new alloy. Consequently, all major components were fabricated in U.S. Atomic Energy Commission-owned shops at Oak Ridge and Paducah, Kentucky. At the time that design stresses were set for the MSRE, the data that was available indicated that the strength and creep rate of Hastelloy-N were hardly affected by irradiation. After the construction was well along, the stress-rupture life and fracture strain


id: molten-salt-reactor-experiment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment-2.md
category: reference
title: Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:41.440510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: molten-salt-reactor-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
By this time, ample 233U had become available, so the MSRE program was extended to include substitution of 233U for the uranium in the fuel salt, and operation to observe the new nuclear characteristics. Using the on-site processing equipment the flush salt and fuel salt were fluorinated to recover the uranium in them as UF6. 233UF4-LiF eutectic was then added to the carrier salt, and in October 1968, the MSRE became the world's first reactor to operate on 233U. The 233U zero-power experiments and dynamics tests confirmed the predicted neutronic characteristics. An unexpected consequence of processing the salt was that its physical properties were altered slightly so that more than the usual amount of gas was entrained from the fuel pump into the circulating loop. The circulating gas and the power fluctuations that accompanied it were eliminated by operating the fuel pump at slightly lower speed. Operation at high power for several months permitted accurate measurement of the capture-to-fission ratio, for 233U in this reactor, completing the objectives of the 233U operation. In the concluding months of operation, xenon stripping, deposition of fission products, and tritium behavior were investigated. The feasibility of using plutonium in molten-salt reactors was emphasized by


id: molten-salt-reactor-experiment-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment-3.md
category: reference
title: Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:41.440510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: molten-salt-reactor-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
== Decommissioning == After shutdown, the salt was believed to be in long-term safe storage. At low temperatures, radiolysis can free fluorine from the salt. As a countermeasure, the salt was annually reheated to about 302 °F (150 °C) until 1989. But beginning in the mid-1980s, there was concern that radioactivity was migrating through the system, reported by an ORNL employee who was among 125 people working above the reactor, which had not been decontaminated or decommissioned. Department of Energy Oak Ridge Operations Manager Joe Ben LaGrone ordered evacuation of 125 employees, based on findings reported to him inspector William Dan DeFord, P.E. Sampling in 1994 revealed concentrations of uranium that created a potential for a nuclear criticality accident, as well as a potentially dangerous build-up of fluorine gas: the environment above the solidified salt was approximately one atmosphere of fluorine. The ensuing decontamination and decommissioning project was called "the most technically challenging" activity assigned to Bechtel Jacobs under its environmental management contract with the U.S. Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Operations organization. In 2003, decommissioning was expected to be completed in 2009, and the MSRE cleanup project cost estimated at $130 million. Removal of uranium from the salt was


id: oneida-stirpiculture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneida_stirpiculture-0.md
category: reference
title: Oneida stirpiculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneida_stirpiculture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:43.771376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oneida-stirpiculture-20260505-0
summary:
The stirpiculture experiment at the Oneida Community was the first positive eugenics experiment in American history, resulting in the planned conception, birth and rearing of 58 children. The experiment lasted from 1869–1879. It was not considered as part of the larger eugenics history because of its radical religious context. The term "stirpiculture" was used by John Humphrey Noyes, founder of the Oneida Community, to refer to his system of eugenics, or the breeding of humans to achieve desired perfections within the species. Noyes derived stirpiculture from the Latin word "stirps", which means "stock, stem, or root" (Carden). It has been claimed that Noyes coined the term two decades before Francis Galton created the term "eugenics". In 1904, Galton claimed that he had first come up with the term and "deliberately changed it for eugenics," a claim supported in print by George Willis Cooke. In his 1883 book Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development, Galton noted that his new term "eugenics" was a suitable replacement for the older term "viriculture" that he had invented, suggesting that he had confused the two terms "viriculture" and "stirpiculture." == Origins of the Oneida stirpiculture experiment == Until the late 1860s, John Humphrey Noyes


id: oneida-stirpiculture-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneida_stirpiculture-1.md
category: reference
title: Oneida stirpiculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneida_stirpiculture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:43.771376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oneida-stirpiculture-20260505-0
summary:
==== The Children's House ==== Once weaned, children were sent to live in the Children's House. In the early days of the community, this "house" was a succession of rooms in the "Middle House". For some time after being weaned, children still slept with their mothers at night. Once they reached a certain age, they were discouraged from sleeping in their mothers' rooms. Still concerned with creating a bond between the child and the community, children would often sleep in the bed of a community member. This member changed periodically so no special attachments could be formed, and thus detract from the overall communal commitment. ==== Values of non-attachment ==== Guidelines were established by the community to help direct parents in establishing an appropriate relationship with their child. Most of these guidelines were an extension of the principles of non-attachment and commitment to the communal ideal. The concern was that an excessive relationship would fail to appropriately teach the child the communal fundamentals of the community. It was acceptable to be attached, as long as this was a general emotion of love and trust to the community, rather than to a particular individual. A mother's excessive attachment to her child


id: organic-moderated-reactor-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_Moderated_Reactor_Experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Organic Moderated Reactor Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_Moderated_Reactor_Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:44.977297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organic-moderated-reactor-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The Organic Moderated Reactor Experiment (OMRE) was a 16 MWt experimental organic nuclear reactor that operated at the National Reactor Testing Station from 1957 to 1963 to explore the use of hydrocarbons as coolant, moderator, and reflector materials in power reactor conditions. Such organic fluids are non-corrosive, do not become highly activated under irradiation, and can operate at low pressure and moderate temperature. These characteristics were considered promising towards the goal of achieving economical commercial nuclear power. The information provided by OMRE established the credibility of the Organic nuclear reactor concept and led to the commercial demonstration at the Piqua Nuclear Generating Station. More recently, OMRE has been cited as providing key input and motivation for modern designs of such systems, aiming to help improve performance of new and advanced nuclear power plants towards the goals of climate change mitigation. == Design == The OMRE design efforts began in July 1955. It was originally intended to operate for 1 year. The objectives of the OMRE program were to obtain the following experimental information: Rate of radiation and thermal neutron damage to the hydrocarbon in the reactor Effect of this damage upon the operation of the reactor Suitable methods for ensuring


id: organic-moderated-reactor-experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_Moderated_Reactor_Experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Organic Moderated Reactor Experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_Moderated_Reactor_Experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:44.977297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organic-moderated-reactor-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
The OMRE first achieved criticality on September 17, 1957, and reached full power at the beginning of February, 1958. The reactor operated in two modes: without the purification system, and with the purification system. Seventeen tests were run with the first OMRE core throughout 1958 with reactor power between 0 and 12 MWt. The first three tests were system check-out tests, covering all major systems. Subsequent tests simulated the conditions expected to be encountered in the Piqua Nuclear Generating Station. Test 4 demonstrated that pyrolitic decomposition rate in external piping was negligible. Tests 5-11 measured the decomposition rate and the effect of radiation damage on coolant-moderator heat-transfer characteristics. Tests 12 and 13 tested the purification system's ability to reduce the concentration of inorganic particulate matter while also reducing the high-boiler concentration from 40% to 8%. Three fuel element failures occurred during first core operation. Two occurred in experimental low-enriched assemblies with finned aluminum cladding due to inadequate coolant filtration, and the third was caused by improper element seating. By the end of the first year, the core had generated 958 MW-day of energy and been in operation for 5,600 hours. An extended shutdown followed to replace the core. Problems with


id: remote-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Remote experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:46.151408+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: remote-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
A remote experiment is a real experiment with real laboratory instruments and equipment that can be controlled by a computer through the internet. One or more remote experiments are accessible in remote laboratory. Remotely controlled experiments have become a widespread tool for teaching physics at the university level of education. When executing remote experiments the remote users can change system parameters, observe results in graphical form and/or by video transmission from webcam, and download the experimental results. Sometimes a booking system is available for remote experiments that allows the users to book time for access of remote experiment in advance. User operates remote experiment via graphical user interface. Remote experiments are positively evaluated by the learners. == Advantages of remote experiments == When compared to simulations in virtual laboratories and to experiments in the traditional laboratories, remotely controlled experiments have following advantages: remote experiments can be carried out from anywhere in the world; no time restriction since experiments are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week; overcoming problems with limited laboratory capacity for numerous students; safe and secure operation of equipment without danger of user's injury; remote experiments can be shared between education institutions as for example in


id: repeated-measures-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeated_measures_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Repeated measures design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeated_measures_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:47.372113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: repeated-measures-design-20260505-0
summary:
Repeated measures design is a research design that involves multiple measures of the same variable taken on the same or matched subjects either under different conditions or over two or more time periods. For instance, repeated measurements are collected in a longitudinal study in which change over time is assessed. == Crossover studies == A popular repeated-measures design is the crossover study. A crossover study is a longitudinal study in which subjects receive a sequence of different treatments (or exposures). While crossover studies can be observational studies, many important crossover studies are controlled experiments. Crossover designs are common for experiments in many scientific disciplines, for example psychology, education, pharmaceutical science, and health care, especially medicine. Randomized, controlled, crossover experiments are especially important in health care. In a randomized clinical trial, the subjects are randomly assigned treatments. When such a trial is a repeated measures design, the subjects are randomly assigned to a sequence of treatments. A crossover clinical trial is a repeated-measures design in which each patient is randomly assigned to a sequence of treatments, including at least two treatments (of which one may be a standard treatment or a placebo): Thus each patient crosses over from one treatment to


id: repeated-measures-design-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeated_measures_design-1.md
category: reference
title: Repeated measures design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeated_measures_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:47.372113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: repeated-measures-design-20260505-0
summary:
Normality—For each level of the within-subjects factor, the dependent variable must have a normal distribution. Sphericity—Difference scores computed between two levels of a within-subjects factor must have the same variance for the comparison of any two levels. (This assumption only applies if there are more than 2 levels of the independent variable.) Randomness—Cases should be derived from a random sample, and scores from different participants should be independent of each other. The rANOVA also requires that certain multivariate assumptions be met, because a multivariate test is conducted on difference scores. These assumptions include: Multivariate normality—The difference scores are multivariately normally distributed in the population. Randomness—Individual cases should be derived from a random sample, and the difference scores for each participant are independent from those of another participant. === F test === As with other analysis of variance tests, the rANOVA makes use of an F statistic to determine significance. Depending on the number of within-subjects factors and assumption violations, it is necessary to select the most appropriate of three tests: Standard Univariate ANOVA F test—This test is commonly used given only two levels of the within-subjects factor (i.e. time point 1 and time point 2). This test is not recommended


id: resistive-plate-chamber-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistive_plate_chamber-0.md
category: reference
title: Resistive plate chamber
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistive_plate_chamber
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:48.534735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: resistive-plate-chamber-20260505-0
summary:
A Resistive plate chamber (RPC) is a particle detector widely used in high energy physics. They are used for detecting muons in most of the modern experiments including ATLAS, CMS, Belle II and BES III. == References ==


id: room-temperature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room_temperature-0.md
category: reference
title: Room temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:49.758772+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: room-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
Room temperature, colloquially, denotes the range of air temperatures most people find comfortable indoors while dressed in typical clothing. Comfortable temperatures can be extended beyond this range depending on humidity, air circulation, and other factors. In certain fields, like science and engineering, and within a particular context, room temperature can mean different agreed-upon ranges. In contrast, ambient temperature is the actual temperature, as measured by a thermometer, of the air (or other medium and surroundings) in any particular place. The ambient temperature (e.g. an unheated room in winter) may be very different from an ideal room temperature. Food and beverages may be served at "room temperature", meaning neither heated nor cooled. == Comfort temperatures == Comfort temperature is interchangeable with neutral temperature in the scientific literature, which can be calculated through regression analysis between thermal sensation votes and indoor temperature. The neutral temperature is the solution of the resulting regression model by setting the thermal sensation vote as zero. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language identifies room temperature as around 20–22 °C (68–72 °F; 293–295 K), while the Oxford English Dictionary states that it is "conventionally taken as about 20 °C (68 °F; 293 K)". Ideal room temperature


id: round-hill-generator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Hill_generator-0.md
category: reference
title: Round Hill generator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Hill_generator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:50.995002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: round-hill-generator-20260505-0
summary:
The Round Hill generator is an experimental high-voltage Van de Graaff generator built at Round Hill, Massachusetts. When constructed in 1933, it was designed as the world's most powerful particle accelerator. The generator is now used at the Boston Museum of Science for educational demonstrations. The instrument was constructed by a Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) team led by physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff, who hoped to be the first scientist to artificially split the atom. They completed construction a year after John Cockroft and Ernest Walton accomplished the feat in 1932. The machine was the forerunner of high-voltage electrostatic particle accelerators built by the High Voltage Engineering Corporation, which Van de Graaff and his student John G. Trump introduced to cancer clinics and nuclear physics labs around the world. Too large to fit in a research lab, the 43-foot-tall generator was assembled in Round Hill's airship hangar. Originally, a technician ran the machine from within one of its metal terminals, which acted as a Faraday cage. It was first demonstrated to the public in November 1933 and dubbed an "electrical Niagara" by the New York Times because of its copious electrical discharges. Coverage in Time, Science, and a


id: round-hill-generator-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Hill_generator-1.md
category: reference
title: Round Hill generator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Hill_generator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:50.995002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: round-hill-generator-20260505-0
summary:
In 1931, Van de Graaff demonstrated a prototype generator at Round Hill. Colonel Green was "delighted" by the generator's spectacular electrical discharges and agreed to Compton's suggestion that a full-scale generator be constructed at the estate. Construction of the large-scale generator began in 1932, with Van de Graaff's equipment and research group moving to Round Hill in August of that year. The high-voltage installation was managed by Lester and Chester van Atta, Edward W. Samson, and Doyle L. Northrup, who operated independently of existing Round Hill research. Needing environmental control, the 43-foot generator was housed in an airship hangar on the estate that had previously been used for a Goodyear dirigible. The machine was first demonstrated to the public on November 28, 1933, generating significant scientific and media attention. The generator produced spectacular lightning discharges, which made it a popular attraction for visitors and potential investors. The team conducted regular demonstrations, during which the machine would shoot huge purple bolts of lightning into the rafters of the hangar, creating a thunderous cracking sound. Though visually arresting, the display showed the operating limits of an air-insulated generator. The arcs of lighting again showed the difficulty of sustaining high voltages without breakdown.


id: round-hill-generator-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Hill_generator-2.md
category: reference
title: Round Hill generator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Hill_generator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:50.995002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: round-hill-generator-20260505-0
summary:
== Technical contributions == The Round Hill generator was primarily designed for nuclear physics research, particularly for the study of atomic nuclei through high-energy particle bombardment. In the early 1930s, this represented the frontier of experimental atomic physics. Ultimately, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton's 1932 voltage-multiplier circuit produced the first controlled "splitting of the atom." However, electrostatic power offered superior beam control and voltage regulation than contemporaries like the Cockcroft-Walton device, leading to its widespread adoption in nuclear experiments. The Round Hill generator incorporated several technical innovations that advanced the state of high-voltage engineering. The generator featured an improved belt-charging systems that provided more stable operation and better voltage control than previous Van de Graaff designs. The vacuum-insulated accelerating tube prompted advances in vacuum technology. The reinstallation in Cambridge also made several innovations that became standard in subsequent accelerator designs. The generator featured one of the first comprehensive remote control systems for high-voltage equipment to manage radiation exposure concerns. Once re-installed in Cambridge, the installation's vacuum technology achieved pressures as low as 6×10−7 mm Hg, with normal operating pressure of 4×10−6 mm Hg during electron beam operation. The system could also accelerate both positive ions and electrons, though positive ion


id: rye-riptides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye_Riptides-0.md
category: reference
title: Rye Riptides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye_Riptides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:52.171847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rye-riptides-20260505-0
summary:
Rye Riptides is a boat that was made by a 5th grade class in New Hampshire that was released to the Atlantic Ocean in 2020, and spent 462 days at sea before being discovered in Norway in 2022. The boat was built by two science classes at Rye Junior High School in New Hampshire and launched on October 25, 2020; it was found on February 1, 2022, on a small uninhabited island off the larger island of Smøla. == See also == Friendly Floatees == References == == External links == Official site


id: single-subject-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-subject_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Single-subject design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-subject_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:53.416326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: single-subject-design-20260505-0
summary:
In design of experiments, single-subject curriculum or single-case research design is a research design most often used in applied fields of psychology, education, and human behaviour in which the subject serves as his/her own control, rather than using another individual/group. Researchers use single-subject design because these designs are sensitive to individual organism differences vs group designs which are sensitive to averages of groups. The logic behind single subject designs is 1) Prediction, 2) Verification, and 3) Replication. The baseline data predicts behaviour by affirming the consequent. Verification refers to demonstrating that the baseline responding would have continued had no intervention been implemented. Replication occurs when a previously observed behaviour changed is reproduced. There can be large numbers of subjects in a research study using single-subject design, however—because the subject serves as their own control, this is still a single-subject design. These designs are used primarily to evaluate the effect of a variety of interventions in applied research. == Design standards == === Effect size === Although there are no standards on the specific statistics required for effect size calculation, it is best practice to include an effect size estimate. == Reporting standards == When reporting on findings obtained through single-subject


id: experimental-software-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_software_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Experimental software engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_software_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:54.579784+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experimental-software-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Experimental software engineering involves running experiments on the processes and procedures involved in the creation of software systems, with the intent that the data be used as the basis of theories about the processes involved in software engineering (theory backed by data is a fundamental tenet of the scientific method). A number of research groups primarily use empirical and experimental techniques. The term empirical software engineering emphasizes the use of empirical studies of all kinds to accumulate knowledge. Methods used include experiments, case studies, surveys, and using whatever data is available. == Empirical software engineering research == In a keynote at the International Symposium on Empirical Software Engineering and Measurement Prof. Wohlin recommended ten commitments that the research community should follow to increase the relevance and impact of empirical software engineering research. However, at the same conference Dr. Ali effectively argued that solely following these will not be enough and we need to do more than just show the evidence substantiating the claimed benefits of our interventions but instead what is required for practical relevance and potential impact is the evidence for cost-effectiveness. The International Software Engineering Research Network (ISERN) is a global community of research groups who are active


id: timeline-of-snowflake-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_snowflake_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of snowflake research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_snowflake_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:56:55.831024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-snowflake-research-20260505-0
summary:
The hexagonal snowflake, a crystalline formation of ice, has intrigued people throughout history. This is a chronology of interest and research into snowflakes. Artists, philosophers, and scientists have wondered at their shape, recorded them by hand or in photographs, and attempted to recreate hexagonal snowflakes. Wilson Alwyn Bentley (February 9, 1865 – December 23, 1931), also known as Snowflake Bentley, was an American meteorologist and photographer, who was the first known person to take detailed photographs of snowflakes and record their features.[1] He perfected a process of catching flakes on black velvet in such a way that their images could be captured before they either melted or sublimated. == Chronological list == === BC to 1900 === 150 BCE or 135 BCE - Han Ying (韓嬰) compiled the anthology Han shi waizhuan, which includes a passage that contrasts the pentagonal symmetry of flowers with the hexagonal symmetry of snow. This is discussed further in the Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era. 1250 - Albertus Magnus offers what is believed to be the oldest detailed description of snow. 1555 - Olaus Magnus publishes the earliest snowflake diagrams in Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus. 1611 - Johannes Kepler, in Strenaseu De Nive Sexangula,


id: wet-lab-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_lab-0.md
category: reference
title: Wet lab
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_lab
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:11.971557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wet-lab-20260505-0
summary:
A wet lab, or experimental lab, is a type of laboratory where it is necessary to handle various types of chemicals and potential "wet" hazards, so the room has to be carefully designed, constructed, and controlled to avoid spillage and contamination. A dry lab might have large experimental equipment but minimal chemicals, or instruments for analyzing data produced elsewhere. == Overview == A wet lab is a type of laboratory in which a wide range of experiments are performed, for example, characterizing of enzymes in biology, titration in chemistry, diffraction of light in physics, etc. - all of which may sometimes involve dealing with hazardous substances. Due to the nature of these experiments, the proper appropriate arrangement of safety equipment are of great importance. The researchers (the occupants) are required to know basic laboratory techniques including safety procedures and techniques related to the experiments that they perform. == Laboratory design == At the present, lab design tends to focus on increasing the interactions between researchers through the use of open plans, allowing the space and opportunity for researchers to exchange ideas, share equipment, and share storage space; increasing productivity and efficiency of experiments. This style of design has been proposed


id: widefield-askap-l-band-legacy-all-sky-blind-survey-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widefield_ASKAP_L-Band_Legacy_All-Sky_Blind_Survey-0.md
category: reference
title: Widefield ASKAP L-Band Legacy All-Sky Blind Survey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widefield_ASKAP_L-Band_Legacy_All-Sky_Blind_Survey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:13.153533+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: widefield-askap-l-band-legacy-all-sky-blind-survey-20260505-0
summary:
The Widefield ASKAP L-band Legacy All-sky Blind surveY (WALLABY) is a next-generation survey of the 21 cm radio emission from neutral hydrogen (HI) in the Local Universe. It is hosted by the Australian Square Kilometer Array Pathfinder (ASKAP) telescope, WALLABY will survey three-quarters of the sky over a Declination range −90° to +30° to a redshift of 0.26. It will have an angular resolution of 30 arcsec and a sensitivity of 1.6 mJy/beam in each 4 km/s channel. WALLABY is expected to detect about 500,000 galaxies with a mean redshift of 0.05, at a mean distance of about 200 Mpc. The scientific goals of WALLABY include: a census of gas-rich galaxies in the vicinity of the Local Group; a study of the HI properties of galaxies, groups and clusters, including the influence of the environment on galaxy evolution; == History == The WALLABY project was proposed in 2009 by a team led by B. S. Koribalski and L. Staveley-Smith. It was ranked by ASKAP in the top two of ten Survey Science projects, with Koribalski and Staveley-Smith the principal investigators. Koribalski stepped down in 2019. Currently, Lister Staveley-Smith is the Principal Investigator, Karen Lee-Waddell is the project scientist, and Tobias


id: write-once-read-forever-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_Once_Read_Forever-0.md
category: reference
title: Write Once Read Forever
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_Once_Read_Forever
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:14.332179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: write-once-read-forever-20260505-0
summary:
Write Once Read Forever (WORF) is a data storage method which allows users to write data once and allows storage of the users data without ever being refreshed. This differs from common digital storage techniques such as drives that need to be re-written often to prevent loss or corruption of data. WORF was tested on the International Space Station in 2019. == Method == WORF uses a data storage mechanism based on silver halide, which after substantial testing has been determined to last for more than a century under conventional ambient environmental conditions. WORF digital data is stored as microscopic, metallic, interference-created standing waves (representing narrowband ‟colors” ) embedded in a modern, super-resolution, dye-free, photosensitive emulsion. Wavelengths encode multiple superimposed states allowing complex data permutations to be stored per data region. Permutations enable extremely high data density to be stored on WORF media. Multi-state data architecture within each domain also enhances data integrity, error-checking, and accelerates parallel writing and reading for the entire media module. Once data is written to WORF, energy is needed only for reading—no periodic refresh is necessary, and data is both immutable and truly permanent. Human readable text and images are embedded in the WORF module


id: heuristic-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(engineering)-0.md
category: reference
title: Heuristic (engineering)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic_(engineering)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:15.882007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heuristic-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
In engineering, heuristics are experience-based methods used to reduce the need for calculations pertaining to equipment size, performance, or operating conditions. Heuristics are fallible and do not guarantee a correct solution. It is important to understand their limitations when applying them to different equipment and processes. Though heuristics are limited, they may be of value. This is because they offer time-saving approximations in preliminary process design. Problem solving methods are intrinsic to forensic engineering methods, where failures are analysed for the root cause or causes. Only when failures have been investigated with conclusive results can remedial action be taken with confidence. == Examples == === Storage Vessels === These heuristics were taken from Turton's "Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes". Use vertical tanks on legs when the tank is less than 3.8 m3. Use horizontal tanks on concrete supports when the tank is between 3.8 and 38 m3, Use vertical tanks on concrete pads when the tank is beyond 38 m3, Liquids subject to breathing losses may be stored in tanks with floating or expansion roofs for conservation. Freeboard is 15% below 1.9 m3 and 10% above 1.9 m3. Thirty-day capacity often is specified for raw materials and products,


id: admissible-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admissible_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Admissible heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admissible_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:17.054508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: admissible-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
In computer science, specifically in algorithms related to pathfinding, a heuristic function is said to be admissible if it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal, i.e. the cost it estimates to reach the goal is not higher than the lowest possible cost from the current point in the path. In other words, it should act as a lower bound. It is related to the concept of consistent heuristics. While all consistent heuristics are admissible, not all admissible heuristics are consistent. == Search algorithms == An admissible heuristic is used to estimate the cost of reaching the goal state in an informed search algorithm. In order for a heuristic to be admissible to the search problem, the estimated cost must always be lower than or equal to the actual cost of reaching the goal state. The search algorithm uses the admissible heuristic to find an estimated optimal path to the goal state from the current node. For example, in A* search the evaluation function (where n {\displaystyle n} is the current node) is: f ( n ) = g ( n ) + h ( n ) {\displaystyle f(n)=g(n)+h(n)} where f ( n ) {\displaystyle f(n)} = the evaluation


id: affect-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Affect heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:18.202032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: affect-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The affect heuristic is a heuristic, a mental shortcut that allows people to make decisions and solve problems quickly and efficiently, in which current emotion—fear, pleasure, surprise, etc.—influences decisions. In other words, it is a type of heuristic in which emotional response, or "affect" in psychological terms, plays a lead role. It is a subconscious process that shortens the decision-making process and allows people to function without having to complete an extensive search for information. It is shorter in duration than a mood, occurring rapidly and involuntarily in response to a stimulus. Reading the words "lung cancer" usually generates an affect of dread, while reading the words "mother's love" usually generates a feeling of affection and comfort. The affect heuristic is typically used while judging the risks and benefits of something, depending on the positive or negative feelings that people associate with a stimulus. It is the equivalent of "going with your gut". If their feelings towards an activity are positive, then people are more likely to judge the risks as low and the benefits high. On the other hand, if their feelings towards an activity are negative, they are more likely to perceive the risks as high and benefits


id: affect-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Affect heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:18.202032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: affect-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Subliminal affective response === The cause of affect does not necessarily have to be consciously perceived. A study conducted by Winkielman, Zajonc and Schwarz (1997) demonstrated the speed at which an affective reaction can influence judgements. To do this they used a subliminal priming paradigm where participants were "primed" through exposure to either a smiling face, a frowning face, or a neutral polygon presented at about 1⁄250 of a second. This was considered an amount of time where the nature of the stimuli could not be recalled. Participants were then exposed to an ideograph (e.g. a Chinese character) for two seconds and asked to rate the ideograph on a scale of liking. Researchers found that participants preferred the ideograph preceded with a smiling face as opposed to those preceded by a frowning face or neutral polygon despite the fact that the smiling face was only shown for 1⁄250 of a second. The same experiment demonstrated the persistence of initial affect. During a second session, participations were primed with the same characters, but these characters were preceded by a different face that they were not previously exposed to (e.g. those previously exposed to the smiling face were now exposed to


id: affect-heuristic-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic-2.md
category: reference
title: Affect heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:18.202032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: affect-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Fear appeals === Health campaigns often use “fear appeals” to grab the attention of their audience. Fear appeals are a type of advertising that specifically uses methods of creating anxiety in the consumer which results in the consumer wanting to cure this fear by purchasing the product. In a study by Averbeck, Jones, and Robertson (2011), researchers look at how prior knowledge influences one's response to fear appeals. Surveys were distributed which manipulated prior knowledge as low or high and two different topics: sleep deprivation or spinal meningitis. Various scale were used to test how prior knowledge affects certain health-related issues. Researchers found that individuals who had prior knowledge in a certain subject exhibited less fear and were least likely to fall prey to the affect heuristic as opposed to individuals that did not have prior knowledge who exhibited more fear and were more likely to fall prey. Another example of how fear appeals are used in marketing today is through the findings presented in the experiment by Schmitt and Blass (2008). They produced two versions of an anti-smoking film. One contained high fear arousal and one did not. Out of the participants (46 non-smoking students and 5 smoking


id: affect-heuristic-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic-3.md
category: reference
title: Affect heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:18.202032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: affect-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Smiling === Research has been done on how smiling can cause affective responses and thus influence our opinions of others. An experiment by LaFrance and Hecht (1995) investigated whether a smiling target would elicit more leniency than those that do not. Participants judged a case of potential academic misconduct and were asked to rate a list of subjects. Materials included photos of a female target either showing a neutral expression, felt smile, false smile, or miserable smile. Researchers found that the student pictured as smiling received less punishment than did the student who did not smile despite the fact that the smiling student was not seen as less guilty. They did not find a significant difference between the different smiles. Smiling students were also rated as more trustworthy, honest, genuine, good, obedient, sincere, and admirable compared to the student that did not smile. To the previous studies evidence, there is further evidence on the effect of smiling on a person’s perception. They contain it in the experiment by Delevati and Cesar (1994). Brazilian undergraduates perceived a slide of a male and female person. Smiling faces were portrayed and non-smiling faces were portrayed. The participants used 12 different adjectives to


id: anchoring-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Anchoring effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anchoring-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The anchoring effect is a psychological phenomenon in which an individual's judgments or decisions are influenced by a reference point or "anchor" which can be completely irrelevant. The original description of the anchoring effect came from psychophysics. When judging stimuli along a continuum, it was noticed that the first and last stimuli were used to compare the other stimuli (this is also referred to as "end anchoring"). This concept was notably formalized in behavioral economics by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. In their seminal 1974 work, they described anchoring as a heuristic used to make estimates under uncertainty. Both numeric and non-numeric anchoring have been reported through research. In numeric anchoring, once the value of the anchor is set, subsequent arguments, estimates, etc. made by an individual may change from what they would have otherwise been without the anchor. For example, an individual may be more likely to purchase a car if it is placed alongside a more expensive model (the anchor). Non-numeric anchoring has been observed in physical judgments involving length, weight, and volume. == Experimental findings == The anchoring and adjustment heuristic was first theorized by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. In one of their first studies, participants


id: anchoring-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Anchoring effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anchoring-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== Durability of anchoring === Anchoring effects are also shown to remain adequately present given the accessibility of knowledge pertaining to the target. This, in turn, suggests that despite a delay in judgement towards a target, the extent of anchoring effects have seen to remain unmitigated within a given time period. A series of three experiments were conducted to test the longevity of anchoring effects. It was observed that despite a delay of one week being introduced for half the sample population of each experiment, similar results of immediate judgement and delayed judgement of the target were achieved. The experiments concluded that external information experienced within the delayed judgement period shows little influence relative to self-generated anchors even with commonly encountered targets (temperature) used in one of the experiments, showing that anchoring effects may precede priming in duration especially when the anchoring effects were formed during the task. Further research to conclude an effect that is effectively retained over a substantial period of time has proven inconsistent. === Pervasiveness across contexts === One notable characteristic of the anchoring effect is its pervasiveness across diverse judgment scenarios. Furnham and Boo (2011) highlight that anchoring occurs not only in abstract estimation tasks


id: anchoring-effect-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect-2.md
category: reference
title: Anchoring effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anchoring-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== Anchoring-and-adjusting === The most prevalent explanation of the anchoring effect is the argument originally made by Tversky and Kahneman, termed anchoring-and-adjusting. Based on this theory, individuals set an anchor according to available information, whether it is provided or individuals already have an anchor in mind, and use this anchor as a point of reference to adjust their answers. This theory explains inaccuracy in guessing by suggesting that people adjust insufficiently, rendering their final guess closer to the anchors. This phenomenon was further investigated in other studies and used as an explanation for biases such as hindsight bias and egocentric bias. For instance, when asked to guess the price of a drink in a coffee shop, individuals often look for the price of other drinks or recall the price of similar drinks at other stores, and base their answer on the anchor that they set. Specifically, the original study found that by simply providing an arbitrary anchor to each group, people provided significantly different responses, suggesting that their answers were generated through anchoring and adjusting. In addition, this finding suggests that individuals are gullible when setting an anchor, and almost automatically begin the anchoring-and-adjusting process. On the other hand, Epley


id: anchoring-effect-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect-3.md
category: reference
title: Anchoring effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anchoring-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== Attitude change === On the contrary of the two previous theories, the attitude change view suggests that individuals' attitude towards an anchor, specifically provided anchors, can heavily affect the extent of the anchoring effect. Recall that individuals often seek to confirm their hypothesis rather than objectively evaluating all information. When individuals disagree with the provided anchor, they will selectively seek evidence that supports their own attitudes instead of the provided anchor, resulting in an unobserved anchoring effect. This theory highlights the idea that the distinct anchoring effect observed with self-generated and provided anchors roots from individual attitude (i.e., does the individual believe in the anchor) rather than the anchors themselves, supporting the integrative theory proposed by Simmons and colleagues. Furthermore, supporters of this view have argued that attitude change is an alternative explanation of the anchoring effect. Providing an anchor generates favorable attitudes in individuals toward the anchor, biasing consequent judgments. === Extremeness aversion === Extremeness aversion is a robust phenomenon where people try to avoid the extremes during decision-making, such as selecting the middle options more often than other extreme options and avoiding reporting the maximum or minimum on a Likert scale. This desire to avoid extremes is


id: anchoring-effect-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect-4.md
category: reference
title: Anchoring effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anchoring-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== Personal experience === Early research found that experts (those with high knowledge, experience, or expertise in some field) were more resistant to the anchoring effect. However, anchoring happens unconsciously which means that unless someone who is knowledgeable is warned prior, they are still susceptible to anchoring. Since then, however, numerous studies have demonstrated that while experience can sometimes reduce the effect, even experts are susceptible to anchoring. In a study concerning the effects of anchoring on judicial decisions, researchers found that even experienced legal professionals were affected by anchoring. This remained true even when the anchors provided were arbitrary and unrelated to the case in question. Also, this relates to goal setting, where more experienced individuals will set goals based on their past experiences which consequently affects end results in negotiations. Expertise is typically defined as domain-specific knowledge and experience. In a study using price estimation of cars, it was found that relevant knowledge positively influenced anchoring. Expertise in cognitive bias is related to experience however the two are not exclusively exhaustive. In a study using stock return estimates, it was found that expertise decreases behavioural bias significantly. It was found that other factors like cognitive ability and experience


id: anchoring-effect-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect-5.md
category: reference
title: Anchoring effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:19.378582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anchoring-effect-20260505-0
summary:
=== Anchoring in negotiation === In the negotiation process anchoring serves to determine an accepted starting point for the subsequent negotiations. As soon as one side states their first price offer, the (subjective) anchor is set. The counterbid (counter-anchor) is the second-anchor. In addition to the initial research conducted by Tversky and Kahneman, multiple other studies have shown that anchoring can greatly influence the estimated value of an object. For instance, although negotiators can generally appraise an offer based on multiple characteristics, studies have shown that they tend to focus on only one aspect. In this way, a deliberate starting point can strongly affect the range of possible counteroffers. The process of offer and counteroffer results in a mutually beneficial arrangement. However, multiple studies have shown that initial offers have a stronger influence on the outcome of negotiations than subsequent counteroffers. An example of the power of anchoring has been conducted during the Strategic Negotiation Process Workshops. During the workshop, a group of participants is divided into two sections: buyers and sellers. Each side receives identical information about the other party before going into a one-on-one negotiation. Following this exercise, both sides debrief about their experiences. The results show that


id: availability-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Availability heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: availability-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The availability heuristic, also known as availability bias, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. This heuristic, operating on the notion that, if something can be quickly recalled, it must be important, or at least more important than alternative solutions not as readily recalled, is inherently biased toward recently acquired information. The mental availability of an action's consequences is positively related to those consequences' perceived magnitude. In other words, the easier it is to recall the consequences of something, the greater those consequences are often perceived to be. Most notably, people often rely on the content of their recall if its implications are not called into question by the difficulty they have in recalling it. == Overview and history == In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman began work on a series of papers examining "heuristic and biases" used in judgment under uncertainty. Prior to that, the predominant view in the field of human judgment was that humans are rational actors. Kahneman and Tversky explained that judgment under uncertainty often relies on a limited number of simplifying


id: availability-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Availability heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: availability-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
When participants were shown two visual structures and asked to pick the structure that had more paths, participants saw more paths in the structure that had more obvious available paths. In the structure that participants chose, there were more columns and shorter obvious paths, making it more available to them. When participants were asked to complete tasks involving estimation, they would often underestimate the end result. Participants were basing their final estimation on a quick first impression of the problem. Participants particularly struggled when the problems consisted of multiple steps. This occurred because participants were basing their estimation on an initial impression. Participants failed to account for the high rate of growth in the later steps due to the impression they formed in the initial steps. This was shown again in a task that asked participants to estimate the answer to a multiplication task, in which the numbers were presented as either 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8 or 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1. Participants who were presented the equation with the larger numbers first (8x7x6...), estimated a significantly higher result than participants with the lower numbers first (1x2x3...). Participants were given a short amount of time to make the estimation, thus participants based their estimates off of what


id: availability-heuristic-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic-2.md
category: reference
title: Availability heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: availability-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Media === After seeing news stories about child abductions, people may judge that the likelihood of this event is greater. Media coverage can help fuel a person's example bias with widespread and extensive coverage of unusual events, such as homicide or airline accidents, and less coverage of more routine, less sensational events, such as common diseases or car accidents. Long term consumption of this media will skew the consumer's reality and influence their attitudes and emotions. This is referred to as cultivation theory, which aligns with availability bias: frequent exposure to similar news stories causes consumers to inflate their sense of how likely these dangers are. For example, when asked to rate the probability of a variety of causes of death, people tend to rate "newsworthy" events as more likely because they can more readily recall an example from memory. Moreover, unusual and vivid events like homicides, shark attacks, or lightning are more often reported in mass media than common and un-sensational causes of death like common diseases. For example, many people think that the likelihood of dying from shark attacks is greater than that of dying from being hit by falling airplane parts when more people actually die


id: availability-heuristic-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic-3.md
category: reference
title: Availability heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: availability-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
Outcome Availability – availability of positive and negative investment outcomes, and Risk Availability – availability of financial risk. On days of substantial stock market moves, abnormal stock price reactions to upgrades are weaker, than those to downgrades. These availability effects are still significant even after controlling for event-specific and company-specific factors. Similarly, research has pointed out that under the availability heuristic, humans are not reliable because they assess probabilities by giving more weight to current or easily recalled information instead of processing all relevant information. Since information regarding the current state of the economy is readily available, researchers attempted to expose the properties of business cycles to predict the availability bias in analysts' growth forecasts. They showed the availability heuristic to play a role in analysis of forecasts and influence investments because of this. In effect, investors are using the availability heuristic to make decisions and subsequently, may be obstructing their own investment success. An investor's lingering perceptions of a dire market environment may be causing them to view investment opportunities through an overly negative lens, making it less appealing to consider taking on investment risk, no matter how small the returns on perceived "safe" investments. To illustrate, Franklin Templeton's


id: availability-heuristic-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic-4.md
category: reference
title: Availability heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: availability-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criminal justice === The media usually focuses on violent or extreme cases, which are more readily available in the public's mind. This may come into play when it is time for the judicial system to evaluate and determine the proper punishment for a crime. In one study, respondents rated how much they agreed with hypothetical laws and policies such as "Would you support a law that required all offenders convicted of unarmed muggings to serve a minimum prison term of two years?" Participants then read cases and rated each case on several questions about punishment. As hypothesized, respondents recalled more easily from long-term memory stories that contain severe harm, which seemed to influence their sentencing choices to make them push for harsher punishments. This can be eliminated by adding high concrete or high contextually distinct details into the crime stories about less severe injuries. A similar study asked jurors and college students to choose sentences on four severe criminal cases in which prison was a possible but not an inevitable sentencing outcome. Respondents answering questions about court performance on a public opinion formulated a picture of what the courts do and then evaluated the appropriateness of that behavior. Respondents


id: availability-heuristic-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic-5.md
category: reference
title: Availability heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:20.549400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: availability-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
=== Judging frequency and probability === In general, availability is correlated with ecological frequency, but it is also affected by other factors. Consequently, the reliance on the availability heuristic leads to systematic biases. Such biases are demonstrated in the judged frequency of classes of words, of combinatoric outcomes, and of repeated events. The phenomenon of illusory correlation is explained as an availability bias. In the original Tversky and Kahneman (1973) research, three major factors that are discussed are the frequency of repetition, frequency of co-occurrence, and illusory correlation. The use of frequency of repetition aids in the retrieval of relevant instances. The idea behind this phenomenon is that the more an instance is repeated within a category or list, the stronger the link between the two instances becomes. Individuals then use the strong association between the instances to determine the frequency of an instance. Consequently, the association between the category or list and the specific instance often influences frequency judgement. Frequency of co-occurrence strongly relates to Frequency of repetition, such that the more an item-pair is repeated, the stronger the association between the two items becomes, leading to a bias when estimating the frequency of co-occurrence. Due to the phenomena


id: baconian-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Baconian method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:21.768116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baconian-method-20260505-0
summary:
The Baconian method is the investigative method developed by Francis Bacon, one of the founders of modern science, and thus a first formulation of a modern scientific method. The method was put forward in Bacon's book Novum Organum (1620), or 'New Method', to replace the old methods put forward in Aristotle's Organon. It influenced the early modern rejection of medieval Aristotelianism. == Description in the Novum Organum == === Bacon's view of induction === Bacon's method is an example of the application of inductive reasoning. However, Bacon's method of induction is much more complex than the essential inductive process of making generalisations from observations. Bacon's method begins with description of the requirements for making the careful, systematic observations necessary to produce quality facts. He then proceeds to use induction, the ability to generalise from a set of facts to one or more axioms. However, he stresses the necessity of not generalising beyond what the facts truly demonstrate. The next step may be to gather additional data, or the researcher may use existing data and the new axioms to establish additional axioms. Specific types of facts can be particularly useful, such as negative instances, exceptional instances and data from experiments. The


id: baconian-method-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method-1.md
category: reference
title: Baconian method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:21.768116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baconian-method-20260505-0
summary:
== Natural history == The Natural History of Pliny the Elder was a classical Roman encyclopedia work. Induction, for Bacon's followers, meant a type of rigour applied to factual matters. Reasoning should not be applied in plain fashion to just any collection of examples, an approach identified as "Plinian". In considering natural facts, a fuller survey was required to form a basis for going further. Bacon made it clear he was looking for more than "a botany" with discursive accretions. In concrete terms, the cabinet of curiosities, exemplifying the Plinian approach, was to be upgraded from a source of wonderment to a challenge to science. The main source in Bacon's works for the approach was his Sylva Sylvarum, and it suggested a more systematic collection of data in the search for causal explanations. Underlying the method, as applied in this context, are therefore the "tables of natural history" and the ways in which they are to be constructed. Bacon's background in the common law has been proposed as a source for this concept of investigation. As a general intellectual programme, Bacon's ideas on "natural history" have been seen as a broad influence on British writers later in the 17th century,


id: cognitive-inertia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia-0.md
category: reference
title: Cognitive inertia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:22.921691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cognitive-inertia-20260505-0
summary:
Cognitive inertia is the tendency – for a particular orientation in an individual's thinking about a matter, belief, or strategy – to resist change. Clinical and neuroscientific literature often describes it as a lack of motivation to generate cognitive processes needed to attend to a matter or problem. The physics term "inertia" emphasizes resistance to change in a mode of cognitive processing that has been used for a substantial time. Commonly confused with belief perseverance, cognitive inertia is perseverance in an interpretation of information, not perseverance in the belief itself. Cognitive inertia has been causally implicated in disregard of impending threats to one's health or environment, in enduring political values, and in deficits in task switching. Interest in the phenomenon was taken up by economic and industrial psychologists primarily to explain resistance to change in brand loyalty, in group brainstorming, and in business strategizing. In a clinical setting, cognitive inertia has been used as a diagnostic tool for neurodegenerative diseases, depression, and anxiety. Critics have commented that the term "cognitive inertia" oversimplifies resistant thought processes and suggest a more integrative approach involving motivation, emotion, and developmental factors. == History and methods == === Early history === The idea of cognitive


id: cognitive-inertia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia-1.md
category: reference
title: Cognitive inertia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:22.921691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cognitive-inertia-20260505-0
summary:
where p(a) and p(b) refer to the initial opinions, before the communication induced changes. This formula was used by McGuire to show that the effect of a persuasive message on a related, but unmentioned, topic (d) took time to sink in. The assumption was that topic d was predicated on issues a and b, similar to issue c, so if the individual agreed with issue c then so too should they agree with issue d. However, in McGuire's initial study immediate measurement on issue d, after agreement on issues a, b and c, had only shifted half the amount that would be expected to be logically consistent. Follow-up a week later showed that shift in opinion on issue d had shifted enough to be logically consistent with issues a, b, and c, which not only supported the theory of cognitive consistency, but also the initial hurdle of cognitive inertia. The model was based on probability to account for the idea that individuals do not necessarily assume every issue is 100% likely to happen, but instead there is a likelihood of an issue occurring and the individual's opinion on that likelihood will rest on the likelihood of other interrelated issues. ==


id: cognitive-inertia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia-2.md
category: reference
title: Cognitive inertia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:22.921691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cognitive-inertia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Brand loyalty === Gaining and retaining new customers is essential to whether a business succeeds early on. To assess a service, product, or likelihood of customer retention, many companies will invite their customers to complete satisfaction surveys immediately after purchasing a product or service. However, unless the satisfaction survey is completed immediately after the point of purchase, the customer response is often based on an existing mindset about the company, not the actual quality of experience. Unless the product or service is extremely negative or positive, cognitive inertia related to how the customer feels about the company will not be inhibited, even when the product or service is substandard. These satisfaction surveys can lack the information businesses need to improve a service or product that will allow them to survive against the competition. === Brainstorming === Cognitive inertia plays a role in why a lack of ideas is generated during group brainstorming sessions. Individuals in a group will often follow an idea trajectory, in which they continue to narrow in on ideas based on the very first idea proposed in the brainstorming session. This idea trajectory inhibits the creation of new ideas central to the group's initial formation. In


id: cognitive-inertia-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia-3.md
category: reference
title: Cognitive inertia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_inertia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:22.921691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cognitive-inertia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Clinical diagnostics === In nosological literature relating to the symptom or disorder of apathy, clinicians have used cognitive inertia as one of the three main criteria for diagnosis. The description of cognitive inertia differs from its use in cognitive and industrial psychology in that lack of motivation plays a key role. As a clinical diagnostic criterion, Thant and Yager described it as "impaired abilities to elaborate and sustain goals and plans of actions, to shift mental sets, and to use working memory". This definition of apathy is frequently applied to onset of apathy due to neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease but has also been applied to individuals who have gone through extreme trauma or abuse. == Neural anatomy and correlates == === Cortical === Cognitive inertia has been linked to decreased use of executive function, primarily in the prefrontal cortex, which aids in the flexibility of cognitive processes when switching tasks. Delayed response on the implicit associations task (IAT) and Stroop task have been related to an inability to combat cognitive inertia, as participants struggle to switch from one cognitive rule to the next to get the questions right. Before taking part in an electronic brainstorming


id: computational-heuristic-intelligence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_heuristic_intelligence-0.md
category: reference
title: Computational heuristic intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_heuristic_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:24.198634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computational-heuristic-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Computational heuristic intelligence (CHI) refers to specialized programming techniques in computational intelligence (also called artificial intelligence, or AI). These techniques have the express goal of avoiding complexity issues, also called NP-hard problems, by using human-like techniques. They are best summarized as the use of exemplar-based methods (heuristics), rather than rule-based methods (algorithms). Hence the term is distinct from the more conventional computational algorithmic intelligence, or symbolic AI. An example of a CHI technique is the encoding specificity principle of Tulving and Thompson. In general, CHI principles are problem solving techniques used by people, rather than programmed into machines. It is by drawing attention to this key distinction that the use of this term is justified in a field already replete with confusing neologisms. Note that the legal systems of all modern human societies employ both heuristics (generalisations of cases) from individual trial records as well as legislated statutes (rules) as regulatory guides. Another recent approach to the avoidance of complexity issues is to employ feedback control rather than feedforward modeling as a problem-solving paradigm. This approach has been called computational cybernetics, because (a) the term 'computational' is associated with conventional computer programming techniques which represent a strategic, compiled, or feedforward


id: consistent-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Consistent heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:25.369916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consistent-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
In the study of path-finding problems in artificial intelligence, a heuristic function is said to be consistent, or monotone, if its estimate is always less than or equal to the estimated distance from any neighbouring vertex to the goal, plus the cost of reaching that neighbour. Formally, for every node N and each successor P of N, the estimated cost of reaching the goal from N is no greater than the step cost of getting to P plus the estimated cost of reaching the goal from P. That is: h ( N ) ≤ c ( N , P ) + h ( P ) {\displaystyle h(N)\leq c(N,P)+h(P)} and h ( G ) = 0. {\displaystyle h(G)=0.\,} where h is the consistent heuristic function N is any node in the graph P is any descendant of N G is any goal node c(N,P) is the cost of reaching node P from N Informally, every node i will give an estimate that, accounting for the cost to reach the next node, is always lesser than or equal to the estimate at node i+1. A consistent heuristic is also admissible, i.e. it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal (the converse,


id: consistent-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Consistent heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistent_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:25.369916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consistent-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
hence f ( P ) ≥ f ( N ) {\displaystyle f(P)\geq f(N)} . In the A* search algorithm, using a consistent heuristic means that once a node is expanded, the cost by which it was reached is the lowest possible, under the same conditions that Dijkstra's algorithm requires in solving the shortest path problem (no negative cost edges). In fact, if the search graph is given cost c ′ ( N , P ) = c ( N , P ) + h ( P ) − h ( N ) {\displaystyle c'(N,P)=c(N,P)+h(P)-h(N)} for a consistent h {\displaystyle h} , then A* is equivalent to best-first search on that graph using Dijkstra's algorithm. With a non-decreasing f ( N ) {\displaystyle f(N)} under consistent heuristics, one can show that A* achieves optimality with cycle-checking, that is, when A* expands a node n {\displaystyle n} , the optimal path to n {\displaystyle n} has already been found. Suppose for the sake of contradiction that when A* expands n {\displaystyle n} , the optimal path has not been found. Then, by the graph separation property, there must exist another node n ′ {\displaystyle n'} on the optimal path to n {\displaystyle


id: constructive-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Constructive heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:26.519422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constructive-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
A constructive heuristic is a type of heuristic method which starts with an empty solution and repeatedly extends the current solution until a complete solution is obtained. It differs from local search heuristics which start with a complete solution and then try to improve the current solution further via local moves. Examples of some famous problems that are solved using constructive heuristics are the flow shop scheduling, the vehicle routing problem and the open shop problem. == See also == Evolutionary algorithms Genetic algorithms Local search (optimization) Metaheuristics == References ==


id: contagion-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Contagion heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:27.704654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contagion-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The contagion heuristic is a psychological heuristic which follows the law of contagion and the law of similarity, leading people to avoid contact with people or objects viewed as "contaminated" by previous contact with someone or something viewed as bad—or, less often, to seek contact with objects that have been in contact with people or things considered good. For example, people tend to view food that has touched the ground as contaminated by the ground, and therefore unfit to eat, or view a person who has touched a diseased person as likely to carry the disease (regardless of the actual contagiousness of the disease). The contagion heuristic can include "magical thinking", in which well-educated adults will think that touching an object transfers their qualities ("essence") to it: for example, a sweater worn by Adolf Hitler is thought to bear his negative essence and to be capable of transmitting it to another wearer. The perception of essence-transfer extends to rituals to purify items viewed as spiritually contaminated, such as having Mother Teresa wear Hitler's sweater to counteract his essence. == Types == The contagion heuristic can be separated into three categories: === 1. Positive or negative === Contagion can be negative


id: contagion-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Contagion heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagion_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:27.704654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contagion-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
A rejection of potentially offensive food: People are unlikely to touch foods that elicit disgust in attempts to protect our health (e.g. disgust towards uncooked chicken as it is seen as contaminated with potential harmful microorganisms like salmonella). Illness transfer between humans: Avoid touching a 'contaminated' ill person due to fear of getting ill. Support Relationships: Positive contagion encourages highly intimate acts with people perceived as positively contaminated such as family and lovers. (sexual intimacy which would otherwise elicit disgust without love and lust) Hence, the contagion heuristic seems to be a pre-adaptation, that is it evolved to be beneficial to health and relationships, supporting the survival of our species, but now no longer serves a person in the current environment. == Critiques == Positive contagion is relatively weak and might just be an over-extension of the negative contagion principle. This is most likely due to the negative bias: that is, when given two cases, one of negative and one of positive of equal force, the negative case will have a greater impact. As an old Russian phrase states, "A spoonful of tar can spoil a barrel of honey, but a spoonful of honey does nothing for a barrel of


id: content-sniffing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_sniffing-0.md
category: reference
title: Content sniffing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_sniffing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:28.890773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: content-sniffing-20260505-0
summary:
Content sniffing, also known as media type sniffing or MIME sniffing, is the practice of inspecting the content of a byte stream to attempt to deduce the file format of the data within it. Content sniffing is generally used to compensate for a lack of accurate metadata that would otherwise be required to enable the file to be interpreted correctly. Content sniffing techniques tend to use a mixture of techniques that rely on the redundancy found in most file formats: looking for file signatures and magic numbers, and heuristics including searching for well-known representative substrings, the use of byte frequency and n-gram tables, and Bayesian inference. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) sniffing was, and still is, used by some web browsers, including notably Microsoft's Internet Explorer, in an attempt to help web sites which do not correctly signal the MIME type of web content display. However, doing this opens up a serious security vulnerability, in which, by confusing the MIME sniffing algorithm, the browser can be manipulated into interpreting data in a way that allows an attacker to carry out operations that are not expected by either the site operator or user, such as cross-site scripting. Moreover, by making sites


id: cross-entropy-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-entropy_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Cross-entropy method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-entropy_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:30.044973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cross-entropy-method-20260505-0
summary:
The cross-entropy (CE) method is a Monte Carlo method for importance sampling and optimization. It is applicable to both combinatorial and continuous problems, with either a static or noisy objective. The method approximates the optimal importance sampling estimator by repeating two phases: Draw a sample from a probability distribution. Minimize the cross-entropy between this distribution and a target distribution to produce a better sample in the next iteration. Reuven Rubinstein developed the method in the context of rare-event simulation, where tiny probabilities must be estimated, for example in network reliability analysis, queueing models, or performance analysis of telecommunication systems. The method has also been applied to the traveling salesman, quadratic assignment, DNA sequence alignment, max-cut and buffer allocation problems. == Estimation via importance sampling == Consider the general problem of estimating the quantity ℓ = E u [ H ( X ) ] = ∫ H ( x ) f ( x ; u ) d x {\displaystyle \ell =\mathbb {E} _{\mathbf {u} }[H(\mathbf {X} )]=\int H(\mathbf {x} )\,f(\mathbf {x} ;\mathbf {u} )\,{\textrm {d}}\mathbf {x} } , where H {\displaystyle H} is some performance function and f ( x ; u ) {\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} ;\mathbf {u} )} is a


id: debiasing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-0.md
category: reference
title: Debiasing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:31.215378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: debiasing-20260505-0
summary:
Debiasing is the reduction of bias, particularly with respect to judgment and decision making. Biased judgment and decision making is that which systematically deviates from the prescriptions of objective standards such as facts, logic, and rational behavior or prescriptive norms. Biased judgment and decision making exists in consequential domains such as medicine, law, policy, and business, as well as in everyday life. Investors, for example, tend to exhibit the disposition effect by holding onto falling stocks too long and selling rising stocks too quickly. Employers exhibit considerable discrimination in hiring and employment practices, and some parents continue to believe that vaccinations cause autism despite knowing that this link is based on falsified evidence. At an individual level, people who exhibit less decision bias have more intact social environments, reduced risk of alcohol and drug use, lower childhood delinquency rates, and superior planning and problem solving abilities. Debiasing can occur within the decision maker. For example, a person may learn or adopt better strategies by which to make judgments and decisions. Debiasing can also occur as a result of changes in external factors, such as changing the incentives relevant to a decision or the manner in which the decision is made.


id: debiasing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing-1.md
category: reference
title: Debiasing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debiasing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:31.215378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: debiasing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Incentives === Paying people for optimal behavior through bonuses or by providing discounts (e.g., to exercise, to take their medication, to trade in fuel inefficient vehicles such as the "cash for clunkers" program). Taxing people for suboptimal behavior (e.g., drinking soda, smoking tobacco, and weed). === Nudges === Using default effect to nudge people towards decisions optimal for the decision maker or society. Commitment devices that makes it more costly to make suboptimal decisions (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2014). Reframing choice options in ways that make important attributes salient. Labeling hamburger meat 25% fat, for example, makes people more sensitive to fat content than labeling it 75% lean. Presenting information in formats that make critical information easier to evaluate, such as displaying nutritional value using a "traffic light" system. === Training === Providing people with personalized feedback regarding the direction and degree to which they exhibit bias. Teaching a "consider-the-alternative" strategy, such as considering a plausible alternative reason for an event than cause one suspects. Teaching people statistical reasoning and normative rules of which they are unaware. Encouraging people to take the perspective of a person who will experience the consequences of their decision can reduce bias. Participants who


id: distributional-relational-database-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributional–relational_database-0.md
category: reference
title: Distributional–relational database
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributional–relational_database
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:32.392660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distributional-relational-database-20260505-0
summary:
A distributional–relational database, or word-vector database, is a database management system (DBMS) that uses distributional word-vector representations to enrich the semantics of structured data. As distributional word-vectors can be built automatically from large-scale corpora, this enrichment supports the construction of databases which can embed large-scale commonsense background knowledge into their operations. Distributional-Relational models can be applied to the construction of schema-agnostic databases (databases in which users can query the data without being aware of its schema), semantic search, schema-integration and inductive and abductive reasoning as well as different applications in which a semantically flexible knowledge representation model is needed. The main advantage of distributional–relational models over purely logical or semantic web models is the fact that the core semantic associations can be automatically captured from corpora, in contrast to the definition of manually curated ontologies and rule knowledge bases. == Distributional–relational models == Distributional–relational models were first formalized as a mechanism to cope with the vocabulary/semantic gap between users and the schema behind the data. In this scenario, distributional semantic relatedness measures, combined with semantic pivoting heuristics can support the approximation between user queries (expressed in their own vocabulary), and data (expressed in the vocabulary of the designer). In this


id: duck-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Duck test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:33.627172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: duck-test-20260505-0
summary:
The duck test is a frequently cited colloquial example of abductive reasoning. Its usual expression is: If it looks like a duck, swims like a duck, and quacks like a duck, then it probably is a duck. The test implies that a person can identify an unknown subject by observing that subject's habitual characteristics. It is sometimes used to counter abstract arguments that something might not be what it appears to be. == Notable uses == Indiana poet James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916) may have coined the phrase when he wrote: When I see a bird that walks like a duck and swims like a duck and quacks like a duck, I call that bird a duck. A common variation of the wording of the phrase may have originated much later with Emil Mazey, secretary-treasurer of the United Auto Workers, at a labor meeting in 1946 accusing a person of being a communist: I can't prove you are a Communist. But when I see a bird that quacks like a duck, walks like a duck, has feathers and webbed feet and associates with ducks—I'm certainly going to assume that he is a duck. The term was later popularized in the United


id: effort-heuristic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic-0.md
category: reference
title: Effort heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:34.737352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: effort-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
The effort heuristic is a mental rule of thumb in which the quality or worth of an object is determined from the perceived amount of effort that went into producing that object. In brief, the effort heuristic follows a tendency to judge objects that took a longer time to produce to be of higher value. The more effort invested in an object, the better it is deemed to be. This is especially true in situations where value is difficult to assess or the evaluator lacks expertise in the appraisement of an item. People use whatever information is available to them and effort is thought to generally be a reliable indicator of quality. An example of this would be the comparison of $100 earned, and $100 found. If someone finds $100 they are more inclined to go spend it on a whim, but if that $100 is part of a hard-earned paycheck, they are less likely to squander it away. Another way that effort heuristic can be considered is the amount of effort a person will put into an action depending on the goal. If the goal is of little importance, the amount of effort a person is willing to put


id: effort-heuristic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic-1.md
category: reference
title: Effort heuristic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort_heuristic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:34.737352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: effort-heuristic-20260505-0
summary:
== Explanations == Human behavior, like that of most other animals, is often driven by rewards and directed by the energetic cost of an action. It takes effort to attain rewards, and people accordingly weigh the value of rewards against the amount of effort that is required to attain them. At an early age, children learn that good performance due to high effort is valued by adults and that teachers are most likely to reward those who work hard. With experience, they internalize effort as a valuable commodity. == Alternative theories == Research directly examining and testing the effort heuristic is scarce, however there are other research areas that incorporated this construct and, in some way, manipulated its effects. However, a key distinction between the study done by Kruger et al. and other research on the role of effort on judgment is that the former focused on other-generated effort rather than self-generated effort. === Cognitive dissonance === ==== Effort justification ==== Over half a century ago, social psychologist Leon Festinger developed the theory of cognitive dissonance. It asserts that inconsistencies among a person's beliefs, attitudes, or opinions produce psychological discomfort, leading people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes.


id: eurisko-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurisko-0.md
category: reference
title: Eurisko
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurisko
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:35.937717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eurisko-20260505-0
summary:
Eurisko (Gr., I discover) is a discovery system written by Douglas Lenat in RLL-1, a representation language itself written in the Lisp programming language. A sequel to Automated Mathematician, it consists of heuristics, i.e. rules of thumb, including heuristics describing how to use and change its own heuristics. Lenat was frustrated by Automated Mathematician's constraint to a single domain and so developed Eurisko; his frustration with the effort of encoding domain knowledge for Eurisko led to Lenat's subsequent development of Cyc. Lenat envisioned ultimately coupling the Cyc knowledge base with the Eurisko discovery engine. == History == Development commenced at Carnegie Mellon in 1976 and continued at Stanford University in 1978 when Lenat returned to teach. "For the first five years, nothing good came out of it", Lenat said. But when the implementation was changed to a frame language based representation he called RLL (Representation Language Language), heuristic creation and modification became much simpler. Eurisko was then applied to a number of domains with surprising success, including VLSI chip design. Previously, Lenat had worked at the automatic-programming research group at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and was coauthor of a report in 1974 on "Program-Understanding Systems". Inspired by work on


id: evaluation-function-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-0.md
category: reference
title: Evaluation function
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:37.091312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evaluation-function-20260505-0
summary:
An evaluation function, also known as a heuristic evaluation function or static evaluation function, is a function used by game-playing computer programs to estimate the value or goodness of a position (usually at a leaf or terminal node) in a game tree. Most of the time, the value is either a real number or a quantized integer, often in nths of the value of a playing piece such as a stone in go or a pawn in chess, where n may be tenths, hundredths or other convenient fraction, but sometimes, the value is an array of three values in the unit interval, representing the win, draw, and loss percentages of the position. There do not exist analytical or theoretical models for evaluation functions for unsolved games, nor are such functions entirely ad-hoc. The composition of evaluation functions is determined empirically by inserting a candidate function into an automaton and evaluating its subsequent performance. A significant body of evidence now exists for several games like chess, shogi and go as to the general composition of evaluation functions for them. Games in which game playing computer programs employ evaluation functions include chess, go, shogi (Japanese chess), othello, hex, backgammon, and checkers. In


id: evaluation-function-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function-1.md
category: reference
title: Evaluation function
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation_function
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:57:37.091312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evaluation-function-20260505-0
summary:
c1 * material + c2 * mobility + c3 * king safety + c4 * center control + c5 * pawn structure + c6 * king tropism + ... Each of the terms is a weight multiplied by a difference factor: the value of white's material or positional terms minus black's. The material term is obtained by assigning a value in pawn-units to each of the pieces. Mobility is the number of legal moves available to a player, or alternately the sum of the number of spaces attacked or defended by each piece, including spaces occupied by friendly or opposing pieces. Effective mobility, or the number of "safe" spaces a piece may move to, may also be taken into account. King safety is a set of bonuses and penalties assessed for the location of the king and the configuration of pawns and pieces adjacent to or in front of the king, and opposing pieces bearing on spaces around the king. Center control is derived from how many pawns and pieces occupy or bear on the four center spaces and sometimes the 12 spaces of the extended center. Pawn structure is a set of penalties and bonuses for various strengths and


